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WEBSTER,  N.Y.  MSM 

(716)  •72-4503 


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CIHM/ICMH 

Microfiche 

Series. 


CIHIVI/iCiVIH 
Collection  de 
microfiches. 


Canadian  Institute  for  Historical  MIcroreproductions  /  Institut  Canadian  de  microreproductlons  historlques 


Technical  and  Bibliographic  Notas/Notas  tachniquat  at  bibliographiquas 


Tha  Instituta  ha*  attamptad  to  obtain  tha  bast 
original  copy  availabia  for  filming.  Faaturas  of  this 
copy  which  may  ba  bibliographically  uniqua, 
which  may  altar  any  of  tha  imagas  in  tha 
raproduction.  or  which  may  significantly  change 
tha  usual  method  of  filming,  are  chackeid  below. 


□    Coloured  covers/ 
Couverture  de  couleur 


nn    Covers  damaged/ 


D 


D 
D 
D 

D 
D 

D 


D 


Couverture  endommagie 


Covers  restored  and/or  laminated/ 
Couverture  rastauria  et/ou  pelliculie 


I — I    Cover  title  missing/ 


Le  titre  de  couverture  manque 


Coloured  maps/ 

Cartes  giographiques  en  couleur 


Coloured  inic  (i.e.  other  than  blue  or  black)/ 
Encre  de  couleur  (i.e.  autre  que  bleue  ou  noire) 


Coloured  plates  and/or  illustrations/ 
Planches  et/ou  illustrations  en  couleur 


Bound  with  other  material/ 
Reli6  avac  d'autras  documents 

Tight  binding  may  cause  shadows  or  distortion 
along  interior  margin/ 

La  re  liura  serr6e  peut  causer  de  I'ombre  ou  de  la 
distortion  la  long  de  la  marge  intirieure 

Blank  leaves  added  during  restoration  may 
appear  within  the  text.  Whenever  possible,  these 
have  been  omitted  from  filming/ 
II  se  peut  que  certainas  pages  blanches  ajoutfos 
lors  d'une  restauration  apparaissent  dans  le  texte, 
mais,  lorsqua  cela  Atait  possible,  ces  pages  n'ont 
pas  iti  filmAes. 

Additional  comments:/ 
Commentairas  suppl6mantairas; 


L'Institut  a  microfilm*  la  meilleur  exemplaira 
qu'il  lui  a  iti  possible  de  se  procurer.  Las  details 
de  cet  exemplaira  qui  sont  peut-fttre  uniques  du 
point  de  vue  bibiiographique.  qui  pauvant  modifier 
una  image  reproduite,  ou  qui  peuvent  exiger  una 
modification  dans  la  mithoda  normala  de  filmage 
sont  indiqu6s  ci-dessous. 


Thi 
to 


I      I   Coloured  pages/ 


D 
D 

D 
0 


D 


This  item  is  filmed  at  the  reduction  ratio  checked  below/ 

Ce  document  est  film*  au  taux  da  rMuction  indiquA  ci-dessous. 


Pagea  da  couleur 

Pages  damaged/ 
Pages  endommagias 

Pages  restored  and/or  laminated/ 
Pages  restauries  et/ou  pellicul^es 

Pages  discoloured,  stained  or  foxed/ 
Pages  dicolortes,  tachat^es  ou  piqu6as 

Pages  detached/ 
Pages  ddtachdas 

Showthrough/ 
Transparence 


Th« 
poi 
oil 
filn 


Orl 

bai 

the 

sioi 

othi 

first 

slor 

ori 


Fyj    Quality  of  print  varies/ 


Quality  inigala  de  I'impression 

Includes  supplementary  material/ 
Comprend  du  mat6rial  suppl^mentaira 

Only  edition  available/ 
Seule  Edition  disponible 


Pages  wholly  or  partially  obscured  by  errata 
slips,  tissues,  etc.,  have  been  refilmed  to 
ensure  the  bast  possible  image/ 
Las  pages  totalamant  ou  partiallement 
obscurcias  par  un  feuillet  d'errata,  une  pelure. 
etc.,  ont  M  film6es  d  nouveau  de  fapon  d 
obtenir  la  mailleure  image  possible. 


The 
sha 
TIN 
whi 

Mai 
diffi 
enti 
begi 
righ 
reqi 
met 


10X 

14X 

18X 

22X 

26X 

30X 

y 

12X 

16X 

20X 

24X 

, 

28X 

32X 

Th«  copy  filmad  h«r«  has  b««n  rtproductd  thanks 
to  tha  ganarosity  of: 

Oou(;iat!  Library 
Quaai-  •  Univarsity 


L'axamplaira  filmi  fut  raproduit  grica  k  la 
g4n*roait4  da: 

Douglas  Library 
Quaan's  Univarsity 


Tha  Imagas  appaaring  hara  ara  tha  bast  quality 
posslbia  consldaring  tha  condition  and  laglblllty 
of  tha  original  copy  and  In  kaaping  with  tha 
filming  contract  spaclflcatlons. 


Original  coplas  In  prlntad  papar  covars  ara  fllmad 
baglnning  with  tha  front  covar  and  anding  on 
tha  last  paga  with  a  printad  or  llluatratad  Impras- 
slon.  or  tha  back  covar  whan  appropriata.  All 
othar  original  coplas  ara  fllmad  baglnning  on  tha 
first  paga  with  a  printad  or  llluatratad  Impraa- 
sion,  and  anding  on  tha  last  paga  with  a  printad 
or  llluatratad  Imprasslon. 


Laa  imagas  sulvantas  ont  4tA  raprodultas  avac  la 
plus  grand  soln,  compta  tanu  da  la  condition  at 
da  la  nattat*  da  l'axamplaira  film*,  at  an 
conformity  avac  las  conditions  du  contrat  da 
filmaga. 

Las  axamplalras  orlginaux  dont  la  couvartura  an 
paplar  aat  imprimte  sont  flimis  an  commandant 
par  la  pramiar  plat  at  an  tarminant  salt  par  la 
darniAra  paga  qui  comporta  una  amprainta 
d'Imprasslon  ou  d'illustratlon,  solt  par  la  sacond 
plat,  aalon  la  caa.  Toua  laa  autras  axamplalras 
origlnaux  sont  fiimAs  an  commandant  par  la 
pramlAra  paga  qui  comporta  una  amprainta 
d'impraasion  ou  d'illustratlon  at  an  tarminant  par 
la  darnlAra  paga  qui  comporta  una  talla 
amprainta. 


Tha  last  racordad  frama  on  aach  microficha 
shall  contain  tha  symbol  «^  (moaning  "CON- 
TINUED"), or  tha  symbol  y  (moaning  "END"), 
whichavar  applias. 


Un  das  symbolas  sulvants  apparaftra  sur  la 
darnlira  imaga  da  chaqua  microficha,  salon  la 
cas:  la  symbols  — »>  signifia  "A  SUIVRE",  la 
symbols  y  signifia  "FIN". 


Maps,  platas,  charts,  ate,  may  ba  fllmad  at 
diffarant  raduction  ratios.  Thosa  too  iarga  to  ba 
antlraly  included  in  ona  axposura  ara  fllmad 
baglnning  in  tha  uppar  iaft  hand  cornar,  laft  to 
right  and  top  to  bottom,  as  many  framas  aa 
raquirad.  Tha  following  diagrams  lllustrata  tha 
mathod: 


Las  cartas,  planchas,  tablaaux,  ate,  pauvant  Atra 
filmAs  A  das  taux  da  reduction  diff Grants. 
Lorsqua  la  documant  ast  trap  grand  pour  Atra 
raproduit  an  un  saul  cllchA,  II  ast  film*  A  partir 
da  I'angia  supAriaur  gaucha.  da  gaucha  A  drolta, 
at  da  haut  an  bas.  an  pranant  la  nombra 
d'Imagas  nAcassaira.  Las  diagrammas  sulvants 
illustrant  la  mithoda. 


1 

2 

3 

32X 


;■           f         ■       ': 

■■■    2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

A 
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THE 

ENCYCLOP-ffiDIA 

or 

GEOGRAPHY: 

COMPRISINO  A 

COMPLETE   DESCRIPTION  OP  THE  EARTH, 

PHYSICAL,  STTATISnCAL,  CIVIL,  AND  POLITICAL; 

EXHIBITING    ITS  RELATION    TO   THE   HEAVENLY    BODIES, 

ITS   PHYSICAL   STRUCTURE, 

THE    NATURAL    HISTORY   OF   EACH   COUNTRY, 

AND  THE  INDUSTRY,  OOMHBROE,   POLITICAL  INSTITUTIONS, 

4/ .  •     AND  CIVIL   AND  SOCIAL  STATE 

or 

ALL  NATIONS. 


BY  HUGH  MURRAY,  F.R.S.E. 

ASSMTZD  IN 

ASTRONOMY,  See.  BY  PROF.  WALLACE,  I  BOTANT,  Ac  BY  PROFESSOR  HOOKER. 
GEOLOGY,    &e.    BY    PROF.    JAMESON,  I  ZOOLOGY,  &e.  BY  W.  SWAINSON,  ES^ 


ILLUSTRATED  BY  EIGHTY-TWO  MAPS, 
AND  ABOUT  ELEVEN  HUi^DRED  OTHER  ENGRAVINGS  ON  WOOD 

UTREaENTINO  THE  HOST  REMARKABLE  OBnCTS  OP  NATURC  AND  ART 
IN  EVERY  REGION  OF  THE  GLOBE, 

TOOGTHER  WITH  A 

NEW  MAP  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


,,'#■ 


REVISED,     WITH     ADDITIONS, 

BY  THOMAS  G.  BRADFORD. 


IN  THREE  VOLUMES. 

VOL.  I. 


PHILADELPHIA: 

LEA   AND    BLANCHARD, 

FOR 

GEORGE  W.  GORTON. 

1845.                       • '.    -- 

*  3. 

*'. 


Gtis..  M?     /^^.^^     «/•/ 


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Entered  according  to  the  act  of  Congress  in  the  year  eighteen  hundred  and  tliirly-six,  bf 

UABEr,  LEA,  AND  BLANCHARD, 

In  the  clerk's  office  of  the  district  court  for  the  ea<tern  district  of  Pennsylvania. 


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STERGOTTPED  BY  J.  FAOAN PHILADELrilll. 


PRINTED  BY  C.  SHERMAN  AND  CO. 


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PREFACE  TO  THE  ENGUSH  EDITION.  * 


The  value  and  importance  of  the  studr  of  Geography  are  w  obvious,  and  indeed 
■o  universally  acknowledged,  as  to  require  little  illustration.  Nothing  can  be  more 
interesting  to  man,  or  more  gratiry  his  thirst  for  knowledge,  than  a  survey  of  the 
earth  which  he  inhabits,  peopled  as  it  is  by  beings  of  the  same  nature  with  himself. 
To  visit  and  observe  foreign  climes  and  regions  Is  an  object  of  seneral  desire,  and 
forms  one  of  the  most  enectual  means  of  enlarging  and  enligntening  the  human 
mind.  This  wish,  however,  unless  in  the  case  oia  lew  individuals,  can  be  gratified 
only  to  a  very  limited  extent,  and  in  none  can  embrace  more  than  a  small  portion 
of  the  vast  variety  of  interesting  objects  which  the  earth  comprises.  This  necessary 
defect  of  personal  observation  may,  however,  be  in  a  ^reat  measure  supplied,  by 
collecting  the  reports  and  narratives  of  those  intelhj^ont  individuals  who  tutve 
explored  and  described  its  various  regions,  and  forming  out  of  these  a  general 
description  of  the  world  and  its  inhabitants. 

Works  of  this  class  have  always  possessed  a  peculiar  attraction.  Even  in  ancient 
times,  when  the  extent  of  the  known  world,  and  the  information  with  respect  to 
the  inhabitants  and  productions  of  its  remoter  regions,  were  comparatively  limited, 
the  geographical  descriptions  of  Herodotus,  Strabo,  Pomponius  Mela,  and  Pliny, 
rank  among  the  most  valuable  productions  of  the  classic  ages.  But  in  modem 
times,  and  particularly  in  the  present  age,  Geography  has  acquired  a  much  more 
prominent  place  among  the  departments  of  human  knowledge.  The  discovery  of 
America  in  the  fifteenth  century  awakened  a  spirit  of  enterprise,  and  a  desire  to 
explore  unknown  regions,  that  have  continued  to  gain  new  strength.  During  the 
last  half  century  more  especially,  the  most  civilised  nations  of  Europe  have  oeen 
contending  with  each  other  for  the  glory  of  discovery ;  and  there  is  now  scarcely  a 
shore  however  remote,  or  the  interior  of  a  continent  however  barbarous  or  difficult 
of  access,  which  has  not  been  surveyed  and  described.  Materials  have  thus  been 
provided  for  a  much  more  complete,  interesting,  and  authentic  description  of  the 
earth,  than  could  have  been  drawn  up  at  any  former  period. 

The  extensive  discoveries  thus  recently  made  have  thrown  a  wonderfiil  light  on 
the  structure  and  productions  of  the  earth,  and  afforded  large  contributions  to  all 
the  departments  or  natural  history  They  have  also  display^  man  in  every  varied 
condition,  from  the  highest  refinement  of  civilised  society,  to  the  rudest  and  most 
abject  condition  of  savage  life.  These  representations  are  not  only  interesting  in 
themselves,  but  throw  light  on  the  history  of  past  ages.  Communities  are  still 
found  exactly  similar  to  some  of  those  described  in  the  earliest  records  of  antiquity. 
The  tent  of  the  Arab  sheik  differs  little  from  that  which  Abraham  pitched  on  the 
plains  of  Mamre ;  many  of  the  Tartar  tribes  are  a  people  exactly  similar  to  those 
who  roamed  in  early  ages  over  the  plains  of  Scythia ;  and  the  splendid  courts  of 
Babylon  and  Persepolis  have  their  representatives  in  the  existing  world.  We  may 
thus,  in  fact,  trace  back  man  to  an  earlier  and  ruder  stage  than  any  represented  in 
the  ancient  records ;  for  these  convey  only  faint  and  fabulous  notions  of  what 
mankind  had  been  at  a  very  early  period.  But  the  wilds  of  America,  and  the 
shores  of  the  Pacific,  exhibit  the  state  of  savage  simplicity,  which  doubtless  existed 
in  Europe  before  the  light  of  authentic  history  had  begun  to  dawn.  Hence  it  is 
that  Geography,  in  its  present  extended  range,  not  only  shows  man  as  he  actually 
exists,  but  delineates,  as  it  were,  the  progressive  history  of  the  species. 

Besides  the  gratification  thus  afforded  to  a  liberal  curiosity,  the  knowledge  of 
even  the  remotest  regions  has,  through  recent  events,  become  an  object  of  the 
utmost  practical  importance.  In  many  of  these,  colonies  have  been  founded, 
political  relations  formed,  and  a  commercial  intercourse  with  them  opened,  by  th» 
civilised  nations  of  Europe,  and  particularly  by  Britain.  Regions  the  most  distant' 
to  which  a  ship  can  sail  form  integral  portions  of  her  dominion,  and  have  theii 
ports  crowded  with  her  vessels.  There  are  thousands  in  tills  country  who  have  a 
more  intimate  connection  with  Calcutta  or  Sydney,  than  with  towns  in  their 
immediate  vicinity.  The  manufacturer  labours  to  supply  the  markets  of  countries, 
the  very  existence  of  which,  fifty  years  ago,  was  unknown ;  the  circumnavigation 
of  the  globe  is  now  an  ordinary  trading  voyage.  The  knowledge  of  Geography 
has  thus  become  a  necessary  qualification  for  the  pursuits  of  conunerce  and  indus- 
try, and  for  much  of  the  ordinary  and  current  business  of  life.  A  great  proportion 
of  the  youth  of  Britain  are  trained  for  employments  in  countries  which  lie  &r 
beyond  the  limits  of  Europe. 


■»<■ 


*  ' 


% 


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Vi^■•'. 


1032792 


IV 


PREFACE   TO   THE   ENGLISH   EDITION. 


«        » 


The  same  causes  have,  moreover,  given  to  the  knowledge  of  distant  countries  a 
peculiar  hold  on  the  domestic  and  social  affections.  There  are  few  amongst  us 
who  have  not  a  near  relation,  perhaps  a  brother  or  a  child,  residing  in  another 
hemisphere.  Oceans  now  separate  us  from  those  to  whom  we  are  united  by  the 
tenderest  ties ;  the  objects  of  our  affection  have  their  abode  on  the  banks  of  the 
Ganges,  or  the  shores  of  the  Pacific ;  and  many,  whose  hearts  are  knit  in  the  closest 
friendship,  are  divided  from  each  other  bv  half  the  earth.  In  this  situation,  a 
description  of  the  place  in  which  our  friend  or  relative  dwells,  the  objects  which 
meet  his  eye,  the  society  in  which  he  mingles,  must  afford  peculiar  gratification, 
and  soothe  the  mind  under  this  painful  separation. 

Deeply  impressed  with  a  sense  of  the  great  extent  and  difficult  execution  of  a 
complete  geographical  work,  the  Editor,  during  nearly  ten  years  in  which  he  has 
been  engaged  upon  it,  has  used  the  utmost  exertion  to  procure  from  every  quarter 
information  a'hd  aid.  He  has  studiously  collected  the  most  recent,  authentic,  and 
accurate  accounts  of  the  extent,  natural  features,  population,  productions,  industry, 
political  constitution,  literature,  religion,  and  social  state  of  the  various  regions  of 
the  globe,  with  the  leadins  details  as  to  their  districts  and  cities.  The  sciences 
connected  with  the  natural  history  of  the  earth  have,  however,  attained  to  such  an 
extent  and  importance,  that  a  thorough  knowledge  of  them  can  only  be  possessed 
by  individuals  who  have  specially  devoted  themselves  to  one  particular  branch. 
The  Editor,  therefore,  considered  it  essential  to  procure  the  co-operation  of  writers 
who  had  risen  to  acknowledged  eminence  in  the  departments  of  Geology  and 
Mineralogy,  Zoology  and  Botany.  He  considered  that  he  had  fully  succeeded, 
when  Professor  Jameson  undertook  to  delineate  the  geological  structure  of  the 

globe,  and  the  distribution  of  minerals  over  its  surface ;  Mr.  Swainson  to  explain 
le  distribution  of  animals,  and  the  most  remarkable  of  those  found  in  each  particu- 
lar region ;  and  Dr.  Hooker  to  perform  the  same  task  in  regard  to  the  vegetable 
kingdom.  Professor  Wallace  has  illustrated  the  relations  of  the  earth  as  a  planet, 
the  trigonometrical  surveys,  the  construction  of  maps,  and  other  subjects  connected 
with  mathematical  science.  These  tasks  have  been  executed  in  a  manner  which, 
it  is  hoped,  will  fully  support  the  high  reputation  of  their  respective  authors,  bi 
preparing  the  sections  relating  to  commerce,  the  editor  derived  much  assistance 
from  Mr.  M'Culloch's  Dictionary  of  Commerce,  and  he  is  also  indebted  to  that 
gentleman  for  many  valuable  communications.  Various  parts  relating  to  remote 
countries  have  been  revised  by  gentlemen  recently  returned  from  them. 

The  Maps,  which  are  so  numerous  as  to  form  a  complete  Atlas,  have  been 
executed  from  drawings  by  Hall ;  and  having  been  carefully  revised  by  the  Editor, 
they  will,  it  is  hoped,  be  found  to  be  accurate,  and  to  include  all  the  most  recent  dis- 
coveries. Notwithstanding  the  smallness  of  the  scale,  they  are  illustrated  by  the 
letter-press  in  a  manner  which  enables  them  to  comprise  equal  information  with 
others  of  much  larger  dimensions. 

The  other  Wood  Engravings  are  mostly  original,  or  have  been  carefully  selected 
from  the  most  faithful  representations  of  the  objects  described ;  and  they  are  exe- 
cuted in  the  best  style  by  the  eminent  artists  whose  names  appear  on  the  title-page. 
They  exhibit  the  most  remarkable  plants  and  animals,  the  chief  cities,  public  buud- 
ings,  natural  curiosities,  and  picturesque  scenery,  with  the  characteristic  figures 
and  costumes  of  the  natives,  in  the  countries  described.  It  is  not  believed  that  any 
work  of  this  kind  is  similarly  embellished,  at  least  to  nearly  the  same  extent. 
These  representations  are  by  no  means  introduced  for  the  sake  of  mere  ornament ; 
they  will  be  found  of  the  greatest  utility,  convesing  an  infinitely  better  i  lea  of  the 
objects  than  could  be  derived  from  the  most  laboured  description. 

Notwithstanding  all  these  efforts,  it  is  impossible  to  lay  this  volume  before  the 
Public  without  the  painful  reflection,  that,  in  a  subject  involving  such  an  infinite 
number  and  variety  of  details,  many  of  which  are  often  very  difficult  to  procure, 
not  a  few  imperfections  and  even  errors  must  inevitably  occur.  M.  Balbi,  whose 
exertions  to  collect  the  most  recent  geographical  information  are  well  known,  and 
to  whose  labours  the  present  volume  is  much  indebted,  candidly  observes : — "  One 
of  the  greatest  obstacles  to  be  surmounted  in  the  composition  of  an  elementary 
treatise  of  Geography  is  the  want  of  contemporary  documents.  Geography  is 
almost  necessarily  a  compound  of  things  which  are,  with  things  which  have  ceased 
to  be.  How  can  one  be  informed  of  all  the  changes  that  take  place  in  the  course 
of  a  few  years,  even  in  the  capitals  of  Europe,  still  more  in  those  of  Asia,  Africa, 
and  America  1  To  compose  a  Geography  which  should  exhibit  a  complete  picture 
of  the  g^obe  at  a  particular  period,  it  would  be  necessary  to  have  authentic  docu- 
ments, all  of  the  same  date  and  that  a  recent  one ;  which  never  has  been,  and 
never  can  be." 


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ADVERTISEMENT 

TO  TUB 

AMERICAN    EDITION, 


«  *  ,.  f-  •• 


The  object  and  plan  of  the  Enctolopadia  of  Gboorapht  have 
been  very  fully  set  forth  in  the  Preface  to  the  English  Edition,  and 
the  names  of  the  editor  and  his  collaborators  are  sufficient  vouch- 
ers for  its  value.  It  is  due,  however,  to  the  American  reader,  to 
inform  him  in  what  respects  these  volumes  differ  from  the  original. 
The  whole  of  the  English  work  is  here  given,  with  the  single  ex- 
ception, that  the  description  of  Great  Britain,  which  occupied 
more  than  one-third  of  the  Book  devoted  to  Europe,  and  con- 
siderably more  than  the  space  given  to  the  whole  of  America,  has 
been  somewhat  abridged ;  but,  it  is  believed,  without  the  omission 
of  any  thing  of  importance.  The  text  has  been  carefully  revised 
and  corrected  throughout,  and  in  most  cases  more  recent  statis- 
tical details  have  been  substituted  for  those  of  the  original.  The 
additions  to  the  first  volumes  are  not  considerable  in  amount,  but 
are  generally  such  as  have  been  required  by  changes  in  our  know- 
ledge or  in  the  condition  of  things.  The  Book  relating  to  America 
has  been  enlarged  as  far  as  the  limits  of  the  work  would  a  i-vw, 
principally  by  the  addition  of  local  details ;  the  condition  of  the 
new  American  states  is  too  unsettled  to  render  it  worth  while  to 
fill  much  space  with  accounts  of  their  political  relations,  which 
might  be  entirely  changed  before  these  pages  met  the  eye  of  the 
reader.  The  Chapter  which  treats  of  the  United  States  has  been 
written  anew,  the  original  being  extremely  imperfect  and  incorrect, 
as  all  European  treatises  on  the  subject  are. — Our  growth  is  so 
rapid,  the  increase  of  our  population,  wealth,  commerce,  manufac- 
tures, and  other  industrial  resources,  so  amazing,  the  creation  of 

new  towns,  cities,  nay,  states,  is  continually  making  such  a  change 

1*  5 


.^^■ 


fK 


-.%' 


•-.*!*. 


1^      »». 


:«..>■' 


^  ADTBRTIBBMBNT  TO  THE  AmRICAN  EDITION. 

in  the  face  of  things,  public  works  are  conceived,  planned,  and 
executed  on  so  great  a  scale  and  with  such  promptitude,  that  it  is 
not  at  all  surprising  that  a  distant  writer  should  be  entirely  baffled 
in  his  attempts  to  describe  the  country  as  it  is.  The  Zoological 
section  has  alone  been  retained,  but  it  has  been  much  enlarged, 
chiefly  from  a  later  work  of  Mr.  Swainson's ;  and  some  general 
remarks  upon  the  shells  of  the  United  States  have  been  added. 
For  the  account  of  the  Gbolooy  of  our  country,  the  reader  is 
indebted  to  Prof.  Rogers,  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  The 
Botanical  section  has  also  been  prepared  by  a  gentleman  of  high 
reputation  in  the  scientific  world.  The  Editor  is  painfully  sensible 
of  the  imperfection  of  the  other  parts  of  this  Chapter,  but  he  trusts 
that  the  difficulties  of  the  subject  will  obtain  for  him  the  indulgence 
of  the  reader. 

PBn.ADn.PHiA,  October  IK,  1886. 


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y. 


CONTENTS  OF  VOL.  I. 


i? 


•tlPAOl  TO  THl  INOUSH  IDinON M 

rBWAOa  BY  THI  AMCBIOAN  IDITOB v 

amoDucmoN t 


PART  I. 
nsTOBT  or  oaooiuraT. 


BOOKL 

ANonm  QKMBAMr 

CHAP.  L 

ItbKiw  Md  Mtmlelu  a«o|raphr 


',\ 


Pa'riafrte*  Ant.  •  ■ 
11.  KiofdooiorfiiMl. 


IIL  OoBiiMm  of  1>i« 

IV.  Tin  Woild  MconUoi  to  Um  HikNWi. 

~.f  1.  nnhlih 

■^    %  Opbii 

8.TlMlllM 

4.  HmIw  tnil  IMan 

5.  OouBtriM  on  Um  Eupbratea 

•.  Oof,  MifOf,  ud  tiM  NorU 


.rvtie 

10 

11 

u 

u 

u 

14 

M 

U 

17 

17 


:* 


"»>•    »:■  4 


CHAT.  II. 

AnetratVajrifMof  IHieovtnr U 

I.  Olraima«Tl(alton  of  AMea  nndtrNaatao U 

U.  VoyateofBataipM M 

III.  VojraiaofHanno IB 

IV.  Voyaf*  of  Eudoiui M 

V.  Vojrafa  of  PytlMai n 

VL  Voyace  of  Neatebui M 

VII.  r«riplafortlwBnrtlinaa8«a 87 

CHAP.  nL 

Graak  Oaotrapiqr  befbf*  Atoxander 30 

I.  GMiraphjr  of  Honar 30 

II.  Poetical  Oaonapiqr 31 

ni.  Bebool  of  Mllalu » 

IV.  Oeopapby  of  Harodotoa S3 

1.  Baio|w  of  Herodotna 34 

9,  Alia  of  Harodolua 34 

1  Aflrieaof  Heiodotua 30 

OHAP.  IV. 
Pint  Alexandrian  School.  Eratoatbenea  and  BIrabo  37 

I.  Expedition  of  Alexander 37 

II.  Expedition  of  Selaucna SB 

UL  Brataatbenea 38 

IV.  Hlppaithna 30 

V.  Tbe  world  aeeordingto Eratoatbenea  and  Btrabo  SO 

L  Europe 40 

a.  Aala 43 

3.  Aftiea 43 

OHAP.  V. 

Boaaaa  Gaomphy 43 

I.  Mela7T:...V.. 48 

n.  Pliny 48 

ni.  Iltnerarle»— Peutiniarian  Table 40 


r;r     / 


Ah 


CHAP.  VI. 

Beeond  Alexandrian  Bebool 81 

I.  Mariana  of  Tl'n 81 

n.  Ptolemy n 

I.  Europe 83 

B  Aala 80 

3.  AMea 80 


BOOKIL 
OBoaBATBT  Of  m  mssu 
OHAP.  L 


Arabian  Oaocrapby  . 

I.  Oaneral  flytiem  . 

II.  Aria 

III.  AMea 


'■^J 


.00 
.01 


OHAP.  n. 
European  Oeorapby  dnrini  Iba  Dark  Afaa OS 

CHAP.  in. 
OaopapUcal  Knowledfa  derived  ftom  tbe  Oiuaadat.  04 

CHAP.  IV. 
Tartar  Oaograpby as 

OHAP.V. 

Venetian  Geo|rapby oi 


BOOK  ni. 

MomnN  aioaBAPiiT. 

CHAP.  I. 

Diaeevwy  of  America  and  the  Eaat  Indlaa 00 

CHAP.  IL 
Early  Byatam  of  Modem  Oeograpby n 

CHAP.  in. 
Modem  Aatronomleal  Oeograpby 7| 

CHAP.  IV. 
Modem  Critical  OcofTaphy n 

ri»AP.  V. 
Modem  DeaeriptlTe  and  Butiitical  Oeograpby 73 

CHAP.  VI. 
Modem  Geography  of  Alia 74 

CHAP.  VIL 
Modern  Oeograpby  of  Aftlea f| 

CHAP.  vin. 

Modem  Oeograpby  of  America 70 

OHAP.  n. 
Modem  Geography  of  the  Aualial  Baaa  and  Uanda.  77 


»  4 


•«» 


PART   II. 

PRIHOIPtKS    or    OBOORAPHT. 

BOOK  L 

AonoNoiaoAi.  mmomit. 


cahx.  I. 

Oaaeral  View  of  tbe  PhenonMna  of  tbe  HaaTana, 
•ppaitat  MoUona,  fixed  Btaia,PlaiMtt,fce. 00 


CHAP.  II. 

Hw  HeaTona,  at  aeen  through  the  TelcKopa 01 


CHAP.  in. 
Approximation  to  the  Pigure  and  Magnitude  of  tba 


*8!SS." 


r 


r^' 


VUi  OONTIRTt. 

CHAP.  IV. 

llMMn*  or  Ik*  IplMra M 

OIIAP.  V. 
■•Mllon  of  llM  Bun,  Moon,  and  n*n«U  oa  ibflr 

Aim -llMlf  Pl|un H 

CHAP.  VI. 

PlitancM  •nil  Mm  "'Xm**  <>'  ll**  HMTtnly  BodlM.  ■   17 

OHAP.  Vli. 

liHtilon  or  lb*  Rwth • 

CHAP.  VIII. 
ApfMranl  Annual  Muiloa  or  lb*  ■an.    VkMudo 
of  Btuoni W 

CHAP.  IX. 

Divlilon  nad  Maanirt  or  TloM M 

OHAP.  X. 
Pioper  Mellon  or  tho  Mnon.   Uir  Pbaiaa.  Hdlpata 
nr  llM  Bun  tad  Moon (7 

CHAP.  XI. 

MallOBor  llM  Plantta  round  llM  Sua MM 

CHAP.  XII. 
Motion  nr  llw  Earth  round  lb*  Bun 110 

CHAP.  XIII. 
Ofblti  or  the  Planet! 113 

CHAP.  XIV. 
CWnau 114 

CHAP.  XV. 

Law  or  Unlvonal  Gravllallon 116 

CHAP.  XVI. 


Plfura  and  Conitltiitinn  or  lb«  Bartb  deduced  ttom 
the  Theory  or  Oravllatlon 


IM 


m 
m 


CHAP.  XVIL 

TheTMea 

CHAP.  XVIII. 
Oaaeral  View  or  Ibe  Bular  Byiicm 

CHAP.  XIX. 
Plrinaad  Mifnllude  or  Ibe  Earib IM 

CHAP.  XX. 
OeienBlaailoa  or  Latitude  and  Lon|llude 147 

CHAP.  XXL 
BapteaHMIloB  or  Ibe  Banb  .  117 


Metoorolo(r. 
Hydraloty... 


BOOK  II. 

aCOLOOIOAL  MINOirUM. 
OHAP.  I. 


OHAP.  n. 


CHAP.  IIL 

Oeofnoqr m 


BOOK  III. 
OBMMUL  rtiNoirLn  or  •■ooBAniy  vnobb  m 

RBUkTION  TO  OROANIMO  AND  UTINO  •BINOI. 
CHAP.  L 
Oeofrapbyronildered  In  relation  to  Iba  Otitribnlloii 
orPlante 138 

CHAP.  II. 

Oeoaraphy  eonildered  In  relalloa  to  the  DtftrikMtlaii 

of  Man  and  Animali SM 

CHAP.  in. 
Geography  oaneldered  In  relation  to  Maa  ia  toetaty  lU 


PART  III. 

OEOORAPHV  COiraiDBRBD  llf  RELATION  TO  THE  VARIOUS  REOIOlfS  OF  THE  OIX)BI>. 


BOOK  I.-EUROPE. 
CHAP.  L 

GiKeaiL  BoBViT  or  Eoaora 980 

I.  Natural  Featurae SM 

n.  Inhabllanu 901 

III.  Botany 904 

IV.  Zoology 908 

V.  Languagaa ■ * JOB 

CHAP.  II. 
Enolard 919 

I.  Oeographlcal  Outline 317 

II.  Natural  Geography 910 

III.  Illitorical  Geography 341 

IV.  Political  Geography 349 

V.  Productive  Induetry 381 

VI.  Civil  and  Social  State 3S7 

VII.  Local  Geography     3in 

1.  Southern  OiHintlee     364 

S.  Eaitern  Counllei 368 

3.  Central  Countiea 371 

4.  Northern  Countiea       383 

5.  Wectero  Countlee 301 

6.  Waira 306 

CHAP.  IIL 
ricoTitno 401 

I.  Geographical  Outline 401 

II.  Natural  Oeoiiraphy 403 

III.  Hiatorlcal  Survey 408 

IV.  Political  Conttilution 400 

V.  Productive  Indiiitry 410 

VI.  Civil  and  Social  Slate 413 

VIL  Local  Oeoi;rnphy 415 

1.  The  I^iowland  Countiea 4I.'< 

9.  The  liighlamt  Pountiei 4S3 

3.  The  Scottlih  Iilande 49B 

CHAP.  IV. 
laiLtmi 433 

I.  General  Outline  and  Aipect 433 

II.  Natural  GeiiRraphy 433 

III.  Illitorical  Geography 440 

IV.  Political  lionititution 441 

V.  Productive  Induttry 443 

VI.  Civil  and  Social  State 44n 

VII.  Local  Geography 4S0 

CHAP.  V. 

DlRB/kRK 463 

I.  General  Outline  and  Aapeet 461 

II.  Naturul  Geography 471 

III.  Hlitorical  Geography 471 

IV.  Productive  Induetry 471 

r.  Political  Geography 473 

VL  Civil  and  Social  State , 473 

VIL  Local  Oeograpb* » .473 


CHAP.  VL 

BwiDBN  AMn  NoawAT 476 

I.  General  Outlino  and  Aapeet 476 

II.  Natural  Geography 476 

III.  Hialoricai  Geography 481 

IV.  Political  Geography 481 

V.  Productive  Induetry 489 

VL  Civil  and  Social  Stala 484 

VII.  Local  Geography 486 

I.  Sweden 488 

9.  Norway 401 

X  Lapland 4B9 

CHAP.  VIL 

RottABDAini  BaiaiDM 4BS 

I.  General  Outline  and  Atpect 408 

If.  Natural  Geography 408 

III.  Illitorical  Geography 408 

IV.  Political  Geography 809 

V.  Productive  Induitry 103 

VI.  Civil  and  Social  State SOS 

Vn.  Local  Geography 808 

1.  Belgium 800 

9.  Holland 811 

CHAP.  VIIL 

PBAaoa 

L  General  Outline  and  Aspect ... 

II.  Natural  Oeoaraphy 

III.  Illitorical  Geography 

IV.  Political  Geography 

V.  Productive  liiduilry  . 


818 

819 

890 

830 

839 

834 

VI.  Civil  and  Social  State 840 

VIL  Local  Geography 843 

CHAP.  IX. 
SrAiR SS8 

I.  General  Outline  and  Aipect 8S8 

II.  Natural  Geography SSO 

III.  Hiitiirical  Geography S68 

IV.  Political  Geography 870 

V.  Productive  Induitry S7I 

VL  Civil  and  Social  State S79 

VIL  Local  G«>graphy 878 

VIIL  Republic  or  Andorra 880 

OHAP.  X. 

PoRTnOAL 800 

I.  General  Outline  and  Aipect SOO 

n.  Natural  Geography 800 

IIL  Hlitorical  Geography 801 

IV.  Political  Geography 801 

V.  Productive  Induitry ggg 

VL  Civil  and  Social  State 803 

VIL  Local  Geofraphy 803 


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4-' 


ENCYCLOPAEDIA  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


i  f^'    "c      INTRODUcmON. 

OiooBAriiv  coniiaU  in  tho  dcicripUon  and  delineation  of  tho  F^orth.  It  conaidora  that 
planet  in  ronpocl  to  it*  form,  ita  cunnoxiun  with  otlior  bodiea  in  the  univerae,  tho  varioua 
parta  into  which  it  i*  divided,  tituir  relations  to  each  other,  and  tho  objecta  with  which 
each  iH  roipoctivnly  fliicd.  (icflt(ra|)hy  indowl  could  not  attempt  a  acientiflc  analyaia  of 
all  theio  objects,  without  aockinif  tu  comprehend  within  itaelf  a  complete  circle  oi  acience, 
tt  viewa  only  thoir  obvioua  and  viaible  chnrectera,  and  chiefly  thuoe  featurca  which  arf> 
peculiar  to  each  rnxpectivo  coiuitry  and  roffion  on  tho  fiico  of  tho  globe. 

The  ifreat  iniportonco  of  thia  branch  of  knowledge  muat  bo  aufflciontly  obvioua.  It 
embmcea  a  vast  voricty  uf  those  objecta  which  arc  moat  intereating  in  themaelvea,  and 
with  which  it  moat  coiionma  man  to  be  convenont.  It  enablea  tlie  navigator,  tlio  merchant, 
the  military  commander,  to  carry  on  their  respective  operations.  Geography  is  moreover 
eaaential  to  tlio  clear  undemtanding  of  every  branch  of  the  history  both  of  man  and  nature. 
The  traiiHactioim  of  bordoriiit;  atates  ore  unintelligible  without  a  knowledge  of  their  relo* 
tive  cxti'nt  and  |)osition,  and  of  tlio  theatre  on  which  tlie  great  eyenta  of  their  history  are 
acted.  Ever)'  form,  both  of  animal  and  vegotablu  nature,  is  modified  in  tho  most  striking 
inaniiur  by  tho  climate  or  tho  country  in  which  it  is  placed.  Still  more  intimate  is  its  re- 
lation with  geology  and  other  aciences,  which  investigate  the  materials  coinpo«ing  the 
substance  and  cruat  of  the  earth.  None  of  theao  branchea  of  knowlc<lgo  can  bo  diminctly 
undersitoal,  or  viewed  under  it8  prujier  relation  and  arrangement,  without  a  previous  know 
ledge  of  geography. 

Thia  important  and  extcnaive  subject  aeems  to  divide  itaelf  naturally  into  three  parta. 

The  First  Part  treats  of  the  "History  of  Gcoi,'raphy ;"  the  origin  and  progress  of  the 
Science ;  and  the  atepe  by  which  man,  who  seemed  fixed  by  nature  in  a  local  and  limited 
position,  has  made  himaelf  acquainted  with  tlie  immense  circuit  of  the  globe.  This  Part 
is  divided  into— I.  Ancient  Geography ;— II.  Geography  of  the  Middle  Ages; — III.  Modem 
Geography. 

The  Secmid  Part  comprises  the  Principles  of  the  Science.  These  are — I.  MathenuUi- 
cal:  those  whicli  relate  to  the  form  of  tlie  earth,  its  movements,  its  place  in  the  Solar 
Syatem,  the  great  circlea  by  which  it  is  divided,  the  operations  by  which  it  is  surveyed, 
and  tho  modes  in  which  its  spherical  outline  can  bo  represented  on  the  plane  surface  of  a 
map.  II.  Plii/sii'dl :  those  which  treat  of  the  substances  which  cover  the  earth's  aurfact , 
tho  elements  which  compose  and  surround  it ;  rock,  eartli,  water,  air,  as  they  appear  under 
the  varioiiH  furm»  of  mountain,  plain,  river,  aeo,  and  present  all  the  changing  phenomena 
of  the  atinosplicro.  III.  Geography  may  be  considered  in  its  relation  to  other  objecta  and 
sciences.  1.  To  Zoology,  or  tho  distribution  of  animals  over  tlie  globe.  2.  To  Botany,  or 
the  diffusion  of  vcgeUible  productions.  3,  To  the  human  race,  and  the  various  branches 
into  which  it  has  been  formed,  considered  in  relation  to  numbers,  wealth,  political  union, 
social,  intellectual,  and  moral  condition. 

The  Third  Part  considers  Geography  in  detail,  as  it  applies  to  the  various  quarters  and 
countries  into  which  t!io  world  is  divided,  tlie  outline  and  extent  of  each,  its  natural  fea- 
tures, the  revolutions  througli  which  it  has  passed,  its  political  constitution,  tho  industry 
and  wealth,  the  civil  and  social  condition  of  its  inhabitants.  The  description  of  each 
country  will  conclu'le  with  a  local  and  topographical  survey  of  its  districts,  cities,  and 
towns. 

This  Part  will  divide  itself  into  five  general  heatis : — I.  Europe.  II.  Asia.  III.  Afirica. 
rV.  Australia.     V.  America. 

An  Index  will  be  added,  which,  being  extremely  copious,  and  containing  references  to 
all  the  places  montioned  in  the  work,  will  answer  in  a  great  degree  the  purposes  of  a  Geo- 
trraphical  Gazetteer. 

aFoi.  I  ,.B 


i.   -^  i- 


■•%^ 


'*■ 


t. 


PART   I. 

,if'' 

HISTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


The  History  of  Geography  may  be  divided  into  three  books: — ^I.  Ancient  Geography. 
!I.  Geography  of  tlic  middle  ages.    III.  Modem  Geography. 


BOOK    I. 

*  ANCIENT   GEOGRAPHY. 

The  Geography  of  the  Ancients  may  be  considered  under  the  heads  of,  I.  Hebrew 
and  Phcenician  Geography ;  the  princi]»l  features  of  which  may  be  found  in  the  Jewidi 
Scriptures.  II.  Greek  Geography,  in  its  early  state,  before  the  expedition  of  Alexuider. 
in.  The  first  Alexandrian  school  formed  by  Eratosthenes.  IV.  The  Roman  school,  formed 
chiefly  by  Mela  and  Pliny.    V.  The  second  Alexandrian  school,  formed  by  Ptolemy. 


*  ,,  '  CHAPTER  I. 

HEBBEW  AND  PHCENICIAN  GEOGRAPHY;' 

The  Sacred  Records,  in  addition  to  their  higher  claims  on  the  attention  of  mankind, 
possess  the  important  secondary  advantage,  that  they  enable  us  to  trace  human  existence, 
and  the  forms  of  society,  back  to  a  much  earlier  period  than  the  information  derived  firom 
any  other  source.  They  were  long  anterior  in  this  respect  to  the  classic  story  of  Greece 
and  Rome ;  tlie  faintest  light  even  of  whose  fabulous  history  cannot  be  traced  back  to  the 
period  when  Abraham  was  driving  his  flocks  over  the  seats  offiiture  empire  on  the  Euphrates. 
Amonff  Abraham's  contemporaries  wo  discern  the  germ  of  the  great  monarchies  which 
first  cnanged  the  fiice  of  human  affairs.  Nimrod,  tlie  founder  of  Babylon,  almost  like  an 
Iroquois  chief,  is  mainly  celebrated  for  his  activity  and  success  in  the  chase.  Modern  dis- 
covery has  indeed  made  us  acquainted  with  tribes  existing  in  a  still  ruder  form ;  but  there 
is  no  narrative  in  which  we  can  trace  so  distinctly  the  gradual,  yet  somewhat  rapid,  transi- 
tion made  in  these  fiivoured  regions,  fi-om  tlie  hunting  and  ])astoral,  to  the  commercial  and 
agricultural  states  of  society. 

Sect.  L — The  Patriarchal  Ages. 

In  the  early  patriarchal  records  we  discover  first  the  rich  Mesopotamian  plain,  not  yet 
covered  with  cities  and  harvests,  but  standing  as  an  open  common,  over  which  the  sons  of 
Terah  drove  unmolested  tlieir  flocks  and  herds.  In  these  favourable  circumstances,  and 
surrounded  by  simple  and  rural  plenty,  the  flocks  and  the  shepherds  multiplied  in  an  extra- 
ordinary manner.  The  heads  of  the  fiimilies  became  petty  princes,  and  were  as  such  at 
once  respected  and  feared.  As  they  went  on  increasing,  the  land  became  "  not  able  to 
bear  them ;"  and  the  most  intimate  friends  were  able  to  prevent  dissension  among  their 
adherents  only  by  an  entire  though  painful  separation ;  nay,  even  by  striking  into  routes  so 
opposite,  as  to  prevent  the  possibility  of  a  future  union.  This,  however,  was  rather  a 
palliation  than  a  cure  for  the  evil ;  for,  in  whatever  quarter  each  directed  his  course,  he 
came  into  contact  with  other  fiimilies.  The  difficulty  was  still  augmented,  when  all  the 
more  fertile  tracts  began  to  be  cultivated  by  a  fixed  population,  subject  to  regular  govern- 
ment The  first  regions  whicli  came  under  these  circumstances  appear  to  have  been  Lower 
Egypt  and  Gerar,  on  the  coast  of  Philistia,  along  the  Mediterranean.  In  the  latter  we  find 
Isaac  attempting  to  settle  and  cultivate  the  ground ;  but  the  king,  though  evidently  afraid 
to  offend  so  potent  a  tribe,  insisted,  in  a  determined  though  courteous  manner,  upon  their 
quitting  his  territory.  The  family  were  therefore  obliged  finally  to  estiblish  themselves 
in  the  vicinity  of  llohron,  collecting  the  somewhat  scanty  licrbage  which  grew  amid  the 
rugged  mountains  to  tlio  west  of  the  Dead  Sea.  It  was,  therefore,  an  auspicious  change 
when  they  were  transported  into  the  Land  of  Goshen,  a  rich  pastoral  district  of  Egypt. 
The  circumstances  attending  the  captivity  of  Joseph  enable  us  already  to  observe  the 
activitv  of  that   interior  caravan-trade,  which  afterwards   on  so  great  a  scale,  traversed 

10 


►^ 


-.,  ff-^' 


•   ^'.r,      " 


■'TSRSt. 


I       Book  I. 


»^- 


*  *: 


v.^ 


'■ 


'.Stsj 


HEBREW  AND  PH(ENICIAN  GEOGRAPHY. 


11 


Arabia.  Two  caravans,  destined  for  the  supply  of  Egypt,  appear  meeting^  each  other  in 
opposite  directions ;  and  that  cruel  trade,  of  which  men  were  the  object,  is  already  carried 
on  in  the  same  remorseless  manner,  and  by  the  same  unjust  means,  by  which  it  hat  ever 
since  been  conducted.  '^  ir; 

Sect.  II. — Thr  Kingdom  of  Israel. 

The  Israelites,  after  being  established  in  Egypt  for  more  than  two  centuries,  were 
led  back  into  vhe  promised  land,  so  long  the  seat  of  their  ancestors.  Every  thin?  there, 
since  the  patriarchal  age,  had  assumed  quite  a  different  aspect :  it  presented  walled  cities, 
and  high  cultivation,  accompanied  with  that  gross  superstition  and  dissolute  voluptuousness 
which  are  the  too  common  attendants  of  early  wealth.  The  guilty  inhabitants  of  Canaan 
with  their  country  were  delivered  into  the  hwaia  of  the  Israelites ;  and  the  territory  being 
divided  among  the  ten  tribes,  gave  occasion  to  a  very  careful  topographical  survey ;  but 
nothing  yet  occurred  to  attract  the  views  of  the  nation  beyond  these  limits,  or  towards  the 
world  in  general.  Still  less  could  this  take  place  during  the  subsequent  period,  when  thev 
were  forsaken  of  heaven,  and  reduced  to  servitude  under  the  neighbouring  nations,  it 
was  under  the  favoured  reign  of  David  that  Israel  fmally  triumphed  over  all  her  ene- 
mies. That  great  prince  left  to  Solomon,  either  as  subject  or  tributary,  a  territory  extend- 
mg  from  the  Euphrates  to  the  Mediterranean  and  the  borders  of  Egypt,  forming  the  most 
powerful  state  then  in  western  Asia.  Solomon,  by  the  terror  of  his  father's  name,  and  of 
the  powerful  army  transmitted  to  him,  was  enabled  to  preserve  the  whole  of  this  king- 
dom, during  a  long  reign,  in  peaceful  submission.  This  accomplished  prince  devoted  him- 
self to  the  arts  of  peace,  to  the  extension  of  commerce,  to  the  culture  of  science,  and  to 
the  improvement  and  embellishment  of  his  dominions  in  every  direction.  By  the  alliance 
with  Hiram,  he  was  enabled  to  accomplish  voyages  more  remote  than  had,  perhaps,  been 
ever  undertaken  under  any  former  sovereign.  His  alliance,  and  even  his  society,  were 
courted  by  distant  princes ;  and  the  observation  of  the  Jews  began  to  extend  over  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  the  globe. 

The  separation  of  the  kingdoms  after  the  death  of  Solomon,  was  a  fatal  blow  to  the 
greatness  of  the  house  of  Israel.  Their  divided  power  could  no  longer  maintain  numer- 
ous tributaries  in  submission,  nor  was  it  adequate  to  distant  and  extensive  enterprises.  All 
the  states  beyond  the  Jordan  shnok  off  the  yoke ;  the  attempts  to  navigate  the  Red  Sea 
were  abandoned ;  and  all  distant  regions  in  a  great  measure  lost  sight  of  Their  view, 
however,  was  enlarged  by  unexpected  and  unwelcome  events  from  another  quarter. 

The  successive  invasions  of  Assyria  and  Babylon,  which  terminated  in  the  downfall  of 
both  the  kingdoms,  forced  upon  the  Israelites  a  knowledge  of  the  existence  of  these  proud 
and  powerful  empires.  At  tlie  same  time,  the  colossal  grandeur  of  Egypt,  the  only  power 
capable  of  contending  with  them,  was  brought  into  prominent  notice.  Ample  materials 
were  thus  afforded  for  those  lofly  and  awful  images,  those  pictures  of  the  shaking  of  the 
world  and  the  downfall  of  nations,  which  abound  in  the  writings  of  the  prophets  during 
the  regal  times.  Another  and  nearer  object  attracted  wonder,  and  afibrded  tiie  means  of 
knowledge  respecting  regions  still  more  distant  This  was  Tyre,  the  earliest  seat  of 
commerce,  in  whose  markets  were  found  collected  the  tin  of  Britain,  the  gold  of  Afirica, 
the  cotton  of  India,  and,  perhaps,  the  silks  of  China.  This  forms  so  fpiand  a  feature,  and 
the  descriptions  of  it  tend  so  much  to  illustrate  early  geography,  that  it  must  claim  some 
separate  notice. 

Sect.  III. — Commerce  of  Tyre. 

Tyre,  which  under  Solomon  was  already  great  and  flourishing,  continued  to  increase 
till,  with  the  exception  of  one  of  its  own  colonies,  it  became  the  most  splendid  emporium 
of  the  ancient  world.  It  appears,  indeed,  truly  wonderful  that,  at  this  early  period  of  arts 
and  history,  when  Rome  yet  consisted  only  of  a  few  straw-thatched  cottages,  merchants  in 
Tyre  should  vie  with  the  pomp  of  kings.  So  magnificent  was  the  scene,  that  the  prophet, 
in  annoiincing  the  divine  intention  to  destroy  Tyre,  considers  it  as  implying  a  purpose  "  to 
stain  the  pride  of  all  glory,  and  to  bring  mto  contempt  all  the  honourable  of  the  earth." 
(/sat.  xxiii.  9.)  Perhaps,  however,  commerce  in  its  earlier  efforts  has  a  particular  ten- 
dency to  concentrate  itself  in  one  point,  where  alone  it  finds  protection,  infbrmatioii,  and 
regular  channels ;  while  in  the  advance  of  society  its  streams  begin  to  be  more  widely 
dimised. 

In  the  interesting  picture  of  Tyrian  commerce  drawn  by  Ezekiel,  the  foundation  of  the 
intercourse  with  Damascus  and  other  contiguous  districts,  is  stated  to  be  "  the  multitude 
of  the  wares  of  her  making ;"  that  is,  it  consisted  in  the  exchange  of  her  manufactured 
j)roduce  for  the  raw  produce  of  these  rich  agricultural  districts.  There  is  little  specifica- 
tion of  the  Tyrian  manufactures,  but  the  returns  were  all  made  in  natural  products,  of  the 
first  quality  which  the  soils  of  Judea  and  of  Syria  aflbrded;  from  Judea,  the  finest  wheat, 
honey,  oils,  and  balsam ;  from  Syria,  white  wool,  and  the  wine  of  Helbon.  No  situatior 
could  be  more  fortunate  than  that  of  Tyre  for  the  formation  of  a  navy,  with  the  magnifi- 


\- 


's?4 


■i!^ 


13 


HISTORY  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Past  I 


cent  forests  of  Lebanon,  Scnir,  and  Bashan,  rising;  immediately  behind.  The  timbers,  it 
appears,  were  constructed  of  fir;  the  cedar  supplied  masts;  while  the  oak  was  used  for 
those  long  and  powerful  oars,  which  were  then  the  chief  instruments  of  navigation.  The 
vessels  appear  to  have  been  fitted  up  with  a  luxury  unknown  to  modern  times.  The 
benches  were  of  the  finest  cypress  wood,  inlaid  with  ivory;  the  fine  linen  of  Egypt, 
adorned  even  witli  embroidery,  was  spread  out  in  sails.  Tyre,  like  Carthage,  appears  to 
have  adopted  the  policy  of  employing  mercena^  troops,  which  she  drew  even  from  the 
mountainous  districts  of  Persia  and  the  upper  Euphrates.  The  immediate  guard  of  the 
city,  however,  was  intrusted  to  its  neighbours  of  Arvad  and  Gammadin,  who,  standing 
round  the  walls  in  brilliant  armour,  are  said  to  have  "  made  its  beauty  perfect" 

With  regud  to  the  distant  commerce  of  Tyre,  the  quarters  to  which  it  was  carried  on 
must  become  the  subject  of  some  discussion,  in  the  course  of  which  we  shall  introduce  the 
interesting  pnrticolarB  given  by  the  prophet 

Swrr.  rv. — The  World  according  to  the  Hebrews. 

No  system  of  Geography  can  be  traced  in  the  sacred  writers,  who,  occupied  with  higher 
objects,  do  not  even  allude  to  any  such  as  existing  among  the  Hebrews.  The  ideas  of  that 
people  witli  regard  to  tlie  structure  and  boundaries  of  the  earth  may,  however,  be  inferred 
r  from  the  genealogical  chapters  (Oen.  x.,  repeated  1  Chron.  L),  which  contain,  in  fact  a 
view  of  the  known  divisions  of  the  earth,  agreeing  in  some  striking  particulars  with  the 
records  of  profane  history ;  also  from  the  accounts  of  the  commerce  of  Tyre,  and  from 
various  detached  notices  in  the  historians  and  prophets. 

The  Hebrews  obviously  never  attempted  to  form  any  scientific  theorv  respecting  the 
structure  of  the  earth.  The  natural  impression,  which  represents  it  as  a  flat  sur&ce,  with 
the  heaven  as  a  firmament  or  curtain  spread  over  it  is  found  universally  prevalent  Be- 
neath was  conceived  to  be  a  deep  pit  the  abode  of  darkness  and  tlie  shadow  of  death.  In 
one  place  we  find  the  grand  image  of  tlie  earth  being  hung  upon  notliing ;  but  elsewhere, 
the  pillars  of  the  eartii  are  repeatedly  mentioned ;  and  sometimes  the  pillars  of  heaven. 
In  short  it  is  evident  that  every  writer  caught  the  idea  impressed  on  his  senses  and  im- 
agination by  the  view  of  these  grand  objects,  without  endeavouring  to  arrange  them  into 
any  regular  system.  Altliougii,  however,  the  Jews  never  indulged  in  speculative  geogra- 
phy, yet  there  are  copious  examples  of  minute  and  careful  topography  for  practical  pur- 
poses. Our  object  however,  is  not  to  mark  the  divisions  of  Judea,  but  to  trace  the  ideas 
of  the  Jews  respecting  the  extent  and  boundaries  of  the  known  world.  We  shall  at  the 
same  time  be  able  to  collect  all  Umt  is  now  to  be  known  of  the  Phcenician  Geography ;  for 
it  is  evident  that  Ezekiel  visited  Tyre,  as  Herodotus  did  Babylon,  with  the  eye  of  an  in- 
telligent observer ;  and  he  would  doubtless  hold  intercourse  wim  the  best  informed  men  in 
that  great  school  of  commerce  and  navigation.  The  objects  always  alluded  to,  as  placed 
at  the  &rthest  limits  of  their  knowledge,  are  Tarshish ;  Ophir ;  The  Isles ;  Sheba  and 
Dedan ;  The  River ;  Gog,  Magog,  and  the  north.   (Fig.  1.) 

SuBSEcr.  1. — Tarshish.  '■■-.■. 

Tarshish  is  the  name  which,  in  the  annals  of  Jewish  and  Phcenician  navigation,  occiurs 
most  fi^quently,  and  ranks  next  to  Tyre ;  yet  nothing  has  been  found  more  difficult  than 
to  fix  thai  name  to  any  precise  place.  The  peculiar  difficulty  is  this;  that  there  are  two 
voyages  from  Tarshiali :  one  up  the  Mediterranean,  bringing  iron,  silver,  lead,  and  tin,  the 
produce  of  Spain  and  Britain  (Ezek.  xxvii.  12.) ;  tlie  other  up  the  Red  Sea,  bringing  gold, 
ivory,  and  apes,  the  produce  of  tropical  Africa  (1  Kinffs,  x.  22.).  How  tliese  two  voyages 
can  be  from  the  same  place,  appears  at  first  sight  to  baffle  research. 

Various  places  have  been  suggested,  among  which  I  should  not  think  it  necessary  to 
mention  Tarsus,  in  Cilicia,  were  it  not  supported  by  such  names  as  Volney  and  Malte 
Brun.  Except  the  resemblance  of  name,  it  lias  not  a  single  feature  which  can  be  recon- 
ciled to  the  Tarshish  of  Scripture.  Besides,  tlie  name  Tarsus  is  evidently  of  Greek  origin 
{See  Sleph.  Byzani.  in  v.  Strabo,  1.  14.  Bocharfs  Phaleg.,  and  Wetstein's  Nov.  Test, 
vdjf  ii.  p.  .511.  and  608.),  whereas  Tarshish  is  manifestly  of  oriental  derivation,  and  is 
doubtless  of  Phcenician  origin.  Indeed,  jMalte  Brun  admits  it  to  be  tenable  only  on  the 
clumsy  and  improbable  supposition  of  there  being  two  places  of  the  name  of  Tarshish. 
Tortessus  or  Cadiz  is  certainly  more  plausible,  and  agrees  with  the  Mediterranean  voyage ; 
but  the  distance  is  too  great,  and  notice  might  have  been  expected  to  be  taken  of  not  a 
few  intermediate  objects,  particularly  of  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar.  It  is  altogether  foreign 
to  the  voyage  by  the  Red  Sea.  This  last  objection  appears  also  to  hold  against  Carthage, 
which,  in  every  other  respect,  seems  preferable  to  Tartessus,  and  of  which  more  will  be 
mid  in  the  sequel. 

To  solve  the  problem  of  the  two  voyages,  llie  only  attempt  so  far  as  I  know,  has 
been  in  tlie  ingenious  hypothesis  of  Gosselin :  Tarshish,  according  to  him,  signifies  the 
greet  or  open  sea,  as  distinguished  even  from  the  largest  of  its  inclosed  gulfs.  The  name 
may  then  be  applied  eiiualiy  to  the  Atlantic  and  the  Indian  Ocean ;  and  the  voyage  to  and 


M 


'^. 


.4  • 


L'oOK  I.  HEBREW  AND  PUCENICIAN  GEOGRAPHY. 

Fiff.  1.— GEOCRAPHICAL  SYSTEM  OF  THE  HEBREWS. 

W  30  40  iO 


lU 


-4f 


from  Tarshish  may  equally  be  by  the  Red  Sea  or  the  Mediterranean.  But  though  this 
hypothesis  be  supported  by  the  signitication  of  an  old  Hebrew  term,  and  though  it  solve 
the  great  problem,  I  think  any  one,  who  attentively  traces  the  various  occasions  on  which 
Tarshish  is  mentioned  in  Scripture,  will  be  satisfied  that  it  has  a  sense  quite  different  from 
the  loose  and  vague  one  here  ascribed  to  it.  Let  us  only  read  the  following  verse : — "  But 
Jonah  rose  up  to  flee  into  Tarshish  from  the  presence  ot^  the  Lord,  and  went  down  to  Joppa, 
and  he  found  a  ship  going  to  Tarshish ;  so  he  paid  the  tare  thereof,  and  went  down  into  it, 
to  go  with  them  into  Tarshish  from  the  presence  of  the  Lord."  Do  not  these  words  una- 
vowbly  suggest  a  precise  port,  to  which  there  was  a  regular  packet,  with  a  fixed  rate  of 
fare  T — not  a  mere  vague  setting  out  into  the  wide  and  open  sea.  If  the  following  expres- 
'  sions  can  be  reconciled  to  M.  Gosselin's  hypothesis,  it  is  only  by  very  strained  interpretar 
tions : — "  The  kings  of  Tarshish ; — the  merchants  of  Tarshish ; — pass  ye  over  to  Tarshish ; — 
Tarshish  was  thy  merchant ; — with  silver,  &c.  they  traded  in  the  fairs ; — silver  in  plates 
is  brought  fi-om  Tarsiiish,  and  gold  from  Ophir ; — ^the  daughter  of  Tarshisli,"  &c.  In  the 
genealogical  chapters,  Tarshish  is  introduced  as  one  of  the  sons  of  Javan.  But  the  other 
three  sons,  and  every  other  name  mentioned  in  these  chapters,  are  the  fathers  of  a  country 
and  nation ;  and  it  would  bo  quite  singular  if  Tarshish  alone  should  have  had  only  thfi  $ea 
for  his  offspring.  What  a  strange  idea  to  call  the  sea  one  of  the  sons  of  Javan !  Indeed, 
this  is  so  glaringly  improbable,  that  M.  Gosselin  has  recourse  to  the  hypothesis  of  inter- 
polation— a  supiKwition  very  unlikely  in  regard  to  books  held  so  sacred,  and  in  respect  to 
these  chapters  among  a  people  so  fond  of  genealogy,  auid  altogether  a  most  imsouna  prin- 
ciple, as  applied  to  the  sacred  volume.  Finally,  I  think  it  very  evident,  from  the  general 
tenour  of  Hebrew  writers,  tliat  they  had  no  distinct  notion  of  the  Mediterranean  as  an 
inclosed  sea,  tend  of  an  ocean  beyond  it.  The  expression,  "  the  sea,"  used  in  that  vague 
and  wide  sense,  will,  I  apprehend,  be  always  found  to  signify  the  Mediterranean,  the  Red 
Sea  being  designated  by  that  particular  term.  Thus,  there  appears  to  be  no  motive  for 
adopting  M.  Gosselin's  hypothesis,  except  the  want  of  any  other  by  which  the  problem  of 
the  two  voyages  can  possibly  be  solved.  But  if  another  can  be  stated,  which  shall  solve 
that  problem,  and  at  the  same  time  make  Tarshish  the  very  place  it  might  be  expected  to 
be,  this  great  question  may,  perhaps,  he  con8idere<l  as  settled  in  a  more  satisfactory  manner 
than  heretofore. 

That  Tarsiiish  must  be,  fimdamentally,  Carthage,  cannot,  I  think,  admit  of  a  moment's 
doubt.  Tiie  strongest  argument  is,  that  if  it  be  not,  then  that  grand  emporium  of  Medi- 
terranean trade,  the  colony  of  Tyre,  tlie  place  of  all  others  with  which  Tyre  held  always 
the  close:5t  intercourse,  must  never  have  been  named  by  the  prophets,  who  give  such  copious 

Vol.  1.  2 


.     i. 


14 


HISTORY  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  I. 


L 


I* 


iind  detailed  accounts  of  Tyrian  commerce.  When  Ezekiel  was  enumerating  every  place, 
even  the  most  obscure,  with  which  Tyre  held  intercourse,  can  it  be  supposed  that  this,  the 
chief  of  all  others,  would  have  been  totally  omitted  ]  But  if  Tarshieh  be  Carthage,  then 
that  celebrated  city  holds  exactly  the  prominent  place  which,  according  to  every  circum- 
stance, it  ought  to  have  held  in  relation  to  Tyre.  This  general  negative  argument  does 
appear  to  me  quite  irresistible.  The  details  are  equally  conformable.  Carthage  in  her 
glory  monopolized,  almost  entirely,  the  commerce  of  Spain  and  Britain.  She  even  took 
the  most  violent  measures  to  prevent  any  maritime  power  from  penetratuig  to  the  west  of 
Sicily.  There  appears  no  trace  of  the  Tyrians  ever  proceedmg  fiirtlier.  They  found, 
apparently,  in  Carthage,  a  complete  assortment  of  the  commodities  of  all  the  countries  to 
the  west,  and  on  the  ocean — silver,  iron,  lead,  and  tin,  which  were  thus  naturally  viewed 
by  the  Jews,  and  perhaps  by  the  Tyrians  themselves,  as  Carthaginian  commodities.  With 
regard  to  the  name,  considering  that  both  Tarshish  and  Carthage  arc  corruptions  of  the 
original  Phcenician  term,  they  Iwive  that  rude  resemblance  which  might  be  expected.  The 
connexion  is  rendered  stronger  by  Carchedon,  the  Greek  name  of  Carthage,  which  forms 
a  sort  of  middle  term  between  them. 

The  voyage  from  Tarshish  by  the  Red  Sea,  however,  which  forms  the  grand  difficulty, 
remains  yet  unaccounted  for ;  and  it  can  only,  I  think,  be  solved  in  the  following  manner : 
t  conceive  Uie  name  of  this  great  African  metropolis  must  have  been  generally  extended 
to  the  whole  of  the  continent  of  Africa.  All  the  names  of  the  continents,  we  may  observe, 
were  originally  derived  from  one  of  their  remarkable  and  frequented  districts.  The  name 
of  Asia  was  extended  by  the  Greeks  from  a  tract  of  that  name  immediately  opposite  to 
their  shore,  including  Troas,  Ionia,  and  some  other  of  the  more  eastern  districts  of  Asia 
Minor.  With  the  Romans,  Africa  derived  its  name  from  tlic  very  district  now  in  question, 
called  always  Africa  Propria,  being  the  finest  on  that  coast,  and  including  Carthage.  It 
appears,  then,  quite  natural  that  a  place  so  very  prominent,  with  which  Tyre  held  such 
close  and  constant  intercourse,  apparently  the  only  place  much  frequented  by  her  on  the 
coast  of  Africa,  should  be  associated  in  her  conception  with  the  whole  continent  in  which 
it  was  situated.  On  any  other  supposition,  tlie  Jews  and  Phoenicians  must  have  had  no 
name  for  Africa,  which  is  not  very  probable.  It  is  observable  that  Tarshish  evidently  does 
not  comprehend  either  Egypt  or  Upper  Ethiopia,  which  countries,  in  fact,  were  never  by 
tlie  ancients  considered  as  decidedly  African,  that  continent,  according  to  their  conception, 
having  the  Nile  for  its  eastern  boundary.  If  we  admit  Tarshish  to  be  Africa,  the  whole 
difficulty  respecting  the  two  voyages  at  once  disappears.  As  the  voyage  to  the  northern 
coa!<t  was  by  the  Mediterranean,  so  that  to  the  eastern  coast  was  of  course  by  the  Red  Sea. 
It  is  in  favour  of  this  solution  that  Jerome,  in  fact,  calls  the  voyage  to  Tarshish  "  an  Afri- 
can voyage."  The  Jews,  unacquainted  with  intermediate  countries,  had  probably  a  very 
inadequate  conception  of  the  distance  between  these  coasts ;  at  all  events,  they  justly  con- 
sidered them  as  parts  of  the  same  vast  expanse  of  continent. 

SvBSECT.  2. — Ophir. 

The  name  of  Ophir,  combined,  as  it  always  is,  with  the  most  precious  of  metals,  and 
the  most  coveted  of  all  commodities,  ranks  among  the  distant  countries  known  to  the 
Jews,  almost  superior  in  splendour  to  Tarshish,  though  not  equal  m  greatness  and  com- 
mercial importance.  The  voyages  of  Solomon  to  Ophir  for  gold,  form  the  greatest  naval 
enterprise  in  which  the  kingdom  of  Jiidea  was  ever  engaged.  Yet  this  name  has  been 
attended  with  little  less  difficulty,  and  produced  scarcely  less  controversy,  than  that  of 
Tarshish. 

The  belief  that  Ophir  was  in  Arabia  has  certainly  not  a  little  to  urge  in  its  favour.  In 
the  genealogical  chapters  it  is  always  combined  with  Sheba,  or  Sabea,  which  was  undoubt- 
edly situated  at  the  south-west  angle  of  Arabia.  It  was  from  Sheba  that  gold  (doubtless, 
tlie  gold  of  Ophir,)  was  regularly  brought  to  Judea  and  Phoenicia.  Even  Bochart,  who 
tliinks  himself  obliged  to  seek  in  India  a  more  distant  Ophir,  clumsily  compounds  the 
matter  by  making  another  Ophir  in  Arabia.  He  is  followed  by  M.  Malte  Brim.  M.  Gos- 
selin,  with  his  usual  zeal  to  restrict  ancient  knowledge,  insists,  that  there  never  was  any 
Opliir  except  the  Arabian,  and  places  it  in  the  modem  interior  district  of  Dofiir.  There 
appear  to  me,  I  confess,  viwt  improbabilities  in  this  Arabian  Ophir.  As  an  interior  district, 
it  must  have  been  nearer,  or  certainly  as  near,  to  Judea  as  Shebo ;  and  it  appears  strange, 
that  no  direct  land  communication  should  ever  have  been  opened  with  it.  Let  us  consider 
tlie  mighty  operations  of  Solomon ;  his  utmost  efforts  combined  with  those  of  Hiram ;  the 
materials  of  shipbuilding  conveyed  by  land  over  a  vast  desert;  the  most  skilful  workmen 
transported  to  Ezion  Geber ;  a  fleet  composed  of  large  vcs.sels,  called  ships  of  Tarshish,  at 
last  formed,  and  undertaking  a  series  of  voyajres,  in  each  of  which  three  years  were 
employed.  What  a  waste  of  labour  and  expenditnrn  to  obtain  a  commodity  whicli  could 
have  been  conveyed  across  Arabia  in  two  months  on  the  backs  of  camels !  Yet  the  repe- 
tition of  tlie  voyaijc  shows  that  the  article  was,  in  fact,  procured  on  b«:'tter  terms  tha!i  bv 
the  usual  chunuel.     In  the  voyage  from  Ophir,  also,  we  find  new  articles  never  mentioned 


"^ 


« 


Book  L 


tt  '.  ^  ■» 

"     HEBREW  AND  PHCENICIAN  GEOGRAPHY. 


-■■^ii. 


15 


in  relation  to  Sheba  or  Arabia,  but  charactGristic  of  equatorm.  Africa — ivory,  ajies,  and 
peacocks.  Witli  regard  to  the  cloee  combination  in  whicli  Shcba  and  Ophir  are  alwaya 
found,  it  will  appear  natural  enough,  when  we  consider  that,  unless  during  the  short 
expedition  of  Solomon,  Sheba  appears  to  have  been  the  channel  by  which  the  gold  of 
Ophir  was  transmitted  to  Judea  and  Phoenicia.  This  circumstance  might  readily  lead  the 
inhabitants  of  those  countries  to  consider  the  two  as  closely  connected,  though  Ophir 
might  be  beyond  Sheba,  and  even  be  separated  from  it  by  seas  and  territories  of  consider- 
able extent 

The  hypothesis  which  places  Ophir  in  India,  though  supported  by  great  names,  appears 

?uite  untenable.  The  trade  of  Ophir  bears  not  the  uast  resemblance  to  an  Indian  trade, 
t  does  not  include  the  fine  manulactures  and  rich  spices  which  India  has  always  iiiniished ; 
and  its  staple  is  gold,  which  never,  at  any  time,  was  an  article  of  export  ft<cnn  that  quarter 
of  Asia.  India  has,  on  the  contrary,  always  demanded  a  large  balance  of  specie,  iwd  has 
formed  a  gulf  in  which  the  gold  of  the  west  has  been  absorbed.  If  we  reject  India,  we 
shall  not  certainlv,  with  some  savans,  travel  as  far  as  Peru  in  quest  of  our  object,  notwith- 
standing the  slight  resemblance  of  name,  and  the  attempt  to  eke  it  out  by  the  expression 
"  oM  of  Parvaun,"  which  has  some  appearance  of  being  synonymous. 

The  eastern  coast  of  Africa  is  the  quarter  to  which  all  the  indications  appear  very  clearlv 
to  point  In  the  voyage  to  Tarshish  by  the  Red  Sea,  its  name  and  that  of  Ophir  are  al- 
ways combined;  nay,  the  voyage,  which  in  the  Book  of  Kings  is  called  the  voyage  to 
Tarshish,  in  the  Chronicles  is  called  the  voyage  to  Ophir;  so  that  it  is  evident  the  two  are 
one  and  the  same  voyage ;  and,  if  Tarshish  was  Africa,  Ophir  must  clearly  be  in  Africa. 
There  is,  however,  on  mis  coast  no  abundant  supply  of  gold  till  we  reach  as  &r  south  as 
SofUa ;  thus  implying  an  extent  of  navigation  which  is  certainly  somewhat  startling.  M. 
Goeselin  particularly  urges,  that  in  the  time  of  Alexander  there  was  no  longer  any  know- 
ledge of  eastern  Africa ;  and  that  even  the  Romans  never  appear  to  have  penetrated  beyond 
Cape  Delgado.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  to  be  considered  that  the  alliance  of  Hiram  and 
Solomon  united  advantages  which  never  Existed  again  in  an  equal  degree.  The  wealth, 
naval  skill,  and  ample  materials  which  those  great  princes  could  command  were  scarcely 
equalled,  even  by  the  Ptolemies.  After  the  deaUi  of  Solomon,  the  kingdom,  split  into  two, 
and  weakened  by  continued  dissention,  abandoned  entirely  these  distant  commercial  enter- 
prises, A  solitary  attempt  to  renew  the  trade  was  made  by  Jehoshaphat,  but  the  vessels 
prepared  ibr  that  purpose  were  wrecked  in  the  very  mouth  of  the  port  of  Ezion  Geber ; 
after  which  the  undertaking  was  entirely  given  up.  In  the  calamities  which  afterwards 
befbl  Israel  and  Judah,  and  the  revolutions  which  subverted  the  whole  political  system  of 
western  Asia,  it  is  not  wonderful  that  every  trace  of  this  distant  intercourse  should  have 
been  obliterated ;  and  that  the  successors  of  Alexander  should  have  had  to  enter  on  a  new 
field  of  discovery.  In  support  of  the  supposition  of  So&la,  there  may  also  be  noticed  a 
certain  resemblance  of  name ;  and  the  duration  of  the  voyage,  stated  at  three  years,  would 
afibrd  very  ample  time  to  reach  the  Zombese,  even  under  all  the  imperfections  of  ancient 
navigation. 

SvBSECT.  3. — The  Isles, 

The  Isles,  a  term  which  occurs  much  in  Scripture,  might  be  supposed  to  describe  gene- 
rally those  portions  of  the  globe  which  come  under  this  description ;  yet  a  careflil  compa- 
rison of  the  different  passages  in  which  the  word  occurs  will  probably  show,  that  it  is  used 
in  a  much  more  precise  and  determinate  sense,  and  is  applied  to  a  wide  and  connected 
range  of  territory.  The  whole  of  the  southern  coasts  of  Europe,  consisting  either  of  real 
islands  or  of  peninsular  tracts,  appears  by  the  Jews  and  Phoenicians  to  have  been  viewed 
as  a  long  range  of  islands.  Besides,  the  terms  mjsoj  and  insula  were,  in  periods  of  remote 
antiquity,  applied  loosely  to  peninsulas  as  well  as  islands  proper.  Among  many  examples 
which  might  be  adduced,  one  will  suffice — Peloponnesus.  The  isles,  relative  to  Tjrre, 
appear  to  have  ranked  only  second  to  Tarshish  as  a  source  of  wealth,  and  in  respect  of 
close  and  intimate  intercourse.  Tyre  is  called  expressly,  "a  merchant  of  many  isles :" 
and  the  consternation  which  shook  the  isles  at  the  sound  of  her  fall ;  the  dismay  of  their 
kings,  who  are  said  to  have  then  cast  off  their  robes,  and  sat  on  the  ground, — all  point  out 
the  extent  and  importance  of  this  commerce.  Tarshish,  Elisha,  Chittim,  and  Dodanim 
are  named  in  the  geneological  chapter  as  the  four  who  divided  among  them  the  isles  of 
the  Gentiles;  but,  though  Tarshish  is  so  often  named  in  combination  with  "the  isles" 
among  the  most  distant  maritime  territories,  there  is  never  any  indication  as  if  it  were 
itself  an  island.  The  combination  is  probably  produced  by  the  extensive  possessions  and 
commerce  of  the  Carthaginians  in  the  western  islands  and  coasts  of  Europe.  These,  in- 
cluding the  southern  point  of  Italy,  were,  as  already  observed,  probably  considered  as  insu- 
lar, and  were  distinguished  by  the  appellations  of  the  "  isles  afar  off"  and  "  the  distant 
isles  of  the  sea."  The  "  isle"  in  particular,  which  Isaiah  mentions  in  such  close  connex- 
ion with  Tarshish,  and  which  the  merchants  of  Sidon,  "by  passing  over  the  sea,  had 
replenished,"  can  scarcelyr  be  anv  other  than  Sicilv.  an  island  almost  Carthaginian,  and 


'■     i 


';^ 


16 


inSTORY  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pabt  I. 


containinff  k  many  flouriBhing  cities.  With  regard  to  the  isles  of  Elisha,  they  ore  evidently 
Hellas,  the  Creek  name  of  Greece.  The  only  distinctive  characteristic,  indeed,  Uiat 
of  furnishing  Tyre  with  the  blue  and  purple  dye,  docs  not  recall  to  us  any  of  the  features 
under  which  we  have  been  accustomed  to  recognize  that  celebrated  region.  But  Greece 
was  not  yet  the  seat  of  arts  and  arms ;  and,  had  she  been  so,  the  Tyrian  mercheuits  might 
■till  have  viewed  her  only  as  she  served  their  purpose.  Bochart  has  collected  ample  testi- 
monies to  show  that  the  murox,  the  shell  which  yielded  those  celebrated  d^es,  was  found 
in  peculiar  abundance  on  the  coast  of  Laconia.  Cliittim  appears  very  evidently  Cyprur, 
and  its  early  capital  of  CitiuTi  The  alarm  being  given  thence  of  the  approach  of  the 
king  of  Babylon,  and  its  beinp^'xinsidcred  as  tlie  natural  place  of  rcfiige  for  the  inhabitants 
of  Tyre,  where  yet  they  would  not  be  fully  secure,  mark  a  proximity  which  belongs  to  no 
other  island.  The  name,  indeed,  is  in  one  instance  given  to  Greece,  and  in  another  to 
Italy ;  but  this  seems  merely  to  be,  that,  as  the  nesrest  known  island,  its  name  is  some- 
times thus  vaguely  extended  to  the  whole  of  that  territory  considered  by  the  Jews  as  insu- 
lar. The  attempts  of  Bochart  to  find  the  name  of  Chittim  in  Italv  have  been  wholly  abor- 
tive ;  fbr  we  cannot  consider  as  worthy  of  notice  the  observation  that  it  and  iMtium,  in  the 
respective  Greek  and  LAtin  languages,  both  signify  "to  hide."  In  regard  to  Dodanini, 
convertible  into  Rodanim(1  and  ^  being  perpetually  interchanged  and  confounded),  though 
it  is  mentioned  only  once,  we  seem  justified  in  fixing  on  Rhodes,  already  flourishing  and 
commercial,  though  not  yet  become  the  rival  of  kings.  Bochart  seems  to  go  much  too  far, 
when  he  seeks  for  it  on  the  Rhone  or  the  Ebro. 

'  SvBSECT.  4. — Sheha  and  Dedan, 

Of  the  internal  trade  of  western  Asia  during  tlie  early  ages,  the  most  extensive  and 
important  was  that  carried  on  across  Arabia.  It  consisted,  not  so  much  in  the  productions 
of  the  region  itself,  as  in  those  of  India  and  Africa,  which  found  their  way  by  tfiis  channel 
to  Judea  and  Phoanicia. 

Sheba,  among  the  Arabian  states,  holds  thfl  most  prominent  place,  being  undoubtedly 
the  same  with  the  Sabea  or  Arabia  Felix  of  the  classic  writers.  Its  imports  were  tlie 
precious  commodities  of  gold  and  incense :  the  latter  anciently  in  most  extensive  demand 
for  the  purpose  of  sacrifice.  These  articles  appear  to  have  been  brought  to  Judeo,  not  by 
any  maritime  channel,  but  in  crowded  caravans.  The  "  companies  of  Sheba"  are  mentioned 
even  in  Job.  Isaiah  speaks  of  the  "  multitude  of  camels ;"  and  of  "  all  tliey  from  Sheba." 
Yet  the  incense,  it  is  now  certain,  must  have  come  chiefly  fh>m  the  opposite  African  coast  of 
Berbera ;  and  the  gold,  we  have  some  reason  to  think,  must  have  been  derived  from  a  still 
more  remote  part  of  that  continent 

The  commerce  of  Dedan  rivalled  that  of  Sheba,  being  carried  on  from  tlie  opposite  or 
eastern  coast  The  mention  of  "  many  isles"  in  combination  vvitli  Dedan,  seems  to  fix  it 
to  that  point  at  the  entrance  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  which  is,  in  fact,  bordered  by  numerous 
islands.  One  of  these,  Ormuz,  became  aflern'ords  the  scat  of  a  kingdom,  which,  from  a 
situation  and  commerce  similar  to  that  of  Dedan,  derived  a  splendour  which  made  it  the 
pride  of  the  East  The  imports  from  Dedan — "  ivory  and  precious  cloths" — point  out  the 
source  of  this  prosperity.  These  were  the  commodities  of  India,  brought  to  the  mouth  of 
the  Persian  Gulf,  and  thence  transported  across  the  desert  to  the  western  regions.  The 
caravan  trade  of  Dedan  appears  to  have  been  most  extensive ;  insomuch  that  tlie  prophet  in 
denouncing  the  judgment  upon  Arabia,  mentions  the  "  travelling  companies  of  Dedonim"  as 
its  most  conspicuous  feature.  In  the  prophets,  Edom  and  Dedan  are  almost  universally  named 
together,  and  the  same  judgments  represented  as  affecting  both.  Hence  they  are  usually 
considered  as  parts  of  the  same  country,  and  the  ordinary  maps  include  Dedan  as  a  district 
of  Edom.  Even  Bochart  whose  learning  showed  him  that  there  must  be  a  more  distant 
Dedan,  adopts  tlie  hackneyed  scheme  of  supposing  that  there  were  two  Dedans.  There  is 
no  occasion  for  so  unskilful  a  theory  to  explain  the  intimate  connexion  between  these  two 
states.  When  caravans  came  across  Arabia  fiwm  the  Persian  Gulf,  it  was  at  Edom  or  Idumea 
that  they  first  touched  on  the  civilized  world.  A  dep6t  was  thus  naturally  formed  there  of 
the  commodities  in  which  they  traded.  This  traffic  raised  Idumea  and  its  capital,  Petra,  to 
a  high  pitch  of  wealth  and  imjiortance.  So  close  a  connexion  necessarily  caused  Dedan  to 
be  deeply  afiected  by  any  calamity  which  desolated  Edom,  and  rendered  her  no  longer  the 
channel  through  which  this  commerce  could  flow.  But  these  disasters  arc  by  no  means 
represented  as  touching  her  so  closely  or  so  deeply ;  and  while  Edom  is  represented  as  utterly 
spoiled,  and  converted  into  a  waste  and  reproach,  the  inhabitants  of  Dedan  are  merely  warned 
to  "  turn  back  and  dwell  deep;"  (Jer.  xlix.  8.)  ond  the  expression,  "  they  of  Dedan  shall  fall 
by  the  sword,"  is  more  correctly  interpreted  in  the  margin,  "  they  shall  fall  by  the  sword 
unto  Dedan."  These  circumstances  appear  to  mark,  along  with  an  intimate  connexion,  a 
complete  distance  and  separation  between  these  two  great  Arabian  states. 

Raamah  is  mentioned  amonjr  other  nations  of  Arabia,  along  with  Sheba,  as  producing  the 
same  articles,  but  as  a  much  less  remarkable  country.  It  appears  to  be  the  modern  Had 
nunuth,  neither  situated  so  commodiously  as  Sheba  tor  the  .African,  nor  as  Dedan  for  tlio 


\ 


'll 


4  I 


& 


Book  I. 


IIKBREW  AND  PIICENICIAN  GF.OGRArHY. 


tt 


Indian,  friidn.  Some  of  thn  bpst-wntcrnd  districts  probably  of  the  Nedsjed,  appear  to  have 
composed  thn  kitiijdoni  of  KcJar,  cnriciicd  by  the  breeding  of  numerous  sheep  and  goats, 
with  which  it  supplied  even  Tyre,  and  rose  to  8uch  prosperity,  as  to  make  it  be  considered 
a  mighty  catastrophe  "  when  nil  the  glory  of  Kcdar  shoulci  fail." 

,  ■  *  *     ■  ''V< 

SviMECT.  T). — Countries  on  the  Euphrates.  "  ■ 

The  river  (for  such  is  the  import  of  the  term)  presents  itself  oa  a  grand  feature  of  the 
landscape  after  passing  across  the  wide  Syrian  desert,  towards  the  eastern  extremity  of  the 
known  world.  This  name,  in  ])rctbrence  even  over  the  Nile  and  tlie  Jordan,  was  always 
applied  to  the  Euphrates,  which,  holding  so  immense  a  course  tJirough  kingdoms  the  most 
celebrated  in  history,  was  considered  as  one  of  the  grand  boundaries  of  the  eartli.  The  great 
empires  and  capitals  of  Assyria  and  Babylon  gave  to  it  a  lustre,  which  was  scarcely  divided 
by  the  Tigris,  whose  name  was  little  known  to  the  Jews  before  tlie  captivity.  Along  this 
I'ne  of  territory  EzekicI  enumerates  a  number  of  cities,  Haran,  Canneh,  Eden,  Ashur,  &c., 
from  which  great  caravans  proceeded  to  Tyro  with  cloths  and  other  articles  of  the  most 
valuable  description.  In  such  early  accounts,  however,  the  country  from  which  commodities 
last  came  is  seldom  distinguished  from  their  original  seat  I  therefore  entirely  agree  with 
Dr.  Vincent,  that  they  must  have  been  brought  by  a  long  overland  voyage  across  Asia ; 
that  these  chests  of  rich  apparel,  so  carefully  bound  with  cords,  came,  prol^bly,  by  interior 
caravans  from  Hindostan,  and,  perhaps,  already  from  the  frontier  of  China. 

Of  the  countries  beyond  the  Euphrates,  only  some  broken  fragments  of  knowledge  appear 
to  have  reached  Judea  before  the  captivity.  Elam  is  particularly  noticed ;  the  residence  of 
a  warlike  people,  occupying  the  long  mountainous  tract  east  of  the  Tigris.  Media  and 
Persia  are  also  named  on  a  few  occasions,  but  so  as  to  prove  that  they  were  only  contem- 
l)lated  in  dim  and  obscure  distance.  At  a  vague  and  uidefinite  distance  beyond,  the  ends 
of  the  earth  were  imagined  to  exist  The  early  Greeks  and,  after  them,  the  Arabians,  viewed 
the  habitable  earth  as  an  island,  surrounded  on  every  side  by  water.  Ptolemy,  on  the  con- 
trary, places  at  every  extremity  of  his  map  a  vague  expanse  of  unknown  land.  The  He- 
brews combined  in  some  measure  these  two  views  of  the  subject  To  the  west,  the  remotest 
object  for  them  was  the  sea,  studded  witli  numerous  and  distant  isles ;  but  to  the  east,  where 
land  was  seen  indefinitely  extending,  tlioy  formed  the  idea  of  an  inland  termination,  without 
being  able  to  attich  to  it  any  prociso  limits.  Such  a  boundary  was  apparently  supposed  to 
exist  in  various  directions,  since  "  all  tlio  ends  of  the  earth"  is  an  expression  frequently 
occurring.  It  was  to  the  eat-t,  however,  that  this  idea  peculiarly  attached  itself;  and  "  from 
the  river  to  the  ends  of  the  earth,"  is  the  farthest  point  to  which  the  figurative  kingdom 
.•>f  the  Messiah  is  made  to  extend. 

SuBSECT.  6. — fHoff,  Magog,  and  the  North. 

The  north  quarter  is  the  only  part  of  the  circuit  of  the  geographical  knowledge  of  the 
.Tows  which  remoins  to  be  surveyed.  It  presented  features  of  peculiarly  rude  and  formi- 
dable aspect.  Ezekiel,  in  anticipating  an  approaching  inroad,  draws  the  most  gloomy  feature 
of  the  hordes  which  it  poured  forth :  Go;.',  with  all  his  bands,  coming  like  a  storm  or  a 
cloud  to  cover  the  land  ;  Gomer  with  all  his  bands;  the  house  of  Togarmah,  from  the  north 
(piarter :  "  a  great  company  and  a  mighty  army,"  directing  their  course  against  those  nations 
which  "  were  at  rest,  dwelt  safely,  and  had  gotten  cattle  and  goods ;"  and  with  the  eager 
purpose  "to  take  a  prey,  to  carry  away  tiioir  silver  and  gold,  to  take  a  great  spoil."  This 
picture,  tlicse  hostile  and  tumultuous  crowds,  "  all  riding  upon  horses,"  with  their  wide- 
rr)aming  and  predatory  habit:*,  has  always  s\iggested  the  idea  of  Scythian  invasion;  and 
the  Arabian  geographers  have  placed  the  castle  of  Gog  and  Magog  at  the  remotest  extremity 
of  Tartary.  On  looking  narrowly  into  tlie  matter,  however,  wo  shall  find  it  difficult  to 
suppose  tills  inroad  to  have  proceeded  from  any  part  of  those  unbounded  plains.  The  fact 
is,  we  have  no  occasion  to  look  so  far ;  for  the  high  table-lands  in  the  interior  and  north  of 
Asia  Minor,  Phrygia,  Galatia,  Cappadocia,  and  Paphlagonia,  have  always  presented  the 
same  rude '  pastoral  aspect  and  have  bred  tribes  of  migratory  shepherds  and  warriors,  very 
similar  to  those  of  Scythia  itself.  These  tracts,  in  fact,  continue  still  to  pour  forth  vast  bodies 
of  irregular  cavalry,  which  form  the  main  strenirth  of  the  Turkish  armies.  Tliis  view  of 
the  subject  appears  complet(>ly  fixed  by  the  account  of  the  rommercial  intercourse  main- 
tained by  tlinso  nations  with  Tyre.  The  iirophet  mentions  Meshech  and  Tubal,  elsewhere 
completely  identified  with  Gog,  who  is  called  tlicir  "chief  prince."  There  never  has  been 
the  least  doubt  ns  to  the  position  of  these  countries  in  Upper  Armenia,  and  on  the  southern 
Iwrder  of  Caucasus.  There  the  classical  writers  mention  in  the  Moschi  and  the  Tibareni. 
which  are,  perhaps,  the  same  names.  The  imports  into  Tyre  are  stated  to  be  "vessels  of 
brass,  and  persons  of  men."  This  somewhat  curious  combination  is,  however,  altogotlier 
characteristic  of  the  region  in  (juestion,  which  was,  in  ancient  time,  highly  distinguished 
for  the  copio\isness  and  excellence  of  its  copper  and  iron,  which  last  is  not  wholly  exclml(?u 
by  the  term  used  ui  the  original.  The  skill  with  which  it  was  worked  into  steel  by  the 
Chalybes,  a  people  of  this  region,  caused  their  name  to  be  generally  given  to  this  product. 

Vol.  I.  ?*  C 


^vl 


.-.0- 


Id 


HISTORY  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


PaktI. 


*.» 


Even  in  the  present  Btate  of  neglect,  the  neigtibourliood  of  Trebiaond  rappliei  wifh  excel- 
lent  copper  all  the  Lewcr  Asia.  The  other  article,  also,  is  but  too  descriptive.  The 
expression,  "persons  of  men,"  marks  the  trade  in  slaves,  with  which  it  has  always  been 
the  liite  of  Caucasian  countries  to  supply  the  East  Horses  and  mules  are  reported  as 
brought  by  the  "  house  of  Togarmah."  Horses  have  always  been  a  boast  of  Tartary ;  and 
nn  nilianco  has  been  imagined  between  this  name  and  that  of  the  Turcomans,  who  still 
furniHh  the  finest  horses.  But  there  was  a  race  called  Trogmi,  in  the  upland  tracts  of 
I'aphlogonia,  a  region  celebrated  for  its  horses,  and  also  for  its  mules,  in  which  last  respect 
it  has  a  decided  advantage  over  Tartary,  to  which  tliis  last  breed  is  a  stranger.  Thus  we 
seem  justified  in  finding  Gog,  with  all  his  rude  and  terrible  appendages,  in  the  northern 
extremity  indeed  of  the  civilized  and  classical  world  of  Asia,  but  still  hi  distant  from  those 
boundless  wastes  which  composed  the  ancient  Scythia  and  the  modem  Tartary. 

Javan,  which  is  described  as  furnishing  the  same  objects  of  trade  with  Meshech  and 
Tubal,  but  not  as  having  any  concern  in  the  desolating  invasion  of  Gog,  is,  in  (act,  the 
same  word  with  Ion,  or  Ionia,  an  extensive  appellation,  wnich  comprehendM  all  the  western 
part  of  the  Lesser  Asia.  The  Jews  and  Phcsnicians,  overlooking  the  long  range  of  narrow 
straits  which  separated  it  from  Europe,  not  yet  recopised  as  a  separate  continent,  appear 
to  have  extended  the  name  to  Thrace,  and  the  interior  of  continental  Greece.  Alexander 
the  Great  is  in  one  place  called  king  of  Javan.  That  a  similar  extension  was  recognised 
in  the  early  ages  of  Greece  itself,  appears  by  the  celebrated  ancient  inscription  at  the 
Isthmus  of  Corinth.  "  This  is  Peloponnesus,  not  Ionia."  The  Javan  slaves  were  probably 
drawn  fix>m  Thrace,  whose  barbarous  regions  amply  supplied  the  ancient  markets  with  this 
cruel  species  of  commodity.  , 


CHAPTER  IL 

ANCIENT  VOYAGES  OF  DISCOVERY. 


The  early  voyages  of  discovery  formed  the  most  important  materials  ibr  those  delineations 
of  the  globe  whicn  were  made  by  the  geographical  gchools  of  Greece  and  Rome  in  their 
more  advanced  and  perfected  state.  Before  proceeding,  therefore,  to  consider  the  systems 
of  these  schools,  it  may  be  proper  to  toke  a  survey  of  the  exploratory  voyages  performed 
by  ancient  navigators.  These  do  not  appear  very  congidcrablc  in  the  eyes  of  a  modem 
mariner.  There  is  not  one  of  them,  perhaps,  which  the  captain  of  a  tolerably  appointed 
merchant-vessel  would  not,  in  the  course  of  his  ordinary  business,  be  ready  to  undertake. 
But  in  steering  along  an  unexplored  coast,  in  vessels  which  could  scarcely  rank  above  boats, 
without  the  use  of  the  compass,  or  any  correct  means  of  astronomical  observation,  even 
these  limited  voyages  were  fraught  with  peril  and  adventure.  The  record  of  them  is, 
however,  involved  in  much  mystery  and  controversy.  They  were  not  reported  to  the  world 
in  those  regular  narratives  with  which  the  modem  press  teems.  The  ancient  narratives 
are  always  meagre,  and  in  many  cases  we  have  only  fragments  of  hearsay  testimony,  col- 
lected by  careless  or  prejudiced  writers.  A  learned  investigation,  therefore,  is  usually 
necessary,  to  discover  along  what  coast  the  navigator  sailed,  to  what  point  of  it  he  reached, 
and  sometimes  whether  he  ever  sailed  along  any  coast.  In  several  cases  the  most  skilfiil 
disputants  are  still  divided  on  questions,  which,  sunk  in  the  deep  abyss  of  time,  must  probably 
remain  for  ever  undecided.  Faint  and  dubious,  however,  as  are  these  records,  they  will 
lead  us  over  some  of  the  most  interesting  problems  of  antiquity,  and  will  enable  us  to  trace, 
in  some  degree,  the  infant  steps  of  maritime  enterprise. 

Sect.  I, — Circumnaviffation  of  Africa  under  Necho, 

To  perform  tne  circuit  of  the  coast  of  Africa  was  the  favourite  object  of  ancient  maritime 
"Wterprise,  as  it  continued  to  be  of  that  of  modem  times,  till  the  era  of  its  final  happy 
accomplishment.  The  manner  in  which  its  coasts,  beyond  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Red 
Sea,  begin  to  converge,  suggested  the  idea  of  a  peninsula,  the  circumnavigation  of  which 
might  be  effected,  even  by  the  limited  resources  of  ancient  navigation.  The  wide  sphere, 
both  of  knowledge  and  trade,  which  such  a  discovery  would  open  to  the  enterprising  mari- 
time nations  round  the  Mediterranean,  was  sufficiently  obvious.  The  first  attempt  of  this 
description  originated  in  a  quarter  which  had  usually  been  accustomed  to  keep  aloof  fVom 
every  ppocics  of  naval  enterprise. 

Egypt  ho/l  long  held  itelf  as  a  country  strictly  agricultural ;  but  .\echo,  who,  next  to 
Scsostri.s,  raised  its  military  glory  to  the  greatest  height  appears,  like  other  conquerors, 
to  have  been  animated  by  an  active  spirit  which  exerted  itself  in  every  direction.  Not 
possessing  fit  instrumnats  among  his  own  subjects,  he  engaged  some  Phoenician  .navigators 
10  descend  tlip  Red  Sea,  find  endeavour  to  find  their  way  back  to  the  Mediterranean,  by 
the  PillarK  of  Hepcules.  The  narrative  is  so  very  short,  that  we  may  easily  give  it  in  the 
words  of  Herodotus :  "  The  PhtEflicians,  sotting  sail  from  the  Red  Sea,  made  their  way  into 
the  southern  sea ;   wlien  autwiiu  ujiproachcd,  they  drew  their  ve.ssels  to  land,  sowed  a 


>  ( 


■*!     V 


'^, 


I 


AP  ^ 


Book  I. 


\ft 


VOYAGES  OP  SATASPES  AND  HANKO. 


10> 


crop,  and  waited  till  it  waa  gprown,  when  they  reaped  it,  and  agrain  put  to  sea.  Havini; 
Bpont  two  years  in  this  manner,  in  the  third  year  they  reached  the  Pillars  of  Hercules, 
and  returned  to  Egypt,  reporting  what  does  not  find  lielief  with  me,  biit  may,  perhaps, 
with  some  other  person;  for  they  said  tliat  in  passing  Afirica  they  had  the  sun  on  their 
right  hand  (i.  e.  the  north).    In  this  manner  libya  was  first  known." 

The  authenticity  of  this  narrative  has  been  in  a  remarkable  degree  the  object  of  learned 
curiosity,  and  lias  produced  a  mass  of  controversy,  greater,  perhapi,  than  its  short  and 
vague  nature  is  well  able  to  admit  The  arguments  appear  to  have  been  exlJtusted  on 
the  believing  side  by  Rennell,  on  the  sceptical  by  Goeaelin  and  Vincent.  Formidable  as 
the  achievement  was,  it  does  not  seem  to  involve  any  absolute  impossibilito,  since  the 
whole  voyage  might  be  performed  without  losing  sight  of  the  shore,  or  launcning  into  the 
open  sea,  through  which  the  ancients  had  no  moans  of  guiding  their  course;  and  their 
smaller  vosscls,  keeping  close  to  the  shore,  might  even  poeseas  some  advantage  over  our 
larger  ones,  obliged  to  stand  out  to  sea,  and  encounter  the  stormy  waves  of  the  Atlantic. 
Herodotus  seems  inclined  to  credit  the  information,  unless,  on  the  ground  of  one  general 
statement,  which,  being  the  ver^  thing  that  should  have  happened,  and  disbelieved  only 
through  his  ignorance,  strongly  fortifies  our  inclination  to  credit  the  story. 

Skt.  IL — The  Voyage  of  Satatpet. 

The  Persian  monarchs,  after  their  sway  was  established  over  the  eastern  coasts  of  the 
Mediterranean,  found  the  exploration  of  Afirica  in  some  degree  their  peculiar  province. 
This  nation,  however,  laboured  under  an  aversion  and  dread  of  the  sea,  greater,  perhaps, 
than  that  of  the  other  orientals.  The  only  efKirt  of  theirs  on  record  was  one  which  arose 
in  a  singular  and  rather  casual  manner. 

Sataspes,  a  Persian  nobleman,  having  committed  a  heinous  offence,  was  condemned  by 
Xerxes  to  a  cruel  death.  His  firiends,  however,  persuaded  the  monarch,  that  by  com- 
muting this  sentence  into  that  of  a  voyage  round  Afirica,  he  would  inflict  sufferings  scarce- 
ly less  severe,  and  might  render  a  national  benefit.  They  prevailed,  and  Sataspes,  having 
procured  in  Egypt  a  vessel  and  crew,  passed  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  and  bent  his  course 
southwards.  He  is  represented  as  havmg  beat  about  for  several  months,  at  the  end  of 
which  he  probably  reached  the  coasts  of  the  Sahara.  The  view  of  those  firightful  and 
desolate  shores,  and  of  the  tempestuous  ocean  which  dashed  against  them,  might  well 
intimidate  a  navigator  bred  in  tlie  luxurious  indolence  of  the  Persian  court.  Sataspes  was 
struck  with  a  panic,  and  measured  back  his  course  Ui  the  straits.  Yet,  hoping  that 
tune  and  the  degree  in  which  ho  had  accomplished  his  mission  might  eflkce  tlie  im- 
pression, both  of  former  offence  and  of  present  failure,  he  again  presented  himself  before 
Xerxes.  In  giving  an  account  of  his  voyage,  he  merely  related,  that  wherever  he  landed 
he  had  seen  little  men  wearing  a  Phoenician  dress,  who  immediately  fled  into  the  moun- 
tains ;  but  his  people  had  done  them  no  injury,  bevond  carrying  off  the  cattle  of  which 
they  stood  in  need.  The  failure  of  the  ultimate  object  of  the  expedition  he  imputed  to 
the  occurrence  of  an  insurmountable  obstacle,  the  nature  of  which  has  not  been  satisfac- 
torily explained.  Xerxes,  however,  accustomed  to  expect  that  all  nature  should  be  sub- 
servient to  his  will,  would  listen  to  no  excuse,  and  ordered  the  original  sentence  to  be  im- 
mediately executed. 

Sect.  III. — Voyage  of  Hanno. 

The  Carthaginians,  as  the  greatest  maritime  and  commercial  people  of  antiquity,  might 
have  been  expected  to  make  earlier  and  further  progress  in  the  discovery  of  Afi'ica  tlnn 
any  other  nation.  In  general,  however,  a  veil  of  deep  mystery  shrouded  all  the  proceed- 
ings of  that  powerful  and  aspiring  people.  It  is  even  asserted  that  they  considered  as  ex-> 
clusively  theirs  the  whole  Mediterranean  west  of  a  line  drawn  across  to  Sicily,  and  that 
they  captured  all  the  vessels,  and  put  to  death  the  crews,  that  W'^re  found  navigating 
within  these  forbidden  precincts.  The  Romans,  on  the  other  side,  animated  by  inex- 
tinguishable enmity,  are  said  to  have  industriously  destroyed  all  the  records  of  the 
literature  and  history  of  their  fallen  rivals.  The  only  fragment  that  escaped  is  the 
Periplus  of  Hanno,  which,  notwithstanding  the  scepticism  of  Dodwell,  its  editor,  the 
learned  world  are  now  generally  agreed  in  considering  as  ancient  and  authentic.  This 
celebrated  document  is  so  short,  that  we  may  find  space  here  for  a  complete  translation 
of  it 

"  It  pleased  the  Carthaginians  that  Hanno  should  sail  beyond  the  Pillars  of  Hercules, 
and  should  found  cities  of  the  Liby-Phoenicians.  He  set  sail,  therefore,  with  a  fleet  of 
sixty  vessels,  each  of  which  was  impelled  by  fifly  oars.  They  carried  with  them  men  and 
women  to  the  number  of  thirty  thousand,  with  provisions  and  supplies  of  various  kinds. 
We  sailed  two  days  beyond  the  straits,  and  founded  a  city  overlooking  an  ample  plain,  and 
which  we  called  Thymiatcrium.  Thence  we  proceeded  westward  to  Soloe,  a  promontory 
of  Libya,  thickly  shaded  with  trees,  where  we  founded  a  temple  to  Neptune ;  then  turning 
tnstward  for  half  a  day's  sail,  we  came  into  a  lake  not  far  from  tfie  sea,  overgrown  with 


# 


HISTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Past  I. 

numoronii  and  high  recdii,  and  on  whooo  banks  olcphiiiitB  and  a  numticr  of  wild  aniinala 
were  feeding.  Having  nuiscd  this  lake  in  tiio  courtio  of  a  day'H  nail,  wo  founded  cities  on 
Uio  Bca  coast,  Coricuni-TeichoH,  Gytto,  Aero,  Moliwsa,  and  Arambys.  Tlion  settinj?  sail, 
wc  made  our  way  to  tlie  groat  river  IJxus,  which  flows  tVuni  Libya.  On  its  bunks  the 
Lixita-,  a  pastoral  race,  ted  tlioir  flocks ;  with  whom  wo  formed  tics  of  friendship,  and  spent 
a  short  interval.  The  country  abuvo  them  wm  inhabited  by  itdiotipitablo  Ethiopians,  tilled 
with  wild  beasts,  and  traversed  by  very  high  mountains,  whence  the  Lixus  is  said  to  descend ; 
and  it  was  added,  that  tlieso  mountains  wore  inliabitod  bv  men  dwcllinfi^  in  caves,  of  a 
strange  appearance,  who  outran  even  horses  in  the  chase.  Having  received  mterprcters  from 
the  Lixito!,  we  proceeded  along  a  desert  coast  till  the  middle  or  the  second  dav ;  when  we 
sailed  one  day  to  the  eastward^  and  in  tl>e  recess  of  a  littie  bay  found  a  small  island.  Are 
stadia  in  curcuit  We  leil  iidiabitants  there,  and  named  it  Ceme.  This  island,  on  taking  an 
account  of  our  course,  wo  conjectured  to  bo  opposite  to  Carthage ;  for  tlie  navigation  num 
Cartilage  to  the  Pillars,  and  from  the  Pillars  to  Ceme,  corresponded.  Then  we  came  to  a 
lake  through  which  flows  a  groat  river  called  Chrctos.  That  lake  contained  three  islands 
greater  tlian  Come ;  by  these,  in  tlie  course  of  a  day's  navigation,  wc  reached  tlio  interior 
shore  of  the  lake,  where  very  great  mountains  impended  over  it,  inhabited  by  a  rough  people 
dressed  in  skiu  of  wild  beasts,  who  by  tlirowing  stones  repelled  us,  and  prevented  us  iVom 
landing.  We  then  sailed  into  another  river,  largo  and  broad,  ilill  of  crocodiles  and  river 
horses.  We  then  returned  to  Ceme.  From  Ceme,  renewing  our  course  to  the  south,  we 
passed  for  twelve  days  along  a  shore,  the  whole  of  which  was  m  the  possession  of  the  Ethi- 
opians, who  showed  a  trembling  dread  of  our  aspect,  and  spoke  a  language  unknown  to  our 
Lixite  interpreters.  On  the  lost  day,  we  came  to  high  mountains  covered  with  trees,  the 
wood  of  which  was  odoriferous  and  variously  tinted.  Passing  round  these  mountains  by  a 
navigation  of  two  days,  we  came  to  an  immense  opening  of  the  sea,  bordered  by  plains  in 
which  we  saw  fires  of  different  magnitude  glittering  at  intervals  fVom  every  spot.  Having 
watered  there,  we  proceeded  five  days  along  tlie  snore,  till  wo  came  to  an  immense  bay, 
which  the  interpreters  called  the  Western  Horn.  In  it  was  a  large  island,  and  m  that  island 
a  nit  water  lake,  in  which  again  there  was  another  island.  Entering  this  lake,  wc  saw  in 
the  day  nothing  but  forest ;  but  m  tlio  night  there  were  many  fires  burning ;  and  we  heard 
various  sounds  of  musical  instmmcnts,  and  the  cries  of  numberless  human  beings.  Being 
terrified  by  these  objects,  and  the  prophets  altiu  exhorting  us  to  quit  the  island,  we  made  otf, 
and  reached  next  the  fiery  region  of^Thymiamata,  whence  torrents  of  flame  poured  down 
into  the  sea.  Here  the  heat  of  the  earth  was  such,  that  the  foot  could  not  tread  upon  it. 
We  therefore  took  our  speedy  deporturo  from  this  place,  and  after  four  days'  fiirtlier  sail,  saw 
the  earth  in  the  night  fiill  of  flames.  There  appeared  also  in  the  midst  of  them  one  lofty 
fire  greater  than  the  rest,  which  seemed  to  much  to  the  very  stars ;  this,  when  seen  by  day- 
light, proved  to  be  a  very  lofty  mountain,  called  tlie  chariot  of  tho  gods.  Thence  by  a  navi- 
gation of  three  days,  having  passed  these  fiery  torrents,  we  came  u|xin  another  bay,  called 
tiie  Southern  Horn.  In  its  inmost  recess  was  an  island  similar  to  that  formerly  described, 
which  contained  in  like  manner  a  lake  with  another  island,  inhabited  by  a  rude  description 
of  people.  The  females  were  much  more  numerous  than  the  males,  and  hod  rough  skins : 
our  interpreters  called  them  Oorilla,  Wo  pursued  but  could  take  none  of  tho  males ;  tliey 
all  escaped  to  tlio  tfip  of  precipices,  which  they  mounted  with  cufc,  and  threw  down  stones; 
wc  took  three  of  tho  females,  but  they  made  such  violent  strufrfjles,  biting  and  tearing  their 
captors,  that  we  killed  them,  and  stripped  oflTthc  skins,  which  we  carried  to  Carthago :  being 
out  of  provisions,  we  could  g6  no  flirther." 

Such  is  tlie  entire  narrative  of  this  most  celebrated  of  the  ancient  voyages;  but  it  would 
be  impoi-sible  to  compris>>  \^  ithin  the  same  limits  even  a  sketch  of  the  commentaries  to  which 
it  has  given  rise  among  tlio  learned. 

Three  leading  hypotheses  have  been  formed ;  one,  that  of  Hougainville,  who  conceives 
Hanno  to  have  reached  the  Gulf  of  Benin ;  another,  of  Major  RennoU,  who  carries  his 
course  only  to  Sherbro  Soimd,  a  little  beyond  Sierra  liCone ;  while  M.  GoEselin  insists 
upon  termmating  it  about  tlie  river  of  Nun.  (^Fif^.  2.)  When  wc  reflect  that  tiic  first 
or  these  courses  is  upwards  of  three  thousand  miles,  and  the  last  under  seven  hundred,  an 
idea  may  be  fomicd  of  the  extremely  vague  nature  of  these  data,  where  all  tho  names  arc 
changed,  and  no  one  point  fixed  with  such  certainty  that  tho  othrrs  can  rest  upon  it. 

Bougainville  contends  that  his  assigned  limits  do  not  exceed  what  may  reasonably  be 
supposed  to  have  been  passed  over  by  the  most  (^kilful  nnvijrator  of  antiquity;  in  fact, 
the  period  of  thirty-eight  days  is  precisely  tho  time  employed  by  tho  squadron  sent  in 
1641  to  found  the  Portuguese  fort  of  Elmina.  All  tho  grand  features  of  man  and  nature 
described  by  Ilanno  are  to  be  found  in  tropical  Africa  only;  Ethiopians  or  Negroes; 
Gorilla;,  who  are  evidently  apes  or  orang-outangs ;  rivers  so  large  as  to  contain  croco- 
diles and  hippopotami.  The  great  conflagrations  of  the  gniss,  and  the  music  and  dancing 
prolonged  through  the  night,  are  phenomena  which  have  been  observed  only  in  the 
negro  territories. 

Major  Rennoir.-j  system  retains  all  the  arguments  by  which  that  of  Bougainville  is  sup 


f 


Book  1.  VOYAGE  OF  HANNO. 

Fif!.z-M\v  ii,i,iysTiivn\(i  thi;  voyage  of  lUNNa 

II  ID  0  10 


21 


Kniliiit 


ava« 


r. 


SitmUo"" 


f,.»^ 


c.^ 


ported,  at  the  same  time  tliut  it  avoiils  the  extravagant  supposition  of  ancient  vessels  hav- 
ing made  a  course  of  seventy  gcoprriiphical  miles  in  the  day.  The  Gulfs  of  Bissago  and 
Sherbro  present  tliose  numerous  islands  described  by  Hanno,  and  not  found  on  any  other 
part  of  the  coast ;  and  even  their  form  seems  to  correspond  to  the  appellation  of  Horn, 
applied  by  him  to  these  great  gulfs.  If,  "tlien,  Hanno's  career  reached  central  Africa,  there 
can  be  little  doubt  that  Major  Rcnnell's  hypothesis,  or  something  near  it,  exliibits  his  real 
progress. 

M.  Gosselin  restricts  the  voyage  within  much  narrower  limits.  It  was  impossible,  he 
urges,  that  the  course  could  be  otherwise  than  slow  in  a  voyage  of  discovery  upon  on  un- 
known sea,  where  the  mariner  could  sail  only  by  daylight,  with  constant  precautions,  and 
minutely  examining  every  part  of  the  coast.  The  motions  of  Hanno  were  clogged  also  by 
the  large  and  incumbered  fleet  of  which  he  was  the  escort.  Destitute  of  the  compass,  and 
without  the  power  of  standing  out  to  sea,  he  could  never,  it  is  alleged,  have  doubled  Cape 
Bojador,  which  so  long  baffled  the  eftbrts  of  the  Portuguese.  With  regard  to  the  features 
supposed  to  be  exclusively  characteristic  of  tropical  Africa,  M.  Gosselin  conceives  that 
Morocco,  yet  in  no  degree  civilized  or  subdued,  but  in  the  full  possession  of  rude  native 
tribes,  would  bear  a  much  more  similar  aspect  than  now  to  the  interior  portions  of  the  con- 
tinent. The  ape  tribe  and  the  wild  river  amphibia  might  probably  fill  a  region  unoccupied 
by  man,  though  now,  it  is  supposed,  expelled  by  culture  and  a  more  crowded  population. 
The  term  Ethiopians  hns  been  applied,  not  to  negroes  only,  but  to  all  nations  of  a  dark 
colour.  He  conceives,  therefore,  that  Hanno's  course  could  never  pass  much  beyond  the 
frontier  of  Morocco,  and  could  liavo  reached  only  a  very  little  further  than  the  estuary  of 
tlie  river  of  Nun. 

To  (locide  a  fniint  on  which  such  lonrnod  mon  so  widely  disagree,  is  what  we  do  not 
Ibcl  vf>ry  tbrwiinl  to  undortiilio ;  and  really  the  difficultios  appear  very  great  in  any  view  of 
llie  siilij(!ct.     Tlio  detail  of  tlio  ixitiitioiia  would,  on  tlic  whole,  lead  us  to  prefer  the  most 


'     nn" 


a 


HISTORY  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pait  I. 


limited  uporo.  Of  thoKe  (xmitioiM  tlio  iHlanil  of  Orno  fonn*  tlio  kry  ;  and  Iho  iilontifying  of 
it  with  Arifuin  i«  (<iMM<iiti«l  to  tli<>  Miipiwrt  of  thn  two  rciiHitu  liyputlu>M'«.  Hut  IhouKh  it  i* 
evident  tluit  the  whole  of  Ihu  iMxhug  uerioil  U»  Ccmc  ia  not  given,  tlie  time  beinjf  oniilt«Mi 
during  which  the  Hvo  citinii  were  tiiunilud,  yet  tlin  general  tenuur  MieaiH  hurdlv  coniiiiitent 
with  M>  great  a  way  being  made  along  luch  u  ilittlcult  and  unknown  uliore.  1  he  defect  w 
in  lonie  degree  supplied  by  an  ancient  nautical  guide  of  loinn  authority,  called  the  Peri- 
plMK  of  Hcylax,  in  wnieh  the  wiil  from  the  «lniit!t  U)  Cerno  if  given  at  twelve  daya,  o  period 
which  Major  Kennell  adinita  to  bo  wholly  inMuttlcient  for  reat-hmg  Argiiin.  Ptolemy,  indeed, 
carries  Cerne  to  almoat  a  tropical  latitude ;  but  as  he  kcepa  it  still  north  of  the  Canaries,  his 
graduation  hero  is  manifestly  erroneous,  and  his  authority,  on  the  whole,  is  in  iiivour  of  n- 
taining  Cerne  witliin  tlie  hniits  of  Morocco.  The  details  of  Haimo  do  not  appear  to  be 
always  very  satisikctory ;  but  porhapa  thov  might  prove  more  so,  did  wo  possess  a  more 
accurate  survey  of  this  coast  than  has  yet  been  taken.  On  the  whole,  then,  the  great  quea- 
tion  is,  whether  M.  GosMlin's  solutions  can  account  for  tlio  aspect  of  nature  and  life  being 
so  dilibront  from  that  of  Morocco,  and  so  like  that  of  a  negro  coaat :  perham  here,  too,  some 
light  might  be  obtained  fixxn  a  rarefiil  observation  of  the  ruder  borders  of  the  former  empire. 

Skct.  IV. —  Voyagri  nf  Eudoxvi, 

The  ambition  of  noriunning  the  circuit  of  Africa,  the  grand  maritime  problem  of  an- 
tiquity, was  not  solely  conflnni  to  princes  and  states.  Even  private  adventurem,  animated 
by  the  ambition  of  achieving  so  great  an  enterprise,  and  hoping,  perhaps,  to  combinu  with 
it  opportunities  of  lucrative  commerce,  are  found  in  the  list  of  tlio  explorers  of  Africa. 
KuduxiiM  was  tlio  most  memorable  of  these  adventurers,  whoso  story,  however,  lias  come 
down  to  us  through  a  very  clouded  medium.  In  ancient,  still  more  than  in  modem  times, 
there  existed  men  whose  habit  it  was  to  treat  with  doubt  and  derision  all  narratives  of  dis- 
covery that  extended  beyond  the  ordinary  limits.  At  the  head  of  this  sceptical  band  stands 
Htrabo,  one  of  the  greatest  f^eogiaphers  whose  works  survive,  and  who  fonns  the  chief 
medium  by  which  these  narratives  have  rea(;hod  our  time ;  a  moot  unfortunate  circumstance 
to  the  fkme  of  tlieso  early  discovcren.  However,  in  many  instances,  nature  herself  has 
stood  forth  as  their  vindicator ;  and  our  moro  cxtenchid  knowledge  has  enabled  us  to  detect 
the  fallacy  of  the  arguments  by  which  SStnibo  hus  endeavoured  to  refute  them.  This  is  not 
jxirticularly  tlin  case  with  regard  to  Eudoxus;  but  really,  in  Strabo's  notices  respecting  the 
adventurous  lite  of  the  bold  navigator,  wo  cannot  see  any  thing  which  tends  to  controvert 
tlio  general  btjiief  of  antiquity,  that  he  had  inado  repeated  and  spirited  attempts  to  explore 
the  unknown  coasts  of  the  African  continent. 

According  to  the  narratives  of  Htrabo,  Eudoxus  was  a  native  of  Cyzicus,  sent  on  a  miaaion 
to  Alexandria,  then  the  great  scat  of  maritime  enterprise  and  geographical  knowledge. 
His  ardent  mind  was  strongly  imbued  with  the  spirit  which  reigned  there;  and  he  oflered 
himself  to  Ptolemy  Evergctes,  t'><(i  rsiiiniing  king,  as  a  zealous  instrument  to  be  employed  in 
any  expedition  having  these  objects  in  view.  There  was,  at  first,  some  talk  of  ascending 
the  Nile,  and  endeavouring  to  reach  its  unknown  sources ;  but  their  views  received  a  new 
direction  from  the  arrival  of  a  person  who  was,  or  professed  to  be,  a  native  of  India, 
escaped  alone  from  tlie  wreck  of  his  vessel  near  the  foot  of  the  Arabian  Gulf.  Ptolemy  im- 
mediately fitted  out  a  naval  armament,  witli  which  Eudoxus  proceeded  on  this  destination. 
He  appears  to  have  made  a  proHperous  voyage,  and  to  have  returned  with  a  cargo  of  aroma- 
tics  and  precious  stones,  which  last  hod  eitlicr  been  washed  down  by  tlie  rivers,  or  dug  out  in 
a  concrete  state.  It  is  scarcely  probable,  however,  that  Eudoxus  ever  reached  tlie  real  shores 
of  India,  or  went  beyond  the  southeni  shore  of  Arabia,  and,  at  fiirthest,  the  Persian  Gulf. 
Of  this  wealth,  Evcrgetes  appears  to  have  plundered  him ;  which  Strobo  insinuates  was  in 
resentment  of  ijoine  dishonest  conduct  on  his  own  |>art.  We  cannot,  in  these  days,  attempt 
to  judge  between  the  two  parties.  However,  Evergetes  dying,  his  widow  Cleopatra  took 
Eudoxus  a^ain  into  favour,  and  sent  him  on  a  fresh  voyage.  He  was  now  driven  by  unfii- 
vourable  winds  to  the  coaat  of  Ethiopia,  where  he  was  wefl  received  by  the  inhabitants,  and 
:;arried  on  some  advantageous  trade.  His  return  to  Alexandria  was  again  unfortunate. 
Cleopatra  was  dead ;  and  her  son,  who  succeeded,  treated  him  as  ill  as  Evcrgetes  hod  done. 
Eudoxus  brought  with  him,  however,  one  trophy  from  the  extremity  of  his  voyage — tho 
prow  of  a  vessel,  said  to  have  come  frvm  the  westward  as  a  portion  of  a  wreck,  and  on 
which  was  sculptured  the  figure  of  a  horse.  This  prow  being  exhibited  by  Eudoxus  on  the 
harbour,  some  mariners  frtim  Cadiz  declared  it  to  be  the  very  tbnn  peculiar  to  a  species  of 
Inrjre  vessel  which  went  from  that  port  for  purposes  partly  of  trade,  and  partly  of  fishing, 
to  the  ctrnst  of  Mauritania,  Eudoxus  listened  with  enthusiastic  credulity,  and  detcniiin^ 
now  to  reiioiinco  tlie  deceitfiil  patronage  of  coiirta,  and  to  fit  out  a  new  expedition  from  the 
commerciul  city  of  Ciuliz.  He  proceeded  thither  by  way  of  Mansilia  anil  other  maritime 
stations,  whore  he  loudly  proclaimed  his  hopes,  and  invited  all  who  were  nnimatcd  with  any 
jipirit  of  piiterpriso  to  accompany  liini.  He  accordinifly  succeeded  in  ecjuipping  an  expedition 
on  a  considerable,  and  even  magnificent  sca'.i'.  Ho  had  one  ship  and  two  large  boats,  on 
board  of  whirl,  he  curried,  not  only  goods  and  provisions,  but  artisans,  medical  men,  and  even 


0 


BUUK   I. 


VOYAOK  OF  PYTIIEAS. 


pUyrm  on  iniiiiral  iiiHtruniontii.  A  irKW  ^o  ^v,  and  IUIlhI,  prubtbly,  with  oxtrava^tnt  hopm, 
woru  ill  tlttod  to  oiu'iiiiiitcr  tlm  ImnlMiiiM  of  .\  'Vicaii  diiicovury.  Thny  touk  fright  at  the 
iwr>ll  ut'  thu  opim  NKa,  tliMiiKh  winch  KuiI(/xih  wub  iiixiuun  to  conduct  thorn,  ami  iiwintofl, 
acconlinif  to  thn  uaiml  timid  Hyittttiii,  on  biniig  brougiu  iWM  to  th)'  Hhore.  Thii  l»d  tu  thu 
(liMuitur  wliicli  KiiduxuN  had  t'orim><>ii:  tlw  ithi|M  w»re  straiuli  ^  bikI  tho  carffu  with  difficulty 
Mvod.  Thu  iiMMit  valunlilo  articlnit  wiirv  ilioii  p«it  on  boiml  ooe  tcgKit-'l  of  alightrr  coiwtruc- 
tion,  and  ho  pruMvcuttHl  tho  voyngu  till  '  "  camo  to  a  ritop  nf  people  wh<y  aiipearntl  tu  him  t4> 
iipoak  the  wiiiie  lanffungo  with  thumi  whom  '  had  met  on  '\i>^  opposite  siioro  ot'  tho  coiiti* 
neiit.  Conceiving  niiiiwdf  to  huvo  tliiw  ami  iin«^l  tho  objfct  <if  \m  voyage,  ho  returned, 
and  endeavoured  to  procure  tho  Iwrbaric  aid  of  Borrhiit<,  king  of  Mauribdiin  ;  but,  Nuapocting 
that  monarch  of  a  treochoroua  duiiign  ugainat  him,  he.  a^^'lm  lN>took  himatdf  to  Hpdji).  Hero 
he  Nuccoodod  in  equipping  a  fVoah  expedition,  conNistiiig  of  one  largo  voMel  fitted  |i>f  tho 
open  Boa,  and  another  oi  iiiiallcr  diiiiuiirtioiia  for  exploring  t'lo  t'oant.  Here,  unfortunately, 
the  narrative  brcaka  off)  referring  tu  thu  Hpuniarda  and  Uaditonianit,  an  likely  to  know  more ; 
but  a«  nothing  more  ia  atated  on  any  authority,  wo  four  tliat  thia  loat  cxp^lition  mvat  have 
had  an  untbrtiinato  iwue.  Huch  ia  thu  narrative  given  by  Htrabo,  upon  infbrnia(j(<  i  which 
acema  to  have  been  orii^itially  obtained  flrom  Eudoxua  himaelf ;  and  wo  aeo  nothing  in  it  un< 
worthy  of  belief,  or  which  might  not  very  well  be  accompliahcd  bv  a  man  of  bold  and  cnthu> 
aioatic  character,  poaaeiwod  of  ticienco  and  talent,  and  devotod  with  Much  anient  zeal  to  tho 
cauae  of  diacovery.  Eudoxua  cunnot  bo  mode  reaponsiblo  for  tho  fnblca  which  antimiitv  haa 
put  into  Ilia  mouth.  Ho  ia  roprefluntod  by  some  aa  having  actually  made  tho  circuit  or  Airica ; 
by  othora  aa  having  come  to  onu  niition  tlint  waa  dumb,  and  another  whoao  mouth  waa  entirely 
closed,  and  which  received  food  through  nn  orifice  in  the  noHC.  But  nono  of  thcae  fiibloa 
aro  found  in  the  report  of  Eudoxua  himsolf,  aa  coming  through  tho  medium  of  Btrebo  hia 
enemy. 

Sbctt.  V. —  Voyage  of  Pylheai. 

The  voyage  of  Pythcaa,  tho  Maaailian  navigator,  is  of  peculiar  interoat,  oa  it  ia  tho  only 
one  descriDod  in  any  detail,  having  Europe,  and  uiirticularly  tho  Britiah  lalea,  for  ita  object. 
It  comea  to  ua,  however,  atill  moru  deeply  tinged  by  tho  Hainc  dim  and  diacolourod  medium 
through  which  that  of  Eiiduxua  Iiom  puHsod.  It  is  known  almoMt  Hololy  by  the  hoatilo  quo- 
tationa  of  tho  aceptical  Strabo,  adduced  tor  tho  purpose  of  proving  I'ythcaa  to  bo  "a  liar 
of  the  first  magnitude."  Yet,  tho  naturo  of  tho  grounda  on  which  thia  concluaion  ia  modo 
to  reat,  ia  auch  aa  to  place  in  the  clc!iroHt  light  Strobo'a  own  ignorance,  and  tho  superior 
information  of  Pytheoti.  This  last  will  lieconie  more  conspicuous,  if  wo  aiippoec,  as  seems 
probable,  that  tho  errors  of  tho  geographer  wero  transmitted  to  him  from  Massilia  itself;  in 
which  cose,  Pytheas  being  found  posscHKcd  of  knowlc<igo  of  which  his  countrymen  were 
destitute,  thero  appears  no  mode  in  which  he  could  have  obtained  it,  except  the  actual  per- 
formance of  tho  voyages. 

Tho  following  are  statements  on  which  Strabo  rests  his  refutation  of  Pytheas.  That  navi- 
gator stated,  that  the  dalbiurn  Promonlorium,  tho  extremity  of  Brctagno,  pointed  to  tlie 
west,  while  Strabo  affirms  it  to  be  perfectly  notorious  that  its  direction  was  to  tho  north. 
This  lost  strange  idea  waa  connected  with  what  wo  shall  find  to  bo  the  general  error  of  this 
Kcliool,  which  allowed  to  Franco  a  southern  coast  only,  and  not  a  western  one.  Again, 
Pytheas  represented  Britain  as  having  one  of  its  sides  much  longer  than  five  hundred  miles, 
wlinreas,  his  adversary  maintains  this  to  bo  tho  dimensions  of  its  longest  side,  which,  accord- 
ing to  him,  is  that  opposite  to  and  seen  from  the  shores  of  Gaul.  Finally,  Pytheas  asserts 
that  hia  Ultima  Thule  was  farther  north  than  Ireland ;  whereas,  all  wcll-infbrmcd  persons, 
knowing  Ireland  to  bo  tour  hundred  miles  north  f^om  Britain,  and  scarcely  habitable  on  ac- 
count of  tho  cold,  considered  it  as  forming  on  that  side  the  extreme  boundary  of  the  in- 
habited earth.  Thus  far  it  is  necessary  only  to  nuinc  the  charges  against  Pytheas,  to  make 
him  shine  conspicuous  above  his  enemies. 

There  are  other  statements,  it  must  be  confessed,  which  appear  at  first  sight  a  little  start- 
ling. Pytheas  describes  tlio  longest  side  of  Britain  not  only  as  more  thon  five  hundred  miles 
in  length,  but  as  exceeding  two  thousand.  It  is  to  be  observed,  however,  that  while  Strabo 
described  Britain  as  a  triangle,  having  ita  longest  side  opposite  to  Gaul,  Pytheas  conceived 
it  to  have  only  two  sides',  one  of  which,  consequently,  rcnciwl  from  the  Liand's  End,  or  tho 
Lizard  Point,  to  tho  extremity  of  Scotland.  If  we  consider  this  vast  extent  of  coast,  with 
so  many  winding  shores  and  deep  bayw,  all  the  sinuosities  of  which  an  ancient  navigator  waa 
obliged  to  follow,  the  estimate  will  oppoar  not  very  extravagant.  Again  Pytheas  described 
the  coast  of  Kent  as  several  days'  sail  from  that  of  Gaul.  But  tho  term  by  which  Straixi 
designates  Gaul,  is  KBXrtxij  (Celtica);  and  it  appoiirs  fVom  Cajsar,  tliat  Ccltica  formed  only 
one  of  the  three  parts  into  which  Gaul  was  divided,  and  was  bounded  on  the  east  by  the 
Seine.  Pytheas  probably  used  the  tonn  in  tliis  restricted  and  more  proper  sense ;  when  tho 
distance  assigned  became  r<lrictly  rorrect.  Ho  moreover  described  tho  coast  of  Spain  as 
iiihiibited  by  Gallic  niitions;  it  would  even  soom.  timt  hn  considered  tiio  Calbiuin  Promon- 
torium  as  Spanish.     Here  he  was  clearly  in  the  wrong;  but  the  error  will  probably  bo 


24 


rnSTORY  OF  GEOGRAl'IIV. 


Part  I, 


'Sy 


found  to  Imve  rested  not  in  liis  obsorviitions  and  Hints,  but  in  mixiiiij  tlicni  with  an  errone- 
ous tlioory  prevalent  at  Massilia,  ncconlinfj  to  wliicii,  Fmnco  had  not  a  wcstcrii  coast,  nor 
one  facinij  the  Atlantic;  hucIi  a  const  belonn^i'il  to  Spain  only.  Under  thin  impression, 
Pythcas,  so  loiip  an  he  sailed  aionfr  tise  western  toist  of  Gaul,  and  till  he  came  to  that 
opposite  to  Britain,  would  naturally  imajfiiic  tiiat  he  was  sailiufr  nlonjf  the  coast  of  Spain. 

Stmbo  at  la.st  traces  Pytlieas  to  Tliule,  and  "iier  utmost  isles,"  when  he  does,  certainly, 
present  a  narrative  ussuininj;  somewhat  ot'  a  fabulous  aspect.  Tiie  most  daring'  na\  ijrator, 
as  he  approached  the  dreary  boundaries  of  cartii  and  ocean,  and  saw  only  the  liijrii  billows 
of  the  Nortii  Sea  doshinj,'  apiinst  a  rocky  and  misty  shore,  mi{fht  become  liable  to  .some 
sinister  impressions.  Pytlieas,  it  seems,  said,  t!mt  beyond  Thulo  there  commenced  what 
was  neither  earth,  sea,  nor  air,  but  a  confused  blending  of  all  the  three,  similar  to  the  sub- 
stance called  pulmo  mnrinus  (a  species  of  medusa  connnon  on  our  shores).  He  added,  that 
this  substance  was  the  basis  of  the  universe,  and  that  in  it,  air,  eartli,  and  sky  hinif;  as  it 
were  suspended.  If  we  place  ourselves  in  the  situation  of  Pytlieas,  seeinff  before  him  the 
northern  sea,  overhun|^  by  tliick  and  ploomy  mists,  shrouded  in  twilight,  and  darkened  by 
tempest,  we  may  sui>pose  liini  very  easily  persuaded,  that  what  he  beheld  was  a  confused 
blending  of  all  the  elements,  not  very  dissimilar  even  to  that  thick  viscid  anhnal  substance 
to  which  it  was  compared.  Nor  can  we  feel  much  wonder,  if,  after  this  long  and  difficult 
navigation  through  so  many  perils,  he  should  lend  somewhat  of  a  ready  ear  to  a  report 
which  represented  him  to  have  reached  that  farthest  boundary  of  nature,  beyond  which  it 
was  no  longer  possible  tor  mortal  sail  to  penetrate.  Another  report  of  Pytheas  was,  that 
at  Thule  the  phenomenon  took  place  which  belongs  only  to  tJie  polar  circle, — a  summer  of 
one  long  day,  and  a  winter  of  one  long  night.  Antiquity  is  somewhat  full  of  rumours  of 
this  phenomenon,  which  science  had  pointed  out  as  likely  "to  take  i)lace  at  a  certain  latitude ; 
and  there  was  a  general  disposition  in  those  who  had  made  any  progress  northwards  to  an- 
ticipate the  term.  Considering  the  loose  way  in  which  rumour  then  spread,  it  may  easily 
be  supposed,  that  the  partisans  of  this  idea  might  support  it  by  an  exaggerated  representa- 
tion of  the  real  statements  of  Pytheas.  One  of  these  (Geminius)  merely  reports  him  as 
saying  that  the  nights  appeared  to  him  to  last  only  for  two  or  three  hours,  a  statement 
which  at  midsummer  would  be  quite  correct.  Indeed,  we  have  been  assured  by  persons 
who  have  resided  in  the  Shetland  islands,  that  at  that  season  there  was  scarcely  any  sen- 
sible term  of  darkness.  A  foreigner,  then,  visiting  the  islands,  might  very  readily  imagine 
he  had  arrived  at  that  point  on  the  globe  where  the  summer  was  one  uninternipted  day. 

The  theories,  which  would  make  Thule  any  other  place  than  Shetland,  seem  not  to 
require  much  discussion,  though  there  are  not  wanting  learned  partisans  in  iiivour  of  each. 
Iceland  would  imply  too  great  an  extent  of  open  sea  tor  an  ancient  navigator ;  and  the 
period  of  five  days'  sail  from  the  continent  would  be  very  inadequate.  Some  Scandinavian 
writers  have  claimed  Thule  as  belonging  to  their  own  region ;  Rudbeck  for  Sweden ;  Saxo 
Grammaticus,  and  SchaMining  for  the  Norwegian  Tellemach ;  Malte  Brun  for  Jutland. 
These  theories  seem  sufficiently  refuted  by  the  single  consideration,  that  Pytheas  invariably 
considered  Thule  as  British,  and  expressly  calls  it  the  "  farthest  of  the  Britains."  But 
Jutland  or  tiie  Baltic  he  could  iiave  only  reached  by  a  long  navigation  along  the  coasts  of 
Germany,  which  could  never  have  been  performnd  without  the  clear  perception  of  having 
left  far  behind  him  every  thing  belonging  to  Britain. 

Sect.  VI. — The  Voijage  of  yetrrchus. 

Alexander  the  Great  was  animated  beyond,  jjorhaps,  any  other  ancient  monarch  or  sage, 
with  an  ardent  noal  for  discovery  His  expedition  became  almost  as  much  one  of  explora- 
tion as  of  conquest.  Its  course  was  in  general  hy  land,  and  through  the  interior  of  the 
continent ;  but  his  mind  was  not  less  deeply  fixed  uixin  commerce  and  maritime  discovery. 
On  reaching,  therefore,  the  kinks  of  the  Indus,  and  being  obliged  by  the  mutiny  of  his 
troops  to  fix  there  the  teniiiuation  of  his  career,  ho  was  seized  with  a  desire  to  explore  the 
lower  course  of  that  river,  and  allerwiirds  the  southern  coasts  of  Asia;  a  long  range  com- 
pletely unknown  to  the  Greeks.  The  prospects  of  this  voyage,  however,  were  such  as  to 
apjKil  the  most  enterprising  of  his  naval  officers.  The  perils  of  tempest  and  slii|)wrock  on 
this  wide  and  unknown  ocean,  with  tiiase  of  being  driven  uiwn  a  barbarous  and  d'\sert 
coast,  appenred  almost  to  i)riTlud(!  the  hope  of  reaching  by  this  long  circuit  tlw^  destined 
station  of  the  army  on  the  bunks  of  the  Euphrates.  The  inferior  officers  variously  excused 
themselves  from  so  heavy  a  task ;  and  the  onteriiriso  appeared  ready  to  fail  f!ir  lack  of  instru- 
ments, when  Nearchus,  the  admiral  of  the  fleet,  came  forward  and  proffered  liis  own  ser- 
vices. Alexander  iinwilliiiirly  committed  this  task  to  an  officer  so  high  in  rank,  and  his 
intimate  friend ;  but  the  eurni-stness  of  Nearchus,  and  the  backwardness  of  all  tiie  others, 
left  him  at  leiiglii  no  alternative. 

The  vov.igo  down  the  Imlns  v.ns  brilliant.  Alexumler  conveyed  his  army  in  a  crowded 
fleet  of  two  tiiousHU'l  vessels.  Tiie  sound  of  tlie  luiiiiherless  ours,  echoed  by  the  .■  urround- 
intr  W(X)ds,  iw  t'l 'v  tloati'J  down  this  iiiijestic  stre:iui,  excited  the  admiring  g;izi' of  the 
natives.     Ale.v'.ai.r  even  accompanied  U'n  adminil  down  the  U'jlta  of  the  Iiidu-,  and  took 


^■ 


^ 


3 


W^ 


■^? 


! 


T 


Book  I. 


VOYAGE  OP  OTARCIIUS. 


a  view  of  the  ocean,  after  which  lie  returned,  to  lead  liis  army  by  a  moat  perilous  and  diffi- 
cult route  through  Gedrosia  and  Karamania  to  Babylon. 
Nearchus  now  began  his  arduous  naval  route  {Fig.  3.),after  the  usual  antique  preparation 

Fig.  3.— MAP  OF  THE  VOYAGE  OF  NEARCHUS. 

50  56  eo  69 

I  III  '  ' 


-SO 


of  sacrifices  and  games.  At  the  mouth  of  the  river  appeared  a  most  formidable  obstacle ,  a 
rock  barring  the  passage,  and  against  which  the  waves  broke  with  fiiry.  This  was  sur- 
mounted by  cutting  a  canal  across  tiio  softest  port  of  the  rock,  through  which  the  vessels 
were  able  to  piiss  at  fall  tide.  He  then  passed  the  sandy  island  of  Krokali  (Corachie,) 
and  Mount  Eirus  (Cape  Monze,)  when,  being  now  in  tlie  open  ocean,  a  series  of  gales 
began,  so  heavy  and  continued,  as  obliged  hun  to  seek  the  shelter  of  an  excellent  harbour 
formed  by  an  island  called  Bibacta.  The  crews  here  landed,  threw  up  an  entrenchment 
to  defend  themselves  against  the  natives,  and  remained  for  twenty-three  days,  subsisting 
chiefly  on  shell-fish.  The  wind  having  abated,  they  set  sail,  and  came  to  a  coast  where 
water,  of  which  they  appear  to  have  needed  almost  daily  supplies,  was  only  to  be  got  by 
going  several  miles  up  into  the  country.  They  then  passed  between  a  range  of  rocks,  so 
close  to  each  other,  that  the  oars  struck  against  them  on  each  side.  After  sailing  a  con- 
siderable space,  partly  in  a  narrow  channel  between  a  wooded  island  and  the  shore,  they 
came  to  the  river  Arabius  (the  modem  Pooralee).  It  gave  name  to  a  numerous  people, 
inhabiting  all  the  territory  between  this  river  and  the  Indus.  On  the  other  side  was  the 
coast  of  the  Orita;.  In  proceeding,  however,  Nearchus  met  with  a  dreadful  tempest,  in 
which  three  of  his  vessels  perished,  though  the  crews  were  saved  by  swimming,  and  he 
with  difficulty  brought  his  shattered  vessels  to  the  coast.  Here  he  found  Leonntus,  whom 
Alexander  had  detached  to  open  a  communication  with  him,  which  he  obtained  only  by 
very  hard  fighting.  Nearclius  here  spent  some  time  in  refitting  his  shattered  vessels,  and 
exchanged  those  of  his  crew  who  had  proved  themselves  less  efficient,  for  fresh  men  out 
of  the  Greek  army.  Having  laid  in  com  for  ten  days,  they  sailed  with  a  prosperous  wind, 
and  reached  the  rapid  stream  of  Tomcrus  (the  modern  Wudd).  Here  tlic  natives,  six 
hundred  strong,  were  drawn  up  to  oppose  tlieir  landing;  a  barbarous  race,  armed  with 
lances  six  cubits  long,  pointed  not  witli  iron,  but  with  wood  hardened  in  tlie  fire.  Near- 
chus caused  a  band  of  his  light  troops  to  swim  on  shore,  and  to  make  no  movement  till 
they  wore  drawn  up  in  a  triple  line,  then  suddenly  to  raise  a  general  shout,  and  pour  in 
clouds  of  darts  and  missiles.  This  sudden  attack,  tlieir  shouts,  and  the  glitter  of  their 
armour,  produced  instant  and  total  rout  on  tlie  part  of  the  natives.  They  are  described  as 
presenting  an  aspect  almost  incredibly  savage,  being  covered  in  a  great  measure  with  hair, 
and  having  long  nails  like  the  claws  of  wild  beasts.  Their  dress  consisted  in  the  skins  of 
animals  and  of  large  fishes. 

The  expedition  now  steering  out  to  sea,  and  takuig  a  southerly  course,  observed  pheno- 
mena belonging  to  the  midsummer  of  the  tropic,  tlic  novelty  of  which  struck  them  with 
surprise.  When  the  sun  was  in  tlic  meridian  no  shadow  was  projected,  and  when  there 
came  to  be  a  little  sliadow,  it  declined  to  the  southward.  Stars,  which  were  wont  to  be  seen 
liigh  in  the  hoavcn-!,  were  now  little  above  the  horizon.  At  Bagaziri  (Capo  Arnibiih)  they 
left  the  rciast  of  tiic  Orita^  and  entered  that  of  tiio  Iclitliyopliagi,  or  fisli-eaters,  a  food  which 
is  said  to  ha\'o  so  remarkably  abounded,  that  even  the  flesh  of  the  cattle  savoured  of  fish, 
from  their  making  it,  like  sea-birds,  their  daily  food.  The  people  were  hospitable,  but  could 
give  only  lislips  ;ni(l  iroats.  It  was  not  till  the  Greeks  had  sailed  a  considerable  distance  that 
ut  Ikniii  thm-  iimnil  stiino  palms,  giirdcns,  and  verdure,     .\fter  passing  Cophantn-  (Guadel,) 

Vol.  1.       ■  a  1) 


20 


fflSTORY  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Past  I 


where  they  obtained  a  supply  of  fine  water,  and  Cyzia  (Gwutter)  on  a  desert  and  rocky 
shore,  they  came  to  a  small  town  on  a  hill  a  little  inland  (probably  Churbar,)  where  it 
appeared  probable  that  a  supply  of  grain  might  be  obtained.  To  possess  himself  of  this, 
Nearchus  had  recourse  to  measures  tliat  harmonized  much  more  with  the  character  of  a  buc- 
caneering freebooter,  than  with  that  of  an  officer  of  the  first  prince  in  the  world.  The 
people  met  him  in  the  most  kindly  manner,  and  presented  to  him  roasted  fish  and  other  vic- 
tuals. Meeting  their  friendly  advances,  he  expressed  a  wish  to  visit  their  city,  and  being 
cordially  admitted,  his  first  step  was  to  take  military  occupation  of  it,  and  command  the 
natives  to  lay  open  to  him  all  their  stores  of  grain.  The  poor  citizens  at  first  flew  to  arms, 
but  having  no  means  of  effectual  resistance,  were  obliged  to  yield.  It  proved,  however, 
that  they  had  little  except  dried  fish  reduced  to  powder,  and  Nearchus  could  get  only  a  very 
small  stock  of  grain.  In  sailing  now  along  an  almost  desert  coast,  the  stock  of  provisions 
became  excessively  scanty;  and  they  obtained  only  a  poor  supply  by  landing  and  cutting  off* 
the  leaves  of  wild  palm-trees.  The  pressure  became  so  extreme,  and  was  so  impatiently 
borne  by  the  crews,  that  Nearchus  did  not  think  it  safe  to  land  at  night,  lest  they  should  all 
take  ffight  into  tJie  interior.  In  one  place  he  found  a  paltry  village,  all  the  inhabitants  of 
which  fled ;  but  the  Greeks  found  seven  camels,  which  they  killed  and  eagerly  devoured. 
The  same  distress  continued  to  press  upon  them  so  long  as  they  sailed  along  the  coast  of  the 
"  fish-eaters."  Notwithstanding  this  name,  few  of  them  were  fishers,  or  had  even  boats. 
They  procured  this  food  by  immense  nets,  sometimes  a  quarter  of  a  mile  long,  formed  out 
of  the  fibrous  bark  of  the  pilm  tree.  These  they  placed  at  high  tide  across  the  mouth  of 
little  bays,  so  that  when  the  waters  receded,  the  nets  retained  all  the  fish  which  had  been 
carried  up  with  the  tide.  The  houses  of  the  rich  were  built  with  the  bones  of  whales  cast 
ashore,  those  of  the  poor  with  the  back-bones  of  smaller  fishes.  Nearchus  descried  a  number 
of  whales,  whose  presence  was  at  first  made  sensible  only  by  tlie  quantity  of  water  thrown 
up  into  the  air,  and  tossed  as  in  a  whirlpool,  a  spectacle  which  struck  the  sailors  with  terror, 
and  made  the  oars  drop  ffvm  their  hands.  The  commander,  however,  on  being  informed  of 
the  cause,  made  his  crews  raise  the  loudest  possible  sound  by  shouts,  trumpets,  and  dashing 
of  oars,  which  at  once  kept  up  their  own  spirits,  and  was  supposed  to  induce  these  monsters 
of  the  deep  to  replunge  into  their  abysses. 

The  coak  of  Caramania  was  next  reached  by  Nearchus,  afler  passing  the  fabulous  abode 
of  a  Persian  Circe,  who,  according  to  report,  was  accustomed  to  seduce  the  navigator  by 
voluptuous  pleasures,  and  then  convert  him  into  a  fish.  Nearchus  now  found  his  distresses 
nearly  at  an  end,  as  tlie  soil  was  tolerably  productive  in  grain  and  fruits,  and  there  was  plenty 
of  good  water.  After  passing  Capes  Jask  and  Bombareek,  they  came  in  view  of  a  huge  pro- 
montory, stretching  far  into  the  sea,  called  Cape  Maceta  (Mussendoon),  and  forming  the 
entrance  of  the  Persian  Gulf.  The  great  body  of  the  sailors,  and  even  Onesicrotus,  an  officer 
high  in  command,  weary  of  tliis  long  navigation,  earnestly  proposed  to  land,  and  march  on  foot 
to  Babylon.  Nearchus  justly  and  strongly  insisted  that  this  was  in  no  degree  to  fiilfil  the 
intention  of  Alexander,  whose  injunction  it  was,  to  survey  every  coast,  every  harbour,  and 
every  bay,  between  India  and  the  Euphrates ;  and  that  besides  they  incurred  great  hazard  of 
being  involved  in  those  arid  and  bummg  deserts,  ot  which  Arabia  in  a  great  lueasure  con- 
sists. This  wise  opinion  prevailed,  and  in  ascending  the  Persian  Gulf  they  found,  for  tlie 
most  part,  a  fertile  and  beautiful  coast.  In  the  delightful  country  at  the  mouth  of  the  river 
Anamis  (the  modem  Minab)  they  landed,  and  began  to  refresh  themselves  after  so  many 
hardships.  Nay,  a  party  having  proceeded  to  some  distance  into  the  interior,  met,  with  tears 
of  surprise  and  joy,  a  man  in  a  Greek  dress,  and  speaking  the  Greek  language.  This  proved 
to  be  a  soldier  who  had  straggled  from  the  army  of  Alexander,  which  he  reported  to  be  at  a 
distance  of  only  five  days'  journey.  On  receiving  this  intelligence,  Nearchus  caused  the 
ships  to  be  drawn  on  shore,  a  rampart  to  be  formed  round  them,  and  the  crews  to  take  rest 
and  refreshment,  while  he  and  Archias  set  out  alone  for  the  camp.  On  their  arrival  they 
presented  an  aspect  so  haggard,  pale,  and  squalid,  that  the  pertins  they  met  did  not  know 
them,  but  on  being  told  their  name,  hastened  to  carry  the  first  tidings  to  Alexander.  They 
added  (a  hasty  conclusion  formed  fVom  appearances,)  that  the  fleet  and  the  army  had  per- 
ished. Alexander  received  Nearchus  with  a  kindness  mingled  with  sorrow,  and  after  the 
first  salutations,  began  to  ask  particulars  of  the  catastrophe  of  his  favourite  armament ;  but 
when  Nearchus  replied,  "O  king!  thy  ships  and  men  ore  safe,"  the  conqnoror  burst  into  a 
flood  of  tears,  and  swore  by  Jupiter  Ammon,  that  he  derived  more  pleasure  from  this  event 
than  from  the  entire  conquest  of  Asia. 

The  rest  of  the  navigation  of  Nearchus,  when  he  had  with  some  difficulty  regained  the  fleet, 
was  easy,  care  being  taken  that  he  should  find  on  the  coast  every  kind  of  supply.  They 
passed  the  barren  and  desert  rock  of  Organa,  afterwards  fo  celebrnted  under  tlie  name  o( 
Orrnuz,  the  large  and  fertile  Oariicta  (the  modem  Kishme).  Soon  at\er  they  (iiiitted  the 
coast  of  Caramania  and  entered  that  of  Persia  proper  (tim  moflerii  Fars,)  which  they  follow- 
ed till  its  termination  at  the  river  Arosis  (the  modern  Endinn  Tub,)  which  appeared  to  them 
llie  largest  they  had  seen  since  thi^y  had  loft  the  Indus.  They  wore  now  in  Susiana,  and 
soon  reached  the  mouth  of  the  Tigris,  where  the  vovagc  terminated. 


.r 


I 


Book  I. 


PERIPLUa  OP  THE  ERYTHRKAN  SEA. 


27 


The  circumnavigation  of  Arabia,  and  the  o[)cning  of  a  cuminunication  between  the  Red 
Sea  and  the  Persian  Gulf,  formed  to  Alexander  an  object  of  ahnost  equal  ambition.  He 
accordingly  appears  to  have  sent  expeditions  dovvn  botii  seas,  in  tlio  hope  of  accomplishing 
this  object.  Those,  however,  who  went  from  Persia  were  never  able  to  double  that  formidable 
promontory  (the  Mussendoon)  which  Nearchus  had  passed  at  tlie  entrance  of  the  gulf;  while 
those  who  went  from  Egypt,  after  making  a  certain  progress,  were  always  obliged  to  return 
for  want  of  water.  The  narrator  chose  to  conclude  with  inferring,  that  such  an  achieve- 
ment must  be  beyond  human  skill  or  power,  otherwise  the  daring  curiosity  of  Alexander 
would  certainly  have  accomplished  it.  He  reinforces  this  argument  by  observing,  that  as 
caravans  which  crossed  Arabia  were  able  to  travel  only  during  the  night  and  in  the  day 
were  unable  to  bear  the  intense  heat  of  the  sun,  it  was  unreasonable  to  suppose  that  a  region 
still  farther  to  the  south  should  be  at  all  habitable. 

Sect.  VII. — Periplm  of  the  Erythrean  Sea. 

The  complete  establishment  of  the  dominion  of  Rome  produced  a  long  period  of  compara- 
tive peace.  The  encouragement  of  industry  and  commerce  never  formed  i»rt  of  the  policy 
of  that  powerful  empire ;  but  the  demand  for  luxuries  of  every  description  in  its  overgrown 
capital,  where  the  wealth  of  the  world  was  collected,  and  to  procure  which  the  remotest 
extremities  of  the  earth  and  sea  were  ransacked,  powerfully  stimulated  mercantile  enterprise. 
Alexandria  continued  still  the  great  nautical  school,  by  whose  mariners  the  obstacles  which 
in  the  time  of  Alexander  had  been  deemed  insurmountable  were  completely  overcome. 
Regular  voyages  were  established  across  to  India,  and  for  a  considerable  extent  along  the 
eastern  coast  of  Africa.  The  course  of  this  commercial  voyage  is  related  by  Arrian,  not 
the  historian  of  Alexander,  but  a  merchant  of  Alexandria ;  and  though  not  so  much  a  voya^ 
of  discovery  as  a  coasting  guide,  it  is  founded,  probably,  upon  personal  observation,  and  will 
enable  us  to  complete  the  survey  of  the  great  naval  routes  of  the  ancient  world. 

The  voyage  down  the  west  coast  of  the  Red  Sea  began  with  Berenice,  founded  by  the 
Ptolemies,  and  the  site  of  which,  afler  being  long  sought  for  in  vain,  seems  to  have  been 
nearly  fixed  by  Belzoni.  The  coast  on  the  African  side  was  wild,  and  occupied  only  by  a 
few  rude  huts  of  barbarous  Nubians.  The  small  port  called  Ptoleraais  Theron  was  the 
only  place  where  refreshments  could  be  obtained.  At  length,  the  navigator  came  to  Aduli, 
a  great  emporium,  whose  site  Mr.  Salt  seems  to  have  ascertained  in  the  vicinity  of  Arkeeko. 
Here  was  a  profusion  of  excellent  ivory,  collected  and  sent  down  from  Axum,  the  metropo- 
lis, about  eight  days'  journey  in  the  interior.  In  return  for  this  single  staple  of  Ethiopia 
was  exchanged  that  variety  of  showy  colours,  suited  to  a  rude  taste ,  pottery  and  glass 
vessels,  the  manufacture  of  Diospolis ;  brass  for  vessels  and  ornaments,  iron  for  pointing 
lances,  arms,  and  cutting  instruments.  Some  fine  cloths,  and  ornaments  of  gold  and  silver, 
were  brought  as  presents  or  tribute  to  tlie  king.  Farther  down,  apparently  in  the  Gulf  of 
Zeyla,  was  the  kingdom  of  Zoskalcs,  a  prince  who  is  described  in  glowing  terms  os  adorned 
with  every  virtue,  and  eminently  skilled  in  Grecian  literature ;  but  these  seeds  of  civiliza- 
tion, if  they  ever  existed,  did  not  ripen  in  so  ungenial  a  climate.  The  coast  now  turns 
eastward  to  the  Indian  Ocean. 

A  view  of  the  passage  down  the  opposite  or  eastern  coast  of  the  Red  Sea  must  now  be 
taken.  Navigators  do  not  seem  to  have  ventured  across  the  breadth  of  that  sea  from  Berenice, 
but  went  by  Myos  Hormus,  along  the  mouth  of  the  Gulf  of  Suez,  touching  at  Leuke  Kome, 
the  fair  village,  which  formed  the  port  of  the  great  commercial  capital  of  Petra.  The  coast 
downwards  was  most  unfavourable  to  navigation,  "  full  of  danger,  without  harbours,  beset 
with  rocks,  everywhere  full  of  horror;"  and  such  the  whole  of  the  Red  Sea  is  described  to 
be  by  modern  navigators.  If  a  vessel  was  driven  too  near  the  shore,  it  was  immediately 
plundered  by  the  barbarous  inhabitants,  and  all  who  survived  carried  into  slavery.  At  lengtn 
they  came  to  the  Burnt  Island,  which  seems  to  be  Gebel  Tor,  on  the  coast  of  Yemen,  where 
they  found  a  fine  country  and  a  friendly  people.  The  emporium  of  this  coast  wos  Moosa, 
near  the  modern  Mocha,  said  to  be  inhabited  by  a  race  skilled  in  maritime  afluirs.  The 
imports  were  of  the  same  description  as  at  Aduli,  but  of  finer  quality,  including  a 
considerable  quantity  of  dye-stuffs.  The  exports  were  myrrh,  gum,  alabaster  (no  mention 
yet  of  coffee).  They  then  proceeded  downwards,  and  passed  the  straits  now  called  Bab  el 
Maiulel. 

The  southern  coast  of  Arabia  formed  the  next  object  of  navigation.  Ocelis  (the  modem 
Giiella)  was  a  good  harbour,  though  with  little  trade ;  but  Arabia  Felix,  which  seems  to 
have  boon  near  the  site  of  Aden,  had  been  a  most  flourisliing  port,  forming  a  depot  in  which 
(lie  merchants  of  Alexandria  found  all  the  commodities  of  India.  It  had  lately,  however, 
been  destroyed  by  the  Romans.  In  coasting  along  Arabia,  they  found  Kane  (the  modem 
Macculla) ;  the  Gulf  of  Sachalites,  in  which  is  found  the  modern  Sahar ;  and  Syagros,  de- 
scribed as  the  largest  promontory  in  the  world,  usually  supposed  to  be  Ras  el  Had,  but 
which  Vincent  appears  clearly  to  fix  in  the  much  more  westerly  position  of  Cape  Fartash. 
This  region  is  described  as  yielding  a  considerable  quantity  of  incense,  but  as  extremely 
moist  and  unhcaltliy.    They  now  passed  Mosca  (Morebat),  Asichone  (Hasec),  the  islands 


:^ 


#' 


28 


%, 


of  Zenobius  (Curia  Muria)     'f'''''''' ^^  <^^OGRAPHY.        ,  ' 


«erial«fo;coXVcT 
^ne  coaet  of  India  (fin-  a\„  ""  """^vn  to  be  destitufn  n7 

iich  name  he  _^-  ^— ^^"""i-fs-CoAH-rA^  .. '         '"  *"« 


™  7» 


*l^ 


-•#■, 


freat  river  «XThr  k"?°."*''  <""  'f-e 
designates  the  fc  ^T't^  '^^  he 
as  entering  the  sea  hv«>.  represented 
one  of  ^■hihtZlThJe\?r'^''  P^'^ 
18  Situated  a  olacp  PnTi„  i  i,"'"'  on  wiiich 
»wricum.  subject  to  thi»^^P°^'™  B^^" 

of  Minn^gtt^'Shkh  L?-'T'' '".'^'^oPo'^^^ 
Scythian  citv     Tl.«  if  '«  described  as  a 

tached  to  th  J-parT  of  iS  "'^  ^7'^^^  '^^ 
suggested  by  Te  rud,.  n  ^''°",''' ""'y  ^^ 
of  tSe  people,  aSd  cnrnK^i*"^'  banners 
cumstance^f  1?'bpT!"?^,"''"»  »he  cir- 
Parthian  empire  noinf^^  "'A'^^^  «  the 
belonging  to  wh;tTnnr'  *'*?"agara  as«, 

ta  of  the  Indus  LS  «  V-"  '^*^''  ^''o  »*- 

chants  were  obSL'^-"'''^    Themer- 

pra.  and  to  neSat'^  fi-oup  to  Minna- '» 

himself    After  En'  thfr  *^  P""'=o 

£?tors  found  suSvelV/"''""',  "'^^'- 

Emn(Cutch)  and  of  ft.„  ^  "'^  ^'f«  of's 

The  narrator  here  rSPf•'^  (^--oacJO. 

of  ever^  kind  S  ;&  "'''  ''';^'^^^^ 

heset,  shallows,  conSn^^f  S^"'*^  "^e.. 

and  difficult  entrances  hn?  T^''  "'^'^"^^ 

extraordinary  owasiol)     •^'^''^  ^"'  ^he 

tide;   in  co/senuenee  S  wv"!!"''  °^  ""= 

rienced  navigaCften  Ll  if '  ""-^^P"-.^ 

either  sunk  or  driven  on  2    ^'^^  ^^^'"^^ 

Iv.when  they  wire  °ailt    ''•  ^«1"ent- 

sniooth  water,  a  sound  tlf  '"  Perfectly 

ad vancinff  arA,  v  •  ?  .  ^^  ''"ard  as  of  an  ^— =». 

onwith"inrco";h:rn"'''*''?"''^'''d  Z         T  .,  

emporium,  at  which  w^L  ?  ""?'"""  <^o"M  secure  thp  v«»  7       t,  ''  ™ 

deur  of  K^  ''"•^^  J°""iey  south  from  1,'°  ^"^^  ""terior  capitals  wL'""'''  ""''  <^na"y, 

of  thelttter  r\co"'"V  ^'-^^^^^^^ 

no«^  Dowlatab^d!  m  S"""   '"  ^''tanahon   ho  r!f^™  "^^'^^  "^e  «"£'    h„T  ,'?  ^'■""- 

M  Jccordmg  to  the  usual 


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Book  I. 


PERIPLUS  OF  THE  ERYTIJREAN   SEA. 


29 


course  of  Indian  tmdo,  stood  foremost  "  mucli  money,"  a  little  cloth,  and  a  little  wine ;  but 
a  considerable  quantity  of  metals  and  toys,  brass,  lead,  tin,  glass,  coral,  stibium  for  painting 
the  eyes,  orpiment,  and  cinnabar.  There  is  mucJi  appcaranco  tliat  Nelkunda  was  the  far- 
thest point  to  which  the  Greek  navigators  actually  p<3netrated,  and  that  they  found  there  a 
supply  of  the  commodities  produced  in  the  more  eastern  regions. 

All  beyond  Nelkunda  is  faint  and  tinctured  with  fiible.  vVe  recognise,  however,  Comar 
>'  (Cape  Comorin),  Taprobane  (Ceylon),  and  its  great  pearl-fishery.  The  Coromandcl  coast 
is  nearly  a  blank,  till  we  arrive  at  Masalin,  which,  with  the  great  abundance  of  its  cotton 
cloths,  speaks  clearly  Masulipatan.  In  proceeding  northwards,  navigators  came  to  a  strange 
I  ^  and  Imrbarous  people,  with  visages  sometimes  of  enormous  length,  at  others  resembling 
those  of  horses,  and  some  eating  human  flesh :  an  exaggerated  picture  of  the  fierce  preda- 
tory races  who  occupy  the  mountain  and  jungle  tracts  of  Orissa.  A  i  rian  describes  accurately, 
however,  the  direction  to  the  east  which  tlie  coast  of  the  ocean  takes,  before  it  receives  the 
mighty  flood  of  the  Ganges.  At  its  niouth  there  was  then,  it  seems,  a  great  emporium 
bearing  the  name,  which  no  city  now  does,  of  the  river  itself.  The  staple  was  "  superla- 
tively fine  cotton  clotlis,  called  Gaiigetic,"  and  which  still  exist  in  the  superb  fabrics  of 
Dacca  and  Mooi'shedabad. 

In  the  regions  beyond  Ganges  the  author  of  the  Periplus  gropes  almost  in  total  darkness. 
Mention  is  made  of  an  island,  tlie  fiirthest  part  of  the  world  to  the  east,  and  which  is  richly 
stored  with  the  most  precious  productions  of  the  countries  that  lie  on  the  shore  of  the  Red 
Sea.  This  cannot  seemingly  be  any  other  than  Sumatra,  though  erroneously  placed  near 
the  Ganges.  The  only  ulterior  position  is  Tliinrn,  a  great  interior  city,  situated  opposite  to 
Pontus  and  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  near  to  where  the  Polus  McEotis  flows  into  the  ocean.  This 
strange  site  we  shall  afterwards  find  reason  to  consider  as  a  combination  of  some  actual 
rumours  with  the  theory  formed  by  the  first  Alexandrian  school  respecting  the  form  and 
dimensions  of  the  continent  of  Asia.  There  seems  some  reason,  however,  to  conclude  with 
Dr.  Vincent,  that  this  Thine,  whence  caravans  came  by  way  of  Bactria  to  Barygaza,  must 
have  obscurely  indicated  Uie  capital  of  China.  Nor  can  we  be  easily  persuaded  that  in 
the  malabalhrum,  though  most  usually  applied  to  betel-leaf,  some  confused  idea  of  tea  is  not 
involved.     Its  being  so  strictly  characteristic  of  China,  and  being  brought  by  persons  of  a 


Fig.  5 — Periplus— African  Coast. 


broad  forehead,  .short  body,  and  flat  nose, 
features  decidedly  Mongol  and  Chinese, 
seem  all  in  favour  of  this  supposition,  and 
inconsistent  with  that  which  would  make 
it  merely  betel-leaf,  a  pro<luct  of  Indostan ; 
though  there  is  doubtless  a  great  and  mani- 
fest confusion  between  the  two  substances. 
We  must  now  look  back  to  the  Straits 
of  Bab-el-Mandel,  and  follow  our  author 
along  the  African  coast.  {Fiff.  5.)  From 
those  straits  vessels  proceeded  eastward 
along  the  shore  opposite  to  Arabia,  the 
modern  Berbera.  Its  ports,  Avalites,  Mo- 
syllum,  Mundos,  Daphnon,  and  others, 
cannot  be,  easily  identified  on  a  coast,  with 
respect  to  wiiich  wo  have  scarcely  any 
modern  data.  The  imports  were  nearly 
the  same  as  at  Adulis ;  the  exports  were 
myrrh,  frankincense,  a  species  of  cinna- 
mon called  casia,  some  other  aromatics, 
slaves,  and  a  little  ivory.  At  length  they 
doubled  the  promontory  of  Aromata  (Guar- 
dafui),  when  they  came  to  a  coast  .stretch- 
ing to  the  southward  and  facinir  the  Indian 
-10  Ocean.  Here  was  a  port,  the  scat  of  a 
considerable.'  trade,  but  by  no  means  secure ; 
however,  when  tlic  north  wind  began  to 
blow  with  dancrerous  violence,  the  vessels 
found  shelter  in  the  neighbouring  promon- 
tory and  port  of  Tabai.  Proceeding  on- 
wards, they  found  Oiwne,  Apokapa  the 
less  and  greater,  Nicon,  Scriipion,  seven 
successive  rivers,  with  anchorages  at  the 
mouth  of  cncli.  Soon  allor,  nt  the  distance 
of  about  tiirce  hundred  stjulia  from  the 
continent,  there  occurred  a  low  wooded  is- 
land, bearui!];  the  very  expanded  name  of 


J 


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^ 


HISTORY  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


4'. 


Pabt  I. 


Eitenediom-tnenouthegias,  which  other  writers  wisely  contract  into  Mcnuthias.  It  contained 
no  wild  animals,  but  abounded  in  fish,  particularly  tortoises,  which  tho  inhabitants  were  very 
diligent  in  catching.  Two  days'  voyage  fartlier  brought  them  to  Rhapta,  a  promontory  and 
port,  and  the  scut  of  a  great  trade.  Beyond  this  point,  the  ocean  was  not  yet  explored;  but 
It  tunicd  to  the  west  and  south,  and  was  supposed  to  continue  in  that  direction  till  it  joined 
tiie  Atlantic.  The  exports  from  this  coast  were  ivory  in  great  abundance,  but  not  equal  in 
•luality  to  that  of  Aduli ;  tortoise-shell,  superior  to  every  other  except  that  of  India;  and  a 
number  of  valuable  slaves,  chiefly  destined  for  the  Egyptian  market  The  territory  was 
governed  by  a  number  of  petty  kings,  all  owning  the  supremacy  of  Mopharites,  who  was 
himself  tributary  to  Moosa,  by  the  vessels  of  which  great  commercial  state  the  trade  of  this 
coast  waa  almost  entirely  carried  on. 

The  extent  of  coast  thus  described  by  the  author  of  the  Periplus  has  been  the  subject  of 
considerable  controversy.  Dr.  Vincent  fixes  Rhapta,  its  farthest  point,  at  Quiloa,  thus 
allowing  a  navigation  of  upwards  of  fitlecn  hundred  miles ;  while  tlie  rigl'l  scepticism  of 
M.  Gossclin,  placing  it  at  Brava  near  the  mouth  of  the  Doaro,  allows  a  goiod  deal  less  than 
lialf  that  distance.  Dr.  Vincent  here,  however,  appears  to  carry  the  question  triumphantly, 
by  means  of  his  seven  mouths  of  rivers,  of  which  M.  Gosselin  admits  that  no  trace  can  be 
found  within  his  limits.  They  are  clearly  presented  by  the  estuaries  of  the  Quillimanci, 
on  which  ore  the  important  lurbours  of  Patte,  Melinda,  and  Mombaza.  But  we  cannot,  with 
Dr.  Vincent,  pass  by  Pemba  and  Zanzibar,  to  find  in  the  little  island  of  Monfia  the  Menu- 
thias  of  Arrian.  Zanzibar,  from  its  size  and  its  proximity  to  the  coast,  appears  a  feature 
which  it  was  impossible  to  overlook,  and  its  position  is  in  much  better  bearing  with  the 
seven  estuaries  previously  passed.  The  next  cape  m;ist  then  be  Rhapta,  and  this  will  be 
that  opposite  to  which  is  situated  the  small  group  of  the  Hinagie  Islands.  Beyond  it  fbr 
a  considerable  distance  the  coast  runs  in  the  direction  of  south-west,  which  does  not  at  all 
admit  the  placing  Rhapta  beyond  Quiloa,  nor,  indeed,  on  any  other  poit  of  the  coast  till 
after  we  pass  Mosambiquc. 


CHAPTER  III. 

GREEK  GEOQRAPHY  BEFORE  ALEXANDER. 


Greece  is  regarded  by  all  civilized  nations  as  their  instructress  in  the  sciences,  many  of 
the  most  brilliant  of  which  she  carried  to  the  utmost  perfbction.  In  that  of  geography, 
however,  little  progress  was  made  until  the  ibrmation  of  the  Greek  kingdom  in  Egypt 
under  the  Ptolemies.  Neither  extensive  commerce  nor  distant  conquest  characterised  the 
Grecian  states,  otlierwise  so  illustrious  fbr  all  the  arts  of  peace  and  war.  It  was  not  till 
the  conquering  career  of  Alexander,  that  the  survey  of  the  Greeks  was  extended  over  the 
wide  circuit  of  the  ancient  world.  Engaged  before  that  era  in  the  glorious  defensive  war 
against  Persia,  and  the  contests  with  each  other  for  pre-eminence,  they  confined  their  views 
very  much  within  the  limits  of  Greece  and  its  neighbouring  coasts  and  islands. 

The  first  traces  of  Greek  geography  are  found  among  its  poets,  whose  brilliant  fancy  has 
spread  its  lustre  over  all  the  regions  with  which  Greece  ever  held  intercourse.  Homer 
took  the  lead,  and  his  high  authority  gave  to  the  geography  of  the  Greeks  a  poetical  cast, 
which  they  transmitted  to  the  nations  whom  they  taught,  and  of  which  the  traces  are  not 
entirely  obliterated. 

Sect.  I. — Geography  of  Home~. 

It  is  in  Homer  that  we  find  the  first  trace  of  the  widely-prevalent  idea,  that  the  earth  is  a 
flat  circle,  begirt  on  every  side  by  the  ocean.  This  was  indeed  a  natural  idea  in  a  region  so 
entirely  insular  and  peninsular,  nowhere  presenting,  like  Judea,  a  vast  tract  stretching  so 
far  as  to  give  the  idea  of  immeasurable  distance.  The  circulor  shape  was  suggested  by  that 
of  the  visible  horizon ;  and  until  science  demonstrated  the  globular  form  of  our  planet,  the 
very  natural  opinion  prevailed  that  the  earth  was  a  flat  circle,  with  the  vault  of  heaven  above, 
darkness,  and  the  abode  of  departed  souls  beneath. 

Homer,  like  Hesiod  and  the  ancient  poets  generally,  delights  in  topographical  detail,  and 
scarcely  allows  a  city  or  natural  object  to  pains  without  applying  to  it  some  characteristic 
epithet.  It  was  only,  however,  within  a  very  limited  range  that  he  could  give  these  distinct 
and  animated  notices.  The  Greek  islands,  beautifiil  and  fertile  spots,  which  seem  to  have 
been  the  first  cradle  of  European  civilization,  were  the  central  point  from  which  his  know- 
ledge emanated.  He  knew  well,  and  had  probably  visited,  on  one  side  Peloponnesus,  Attico, 
and  the  regions  immediately  adjoining ;  on  the  other,  the  western  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  and 
the  banks  of  the  beautifiil  rivers  by  which  it  is  watered.  Perhaps  scarcely  any  other  tract 
on  the  globe  presents  within  the  same  compass  such  a  variety  of  grand  and  beautiful  objects 
to  rouse  the  imagination.  Beyond  this  circuit  the  world  of  Homer  was  soon  involved  in 
mysterious  obscurity.  Some  grand  and  distant  features,  discernible  through  the  gloom,  were 
exaggerated  and  distorted  by  ignorance  and  superstition.    Thebes,  tlie  mighty  capital  of 


4 


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4 


Book  I 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  HOMER. 


31 


Egypt,  when  that  kingdom  was  in  its  greatest  glory,  is  celebrated  ibr  its  hundred  gatei,  and 
the  hosts  of  warriors  which  they  sent  forth  to  battle.  Beyond  lay  the  Ethiopians,  deemed 
the  remotest  of  men,  dwelling  on  the  farthest  verge  of  the  earth,  and  to  whoso  distant 
confines  Jupiter  repaired  to  hold  an  annual  festival.  In  the  western  part  of  the  same  conti- 
nent  the  stupendous  ridges  of  Atlas  had  excited  in  Grecian  fancy  the  imacc  of  a  gigantic 
deified  being,  to  whom  was  intrusted  the  support  of  the  heavens.  Even  fiirUicr  to  the  west, 
the  exploits  and  wanderings  of  tlic  great  Grecian  demigod  had  conveyed  a  tradition  of  the 
strait  leading  into  the  ocean,  and  of  the  rocks  on  each  side,  celebrated  under  the  denomination 
of  the  Pillars  of  Hercules.  On  the  east,  Colchoe  was  distinguished  by  its  early  woulth  and 
commerce ;  it  was  considered  a  city  on  the  ocean,  with  which,  therefore,  the  Black  Sea 
must  have  been  confounded ;  and  being  supposed  to  contain  the  palace  of  the  Sun,  where 
during  the  night  he  gave  rest  to  his  coursers,  and  whence  in  the  morning  he  drove  his 
chariot  to  its  diurnal  career,  Colchos  must  have  been  regarded  by  Homer  as  placed  on  the 
most  eastern  verge  of  the  earth.  On  the  north,  Rhodope,  under  the  name  ot  theRiphsan 
Mountains,  was  considered  a  chain  of  indefinite  extent,  closing  in  the  northern  limits  of  the 
world.  The  poet,  however,  had  heard  a  vague  report  of  the  Scythians,  under  the  description 
of  a  people  subsisting  on  mares'  milk.  The  vessels  which  conveyed  the  Grecian  army  to 
Troy  were  evidently  little  better  than  large  boats ;  and  all  distant  voyages,  or  those  in  which 
land  was  lost  night  of,  were  considered  as  fraught  with  the  extrcmest  peril.  A  navigation 
to  Africa  or  to  Sicily  took  place  only  through  tempest,  terminating  usually  in  shipwreck ; 
and  a  return  from  these  shores  was  esteemed  almost  miraculous.  In  regard  to  Sicily,  indeed. 
Homer  has  largely  communicated  his  ideas,  having  made  it  the  theatre  of  the  woes  and 
wanderings  of  the  hero  of  the  Odyssey.  Making  every  allowance  for  poetical  license,  we  see 
evident  traces  of  the  terrified  and  excited  state  of  mind  in  the  navigators  who  returned  from 
these  diorea  Monsters  of  strange  form  and  magnitude,  who  watched  for  the  destruction  of 
the  mariner,  and  even  fed  upon  his  quivering  lunhs ;  delusive  syrens,  who  lured  but  to  destroy ; 
imprisonment  under  the  transformed  shape  of  wild  beasts ;  these,  probably,  are  only  a  highly- 
coloured  repetition  of  the  terrific  rumours  brought  by  the  few  whose  bark  had  been  wailed 
to  those  as  yet  savage  coasts. 

Sect.  II. — Poetical  Geography. 

An  ideal  and  poetical  character  was  communicated  to  the  science  of  ^reography  itself  by 
the  fables  with  which  Homer  thus  tinged  his  narrative.  This  tendency  indeed  did  not  rest 
solely  upon  Homeric  uifluence,  but  proceeded  from  certain  secret  workings  of  the  human 
heart  There  exist  in  man  ideas  and  wishes  for  which,  in  the  sphere  of  his  actual  existence, 
he  can  find  no  corresponding  objects ;  these  he  creates  for  hunself  in  tliat  dim  boundary 
which  separates  the  known  from  the  unknown  world.  There  involuntarily  arises  in  his 
breast  a  longing  afler  a  more  exalted  state  of  existence  than  the  world  before  him  presents — 
bright  scenes,  which  he  seeks  but  never  finds  in  the  circuit  of  realities.  In  a  newly-discovered 
region,  however,  which  possesses  any  share  of  beauty,  imagination  soon  heightens  the  colours 
of  nature,  till  they  appear  to  fulfil  its  fond  anticipations.  Such  were  those  brilliant  spots 
celebrated  by  the  poets  under  the  title  of  the  Gardens  of  the  Hesperides — the  Fortunate 
Islands — the  Isles  of  the  Blest — for  which,  when  knowledge  had  dispelled  the  first  illusion, 
and  brought  them  down  to  the  ordinaiy  level,  a  place  was  still  found  in  some  more  distan; 
extremity  of  the  globe.  Northern  Africa,  as  it  stretched  westward,  was  peculiarly  adapted, 
by  its  striking  and  brilliant  contrasts,  to  excite  these  illusions.  The  first  site  of  the  Hesperian 
gardens  was  at  tlie  frontier  of  Cyrene,  where  they  are  described  by  Scylax  as  forming  a 
luxuriant  grove,  in  which  the  lotus  and  the  palm  were  mingled  with  the  finest  trees  of 
Europe.  Other  and  more  western  sites  were  successively  found,  both  for  them  and  the 
Fortunate  Islands,  which  last  were  finally  fixed,  probably  on  very  imperfect  observation,  at 
the  Canaries.  Those  islands  have  not  altogether  lost  the  appellation ;  and  they  are  painted 
by  Ho-ace  in  glowing  colours  as  a  refii^e  still  lefl  for  mortals  from  that  troubled  and  imper- 
fect existence  which  they  experience  in  every  other  quarter  of  the  globe.  Independent, 
however,  of  this  bright  and  romantic  enjoyment,  there  are  other  objects  of  fond  desire  to  the 
human  heart  In  this  agitated  world  it  sighs  afler  peace — a  scene  of  profound  repose,  exempt 
from  the  tumults  of  passion  and  the  corrosion  of  care.  Such  a  scene,  indeed,  would  never 
fulfil  the  hopes  thus  formed ;  yet  these  hopes  spring  from  a  natural  illusion,  to  flatter  wliich 
Grecian  poetry  conjured  up  a  fabled  race,  the  Hyperboreans,  seated  in  the  recesses  of  the 
North,  and  sheltered  by  vast  mountains  from  the  rage  of  the  elements.  They  wore  repre- 
sented as  exempted  from  all  ills,  physical  and  moral,  the  change  of  seasons,  sickness,  and 
even  from  death.  The  original  seat  assigned  to  them  was  behind  the  Riphiean  Mountaiuf, 
which  seem  to  have  been  originally  Rhodope,  the  northern  boundary  of  the  Homeric  world. 
The  Greeks  having  soon  acquired  knowledge  sufficient  to  ascertain  that  no  such  people  was 
there  to  be  found,  sought  them  next  on  the  bonks  of  the  Danube;  but  every  thing  there  was 
remote  from  that  tranquil  aspect  under  which  the  poets  had  painted  the  Hyperborean  world. 
Some  traditions  carry  them  westward;  but  their  seat  was  finolly  fixed  in  that  northern 
extremity  of  Asiatic  Russia  which  the  ancients  never  explored.    They  even  carried  with 


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HISTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  1. 


them  tho  Ripluvan  Mouiitiins,  whicli  became  thus  an  idcol  chain,  delineated  in  modern  mapa 
as  exteiidinff  aloiij»  tlio  extreme  frontier  of  Kuropo.  Impressions  of  gloomy  darkness,  and 
oven  of  tho  teriniiiation  of  existence,  are,  in  other  moods  of  the  human  mind,  associated  with 
images  of  distance  and  obscurity.  These  intluencos  gave  birth  to  the  Cimmerians,  a  people 
who  dwelt  in  poriKJtiial  darkness,  and  were  never  illumined  by  the  chcorfiil  rays  of  tho  sun. 
Thi;ir  fiivourlte  seat  was  on  the  straits  at  tho  mouth  of  the  peninsula  of  Taurida,  the  farthest 
jviint,  probably,  of  which  rumour  had  spoken  in  the  |xx;ticHl  iigcs,  and  which  was  called  tho 
Cimmoriuu  Bospliorus.  It  was  prolKibly  from  similitude  of  name  that  tliey  wore  atlerwards 
confounded  with  the  people  called  Cimbri.  Tho  learned,  however,  have  found  traces  of 
Cinmicrians  in  the  extremities  both  of  the  east  and  tho  west;  and  the  idea  of  the  earth  as 
terminated  by  a  I)oundary  of  darkness,  being  founded  on  natural  impressions,  has  very  gone- 
rnlly  prevailed.  Park  mentions  it  as  the  reigning  belief  among  tho  Mandingos  at  this  day; 
iind  the  world,  in  tho  system  of  tho  Arabian  geographers,  was  enclased  by  a  sea  of  darkness. 
Otiior  fubulotis  creations,  siiringing  from  those  of  Homer,  continued  long  to  hold  a  place  in 
gpogr.ii)hy.  The  one-eyed  Cyclops  apiKJars  under  the  name  of  Arimaspian  on  tho  frontier 
of  India,  and  in  the  remotest  extremity  of  Africa.  The  Pigmies  multiplied  etill  more  exten- 
sively ;  they  had  seats  on  the  Strymon,  tlie  Hebrus,  in  India,  and  the  north  of  Europe. 
Acconiiiig  to  Stnibo  they  were  spread  over  the  whole  southern  border  of  the  earth;  and  this 
represpiitiilion  even  induced  Banicr  to  suspect  that,  on  that  side,  they  have  been  confounded 
with  the  monkeys. 

Sect.  III.— School  of  Miletus 

The  astronomical  schools  of  i\Iilctua  and  Samoa  appear,  so  far  at  leost  as  there  is  any 
precise  record,  to  have  made  the  first  attempts  to  form  geography  into  a  system,  and  to  apply 
to  it  the  ligiits  derived  from  astronomy.  These  and  other  cities  of  Asia  Minor  rank  high 
among  the  early  seats  of  commerce,  and  tliey  established  colonies  in  various  quarters  of  the 
Mediterranean  and  the  Euxine.  While  they  continued  independent  they  were  very  wealthy 
and  prosperous  and  the  sciences  were  cultivated  with  ardour  and  success.  To  a  commercial 
peo|)le  practical  mathematics,  and  especially  those  branches  subservient  to  geography  and 
navigation,  iiitist  have  peculiarly  recommended  themselves.  Thales,  Anaximander,  Anaxi- 
nionos,  and  Pythtigoras,  are  celebrated  by  tlioir  countrymen  as  the  inventors  of  all  tlie  pro 
cesses  by  which  tlie  phenomena  of  the  globe  arc  calculated.  The  gnomon  or  sundial,  fiir 
ascertaining  the  progress  of  the  sun  from  tropic  to  tropic,  and  finally  the  latitude  of  particu- 
lar places,  the  division  of  the  year  into  365  days,  and  into  tour  seasons,  are  represented  as 
Imving  originated  in  this  school.  It  appears  doubtfiil,  however,  whether  these  discoveries 
were  due  to  their  own  exertions  or  borrowed  firom  the  Egyptians  and  Chaldeans,  whoso  fiune, 
amid  the  dim  traditions  of  antiquity,  stands  pre-eminent  for  astronomical  otecrvation. 

Tho  first  rude  mode  of  forming  a  division  of  the  earth  was  into  climutes,  determined 
1)V  tho  spoeins  of  animals  and  plants  produced  in  each.  Thus  the  negro,  the  rhinoceros,  the 
elephant,  wore  considered  as  characteristic  of  the  torrid  zone.  'J'his  very  loose  method  gave 
place  to  another,  formed  by  observing  at  each  place  the  length  of  the  longest  and  shortest 
days.  This  could  only  be  done  with  accuracy  by  a  gnomon  or  dial,  erected  on  a  horizontal 
plane,  and  sliowing,  by  the  length  or  sliortness  of  its  shadow,  the  elevation  of  the  siin  above 
the  horizon.  There  is  much  reason  to  think  that  this  simple  instrument  was  employed  by 
the  Egyptians,  especially  in  the  operation,  which  they  undoubtedly  performed,  of  adding  five 
days  and  a  (piartpr  to  360,  the  number  originally  supposed  to  form  a  complete  year.  It  has 
even  been  imacined  by  some,  that  the  pyramids,  those  enormous  structures  by  which  this 
people  I'xrited  ;he  astonishment  of  the  world,  were  only  huge  sundials;  and  though  it  might 
doubtless  bn  extravagant  to  conclude  this  to  have  been  their  sole  object,  yet  it  really  appears 
that,  being  placed  in  tho  direct  position  of  the  cardinal  jwints,  they  are  jiertbctly  fitted  for 
being  thus  employed.  Rut,  though  it  is  clear  that  Thales  and  his  disciples  had  largely  drawn 
from  these  early  sources,  they  probably  made  considerable  additions  to  tho  information  thence 
derived.  Two  books,  one  on  the  tropic,  and  tho  otiier  on  the  equinoxes,  are  reported  to 
have  been  written  by  Tliales  himself.  The  degree  of  knowledge  thus  attained  enabled  him 
to  discover  the  error  of  tho  vulijar  in  supposing  the  o-irtli  to  be  a  plane  surface;  but  he  could 
not  roach  tho  precise  idea  of  its  globular  form.  .Am  viiuamlor  viewed  it  as  a  cylinder;  some 
rompared  its  form  to  tliac  of  a  boat;  others  to  tli.it  of  a  lotly  mountain.  The  details  of  the 
Pythagorean  cn-niography  have  not  re.iched  us;  but  the  fiict  that  they  placed  the  sun  in  the 
centre  of  the  system,  with  the  earth  moving  round  it,  indicates  at  tliat  infimt  era  attainments 
which  were  lost  during  many  ayes,  and  only  recovered  at  a  tar  more  advanced  stage  of 
nioilcrn  science. 

Tho  map  must,  as  soon  as  goo.Tiphy  was  cultivr.tod,  have  occurred  as  the  best  and 
most  perspicuous  form  of  nmbodyincr  its  results,  Anaximander  is  tho  first  who  is  reported  to 
have  constructed  a  map  of  the  world,  eiribrncing  that  limited  sphere  of  objects  which  were 
then  coinpreliPiidoil  under  that  form.  Rut  tlie  most  celol)ratod  production  of  this  nature  was 
that  emjdoyod  by  .\ristagoras,  the  prince  of  Miletus,  to  induce  Cleomones,  the  Spartan  king 
to  undertake  the  cou<iuest  of  Persia.     lie  entered,  it  is  said,  the  presence  of  that  monarch, 


*■    k. 


»"♦ 


'  ■■*-' 
>  ■ 


.    1 


i-..-  _. 


.  .t 


Book  1. 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  HERODOTUS. 


83 


huldin^  in  liis  hand  a  tablet  of  brasH,  on  whicli  wore  inscribed  "  tlie  whole  circuit  of  the  earth, 
the  Bea,  and  nil  tlio  rivers."  Under  this  )»mpous  description,  howovor,  was  probably  included 
little  more  tliun  a  route  from  tlio  Ionian  soa  to  Sunn,  which  was  specially  pointed  to  as  that 
by  which  the  >Spartan  prince  might  lead  liis  victorious  troops  to  the  Persian  capital.  Even 
of  tills  linn,  rPHpecting  which  lie  woa  so  deeply  interested,  the  siiort  detail  of  Hcrodot'is 
shows  liiiii  to  jxjssess  by  no  means  complete  information.  Beyond  Cilicia  his  descriptions  are 
very  indistinct.  Mu  has  omitted  Media  altonrcther,  and  has  given  to  Armenia  quite  an  undue 
extension. 

The  continental  Greeks,  during  the   era  of  their   greatest  power,  did  not  cultivate 
systematic  geography,  nor  indeed  any  sciences  dependent  upon  mathematical  principles, 
with  niucli  activity ;  indeed,  they  did  not  even  keep  them  up  to  the  state  in  which  they  had 
.,   .  been  received  from  the  Ionian  cities.     One  solitary  observation  of  latitude  is  recorded  as 

*?**■'  having  been  made  at  Athens,  by  Meton  and  Eudemon,  432  years  A.  C.   The  different  states, 

in  the  course  of  their  extensive  wars,  must  have  acquired  a  great  portion  of  that  topographi- 
cal knowledge  which  is  indispensable  for  military  operations.  Engrossed  by  these  internal 
objects,  their  attention  was  little  directed  to  the  general  system  of  Uie  world.  One  individual 
*'*'•'  alone,  by  extensive  travels  and  diligent  enquiries,  procured  an  ample  accession  to  the  science 
of  history  and  of  historical  geography. 

Sect.  IV. — Geography  of  Herodotus.  *       n     .  •    s» 

The  system  of  geonaphy  included  in  the  great  historical  work  of  Herodotus  is  as 
complete  as  could  be  tormed  from  the  materials  witliin  his  reach.  It  comprises  a  general 
summary  of  all  that  he  could  learn  respecting  the  human  race,  and  the  regions  which  they 
inhabited.  His  information  was  obtained  not  solely  or  chiefly  from  books,  but  mostly  by 
f\  travelling,  the  only  mode  in  which  at  that  era  geographical  knowledge  could  be  effectually 

■'^i  collected.     He  assures  us  that  ho  had  visited  Persia,  Assyria,  Egypt,  Thrace,  Scythia,  and 

j_  all  tlie  distant  regions  which  he  describes.  He  viewed  them,  however,  only  aa  tracts  of  ter- 
<  ritory,  tlie  abode  of  men,  and  did  not  attempt  to  combine  them  into  any  system  of  the  earth ; 

'  nor  did  he  possess,  or,  at  least,  apply  any  of  the  mathematical  or  astronomical  principles  of 

the  Milesian  school.  He  even  derides  some  of  its  conclusions ;  as  that  of /the  earth  being 
round  and  encompossod  by  the  ocean.  His  strange  statement,  that  the  sun  in  India  was  ver- 
tical in  the  morning  instead  of  at  midday,  is  evidently  a  misunderstood  report  of  what  he  had 
•%  been  informed  respecting  the  diflTerencc  of  time  in  the  difTcrcnt  parts  of  the  earth's  circum- 

ference. His  knowledge,  however,  such  as  it  is,  consisting  of  plain  (nets,  untinctured  with 
theory,  is  botli  solid  and  extensive. 

The  division  of  the  earth  into  tiiree  quarters,  or  continents,  was  by  this  time  completely 
formed.  Sea,  or  at  least  water,  seems  to  have  been  the  prinoiplc  of  separation,  though  not 
required  to  be  altogether  complete.  Setting  out  from  Europe,  ii'r  the  origin  of  Which  appel- 
lation we  have  nothing  but  the  fable  of  Europo,  the  Greeks  seem  to  have  named  the  other 
continents  from  the  districts  immediately  beyond  the  intervening  sea.  Homer  already  men- 
tions the  name  of  Asia  as  applied  to  a  large  and  fine  tract  on  tlio  coast  of  Ionia.  Thence  it 
spread  through  the  spacious  peninsula  of  which  it  forms  part,  and  which  Europeans  con- 
tinue to  call  Asia  Minor ;  but  soon  passing  these  limits,  it  was  vaguely  extended  through  the 
boundless  regions  of  the  East,  till  it  finally  embraced  entirely  the  largest  of  the  three  conti- 
nents.  On  the  other  side,  directly  to  the  south,  the  Greeks  first  landed  on  the  coast  of  Libya ; 
and  the  name  of  Ijibya  was  by  them  applied  to  the  entire  continent.  With  the  Romans,  on 
,  the  contrary,  wiiose  position  and  political  relations  attached  them  entirely  to  the  district 

of  Afirica  proper,  in  which  Cartilage  is  situated,  the  name  of  Africa  soon  prevailed  over 
every  other. 

These  grand  divisions  of  the  oncient  world  were  already  known  to  Herodotus;  but  he 
has  astonished  I'^iiropean  readers  in  an  extraordinary  degree  by  the  assertion,  that  Europe  is 
longer  and  of  greater  extent  than  Asia  and  Africa  united.  The  severe  judgment  of  M. 
Gosselin  pronounces  such  an  assertion,  made  in  the  midst  of  the  nations  which  carried  on 
the  most  extensive  navigation,  to  bo  a  proof  that  they  had  not  formed  the  least  idea  of  the 
distance  which  their  vessels  sailed  along  the  Mediterranean.  Before  pronouncing  so  severe 
a  sentence,  we  must  consider  attentively  what,  in  the  conception  of  Herodotus,  was  Europe, 
and  what  was  Asia.  He  mentions  two  boundaries :  one  formed  by  the  Black  Sea  and  the 
Don,  which,  though  it  does  not  form  a  very  appropriate  boundary  of  a  continent,  continues 
still  to  prevail,  being  connected  with  the  Northern  Ocean  by  the  mountain  chain  of  the 
Urals.  But  in  the  other,  which  is  that  preferred  by  Hcrmlotus,  the  Black  Sea  is  continued 
"^  by  the  Caspian ;  the  boundary  line  being  carried  along  the  north  of  that  sea,  and  tlicnco 
indefinitely  eastward.  Taking  Europe  in  this  sense,  wo  find  it  in  the  west  co-extended  with 
the  opposite  coast  of  Africa,  which  the  ancients  necessarily  considered  as  marking  the  lenglli 
of  that  continent,  wliile,  in  the  east,  however  far  Asia  might  he  prolonged,  Europe  was  still 
regarded  as  co-extensive.  With  regard  to  the  boundaries  of  Africa,  too,  there  was  an 
extreme  want  of  precision.    Our  limit  of  tlie  Isthmus  of  Suez  is  certainly  the  most  accurate  ; 

Vol.  I.  E 


fV'.; 


I 


f^} 


M 


HISTORY  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Past  I. 


^'- 


but  tho  ancicntii,  who  could  not  readily  admit  tlio  notion  of  a  continent  boundo<l  by  any  thinjr 
but  water  attached  thein»olveg  more  to  tlio  Nile,  and  did  not  weH  know  whetlior  to  consider 
F^fypt  as  Asiatic  or  African. 

Si'DSKOT.  1. — The  Europe  of  Herodotus. 

ScytiiJa  was  tho  oxtremity  of  Europe,  beyond  Greece,  with  which  Herodotug  appoara 
to  Juivi!  beoii  moHt  familiar,  and  which,  m  fact,  ho  knew  better  tlian  almost  any  other  ancient 
writer.  'I'hiH  iinmo,  which  became  ultimately  Asiatic,  was  restricted  by  him  to  tho  tractn 
that  now  form  the  Bouthcm  provinces  of  tho  Russian  empire.  These  repfions  were  tlmn, 
and  in  a  p-cat  measure  still  are,  possessed  by  the  same  description  of  rude  Nomadic  and 
paxtoral  people,  who  have  always  occuniod  tlio  central  plains  of  Asia.  The  attention  of  the 
liiatoriiia  was  npecially  called  t»)  thcin  by  the  rash  and  daring  expedition  of  Darius  into  u 
rcffion  secured  by  its  natural  barriers,  and  the  wandering;  and  untamed  character  of  its 
people,  a^iinst  every  form  of  reffulor  subjection.  Darius,  crosninjf  tho  Hellespont,  marched 
alonj;  the  southern  shore  of  the  Euxino,  reached  tho  bunks  of  tho  Voljfa,  and  after  the  fruit- 
lees  lalwur  of  erecting  there  several  (brtrcsHes,  returned  by  a  morn  inland  route,  in  which 
Major  Reimell  even  supposes  him  to  have  passed  the  site  of  Little  Novogorod.  The  know- 
ledge acnuire<l  by  this  expedition,  however,  did  not  enable  Herodotus  to  avoid  great  errors 
in  the  delineation  of  European  Scytliia.  Ho  imbibed  a  most  exaggerated  idea  of  the  dimen- 
sions of  tho  Palus  Mtrotin,  which  ho  calls  the  "mother  of  tho  Euxino."  This  appears  to 
have  arisen  chiefly  from  the  false  orienting  of  tlio  side  which  faces  Russia,  and  which  is 
made  to  stretch  almost  duo  north,  instead  of  west,  while  tho  sea  itself  is  represented  as 
forming  the  eastern  boundary  of  tliat  great  space  of  four  hundred  miles  square,  within  which 
Herodotus  comprises  Scythia.  The  southern  boundarjr  was  fbnned  by  the  Euxine,  and  tho 
other  two  by  the  land,  so  that  he  does  not  connect  it  in  any  shape  with  tho  Northern 
Ocean. 

Tho  details  of  this  extensive  region  are  given  by  Herodotus  with  considerable  accu- 
racy. Of  its  rivers,  after  tho  Danube,  which  ho  ranks  second  to  the  Nile,  ho  mentions  the 
Tyres  or  Dniester,  the  Hypanin,  or  Bog  (and  even  describes  the  close  approach  of  these 
rivers  to  each  otlier  in  tlie  upper  part  of  their  course),  tlio  great  channel  of  tho  Borystlienes, 
or  Dnieper,  and  the  Tanais  or  Don.  Between  the  lii.st  ho  mentions  several  streams,  the 
Panticupes,  Hypacyris,  and  Gcrrhus,  which  not  being  recognized  by  modem  geography. 
Major  Renncll  supposes  to  bo  creeks  or  branches  of  the  greater  rivers. 

Milesian  colonies  had,  by  the  active  enterprise  of  that  commercial  people,  been 
already  formed  even  on  those  rude  shon^s.  One,  called  the  port  of  the  Borystlienes,  is 
described  as  the  centre  of  the  trade  of  Scythia.  On  tho  Imiiks  of  this  great  river  dwelt  a 
people,  bearing  the  run!  character  of  the  plonghin/r  Scythian.n,  who  renouncing  the  almost 
universal  <iabits  of  thiMr  race,  raised  crops  of  grain  in  tliis  fertile  district,  wli'ch  still 
(iimishes  to  the  ports  of  Taganrog  and  Odessa  those  supplies,  which  render  t'  u 'i  the 
granary  of  the  Mediterranean.  Tho  Milesians  had  also  a  colony  established  at  th>>  mouth 
of  the  Danube. 

The  northern  interior  countries  of  Europe,  which  lay  bevond  the  limits  of  tho  Scythia 
explored  by  the  expedition  of  Darius,  were  covered  for  Hrro<lotus  with  a  veil  of  dim  obscu- 
rity. On  tho  Scytliian  frontier,  along  the  heads  of  tlie  Dniester  and  Borystlienes,  he  repre- 
sents several  niitions ;  the  Mclanchlcni,  "  men  clothed'  in  black ;"  the  Androphagi,  "  men 
raters ;"  tlie  Neuri,  "  once  a  year  converted  into  foxes,"  These  Greek  nimes,  and  partly 
f  ibulous  attributes,  .show  tlie  very  imperfect  noture  of  the  notices  collected  on  the  subject 
The  regions  beyond  the  Danube  are  expressly  stated  to  be  occupied  by  nations  to  him 
unknown.  Two  precious  commodities,  tlie  amber  from  the  coast  of  Prussia,  and  the  tin  of 
the  Cassiterides,  under  which  lost  name  a  vague  idea  of  the  British  Islands  seems  to  be 
included,  communicated  the  knowledge,  that  there  was  a  great  ocean  in  the  north,  but 
without  tho  means  of  ascertaining  its  extent  and  limits.  On  the  east,  however,  as  already 
observed,  he  hail  attached  to  Europe  a  vast  (extent  of  territory  which  has  been  entirely 
severed  from  it  in  subsequent  systems.  The  cxptinse  of  northern  and  even  middle  Asia, 
which  the  ancients  afterwards  called  Scytliin,  and  which  forms  tlio  modem  Tartary,  inha- 
bited by  races  exactly  similar  to  the  Scythians  already  descriliod,  Appeared  to  Herodotus 
decidedly  European.  It  was  bounded  by  the  Phasis,  the  Caspian,  the  Anil  (not  distinctly 
recognized),  and  tlio  J.ixartes.  The  Mussagota;,  cclebnitcd  for  their  contest  with  Cyrus, 
gave  name  with  Heroilotiis  to  all  the  wandering  triiies  in  this  eastern  p.art  of  Europe;  but 
they  were  afterwards  merged  into  the  prevailing  appellation  of  Scythion.s. 

SiiBSECT.  2.     Asia  of  Ilerodolus.  ,^ 

Asia,  according  to  tlie  conception  of  it  formed  by  Hero<lotus,  will  appear,  from  what  has 
been  said,  to  inclmle  only  a  small  portion  of  tho  vast  continent  to  whicli  we  assign  that 
name.  On  tlie  north  it  Imd  the  same  seas  and  rivers  just  enuiiierated  as  the  Ixiundaries  of 
eastern  Europe ;  to  the  east  it  tenninaled  with  India ;  while  even  to  the  south,  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  desert  tracts  of  .Arabia  were  not  yet  believed  to  exist.    When  this  great  historian 


H      % 


..■-.  ■  -.-.»  ■  ^• 


Book  L 


ASIA  OF  HERODOTUS. 


1 repre- 
men 
partly 
ibject. 
to  him 
tin  of 
to  be 
th,  but 
llrcady 
itirely 
Asia, 
inlm- 
lodotus 
tinctly 
"lyruB, 
but 


a.t  hoB 
In  that 
ries  of 
re  por- 
Itorian 


wrote,  all  tho  various  kinfifdoms  and  petty  titatcH,  ink)  which,  in  the  infhncy  of  the  world, 
A«ia  had  been  partitioned,  were  abtK)rliL'd  into  onu  vut  ompiro.  The  PeriiianN  claimed  Asia 
OH  their  own,  and  hod  diHtributed  it  into  twenty-four  HatrnpieH,  which  have  been  illustrated 
in  a  very  learned  manner  by  Major  Rennnll.  They  includciid,  with  the  exception  of  the 
northern  part,  which  ho  conHidcrcd  an  Euroiican,  all  of  AHia  that  wan  known  to  tiie  Greeks, 
In  collectinff  therefore  firom  Major  Kenncd'H  invc8ti{^ution  tho  following  table  of  those 
sutrapii-M,  wo  exhibit  not  only  the  outline  of  tliat  gtent  empire,  but,  with  tlio  somewhat 
dubiouri  exception  of  a  small  part  of  Greece,  the  whole  of  the  civilized  world,  Tho  tribute 
paid  in  talents  of  silver  will  exhibit  their  relative  wealth  and  importance. 

TADLR  OP  TIIE  DIVIBIOM  OF  ABIA  INTO  BATRAPIE& 


Innii).  Mnnnniii),  Tarin,  ^.nlia,  I.yclH,  PiinpliyllK  (IIib  wot  and  louth  coail  of  Atln  Minor) 

Myiiiii,  l.yilia,  *r.  (llic  ni'»U'rn  iiitrrlnr) 

I'lirytin,  i'ii|ililnKniiia, Cn |>iinilucia,  Ilc.  (llio  north rnniit  and  the  K'aal  inteiior  table'land  of  Ada  Minor) 

Cilinn  (incliiitinit  part  of  Syria,  ami  ri'ai'liliiii  to  tho  Kiiphratca) 

Phronlcia,  Palcotinc.  anil  Cyiirux (which  furnlahi-il  hIiki  a  Ihinl  part  of  Hie  naval  force  of  the  emplri) 

Eifvpt,  incliiiUnii  I'vrenc  anil  narra(hnir  of  tho  tribiitu  paiil  In  grain] 

HnhylDM  nnil  Anayrla,  inrliiiling  Syria,  anil  furnlahing  alio  300 eunuchi 

BiiHiaua,  nr  Southern  Pemia.   

Mi'iliu,  (Northern  Pomia) 

The  Canpiana,  PiralcB,  Panliinathi,  anil  Darltm  (IhaCnipian  provinces  of  Pania) 

Tho  MatlenI,  Saiplroi,  &c.  (Ailcrliljan  and  the  Armenian  province!) 


Armnnia. 

The  Mnaynoici,  TibarenI,  Moichi,  let.  (the  Wettrrn  Caucaiua,  Oeorfia,  Mingrelia,  aa  ftr  aa  Trebi- 

ronil) 

Thi-  Sagartinna,  Saraincana,  he.  (Si<i»tnn,  Caromanio,  Lar,  and  other  territories  along  the  Indian 

Ocean,  and  the  eaitrrn  part  of  tho  Peraian  Rulf) 

Tho  Pnrthiana,  Choaamiana,  Bogdiana,  and  Ariana  (Klioraaan,  Herat,  Candahar) 

Tho  Oanilaril,  the  Dadicn,  Ilc.  (Margiana,  the  country  on  the  Murghab,  between  Khoraaan  and  the 

Oxua 

Bnctria  (Balk) 

The  Snru!  and  Caaplca)(Kasligar,  Famer,  and  other  tracts  of  mounlainoui  country  about  the  head  of 

tho  Oliia) 

Tho  I'ariranii  and  Elhiopianaof  Aain  (Mckran,  including,  perhaps,  Caubul,  and  the  Delta  of  the 

Indua) 

India,  the  largeat  of  all.  being  300  talents  in  gold,  which  amounts  in  ailver  to 


400 
800 

300 
SOO 
360 
1400 
lUOO 
300 
4S0 
900 
900 
«J0 

300 

000 
300 

170 
360 

S50 

400 
4060 


Some  tracts  of  this  vast  empire,  not  formed  into  regular  satrapies,  were  privileged  to 
furnish  only  presents,  or  gifts,  under  an  appearance  of  voluntary  homage.  Among  these 
were  ranked  the  Persians  proper,  inhabiting  the  modern  Fars,  who  obtained  this  distinction 
as  the  conquering  people  by  whom  the  empire  was  originally  founded.  The  Southern 
Arabians,  and  the  Ethiopians  above  Egypt,  derived  the  same  immunity  from  the  difficult 
acces,-.  to  those  rude  regions  in  which  they  dwelt.  The  Southern  Arabians  are  said  to  have 
propitiated  the  favour  of  the  great  king  by  the  present  of  a  thousand  talent's  of  incense.  The 
Colchians,  ond  tho  occupants  of  the  neighbouring  heights  of  Caucasus,  were  also  numbered 
among  the  "  givers  of  gifts ;"  while  the  inhabitants  of  the  northern  parts  of  that  great  range, 
secure  in  their  mountain  fastnesses,  are  said  to  have  cared  very  little  about  the  miglity  ruler 
of  Persia. 

These  delineations  of  Asia  display,  upon  the  whole,  a  surprising  accuracy  nnd  extent  of 
knowledge ;  yet  several  remarkable  errors  occur  with  regard  to  points  of  which  the  investi- 
gation does  not  appear  very  difficult.  Thus  the  breadth  of  Asia  Minor  was  reduced  almost 
a  half;  that  between  Babylon  and  the  capital  of  Egypt  was  underrated  at  least  a  fourth ; 
and  the  country  between  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Caspian  was  placed  in  the  same  meridian 
with  the  Persian  Gulf,  while  it  is  really  four  degrees  to  tho  westward.  These  errors  are 
the  more  remarkable,  as  the  distances,  instead  of  being  in  excfss,  according  to  almost  every 
other  ancient  example,  fall  short  of  the  truth.  The  early  travellers  exaggerated  every  space 
over  which  they  actually  passed;  but  it  sometimes  happened  that  two  points  were  ap- 
proached from  different  quarters,  and  then  united  to  each  other  by  a  hypothetical  line,  which, 
as  men  usually  undervalue  what  they  know  nothing  of,  was  made  generally  too  small.  It 
would  not  Appear  that  any  regular  route  had  been  fonnotl  acra«8  the  high  and  rugged  table- 
land in  the  interior  of  Asia  Minor  from  Cilicia  to  Trcbisond.  These  two  points,  being 
approached  respectively  along  the  southern  and  northern  coasts  of  the  peninsula,  might  bo 
supposed  nearer  to  each  other  than  they  really  were.  Egypt  was  approached  through  Syria 
and  Palestine,  and  Babylon  by  descending  the  Euphrates;  but  tho  direct  line  between  them 
lying  across  the  Arabian  desert,  was  scarcely  known  or  frequented,  and  therefore  became 
an  ideal  lino  in  tlie  view  of  Herodotus.  Tho  line  from  Armenia  to  the  Persian  Gulf  was 
of  course  measured  along  the  Euphrates,  tlie  general  course  of  which  was  south ;  and  as 
the  ancients  oriented  all  their  lines  to  a  cardinal  point,  they  overlooked  the  gradual  but 
constant  bend  which  that  river  takes  to  the  eastward. 

The  ideas  of  Herodotus  concerning  the  extent  of  Asia,  even  including  all  that  portion 
of  it  which  he  assigned  to  Europe,  could  not  fail  to  be  defective.  He  knew  nothing  of 
India  beyond  the  Ganges,  Thibet,  China,  Eastern  Tartary,  or  Siberia,  more  than  half  the 
superficial  extent  of  the  continent.    Even  his  notions  concerning  India  were  most  imper- 


88 


HISTORY  OF  OEOORAPHY. 


P*«T  T. 


tbct.  Ho  ilcHorihoH  it  oh  lioiinilcd  nn  tlii'  oiint  by  Htinil,  Htrctcliin^  iiitn  nii  unknown  nnd 
mcuKurclcw  dcNrrt,  Frnni  tliirt  Htntcninit  it  clcnriy  iipiMvirM  tliiit  IiIm  lii<liu  cciiniirpliiMKliMl 
merely  tho  wnitnrn  (xirt  wiitcrcil  by  tlio  Induri  anil  it*  tlvt*  tribiitflrirx;  li«  know  nolliin^  ol' 
ita  widcmt  nnd  richrst  rrjfionH,  tho  Onn|;<'tic  provincoH,  Dollii,  ncnifnl,  niul  tho  I)<Tciin ; 
\htge  iiortiuHN  were  ulno  cut  olT  tVuin  the  Moiitliorn  coMtH  uf  AHin,  which  wrro  itiippoxtid  to 
bo  woHhcd  bv  an  ocoun  nulled  tho  Rod  or  F.rytlironn  Hon,  without  any  diitinctiun  of  ttin 
Pcnian  Gult,  aiid  vory  little  of  that  which  wo  now  call  tho  Rod  Hoa. 

SvMBOT,  3. — i^rtca  of  Herodolui. 

In  hid  inquirioH  rmtpcctinff  AtVica,  Ilorodotuit  npponrH  to  hovo  boon  rqunlly  dilifrnnt  ai 
concorning'  tho  other  rojfions  of  tho  pflobo;  but  oh  hn  never  procooded  U'yond  F'tfypf,  nnd 
U  tho  formidable  hnrriers  which  nntiirc  oppiMca  to  him  who  nttoinplH  to  penetmto  tho  irito- 
rior  had  Injon  vory  imperfectly  overcome,  much  in  what  he  collecterl  iH  otiicurod  with  my». 
tery  or  perplexed  with  conjecture. 

Eoypt  is  described  with  (^rcut  accuracy,  and  under  aome  features  which  no  lonj^er  exist; 
for  the  Tanitic  and  Peluxiac  branchoH  of  the  Nile,  of  which  little  more  than  the  chnnnelu 
can  now  bo  traced,  wore  then  in  tbll  flow.  It  appears,  however,  that  conMidernhlo  contusion 
prevailed  respoctinj}  tho  quarter  of  tho  world  to  which  Kj^nt  wos  to  bo  adjudge*  As 
water  formed  tho  basis  of  tho  division  into  continents,  tho  sanuy  isthmus  of  8uez,  believed 
to  be  broader  than  it  really  was,  appeared  very  ill-flttcd  to  fonn  such  a  limit.  The  Nile, 
therefore,  in  the  opinion  of  all  tho  Greeks,  was  tho  boundary  of  the  continents:  all  to  the 
east  was  Arabia ;  all  to  the  west  Libya ;  but  a  difficulty  here  arose  in  flxinf^  tho  lot  of  K^pt 
itself  Tho  Greeks,  it  appears,  considered  nothings  as  Egypt  beyond  tho  Delta ;  but  this 
opinion  is  ridiculed  by  Herodotus,  who  observes,  that  in  that  case  there  must  formerly  havo 
been  no  Egypt  at  all,  since  this  its  lower  branch  was  evidentlv  produced  by  tho  gradual 
alluvial  depositions  of  the  Nile,  Ho  contends  reasonably,  that  all  tho  banks  of  tho  Nile  as 
fkr  up  as  Elephanta,,  which  was  inhabited  by  Eiryptians,  was  clearly  Egypt.  Ho  accuses 
tho  Greeks  of  referring  tho  Delta,  or  their  Egypt,  neither  to  Asia  nor  Libya.  If  wo  rightly 
understand  his  own  idea,  it  is  tlmt  the  niiddlo  or  Scbcnnytic  branch  was  tho  proper  point 
of  division  between  those  continents. 

In  tracing  the  ^Jilo  above  Egypt,  Herodotus  states  a  lino  of  two  months'  journey  partly 
along  tho  banks,  partly  in  b<wts  which  were  dragged  by  ropes  along  tho  current  through 
tho  rocky  channel.  At  tho  end  of  this  journey  tney  came  to  Meroe,  the  capital  of  Ethiopiu 
above  Egvpt,  an  ancient  and  celebrated  kingdom,  whoso  monu.r.ents  were  viewed  with 
almost  religious  veneration,  and  whose  monarchs  had  repeatedly  conquered  h^'ypt  and 
founded  dynasties.  Two  moiitlis'  journey  farther  was  tho  country  of  the  Egyptian  exiles, 
a  numerous  body,  who,  having  revolted  from  Psammotirus,  sought  tho  protection  of  tho 
king  of  Ethiopia,  and  were  cantoned  bv  him  in  this  remote  district,  which  may  bo  Sonnaar, 
or  rather,  perhaps,  tho  branch  of  the  mhr-el-Abiad  opixisito  to  it ;  for  Herodotus  shows  his 
knowledge  of  this  lust  stream  by  observing  tlmt  it  comes  from  tho  west. 

The  long  tract  of  desert  to  the  west  of  Egypt  is  also  described  by  Hero<lotus  in  some 
detail,  though  apparently  only  from  hearsay.  Fho  most  conspicuous  objects  hero  are  the 
oa.<ies,  particularly  that  which  contains  the  ancient  and  venerated  templo  of  .Tupiter  Ammon, 
and  which  has  been  identified  with  the  modern  Siwali,  To  the  west  he  gives  tho  names 
of  a  i-uccession  of  wandering  and  pastoral  tribes,  such  as  still  roam  over  those  arid  and  sandy 
regions,  deriving  from  the  soil  only  the  produce  of  the  dato-trce.  Many  of  thorn  stand 
charged  with  morals  peculiarly  shameless  and  dissolute,  the  fcniiiles  indulging  openly  in 
the  most  irregular  conduct,  nnd  making  even  a  Ixjust  of  the  tuimber  of  their  paramours. 
Probably  there  may  be  scandal  mixed  in  those  very  evil  reports  of  the  African  ladies.  An 
exception  tx)  this  rude  pastoral  rliaractor  existed  on  tho  coast  of  Cyronaica,  where  tho 
Greeks  established  flourishing  polonies,  which  could  b<'  approached,  however,  only  by  tlio 
dangerous  route  of  the  Syrlis  or  (luicksand,  proverbial  in  ancient  times  as  the  scene  of  dis- 
astrous shipwreck. 

The  Nasjimones,  the  most  westerly  as  well  as  the  most  numerous  of  tho  wandering 
tribes,  in  general  drove  their  herds  along  the  sea-const,  but  in  sununer  repaired  to  tho  Oasis 
of  itigila  (Augila)  to  collect  tho  dates  produced  in  that  district.  A  tribe  among  this  people 
were  called  the  Psylli,  or  devourers  of  serpent-s;  and  in  fiict  iippenr  to  have  had  a  ))oculiur 
iwwer  of  charming  those  noxir.us  reptiles  with  which  their  deserts  alKiund.  Within  their 
borders,  on  the  side  of  Cyrcno,  whore  verdure  first  began  to  adorn  tho  waste,  Herodotus 
has  fixed  the  fabled  site  of  the  He.-;perian  gardens. 

The  Garumantcs,  to  the  south-west  of  Augila,  and  tho  Nasamoncs,  arc  represented  by 
our  historian  as  inhabitants  of  a  region  infested  by  wild  boasts,  and  of  a  timid  character, 
flying  the  view  and  intercour,'<o  of  other  men,  destitute  of  amis,  nnd  unacquainted  with  war. 
These  characters  do  not  apply  to  the  people  of  modern  Fezznn,  which,  however,  is  undoubt- 
edly tho  tract  pointed  out.  To  the  north-west  wore  tho  (lindanes  (the  mo<lern  Gudamis), 
among  whom  the  license  of  public  morals  had  risen  to  a  greater  height,  than  among  all  tho 
wandering  tribes  of  Libya.   Still  proceeding  north-west,  the  traveller  came  to  the  lake  Tri- 


if- 


BunK  I. 


THK  KXI'KDITION  OP  AI.KXANDKH. 


Itho  Oasis 

lis  people 

pcculiiir 

jliin  their 

^ntnd  by 
llmractcr, 
Ivith  war. 
lundonbt- 
riudiimis), 
Ip  all  the 

lake  Tri- 


tonin,  <'(>l('l)rnl('(l  in  nnrioni  (Mf  ii<!  tlii<  birf  li-plnrc  of  MinrrvM,  who,  ncoonlin;?  to  ono  liwMid, 
wn>i  N|>ritriif  tVoiii  Ni'ptiino  nnd  flc  nymph  of  Ihi-  hiki-.  Thin  hikf  liirinH  thn  wuMtt'rn  limit 
i)t'  thi>  liin^f  riin;.'<>  nt'  noniiidu'  trihnii.  Ik'yoiid  it,  lliTodotiH  (rivcM  um  the  Miixy'N,  who  ciiU 
livati'd  till'  (.'riiiu\d.  Ho  had  now  ri-nrhod  that  tine  raiijfi' ot'tiTritory  lirlnn^jiinf  fo  Ciirthajff, 
Ktri'trhlM','  aloM(^  thii  nxwf,  writi-n^l  nnd  rnrirht'il  hy  ntrrnniH  tVoin  Ihii  Athin,  It  in  very 
ri'tnarkiilili',  hownvrr,  that  hi>  bixinld  piKM  hv  entindy  that  uug\\iy  anri  rcdnbrated  KtutP, 
whii  li  was  not  only  thn  \m<<{  |h  .wortlll  in  Atripa,  hut  wan  iilwi  tl'o  rcritni  of  indiinlry  and 
riiiriiiii'rco  with  rocprct  to  tli*^      icicnt  world.     .Major  Konmdl  han  iinH|N<('tc(|  that  tliin  arowi 

f'r a  national  I'l'idinir  of  oiiin       on  acroiitit  of  tlit'ir  allianro  with  tim  IVrKlnnx;  hnl  whrn 

wo  conxidcr  that  no  miidi  t(<(dni_  hn«  prcvcntod  tlio  Inlh'Ht  acTount  tVoin  hoini;  jjivcii  ol'  thf 
l't'r-'ian-<  thoniHtdvfn,  it  can  prarcoly  1h>  mippoMcd  that  the  h(>inif  inrrely  tVicnilM  to  tho  Per- 
HiiinN  would  cxrhido  ho  (jri'at  a  pi'opic  iVoin  Imm  notico.  It  Honuix  roally  very  dilH(  nil  to 
ronjci'fnrn  liifi  motive,  unleHw,  aerordini;  to  the  Hn)ffjeHtion  of  a  learniMl  t'rienil,  we  Hiip|H)(.o  tliat 
HercKlotns,  writinjjf  nlnifwt  entirely  tn  ilhiHtratiMvliat  waa  oliHcure,  or  connnunicate  know- 
ledjje  on  [viintn  renpeetin)?  whieh  ttu*  world  were  in  ignorance,  ini(;lit  think  it  HU|)erMnoiiH  to 
doHcribe  what  muct  have  been  well  known  to  the  bulk  of  hiri  readers,  for  the  name  reason 
that  hn  has  ffiven  no  reifidar  desoription  of  (ireere.  In  reference  to  the  trani>nrtionN  of  this 
pooolo  with  other  nntioni,  he  tjiken  re()eated  occasion  to  mention  thoni,  no  that  the  oinisMion 
conid  not  arise  from  absolnte  ij,'noninco. 

Atlas  and  fh>  doBert  bonier  behind  it  next  onpajfo  the  attention  of  onr  historian;  b  tract 
renrhinj;  as  fur  as  the  utraits,  which  he  mils  the  hiqli  fnrvhrml  of  Africa.  He  describes 
.Atlas  as  a  lonff  and  lolly  ranpe,  wliotin  lii)r|iest  pinnacles  arc  wrapped  in  perpetnal  rhaids 
and  he  asoribes  to  the  natives  the  oripin  of  the  belief  adopted  by  the  Greeks,  which  made 
it  the  pillar  of  heaven.  Even  in  this  extreme  Iniundary  of  the  continent,  ho  mcntifais  some 
pccnliarities  that  really  exist : — the  enormous  size  and  formidable  rharacter  of  the  serpent 
tribe;  oxen  with  lar(?o  nnd  crooked  horns;  houses  of  salt  whirh  would  melt  away  it'a  sinjflo 
shower  were  to  interrupt  the  continued  drouffht.  When  he  bejjins,  however,  to  speak  of 
people  with  horses'  heads,  and  others  without  heads  at  all,  it  is  time  to  fake  our  leave ; 
thou(;li  some  learned  writers  suppose  this  to  be  a  mere  oxajffforateil  description  of  some 
animals  of  the  desert.  Wo  must  still  follow  him,  however,  to  the  western  creist  beyond  the 
straits,  where  the  rnrthnfjinians,  ho  was  informed,  carried  on  trad«>  witii  the  natives  in  a 
peculiar  manner.  The  prties  did  not  see  each  other,  but  after  a  sijifiial  made  by  smoke,  (me 
laid  down  his  nrofler,  went  away,  and  left  room  for  the  other  to  do  the  seme ;  when  the  first 
came,  and  eitlicr  accepted  or  rejected  the  barirnin,  till  the  terms  wore  adjusted.  Tluire 
have  been  re|)ort8  in  various  quarters  of  this  mo(m  of  traffic,  hut  all,  wo  suspect,  exnjfgerated 
representations  of  the  timid  manner  in  which  civilized  traders  make  their  approachi^s  to 
those  savaije  people  who  possessed  any  valuable  commodities.  The  priMluct  soujrht  \hhiu 
this  shore  was  jjold ;  anil,  as  it  does  not  exist  in  any  latitude  north  of  the  Hone),'al,  Major 
Reimell  concliidea  that  the  trade  of  Carthatre  extended  to  that  distant  river.  A  sceptic 
mipht  surmise  tliat  the  pold  was  brouL.'ht  across  the  desert  to  the  coast  of  Barbary ;  yet, 
considerinrf  the  formidable  character  of  this  desert,  it  seems  doubtful  if  at  so  early  a  period 
a  comnorcial  route  across  itc(Hild  have  been  opened. 

The  interior  of  Africa  could  not  fail  deeply  to  attract  the  curiosity  of  llorodotus.  The 
part  already  noticed  as  described  by  him  forms  only  a  belt  along  its  northern  coast,  and 
mcludes  none  of  the  vast  inland  tracts.  On  this  subject,  however,  ho  has  only  one  talc  to 
tell.  Several  Nasamoniun  youths  of  distinction,  seisied  with  that  desire  to  penetrate  the 
continent  which  has  prevailed  throuirhout  all  ages,  departed  on  an  expedition  to  the  south- 
ward. They  traversed  three  successive  bolts;  first,  the  cultivated,  or  at  least  verdant  and 
inhabited  tract  alonfj  tiie  sea-shore ;  then,  another  occupied  only  by  wild  beasts ;  and,  lastly, 
n  refjion  arid  and  desolate.  Here,  while  pluckinpf  fruits,  they  were  surprised  by  some 
men  of  small  stature,  who  carried  them  by  the  way  of  very  great  lakes,  to  a  city  inhabilsd 
bv  black  inhabitants,  and  situated  on  a  large  river  flowing  from  west  to  east.  This  river 
iterodotus,  Naturally  enough,  judges  to  W  the  Nile.  Major  Rennell  conceives  it  to  bo  pro- 
bably the  river  of  Tombuctoo,  wliich  Riiropcan.s  call  the  Niger;  but  we  think,  since  the 
late  discoveries,  there  can  scarcely  be  any  hesitation  in  fixing  it  as  the  Ycou,  the  river 
which  rolls  through  Bornou,  while  the  Tchad  may  be  identified  with  tlio  great  lakes 
along  which  the  expedition  was  conducted. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

FIRST  .M.EXANDniAN  SCHOOL—ERAToaTlIENES  AND  BTRABO. 

Rkct.  I. —  The  Expedilion  of  Alexander, 

The  geography  of  the  Greeks  became  little  more  than  a  topographical  delineation  of 
military  routes,  litler  the  intestine  wars  in  which  they  were  involved  caused  them  to  lose 
eiglit  of  the  more  distant  rcLMons  of  the  earth.     Reside}--,  as  they  never  cultivated  mathe- 

VOL.    I.  '  * 


it'J 

i 


m 


f 


HISTORY  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pabt  I. 


! 


iv 


matical  science  with  any  care  or  to  any  extent,  tliey  Imd  not  the  power  of  arranging 
even  these  limited  materials  into  a  KyKtematic  form. 

The  expedition  of  Alexander  gave  a  much  greater  degree  of  expansion  to  the  human  mind. 
That  monarch  transferred  the  scut  of  war  into  the  Persian  empire,  and  carried  his  victorious 
arms  into  the  remotest  regions  of  the  East.  Whatever  might  be  the  faults  ancl  follies  with 
which  his  career  was  stained,  it  cannot  be  denied  that  an  enlightened  curiosity  animated 
all  his  proceedings.  Wherever  he  went,  he  was  accompanied  by  skilful  surveyors,  Diogne- 
tus  and  Boiton,  wlio  measured  the  length  and  direction  of  every  route  over  which  the 
army  passed.  Alexander  himself  carefully  inspected  these  itineraries,  employed  all  prac- 
ticable means  for  obtaining  the  best  materials,  and  his  letters  are  even  quoted  by  Pliny  as 
authorities  for  many  geographical  statements.  These  itineraries  are  said  to  have  been 
afterwards  published  by  Bteton,  under  the  title  of  "  the  Marches  of  Alexander."  From  the 
defective  state  of  the  science,  however,  which  that  prince  could  not  remedy,  all  these 
materials  were  necessarily  imperfect  They  could  include  nothing  beyond  mechanical 
measurement,  nor  is  there  any  record,  throughout  this  long  career,  of  a  single  attempt  to 
fix  the  position  of  any  spot  by  celestial  oteervation.  Imperfect  as  they  were,  however, 
these  documents  did  not  the  less  form  a  completely  new  era  in  geographical  science.  After 
the  death  of  Alexander,  they  passed  through  the  hands  of  Scleucus  into  those  of  Ptolemy 
Philadelphus,  who  spared  no  efforts  to  render  Alexandria  the  greatest  seat  of  learning  and 
science  in  the  ancient  world ;  and  among  the  sciences  there  cultivated,  geography  and 
astronomy  held  the  most  distinguished  place. 

The  progress  of  Alexander  led  him  at  first  through  Syria,  Egypt  and  Persia,  but  did  not 
bring  the  Greeks  to  the  knowledge  of  any  countries,  of  whose  existence  and  limits  they 
were  not  already  fully  apprised.  But  after  he  began  the  pursuit  of  Eessus,  who  had  carried 
off  Darius  into  Bactriana,  his  march  became  a  sort  of  exploratory  route.  In  his  vain  pur- 
suit of  the  Scythian  armies  he  reached  the  banks  of  tlie  Jaxartes,  though  he  did  not  fully 
trace  the  course  either  of  that  river  or  of  the  Oxus.  On  his  way  thence  to  India,  he  had 
to  penetrate  the  narrow  passes  overhung  by  the  snowy  ramparts  of  the  Hindoo  Coosh,  and, 
with  much  difficulty  and  many  hardships  to  his  troops,  learned  to  appreciate  the  magnitude 
of  that  great  inland  barrier  of  Asia.  In  India,  Alexander  could  not  penetrate  beyond  the 
region  watered  by  the  five  rivers.  Yet  he  did  not  consider  it  as  the  boundary  of  the 
earth ;  he  learned  the  existence  and  beauty  of  the  fine  regions  on  the  Ganges,  whither  he 
in  vain  attempted  to  persuade  his  fatigued  and  refractory  troops  to  follow  him.  He  consoled 
himself  by  conveying  his  army  in  pomp  down  the  Indus,  to  view  the  entrance  of  that  great 
stream  into  the  ocean,  and  with  instructions,  as  we  have  already  seen,  to  trace  the  shores 
of  Asia  round  the  Persian  Gulf.  He  himself,  upon  very  bad  information,  undertook  to  lead 
back  his  army  through  Gedrosia  and  Caramania,  the  greater  part  of  which  he  found,  as 
modem  travellers  have  done,  to  be  a  desert  of  the  most  dreary  and  formidable  character,  in 
which  his  army  was  with  difficulty  saved  from  total  destruction. 

Sect.  II. — Expedition  of  Seleucus. 
Seleucus,  on  the  partition  of  the  empire  of  Alexander,  succeeded  to  the  dominion  of 
Syria  and  the  East.  Neither  that  prince  nor  his  successors  were  either  learned  or  patrons  of 
learning;  but  as  the  owner  of  extensive  dominions,  and  aiming  at  farther  conquest,  he 
cherished  tlie  natural  wish  to  be  acquainted  with  what  he  possessed  or  hoped  to  obtain.  Ho 
employed  his  admiral,  Patrocles,  to  make  a  survey  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  which  had  not 
entered  into  tlie  line  of  Alexander's  route;  but  the  information  gained  by  this  voyage  must, 
as  we  shall  see,  have  been  far  from  complete.  It  would  also  seem  as  if  he  had  employed  the 
same  admiral  in  an  attempt  to  circumnavigate  Asia;  but  the  assertion  which  obtained  credit 
in  that  age,  tliat  he  had  sailed  round  from  India  to  the  Ciispian,  sufficiently  attests  the  failure 
of  the  enterprise.  Seleucus,  also,  finding,  probably,  that  the  inroad  of  Alexander  into  India 
had  been  of  very  transient  result,  undertook  a  military  expedition,  the  details  of  which  are 
little  kno\vn,  and  which  enabled  him  to  establish  no  permanent  footing  in  the  country ;  but 
he  collected  some  further  materials  for  the  geographer,  and  the  record  of  his  marches  appears 
to  have  been  of  imjwrtant  service  to  Pliny.  He  sent  also  an  embassy  under  Megasthenes 
to  Palibothra,  capital  of  the  great  Indian  kingdom  situated  on  the  Ganges,  from  which  the 
ancients  derived  a  more  accurate  knowledge  of  these  eastern  parts  of  the  world  than  they 
liad  previously  possessed. 

SErr.  III. — Eratosthenes. 
Eratosthenes  at  length  succeeded  in  reducing  geography  to  a  system  under  the  patronage 
of  the  Ptolemies,  whicli  gave  him  access  to  all  the  materials  colloctpd  by  Alexander,  his 
generals,  and  successors,  and  to  the  immense  mass  of  docunients  assembled  in  the  Alexan- 
drian library.  The  astronomical  observations  made  in  this  school  were  now  sufficient  to 
prove  the  globular  form  of  t\w  earth.  Eratosthenes,  proceeding  u|)on  tiiis  principle,  made  it 
his  study  to  adjust  to  it  all  llie  known  features  of  the  globe.  He  did  not,  however,  attend 
to  the  gnmd  original  division.s  of  the  equator,  tlie  pole,  or  even  tlie  tropics.     The  line  which 


nironape 

nder,  his 

Alcxan- 

Scient  to 

\,  inado  it 

attend 

no  wliici' 


Book  I.      WORLD  ACCORDING  TO  ERATOSTHENES  AND  STRABO.  39 

formed  the  basis  of  his  geograpliy,  and  generally  of  that  of  the  Alexandrian  school,  wa«  a 
parallel  drawn  across  the  Mediterranean,  and  thence  prolonged  through  Asia.  It  waa 
formed  in  a  very  rough  manner,  upon  no  actual  observation,  and  comprising  all  leading 
positions  which  came  nearly  though  not  strictly  within  its  sphere.  It  was  called  generally,  the 
parallel  of  Rhodes.  The  most  westerly  point  was  the  Sacred  Cape  of  Iberia  (Cape  St  Vin- 
cent), after  which  followed  the  "  Strait  of  the  Pillars"  (of  Hercules).  The  next  point  waa 
tiic  Strait  of  Sicily,  erroneously  considered  to  be  under  the  same  meridian  with  Rome  and 
Carthage.  Then  came  Rhodes,  the  centre  of  the  line.  Issus,  celebrated  as  the  site  of  the 
victory  of  Alexander,  was  with  little  dilFiculty  brought  within  the  limit  Next  followed  the 
somewhat  doubtful  position  of  tlie  Caspian  gates,  and  the  line  was  extended  along  the  chain 
of  Mount  Taurus,  supposed  to  divide  Asia  into  two  parts,  till  it  terminated  at  the  remote 
city  of  Tliina?,  situated  on  the  eastern  ocean.  This  entire  length  of  the  habitable  world,  aa 
it  was  called,  amounted  to  about  70,000  stadia,  or,  according  to  his  estimate,  one  hundred 
degrees,  not  quite  a  third  of  tlie  circuit  of  the  globe. 

In  determining  a  meridian  to  exhibit  liis  breadth  of  the  habitable  world,  Eratosthenes 
laboured  under  still  greater  difficulties.  On  the  extreme  south  was  "  the  limit  of  the  habitable 
earth;"  for,  accordmg  to  this  school,  a  certain  tract  around  the  equator  was,  from  the 
excess  of  heat,  unfit  for  human  habi'  ition.  The  uninhabitable  zone  was  supposed  to  extend 
8,300  stadia,  or  about  twelve  degrees  to  the  north  of  the  equator.  Under  the  next  parallel 
were  included  the  "  Isle  of  the  Exiles,"  in  or  near  Sennoar ;  the  cinnamon-bearing  region, 
which  appears  to  be  Berbera,  and  Taproban,  or  Ceylon.  Next  comes  Meroe,  the  capital  of 
Ethiopia,  which  was  supposed,  though  with  great  error,  to  correspond  as  to  latitude  with 
the  southern  extremity  of  India :  thence  descending  the  Nile  the  geographer  marks  the 
jelebrated  position  of  Syene,  which  was  concluded  to  be  immediately  under  the  tropic, 
iiince  there  was  a  well,  in  the  depth  of  which  at  noon-day,  at  the  precise  time  of  the  vernal 
equinox,  the  disk  of  the  sun  \.as  seen  reflected  entire.  The  observation  was  very  nearly 
correct  Next  came  Alexandria,  of  which,  as  the  centre  of  all  these  observations,  the 
position  aa  to  latitude  was  very  closely  approximated.  Then  followed  Rhodes  in  the  centre 
of  the  great  parallel  already  described  as  exhibiting  the  length  of  the  habitable  globe. 
Continuing  northward,  though  not  upon  the  same  lino,  were  found  the  Hellespont,  Byzan- 
tium, the  mouth  of  the  Borysthenes,  and  passing  over  the  vast  obscurely-known  tracts  of 
Germany,  Gaul,  and  Britain,  tlic  farthest  Thulc,  which,  on  the  report  of  Pytheas,  Eratos- 
thenes regarded  as  the  extreme  northern  boundary  of  the  earth.  As  the  same  authority 
placed  Thule  under  the  Arctic  circle,  or  at  sixty-six  degrees  of  latitude,  the  interval  be- 
tween that  position  and  the  limit  of  the  habitable  earth  on  the  side  of  the  equator  amounted 
to  about  fifty-four  degrees,  or  according  to  his  estimate  38,000  stadia,  which  formed  thus 
the  supposed  breadth  firom  north  to  south  of  the  habitable  earth. 

Sect.  IV. — Hipparchus. 
Hipparchus,  carrying  still  farther  the  system  adopted  by  Eratosthenes,  subjected  the 
whole  science  of  geography  to  astronomical  principles.  His  labours  in  numbering  the  stars, 
and  arranging  them  according  to  their  place  in  the  heavens,  were  such  as  appeared  mar- 
vellous to  the  ancients,  and  are  esteemed  by  Pliny  aa  achievements  that  would  have  been 
nrduous  even  for  a  god.  In  this  career,  however,  he  had  been  preceded  by  Timocharis  and 
Aristillus,  wlio,  more  than  a  century  before,  had  made  some  observations  whicii  paved  the 
way  for  the  present  extended  discoveries.  Hipparchus  appears  to  have  first  conceived  the 
idea  of  transferring  the  observed  latitudes  find  longitudes  of  the  stars  to  their  correspond- 
ing places  on  the  eartli's  surface,  thus  fixing  the  latter  with  a  precision  which  no  itinerary 
measurements  could  ever  attain.  He  made  a  considerable  number  of  observations  of  lati- 
tude, in  addition  to  the  very  few  previously  existing,  and  he  pointed  out  the  mode  in  which 
(he  longitudes  might  be  ascertained  by  observing  the  eclipses  of  the  sun  and  moon.  It  does 
not  appear  to  what  extent  he  carried  the  diflicult  operations  requisite  for  this  investigation ; 
bu'  he  is  said  to  have  calculated  the  eclipses  for  six  hundred  years,  including  the  moments 
of  their  appearance  at  different  places ;  a  performance  which  seems  to  indicate  a  know- 
ledge of  their  astronomical  position.  Thus  Hipparchus  distinctly  perceived  all  tiie  prin- 
ciples upon  which  an  accurate  system  of  geography  might  be  founded,  and  made  some 
progress  in  their  application;  but  tiiese  important  principles,  like  others  which  wore  beyond 
the  comprehension  of  the  age  in  which  they  were  made,  remained  for  a  long  time  dormant 
or  misapplied,  and  were  not  brought  into  full  practical  opplication  until  a  much  more 
advanced  period  in  the  progress  of  science. 

Sect.  V. — The  world  accordinff  to  Eratosthenes  aitd  Stralo. 
The  application  to  the  different  parts  of  the  earth's  surface  of  the  principles  according 
to  which  the  globe  was  to  bo  delinnatcd,  formed  a  task  still  more  arduous  tiiaii  that  of  the 
first  estnblislmioiit  of  those  ])riiiriplos.  Tho  longitudes  and  latitudes  of  the  ancients  are 
both  erroneous;  more  cspocially  the  longitudes,  to  wliicli  astronomical  observation  waa 
never  verv  cxt?nsivcly  apulicd ;  lionco  it  is  not  wonderful  that  tlie  errors  should  be  great; 


i 


If 


I 


II 


'.'  « 


40 


TSM 


mSTORY  OP  GEOGRArilY. 


'P 


Part  I. 


but  the  regular  and  rapid  manner  in  which  they  accnmulato  appears  very  surprisinx 
They  begin  from  the  Sacred  Cape  of  Iberia  (Cape  St.  Vincent),  which  the  aiicienU  mane 
their  first  meridian,  and  continue  regularly  increasing  as  we  proceed  eastward.  To  the 
Pillars  of  Hercules  were  assigned  more  than  two  dcgree.s  beyond  the  trutli;  to  Alo.xandria, 
nearly  seven ;  to  Issus,  ten ;  to  the  Caspian  gates,  fourteen  ;  to  Pattalena,  or  tiie  Delta  of 
the  Indus,  twenty-three ;  to  the  mouth  of  tlio  Ganges,  nearly  twenty-seven.  We  have 
already  had  occasion  to  observe,  and  the  remark  is  found  in  the  best  ancient  geographers, 
that  merchants  and  travellers  of  that  age  gave  an  exaggerated  report  of  all  the  distances 
over  which  they  passed.  The  windings  of  the  route,  the  hardships  and  obstacles  encoun-- 
tared  by  them,  the  desire  to  magnify  their  own  achievements,  all  concurred  in  inducing 
them  to  view  and  present  this  particular  tlirough  an  amplified  medium.  All  the  ituicraries 
continued  along  the  line  upon  which  Eratosthenes  measured  his  length  of  the  habitable 
globe  being  tlms  unduly  extended,  the  degrees  calculated  out  of  mem  were  of  course 
equally  in  excess ;  and  this  excess  became  always  the  greater  in  proportion  to  the  length 
to  which  the  line  was  protracted  beyond  its  commencement  at  the  Sacred  Cape.  The  lati- 
tude of  the  principal  places  in  and  round  the  Mediterranean  is  in  general  not  far  from  the 
truth,  probably  because  it  was  determined  by  such  rude  observations  as  were  within  the 
compass  of  Greek  science  at  that  early  period. 

In  tracing  the  outline  of  the  known  world,  and  especially  of  the  continents,  geographers 
still  proceeded  amid  obscurity  and  doubt  This  school  had  laid  down  tlie  fiindaraental  prin- 
ciple of  a  great  circumambient  ocean,  embracing  the  entire  circuit  of  the  three  continents. 
This  idea,  mherited  from  Homer,  was  doubtless  supported  by  facts  to  a  considerable  extent ; 
but  its  application  to  the  world  in  general,  and  especially  to  the  nprthern  shores  of  Europe 
and  Asia,  was  manifestly  hypothetical,  Eratosthenes,  in  comparing  the  magnitude  of  his 
known  world,  even  under  its  eroggerated  dimensions,  with  the  general  circumference  of 
the  earth,  became  sensible  that  only  a  third  part  of  this  last  was  filled  up.  He  indulges  in 
conjecture  as  to  the  contents  of  this  vast  unknown  region,  which,  he  observes,  might  either 
be  supposed  to  consist  of  one  great  ocean,  the  whole  of  which  he  denominates  the  Atlantic, 
or  of  lands  and  islands  which  might  be  discovered  in  sailing  to  the  westward.  With  a 
degree  of  caution,  however,  not  very  common  in  that  age,  he  declines  to  give  any  decisive 
opinion  on  this  question. — The  system  of  Eratosthenes  may  now  be  considered  in  regard  to 
Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa. 

Sdbsect.  1. — Europe.  (Fig.  6.) 

The  imperfection  of  ancient  geography  is  often  conspicuous  with  respect  to  countries 
which  were  very  near  and  familiar.  In  regard  to  the  very  centre  of  the  Mediterranean, 
Eratosthenes  conmiitted  a  capital  error.  Following  the  propensity  to  include  all  the  lead- 
ing positions  under  some  one  line  to  which  they  approximate,  he  placed  in  the  same  me- 
ridian Rome,  the  Sicilian  strait  (that  of  Messina),  and  Carthage.  The  mistake  with  regard 
to  the  first  and  last  of  these  points  did  not  much  exceed  a  degree ;  but  the  middle  point  is 
nearly  four  degrees  east  from  Rome,  and  five  from  Carthage.  Such  an  error  could  not  fail 
to  produce  others.  M.  Gossolin  shows  that  it  has  led  to  a  signal  mistake  respecting  the 
position  of  Sicily,  as  the  geographer,  in  order  to  retain  its  relative  position  towanls  Carthage, 
necessarily  represented  its  greatest  length  as  from  north  to  south,  instead  of  from  east  to 
west.  The  promontory  of  Lilyboenm,  facing  Carthage,  became  the  southern  instead  of 
the  western  extremity  of  Sicily ;  while  Cape  Pachynum,  instead  of  the  southern,  became 
the  eastern.  Sicily  being  thus  projected  so  unreasonably  towaitis  the  south,  Carthage  also 
was  made  to  recede  too  far  in  the  same  direction;  and  the  coast  leading  thither  from  the 
straits  of  Gibraltar  was  supposed  to  bend  to  the  south  instead  of  the  north.  The  same 
erroneous  process,  placing  Sicily  too  far  west,  enlarged  beyond  measure  the  eastern  basin 
of  tlie  Mediterranean  comprehended  between  it  and  Asia  Minor.  This  deformity  became 
still  more  serious  from  another  application,  to  Alexandria  and  Rhodes,  of  the  system  of 
placing  leading  points  under  the  same  meridian.  As  the  former  error  had  made  Sicily  too 
fer  west,  this  mode  Rhodes  too  far  cast,  and  rendered  the  sea  between  these  islands  too 
large  by  at  least  a  half. 

Strabo,  ever  alive  to  the  faults  of  his  predecessors,  detected  the  mistake  of  Eratos- 
thenes with  respect  to  the  relotive  positions  of  Rome  and  Carthage.  He  has  been  fer, 
however,  from  rectifying  all  the  wrwig  positions  established  by  his  predecessor.    He  haa 


1.  OfldM 
3.  C'aipe 

3.  Carthavo  Nova 

4.  Narbo 

5.  Manilla 
fl.  Aniipolir 
7.  Ocnuu 
a  Luna 

0,  Populonium 
}f.  Cu3>a 


11.  noma 

K.  0«lia 

IS.  (,'irceii 

14.  PiiieoK 

I.*!.  Nenpuli^ 

1A.  Pnmtlonia 

17.  Velia 

IR  I.nui 

K.  IlitipoBiuin 


of  Europe  according 

to  Eratotlhentn. 

90.  Rhpfriiim 

SS).  Pnla 

il  I'iccr 

21.  Hrjtlaoiam 

7)0.  K[)i<lnunia 

0  fjurnmna 

n.  Thutii 

.11.  KindHmnQi 

f  Durmj 

21.  'I'arenlDin 

'.fi.  ApoJIunia 

*  Tttaua 
n  Anan 

^.  Hriinduaium 

15.  flipiiB 

Rivert 

i    Roofia 

%.  I'eanum 

a  Alhi* 

j   IhRriia 
1i  Khndaoua 
1    Varui 

W.  Ancnna 
«.  Aiimiouni 

b  Rhnnoa 

G  Bcquana 

•r  ., 


'■.    .-*. 


» 


Fio.  6.        EUROPE  ACCORDING  TO  ERATOSTHENES. 


41 


M   A  Jl    E 


A    TLANTlCVia 


^     k 


m. 


Vol.  I. 


ill; 


^■t 


.^. 


mmm 


^ 


43 


HISTORY  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


PartL 


S 


left  untouched  the  false  orienting  of  Sicily,  and  all  the  errorn  dependent  upon  it.  Botli  ho 
and  Eratosthenes  describe  Italy  aa  extending  from  north  to  south,  which,  allowing  for  the 
early  tendency  to  orient  nil  lines  towards  a  cardinal  point,  may  be  taken  us  a  pretty  fail 
representation.  M.  Gosselin  hoii  undertaken  to  show  tliat  sucli  a  tlircction  would  be  incon- 
sistent with  the  other  data  given  by  these  geographers,  in  confbrmity  to  which  Italy  must 
stretcli  from  east  to  west.  Consideruig,  however,  the  imperfect  state  of  geograpiiical  deli- 
neation at  that  puriotl,  it  f^eems  going  too  far  to  follow  each  error  into  all  its  conscquenceB, 
or  to  suppose  that  all  the  views  given  can  be  brought  into  complete  harmony. 

The  outline  of  the  central  and  northern  countries  of  Europe  drawn  by  these  geogra^ 
phcrs  is  excessively  vague.  Strabo  indeed  makes  some  approach  to  accuracy  in  comparing 
the  Spanish  peninsula  to  a  "  hide  spread  out,"  or  to  a  parallelogram.  Various  countries 
were  by  the  ancients  denominated  from  a  fancied  resemblance  to  some  object  in  nature,  nor 
are  examples  wanting  in  modern  times.  But  the  eastern  side  of  this  figure  is  formed  by 
the  Pyrenees,  which  are  thus  made  to  extend  from  north  to  south,  to  form  the  western 
boundary  of  Gaul,  and  to  be  parallel  to  the  Rhine.  Hence  arises  the  greatest  of  all  these 
errors ;  for  Gaul  is  allowed  to  have  on  the  ocean  only  one  coast,  which  is  that  looking  to 
the  north,  and  every  whore  opposite  to  Britain.  Strabo  treats  with  derision  the  report  of 
Pytlicas,  that  the  Calbium  promontorium,  the  extreme  point  of  Brittany,  looked  to  the  west, 
and  he  represents  vessels  as  sailing  to  Britain  as  readily  from  the  mouth  of  the  Loire  and 
Graronne  as  from  tliat  of  tlie  Rhine  and  the  Seine.  Great  as  these  errors  arc,  we  shall  easily 
trace  their  origin  in  considering  the  sources  whence  the  Greeks  derived  their  information 
respecting  these  extremities  of  Europe.  Whatever  may  have  been  the  case  with  regard  to 
the  Carthaginians,  it  is  evident  that  neither  Greeks  nor  Romans  ever  navigated  its  exterior 
seas.  Pytlieas  alone  performed  that  daring  voyage ;  but  having  no  witnesses  to  bring  in 
support  of  his  relation,  it  was  denounced  as  fabulous,  in  common  with  others  made  by  early 
discoverers.  The  regular  channel  of  communication  was  Marseilles.  The  merchanthse  of 
Britain  being  brouglit  across  the  British  channel  to  the  mouths  of  the  Rhine  and  the  Seine, 
was  conveyed  up  lliose  rivers,  and  by  land  carriage  to  that  great  emporium  of  Gaul.  Hence 
the  geography  of  Gaul  and  Britain,  in  that  age,  was  ruled  entirely  by  Massilian  ideas. 
From  the  causes  stated,  the  Massilians  had  no  communication  with  Britain  unless  by  the 
northern  coast  of  Gaul,  and  by  routes  directed  from  .'^oulh  to  north  tiirough  that  country. 
Reasoning  only  from  what  they  knew,  they  might  soon  arrive  nt  the  conclusion,  that  Gaul 
had  only  a  nortiiern  coast,  and  might  apply  to  it  the  wlioie  of  the  erroneous  system  now 
described.  The  result  of  this  system  was,  that  the  Casisitoridcs,  Islands  of  Tin,  in  which 
term  the  Scilly  islands  were  evidently  blended  with  Cornwall,  were  made  to  approach  to 
Spain,  and  came  to  bo  considered  as  much  Spanish  as  British.  So  prevalent  was  this  idea, 
that  even  afterwards,  when  the  conquests  of  Rome  had  made  known  the  wide  separation 
between  the  two  countries,  tlie  Cassiterides  are  found  in  some  maps  still  attached  to  Spain, 
and  at  a  little  distance  from  Cape  Ortegal. 

Britain,  under  this  system,  was  represented  as  a  triangle,  of  which  the  base,  or 
longest  side,  was  that  along  the  channel  and  opposite  to  Gaul.  As  the  coast,  after  passing 
the  two  extremities  of  this  line,  begins  on  one  side  to  bend  inward  towards  the  Bristol 
Channel,  and  on  the  other  to  the  Thames,  navigators  then  probably  considered  it  as  continu- 
ing in  these  directions  till  it  came  to  a  point,  far  short  of  its  real  termination.  lerne,  or 
Hibemia,  (Ireland)  appears  in  dim  obscurity.  It  is  said  to  be  situated  four  hundred  miles 
north  from  the  centre  of  Britain,  under  a  climate  so  excessively  cold  that  there  could  not 
possibly  1)0  any  inhabited  country  nearer  to  the  pole.  If  the  four  hundred  miles  be  measured 
from  the  centre  of  the  southern  coast,  and  allowance  be  made  for  false  orienting,  it  will  not 
be  found  so  very  wide  of  the  truth.  Tlie  rest  of  the  description  was  probably  made  out  by 
confused  ideas  of  Scotland,  and  particularly  the  bleak  mountainous  tracts  in  the  north. 
Eratosthenes,  indeed,  hius  derived  from  Pytheas  a  knowledge  of  the  far  northern  limit  of 
Thule,  and  of  its  appendant  islands,  stretching  towards  the  Arctic  sea ;  but,  as  the  proud 
scepticism  of  Strabo  rejected  this  statement,  he  was  thrown  back  upon  the  more  imperfect 
information  aflbrded  by  tlie  merchants  of  Marseilles. 

The  eastern  shores  of  northern  Europe  occasioned  still  more  emlmrrnssmciit  to  the 
Greeks.  They  had,  in  general,  the  idea  of  this  continent  having  tlie  sea  for  its  boundary ; 
but  this  seems  mainly  to  rest  upon  the  general  vague  belief  of  a  circumambient  oooan,  and 
an  understanding  that  Germany  had  on  the  north  a  maritime  boundary,  indicated  by  the 
amber  brought  from  the  shores  of  the  Baltic.  Here,  too,  Pytheas,  either  by  personal 
investigation  or  by  careful  inquiry,  had  collected  some  particulars  which  if  Strabo  had  not 
disdained,  he  would  not  have  been  left  in  such  total  darkness.  After  proceeding  fir  along 
the  German  coast,  that  navigator,  it  is  said,  came  to  a  great  gulf  (evidently  the  Baltic).  He 
found  Basilia,  a  very  large  i.-land,  the  same  which  Pliny  calls  Baltia ;  being,  in  fact,  the 
peninsula  of  Scandinavia,  which,  until  it  was  circumnavigiited,  must  have  been  regarded  by 
navigators  ns  nil  island.  Then,  it  is  said,  he  came  to  the  Tanais,  wliich  appears,  no  dnuht, 
a  very  startling  assertion;  but  we  must  remember  that,  in  this  sehixil,  the  circumambient 
ocean  was  supposed  to  liave  a  coast  only  a  little  north  of  the  Euxine  and  the  Caspian,  and 


Book  I. 


ROMAN  GEOGRAPHY. 


48 


the 


to  communicate  with  theso  seas  or  {julfe  (an  they  were  supposed  to  he)  by  narrow  straits, 
one  of  which  was  the  Tanais,  and  the  nioutli  of  one  of  tiio  great  Baltic  rivers  might  very 
easily  be  imagined  to  form  the  terininutlon  of  thia  strait. 

SuBSECT.  2. — Asia.     {Fig.  7.  pnge  44.) 

The  limits  assigned  to  Asia,  already  too  small,  were  contracted  by  the  geographers  of  the 
Alexandrian  school,  notwitlistanding  the  additional  sources  of  information  which  they  pos- 
sessed respecting  that  continent.  This  error  arose  partly  from  their  theory  of  a  surround- 
ing ocoon,  and  partly  from  their  neglect  of  tlie  important  information  obtained  by  Herodo- 
tus respecting  the  countries  along  the  heads  of  the  Euxine  and  Caspian.  The  expedition 
of  Alexander,  indeed,  and  the  embassy  of  Megasthenes,  made  them  acquainted  with  the 
fJnngps,  rolling  eastward  through  the  fine  plain  of  Upper  Hindostan.  Seeing  it  pursue 
this  direction  to  the  utmost  limit  of  the  then  known  world,  they  were  led  to  conclude  that 
its  course  continued  eastward,  and  that  it  fell  into  the  eastern  ocean,  which  formed,  on  that 
side,  the  boundary  of  the  continent.  Connecting  this  with  the  Caspian,  the  only  northern 
Asiatic  sea  known  to  them,  they  drew  a  Una  from  one  to  the  other,  by  which  they  excluded 
nearly  two-thirds  the  extent  of  Asia ;  the  Birman  empire,  China,  tlie  greater  part  of  Tar- 
tary,  and  the  whole  of  Siberia.  On  the  shore  of  the  eastern  ocean  was  placed  ThinK,  evi- 
dently known  only  by  vague  rumour,  and  which  they  fixed  at  the  extremity  of  the  line 
measuring  the  length  of  the  habitable  globe.  What  may  be  the  import  of  this  mysterious 
name,  and  whether  it  be  the  capital  of  Siam  or  of  China,  is  a  discussion  which  will  be  bet- 
ter reserved  until  we  come  to  the  more  precise  notices  of  Ptolemy.  One  other  grand 
feature  was  known  to  this  school;  the  cape  of  the  Coliaci  or  Cape  Comorin;  but  conceiving 
the  coast  of  Coromandel  to  follow  the  line  of  the  Ganges,  and,  consequently,  to  verge  to- 
wards the  west,  they  made  it  several  degrees  more  easterly  than  even  ThinE. 

Asia  within  and  Asia  beyond  Taurus  were  made  the  grand  divisions  of  tliat  continent. 
That  great  mountain  chain  arising  in  Asia  Minor  was  supposed  to  be  prolonged  by  those 
of  the  Elburz,  of  Khorasan,  and  of  Hindoo  Coosh,  which,  m  fact,  there  is  much  reason  to 
believe,  may  form  a  chain  nowhere  wholly  interrupted.  Within  Taurus  were  all  the  fertile, 
populous,  and  splendid  kingdoms  and  countries  of  Asia;  Syria,  Assyria,  Babylon,  Persia, 
Susiana,  Ionia,  Cilicia;  beyond,  were  the  ruder  tracts  of  Scythia,  Boctria,  Sogdiana;  and 
more  westerly,  the  Caucasian  territory,  and  the  part  of  Asia  Minor  situated  along  the  shore 
of  the  Black  Sea. 

SuDSECT.  3. — Africa. 

In  regard  to  Africa,  the  knowledge  of  these  geographers,  though  accurate  in  some  re- 
spects, was  extremely  limited.  They  believed  its  boundary  to  be  the  sea ;  but  this  correct 
judgment  proceeded  rather  from  a  casual  coincidence  with  their  theory  of  an  encircling 
ocean,  than  from  any  actual  knowledge  ;  since  Strabo  rejected  even  the  possibility  of  cir- 
cumnavigation. This  scepticism  was  founded  upon  the  hypothesis  of  an  uninhabitable  tor- 
rid zone,  which  formed  an  essential  part  of  the  reigning  system  at  this  period.  It  is  a  be- 
lief manifestly  Atrican,  founded  on  the  observation  of  those  vast  and  burning  deserts,  which 
extend  indefinitely  beyond  the  narrow  inhabited  stripe  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean. 
The  Nile,  then,  being  still  considered  as  the  eastern  boundary,  Africa  became  a  sort  of 
right-angled  triangle,  of  which  the  two  smaller  sides  were  formed  by  that  river  and  the 
Mediterranean,  while  the  hypotenuse,  or  largest  side,  was  the  unexplored  shore.  It  was 
•(ton  the  Nile  that  Eratosthenes  measured  the  habitable  world  of  Africa ;  yet  he  does  not 
trace  that  river  so  high  as  Herodotus,  his  details  reaching  only  between  three  and  four 
hundred  miles  above  Meroe.  In  these  details,  however,  he  is  very  accurate :  on  the  east- 
ern side,  he  represents  it  as  receiving  two  great  rivers,  the  Astapus  and  the  Astaboras,  the 
former  of  which  flows  from  lakes  in  the  south,  and,  when  swelled  by  the  summer  rains, 
forms  almost  the  main  body  of  the  Nile.  He  describes  also  the  bend  which  the  river  makes 
in  its  passage  through  Nubia.  Tiie  source,  being  imagined  to  exist  in  regions  rendered  in- 
accessible by  extreme  heat,  could  not  be  considcuod  as  within  the  reach  of  discovery.  The 
idea,  however,  still  prevailed,  that  it  came  from  the  west,  and  Strabo  even  mentions  a  re- 
port, that  its  source  was  in  the  remote  region  of  Mauritania,  south  of  the  Atlas.  This  is 
the  only  statement  made  by  geographers  of  this  school,  which  can  be  considered  as  indi- 
cating any  idea  of  the  existence  of  the  Niger. 


CHAPTER  V. 

ROMAN  GEOGKAPHV. 

The  Roman  geographers  attained  no  proficiency  in  the  mathematical  branch  of  the 
science.  M.  Gosselin  does  not  even  hesitate  to  a.ssert,  tiiat  they  remained  always  strangers 
to  ifs  very  flrr^t  elenients.  They  made  no  attempt,  therefore,  to  combine  their  materials  into 
one  harmonious  system,  or  to  fix  their  positions  with  that  strict  accuracy,  which  astronomi- 


^ 


*•     'W    I P' 


I 


ff      'S 


44 


v 


THE  WORLD  ACCORDING  TO  ERATOSTHENES. 


^     , 


Fio.  7 


,r.'' 


f 


'Itt 


1.7 


DooK  1. 


ROMAN  GEOGRAPHY.— MELA. 


45 


cal  obsorvation  alone  can  reach.  Yet  no  notion  omployed  greater  diligence  in  the  opera- 
lions  of  practical  survey.  This  wu«,  iiuleed,  absolutely  requisite,  witli  a  view  to  that  in- 
ci>9nant  warlure  in  which  thoy  were  cngiigod ;  they  could  not  conqner  tho  world  without 
oreviously  surveying  it.  Their  geographical  researches  were,  however,  held  strictly  sub- 
servient to  this  ambitious  design. 

Itineraries  were  thus  the  only  form  in  which  the  results  of  Roman  investigation 
were  presented.  Vegetius  informs  us  that  when  war  was  to  be  carried  into  any  country, 
tlie  first  cure  was  to  procure  a  complete  set  of  routes,  and  place  them  in  the  hands  of  tho 
general.  These  itineraries,  it  is  observed,  ought,  if  ]iof)sible,  to  contain,  not  merely  tlie  inter- 
vals, in  paces  and  Roman  miles,  between  one  place  and  onother,  but  the  (juality  of  the  roads, 
the  surrounding  objects,  mountains  and  rivers,  delineated  with  the  utmost  possible  precision. 
They  were  not  only  to  be  noted,  but  painted,  that  the  commanders  might  not  know  merely, 
but  see  betbre  tlicir  eyes,  tlie  route  by  which  they  were  to  proceed.  The  Romans  became 
thus  the  surveyors  as  well  as  tho  conquerors  of  the  world ;  and  every  new  war  in  which 
they  engaged,  every  new  conquest  which  their  arms  acliieved,  produced  a  fresli  accumula- 
tion of  materials  for  the  use  of  tho  geographer.  Even  after  a  country  was  subdued,  tho 
necessity  of  accurate  8ur\'ey  did  not  cease.  The  empire  was  long  held  in  a  state  of  mere 
military  occupation ;  camps  formed  at  proper  distances  were  connected  bjr  those  excellent 
and  durable  roads,  many  of  which  remain  to  this  day.  An  accurate  acquaintance  with  the 
position  and  intervals  of  these  camps,  and  tlie  nature  of  the  intervening  territory,  was  essen- 
tial to  tlie  maintenance  of  their  dominion  over  the  vast  extent  of  their  conquered  countries. 
No  sooner,  tlieretbre,  had  Julius  Cfesar  seated  himself  on  the  undisputed  throne  of  the  empire, 
than  he  caused  a  senates  consultum  to  be  passed  for  a  general  measurement  of  the  Roman 
world.  This  task,  it  is  said,  was  intrusted  to  "  the  most  prudent  men,  adorned  with  every 
endowment  of  philosophy."  The  east  was  assigned  to  Zenodoxus,  the  west  to  Theodotus, 
and  the  soutli  to  Polycletus.  In  the  course  of  twenty-five  years,  as  we  are  informed  by 
iEthicus,  tlie  whole  was  completed.  Julius  CBsar,  however,  did  not  long  survive  the  com- 
mencement of  this  great  work,  which  the  civil  wars  probably  suspended.  It  was  apparently 
resumed  and  completed  under  the  reign  of  Augustus  and  the  ministry  of  his  son-in-law 
Agrippa,  to  w'hom  it  appears,  from  Pliny,  to  have  been  afterwards  ascribed.  The  exact  prin- 
ciples upon  which  this  grand  measurement  was  conducted  have  nowhere  been  stated.  The 
reform  of  tho  calendar,  effected  by  Ctesor,  seems  to  point  out  that  some  elements  of  astro- 
nomy existed  among  those  with  whom  he  consulted. 

Rome,  in  tlie  most  flourishing  era  of  its  literature,  produced  two  eminent  g'iographers, 
Mela  and  Pliny. 

Sect.  I. — Mela. 

The  personal  history  of  this  eminent  geographer  is  a  subject  respecting  which 
scarcely  any  particulars  have  transpired.  From  the  allusions,  however,  in  his  own  writings, 
to  the  conquest  of  Britain  by  Claudius  as  a  recent  event,  made  in  those  flattering  terms 
which  only  a  contemporary  would  have  employed,  it  would  appear  that  his  work  was  written 
under  the  reign  of  that  inglorious  prince,  and  is,  consequently,  anterior  to  that  of  Pliny. 

Mela,  in  forming  his  system,  does  not  appear  to  have  possessed  those  extensive  mea- 
surements and  itineraries,  which  were  probably  deposited  in  the  imperial  archives.  Faith- 
ful, however,  to  the  object  of  his  treatise,  "  do  situ  orbis,"  he  discovers  very  considerable 
anxiety  to  determine  the  position  of  tlie  globe,  and  trace  with  accuracy  its  general  outlines. 
He  adopts  the  general  principles  of  the  school  of  Eratosthenes,  incorporating  into  it  the  new 
features  which  had  been  onorded  by  Roman  conquest.  He  does  not  appear,  however,  to 
have  compreliendcd  their  idea  of  the  globular  form  of  the  earth,  nor  is  he  very  perspicuous 
in  any  thing  that  he  says  upon  that  subject.  lie  begins — "All  that,  whatever  it  is,  to  which 
■we  give  the  name  of  tlio  world  and  heaven,  is  one  tiling,  and  in  one  circuit  embraces  itself 
and  all  things;"  vague  and  pompous  exprrsfions,  to  which  no  determinate  idea  can  be 
attached.  We  find  him,  however,  adopting  in  its  fullest  extent  the  belief  of  a  circumam- 
bient ocean ;  and  when  he  speaks  of  "the  high  earth  in  this  middle  part  of  it,"  and  describes 
the  sea  as  going  under  and  washing  round  it,  we  nre  led  to  believe,  that  he  viewed  the  earth 
as  a  sort  of  cone,  or  as  a  high  mountain  raised  by  its  elevation  above  the  abyss  of  waters. 
Having  made  a  vague  division  of  the  world  into  cast,  west,  and  north,  he  distributed  it  into 
five  zones,  two  temperate,  one  torrid,  and  two  frigid.    Only  the  first  two  were  habitable ; 


Refrrences  to  the 

Map  of  the  Worltl  arcordi 

ng  to  Eratomhenet. 

EtIROPA. 

'X  AmUtis 

l.'i.  Pixtnla 

AFRICA. 

10.  Bcrenico 

1.  Matwilia 

:i.  Rinope 

Hi.  rahbulhra 

].  I.ixiia 

11.  t<«ene 

2.  Knnia 

4.  r.vhnm 

2.  Oarlhaco 

12.  Mwr.K, 

X  Athenm 

.S.   laitat 

Rivtrs. 

3.  Ptntamats 

i:i.  Pinlemaii 

4.  Uyzantium 

n.  TImpanciu 

a  Oxui" 

4.  ryreno 
."i.  KereniCQ 

14.  Aduli 

7.  Ninua 

b  JaiariM 

RiveT$. 

S.  Su«a 

1.  Phasis 

G.  Alexandria 

Rivera, 

a  Rhentii 

9.  Bnliylon 

d  F.nphratpR 

7.  Canopna 

a  Nilus 

b  Borypitlienes 

;  0.  Rhinoeolura 

9  I'igria 
f  ImTiis 

8.  Pelmmm 

b  Asia  pus 
c  Aataboras. 

c  Tanaia 

1.  /F.lana 

0.  Arainoe 

'2.  Gorra 

t  Uungea 

ASIA. 

3.  Tiru»  Imiila 

1.  Dioscurias 

14.  Arailuii  Insula 

V? 


H 


m 


"  V, 


iMtfei 


h 


f  •■- 


l> 


k 

!• 


* 
^ 


40 


HISTORY  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 

rig.  &-BYSTUM  OF  MEI.A. 


Pabt  ' 


and  that  on  tlic  south  was  inaccessible  to  man,  on  account  of  the  torrid  regions  intervening. 
.\ccor(ling  to  this  system,  however,  there  was  on  tlwt  side  another  earth,  inhabited  by  people, 
whom  he  calls  Antichlhoneg,  from  their  opposite  position  with  respect  to  that  part  which  we 
inhabit.  The  form  and  boundaries  of  tlie  known  and  habitable  earth  are  thus  delineated : — 
The  Mediterranean,  with  its  branches  of  the  Straits,  the  Euxinc,  and  the  Palus  Mceotis ;  itii 
great  tributaries,  the  Nile  and  the  Tanais ; — these  combine,  in  his  conception,  to  form  the 
grand  line  by  which  the  universe  is  divided.  The  Mediterranean  itself  separates  Europe^ 
from  Africa ;  and  these  continents  are  bounded  on  the  east,  the  former  by  the  Tanais,  the 
latter  by  the  Nile ;  all  beyond  or  to  the  east  of  these  limits  wfts  Asia.    (.fHff.  8.) 

Tn  drawing  the  outline  of  Asia,  Mela  adheres  very  strictly  to  his  Alexandrian  models. 
He  describes  it  as  bounded  by  an  ocean  on  every  side  except  the  western,  where  it  confines 
with  Africa  and  Europe.  It  presents,  he  says,  a  iiuge  and  perpetual  front  to  the  eastern 
ocean,  its  shores  being  occupied  by  the  three  farthest  known  nations,  tlie  Indians  on  the 
south,  the  Seres  in  the  middle,  and  the  Scythians  on  the  north ;  but  the  territory  of  the 
Indians  and  Scythians  is  rendered  in  a  great  measure  uninhabitable  by  the  extremes  of  heat 
and  cold.  The  limited  extent  of  his  accurate  information,  however,  is  appirent  fl-om  the 
representation  he  gives  of  this  ocean,  as  flowing  directly  north  from  the  point  of  Colis  (Cape 
Comorin),  the  Ganges  flowing  into  it,  and  the  Scythians  occupying  its  shores  ns  far  as  "  the 
Caspian  Bay."  He  even  inclines  to  credit  the  report  of  an  Indian  vessel  having  been  driven 
round  by  stress  of  weather  to  the  coast  of  Germany.  Thus  he  gave  to  Asia  the  same  trun- 
cated form  which  it  had  received  from  the  authors  whom  he  followed;  but  !'.e  certaijily  ren- 
dered the  dimensions  of  its  eastern  shore  more  ample,  when  he  made  it  to  consist,  not  of  Indio 
only,  but  also  of  Serica  and  part  of  Scythia.  With  regard  to  the  southern  shores  of  Asia, 
they  were  known  with  sufficient  accuracy,  ever  since  the  expedition  of  Alexander,  and  the 
voyage  of  Nearchus.  He  calls  the  Indian  ocean  the  Red  Sea,  and  recognises  the  Red  Sea 
of  modem  geographers  only  under  the  name  of  the  Arabian  guif  j  but  this  is  plainly  a  niert 
nominal  difference. 


1£ 

ai 

in 
in 
O 
th 

CL 

of 
id( 
w] 
rei 
sei 
wh 
He 
opi 


AET 


-^ 


Book  I. 


nOMAN  GEOGRAPHY.— MELA. 


47 


Itcrvening. 
by  people, 
,  which  we 
fneated  :— 
[ceotia;  it" 
o  form  thi! 
tes  Europe 
anais,  the 

an  models. 
Jit  confines 
|he  eastern 
ns  on  the 
lory  of  the 
Vea  of  heat 
_  from  the 
fiolis  (Cape 
lar  as  "  tho 
lecn  driver 
iHanic  trim- 
Itainly  ren- 
]iot  of  India 
iea  of  Aaia, 
ler,  and  the 
\e  Red  Sea 
Inly  a  mere 


Europe,  as  dewribed  by  Mela,  extends  from  the  Tanais  to  Cadiz,  and,  with  the  exception 
of  its  eastern  river-limit,  is  bounded  every  where  by  seai  and  oceans.  Its  leading  feature 
in  the  Mediterranean,  joined  to  tho  Euxme  and  tlic  Palus  Ma'otis,  which  are  considered 
only  as  prolongations  of  that  sea ;  while  the  iEgean,  tho  Ionian,  and  the  Adriatic  seas, 
form  its  three  great  gulfs.  The  western  part  he  divides  into  the  Tuscan  and  the  Libyan 
seas.  His  delineation  of  tho  exterior  coasts  marks  a  great  advance  of  knowledge.  He 
assigiis  to  Spain  a  northern,  and  to  Franco  a  western  coast  of  great  extent,  and  adds  that 
tlie  Pyrenees,  after  separating  France  from  Spain,  enter  tho  latter  country  and  penetrate  to 
its  extremity,  when  tliey  face  the  Atlantic.  Hero  the  whole  chain  of  the  Cantabrian  motm- 
tains  is  considere<l,  by  no  very  strained  meaning,  aa  Pyrenean.  In  treating  of  these  outer 
shores  of  Europe,  and  the  "  huge  and  infinite  sea"  on  which  they  border,  Mela  relates,  with 
exaggerating  wonder,  tho  phenomena,  unknown  to  a  Mediterranean  people,  of  the  tides, 
"  that  mighty  movement  by  which  the  sea  alternately  advances  and  rctunis  into  itself,  over- 
flowing the  lands,  driving  back  mighty  rivers,  and  sweeping  away  the  strongest  land 
animals."  His  speculations  on  the  cause  are  singular;  either  the  world  is  a  great  animal 
whose  breathings  excite  in  its  breast  these  alternate  movements ;  or  it  contains  deep  caves, 
into  which  the  waters  are  alternately  absorbed  and  ejected.  He  does,  however,  mention 
the  theory  which  supposes  them  influenced  by  the  moon,  and  remarks  their  correspondence 
with  the  movements  of  that  body.  In  treating  of  the  Cassiterides,  or  Islands  of  Tm,  which 
include,  as  already  observed,  the  Scilly  Islands  and  Cornwall,  he  shows  considerable  per- 
plexity, only  observing  that  they  are  "  in  Celticis,"  indicating  their  close  alliance  with 
Fmnce.  In  regard  to  Britain  itself,  however,  he  confidently  undertakes  to  give  the  world 
better  information,  in  conseqrence  of  the  victories  of  "  the  greatest  of  princes"  over  nations 
hitherto  unsubdued  and  unknown ;  and  he  certainly  makes  a  great  progress  beyond  the  im- 
perfect notions  of  Strabo.  He  describes  Britain  as  presenting  two  extensive  oblique  coasts, 
one  looking  towards  France,  the  other  towards  Germany ;  the  two  forming  a  great  angle 
nearly  opposite  to  the  mouth  of  the  Rhine.  The  coasts  then  began  to  bend  inwards,  and 
form  a  triangle  varied  with  numerous  points  and  angles,  and  somewhat  similar  in  form  to 
Sicily.  The  countrv  is  described  as  flat,  large,  and  ihiitfiil,  but  contrary  to  what  now  ob- 
tains, more  favourable  to  the  support  of  flocks  than  of  men.  The  natives  were  uncultivated, 
warlike,  and  ignorant  of  wealth ;  they  were  accustomed  to  paint  their  bodies,  and  to  ride  in 
chariots.  Above  Britain  was  Juvema  (Ireland),  nearly  equal  in  size,  and  of  an  oblong  form, 
its  soil  scarcely  fit  for  the  production  of  grain,  but  its  pastures  so  luxuriant,  that  if  the 
cattle  were  allowed  to  feed  for  more  than  a  short  period  of  the  day,  they  died  of  repletion. 
The  relative  dimensions  assigned  to  Britain  and  Ireland  would  seem  to  show  that  the  former 
was  known  only  in  its  southern  part,  yet  the  writer  discovers  himself  not  unacquainted  with 
the  Scottish  islands.  He  mentions  thirty  Orcades,  in  which  number  the  Shetland  Islands 
are  probably  included. 

In  proceeding  to  the  east  and  north,  Germany  is  described  by  Mela  as  a  region  of  great 
extent,  intersected  by  many  rivers,  and  covered  m  a  great  measure  with  woods  and  marshes. 
The  inhabitants  were  tall  and  remarkable  for  courage  and  strength,  continually  exercised 
in  war  and  hard  labour,  eating  raw  flesh,  and  clothed  partly  in  the  haik  of  trees.  Passing 
the  Vistula,  wo  enter  into  Sarmatia,  extending  to  the  Danube,  rather  a  vague  limit,  but  the 
term  is  evidently  meant  to  comprehend  the  greater  part  of  modern  Poland.  The  people 
are  some  stages  in  barbarism  beyond  even  the  Germans,  having  no  cities  or  even  settled 
abodes,  and  carrying  their  fierceness  to  sucli  a  pitch,  that  hunting  and  bending  the  bow 
were  considered  the  best  accomplishments  of  their  females,  no  one  of  whom,  the  writer 
even  asserts,  could  enter  the  matrimonial  state  till  she  had  killed  her  man.  On  this  shore 
hs  represents  the  Codanus  Sinus,  a  great  bay  filled  with  large  and  small  islands ;  nowhere 
presenting  an  expanse  resembling  a  sea,  but  dispersed  and  scattered  in  narrow  clionnels 
like  rivers ;  a  description  very  applicable  to  the  entrance  of  the  Baltic  and  tho  Danish 
islands.  In  common  with  all  the  ancients,  however,  Mela  appears  to  have  been  ignorant  of 
any  thing  like  a  continent  on  the  other  side  of  this  great  bay. 

The  outline  of  Africa,  drawn  by  this  geographer,  sufficiently  shows  his  limited  range  of 
information.  This  continent  he  views  as  a  triangle,  the  greatest  length  of  which,  measured 
in  his  system  from  the  Nile  to  the  Atlantic,  is  considerably  less  tlian  the  length  of  Europe. 
Of  this  triangle,  the  Nile  forms  the  base ;  and  firoro  thence  tho  southern  coast,  or  that  of 
the  Ethiopic  ocean,  continually  approximates  to  the  northern,  til!,  beyond  the  Pillars  of  Her- 
cules, it  tapers  almost  to  a  point.  The  origin  and  course  of  the  Nile  arc  to  Mela  a  subject 
of  much  speculation.  One  account,  esteemed  by  him  as  tolerably  credible  (aliqud  credibile) 
identifies  it  with  a  great  Ethiopian  river,  called  in  the  language  of  the  natives  Nuchul ; 
which,  while  all  other  rivers  tend  towards  the  ocean,  alone  flows  eastward  to  the  central 
region,  and  no  one  knows  where  it  terminates ;  a  striking  coincidence  with  the  actual  ob- 
servation of  the  moderns,  respecting  that  celebrated  stream  denominated  the  Niger.  Else- 
where, however,  Mela  propounds  an  hypothesis  of  a  much  more  extraordinary  character 
He  says,  that  if  there  be  another  earth  (on  the  south  of  the  equator),  and  Antichthones 
opposite  to  us,  "  it  might  not  be  departing  too  far  from  the  truth"  to  suppose  tliat  tlie  Nile 


fm 


i 


tl 


I 


I 


I'l  ? 


Ij  r 


\  I 


M 


w 


HISTORY  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  I. 


■1    ., 


nroso  in  Umt  cnrtli,  anil  reanhod  niir  oide  of  tlio  glnho  by  a  clianncl  bcnontli  tlie  ocean. 
Tims  it  would  niitiinilly  swell  diiriiij,'  tlio  KUinninr  Holntico,  which,  on  tlio  siilo  of  tho  world 
from  wliicli  it  came,  was  tlio  scaHon  of  winter,  nertins  and  Vincent,  however,  liivo  per- 
haps dealt  too  hiirdly  with  tho  nntlior,  in  cnilxMlyinff  this  wild  conception  into  a  map,  and 
pivinj.'  it  to  the  vM)rld  as  the  systom  of  Mela,  wlu  mentions  it  merely  as  a  conjecture.  Tho 
lower  part  of  the  course  of  tho  Nile  he  dencrihes  with  less  accuracy  than  Strabo,  tho  two 
cimnnids  of  the  Astjipus  and  Astnlwnw  beinjf  made  branches  of  the  Nile  itself,  first  separat- 
ing and  then  re-unitinp.  His  ignorance  respecting  even  tho  shores  of  tho  Red  Sea  ia 
proved  by  their  being  filled  with  poetical  wonders;  tho  pigmies  waging  tlieir  ancient  war 
with  theVriinos;  the  pha-nix,  after  a  life  of  lour  hundred  years,  dying,  and  reviving  from 
its  ashe.-,.  Proceeding  to  the  interior  and  remoter  shores  of  Ethiopia,  lie  finds  always  new 
woikIith,  sphynxes,  birds  with  horns,  flying  horses.  He  refers  to  the  voyages  of  Hannoand 
of  EuddxiiH,  to  w  iiom  he  ascribes  a  variety  of  fables,  by  which  the  reputation  of  that  navi- 
gator hius  been  much  and  perhaps  unjustly  tarnished ;  lastly,  he  comes  to  the  Fortunate 
Lilandf,  ol"  which  the  soil  produces  all  things  spontaneously,  and  tho  fountains  are  possessed 
of  miniciiloiia  virtues.  In  short,  every  tiling  that  Mela  says  of  Africa  beyond  the  mere 
Mediterranean  coast  betrays  a  remarkable  ignorance  of  tlie  mysteries  of  that  continent. 

Sect.  II. — Pliny. 

Pliny,  the  most  learned  of  the  Roman  writers,  devotes  two  books  of  his  extensive  work 
on  natural  history  to  a  system  of  geography.  lie  appears  to  have  iMssessed  a  greater  store 
of  authentic  materials  than  any  former  writer.  From  his  intimate  conne.xion  with  the 
imperial  tliiiiily,  and  with  many  of  the  most  eminent  commanders,  all  the  military  measure- 
ments, as  well  as  the  general  survey  of  the  Roman  empire,  were  placed  at  his  disposal. 
Ho  has  intnxluced,  therefore,  a  multitude  of  itinerary  details,  which  are  generally  very 
accurate  an<l  valuable.  But  ho  employs  no  astronomical  elements,  and  appears  to  have 
taken  no  pains  to  construct  a  regular  system.  All  the  general  ideas  which  we  can  trace  in 
his  delineation  a|)!)ear  to  be  founded  on  the  same  basis  with  those  of  Mela. 

IMiny  begins  with  Europe,  which  ho  considers  as  by  far  the  most  beautiful  and  fruitful  of 
the  throe  quarters  of  the  globe ;  anil  he  applauds  the  opinion  of  those  who  consider  it  not 
merely  as  a  third,  but  as  a  half  of  the  whole  globe,  separated  from  tho  other  half  by  tho 
Tanais  and  tlie  Mediterranean.  This  capital  error,  however,  will  not  appear  so  surprising, 
when  we  consider  that  the  regions  here  compared  witli  Europe  weie  Asia  terminated  by 
tho  Gnnyes  and  the  Jnxartes,  and  Africa  extending  only  a  few  hundred  miles  inland  from 
the  Mediterranean.  Europe  had  been  computed  by  Agrippa  at  3440  miles  in  length,  by 
Polybius  at  only  2440;  which  last  dimension  is  nearly  correct.  Pliny  discovers  a  clear 
conception  of  the  fi)rin  of  Spain,  drawing  the  Pyrenees  not  from  south  to  north,  but  from 
south-east  to  north-wes-t,  and  observing  that  Spain,  "  where  it  begins  from  them,  is  narrower 
than  France,  aiul  even  than  itself."  The  petition  of  Britain  in  the  mup  of  Europe  is  very 
fairly  given ;  though,  to  enumerate  Spain,  with  Franco  and  Germany,  among  the  countries 
to  which  it  is  op|K).site,  partakes  too  much  of  antiquated  theories.  He  states  the  belief  of 
Agrippa  that  Britain  was  eight  hundred  miles  in  length,  and  three  hundred  in  breadth ;  Ire- 
land the  same  in  breadth,  but  shorter  by  two  hundred  miles;  which  is  a  tolerable  estimate, 
the  last  pai '  ictilar  excepted.  His  disposal  of  the  islands  around  Britain  is  not  a  little  con- 
fused. He  mentions  the  Orkney.s  seven  .lEmoda},  and  thirty  Ebudte,  but  without  showing 
any  precise  idea  of  how  they  stand.  Not  only  tho  Isle  of  Man,  but  that  of  Wight  also,  is 
placed  between  England  and  Ireland.  He  commits  also  a  rcmorkable  error  when  he  men- 
tions (!Jussiterim  or  Cattiterim,  where  tin  is  produced,  as  uii  island  at  the  distance  of  six 
days'  sail  from  Britain.  To  the  remotest  point,  Thule,  he  assigns  the  uttri'jutes  of  a  region 
beneath  tho  Arctic  circle,  having  only  one  day  and  one  night  in  the  year;  and  only  a  day's 
sail  from  tho  Cronium  or  Concrete  Sea.  Here,  also,  ho  inentinns  reports  of  oilier  islands, 
Scandia,  Borgos  (Bergen),  Nerigon,  which  have  intercourse  with  Thule.  These  features 
evidently  belong  to  the  coast  of  Norway. 

In  describing  the  north  of  Europe,  Pliny  begins  from  tlic  northern  sliores  of  the  Euxinc, 
and  Palus  Ma-otis.  The  latter  receives  the  Tanais,  flowing  ti'oin  the  Uiphiean  Mountains, 
and  forming  the  lionndary  of  Europe.  Beyond  that  celebrated  and  dcmi-ttibnlons  range,  he 
still  finds  the  Hyperboreans,  p  people  screened  I'roin  every  noxious  blast,  leading  a  happy 
life  exempt  from  old  age,  sickness,  di.-<cord,  and  grief;  till  at  length,  satiated  witli  felicity, 
they  throw  themselves  from  a  rock  into  the  sea.  Tliese  fables  are,  however,  qualified  with 
the  sjiving  clause,  "  if  we  are  to  believe  them,"  which  shows  tliat  the  liiitli  of  I'liny  w.is 
nut  implicit.  Tho  shores  of  the  ocean,  ho  confesses,  are  "  marked  by  uucert-iinty."  On 
the  authority,  however,  of  Xenophon  Lanipsacenus  and  of  Pytlieas,  he  re|xn-ts  liiisilia  or 
Baltia  ns  an  island  of  immense  magnitude,  tlirec  dayn'  journey  from  the  Scythian  cott.st. 
I'roceediiig  westward,  he  comes  to  the  Cimbric  Chersonese,  and  op|)osite  to  it  anotiier  island. 
Scandinavia,  of  unexplored  magnitude,  but  which  was  ijy  many  described  as  forming  quite 
another  world.    Thus  Baltia  and  Scandinavia,  approached  from  diflbrent  points,  are  con- 


i- 


.^ 


iRT  1. 

[jCCRtl. 

worlil 
o  por- 
ip,  and 
.   Tlic 
lio  two 
eparat- 
tica  is 
>nt  war 
Iff  from 
yg  new 
nno  and 
nt  navi- 
jrtunate 
oflscBsed 
lio  mere 
lont. 


ive  work 
iter  gtore 
with  the 
measure- 
disposal. 
uUy  very 
J  to  have 
n  trace  in 

fruitful  of 

lidcr  it  not 

itilf  by  tho 

surprising, 

ninated  by 

[lUind  from 
lonRth,  by 

jra  a  clear 

1,  but  from 
8  narrower 
ope  is  very 
e  countries 
e  belief  of 
;>adtlr,  Ire- 
e  estimate, 
little  con- 
[ut  showing 
(jht  also,  is 
|en  he  men- 
iicc  of  six 
of  a  region 
[,nly  a  day's 
licr  islands, 
so  features 

Itho  Euxinc, 
Mountains, 
lis  ranjie,  he 
lin<i  a  happy 
litli  felicity, 
liiilifird  with 
If  I'liny  was 
liinty."     On 
U  Ifcisilia  or 
Ithiiin  coast, 
lotlier  island. 
Vininf?  quite 
(its,  are  con- 


Door  I. 


ROMAN  oeography.-1'i;i:tin(Ji;ri.\n  tahlr. 


4U 


HidpriMJ  iiM  fu'c)  (lisfiiirt  iii.-iiilar  tprriturioH,  llic  vii  -t  oxti'iit  of  which,  howovor,  uppears  to  be 
lii'tlor  iippri'liriiilcd  by  IMiny  thiiii  liy  iiiiy  ntliiT  miriiMit  writer. 

Asiii,  in  I'liny,  Ih  dolincatod  iicconliii;,'  to  tlio  (jfiicral  irlfiis  of  Stnilio  and  Meln,  Tlio 
('iis|iiiin  (ir  llyrounian  Sea  ih  a  jjulf  opi'niiijf  into  the  nnrthcrn  or  Srytliinn  oc"an,  which  is 
ill  p  )iiiuiiiiiication  with  that  called  iSoric  or  Orifiital.  I'liny  scoiuh  to  iiavo  liillcr  informa- 
tion ,'t'  till'  {jnindijur  and  woiilth  of  India  tlinn  any  of  his  pred^ccsHors.  Its  inhahitjints  and 
iN  citins  tt(>ri)  iniium(!rahle,  and  it  wan  ri']X)rtr'cl  on  ffood  aiitiiority  to  form  a  third  of  tho 
whole  World.  It  enjoyed  gentle  breo/.es,  two  siiniincrs,  two  harvestn,  one  before,  another 
atlor  the  poriodicol  winds.  HlesHcd  with  these  advantages,  this  happy  people  wore  never 
known  to  cmiffrate  beyond  their  own  territories.  Ho  descrites  the  marches  of  Ale.xander, 
iVnm  the  measurements  of  Diofjnetiis  and  Bifiton,  and  where  these  fail,  ho  continues  them 
by  those  of  Heleucus,  and  by  the  embassy  of  Megasthen'^s,  as  fur  ns  the  month  of  the 
(innpfos.  These  itineraries  seem  very  y^ood.  In  treating  of  Taprobone,  he  observes,  that 
it  had  been  believed  by  some  to  1)0  an  opposite  continent  oi  earth,  but  that  the  inquiries  of 
Alexander  had  clearly  proved  it  to  bo  an  island.  His  report,  however,  tiiat  tho  country  of 
the  Seres  was  seen  from  it,  implies  a  most  inadequate  and  erroneous  conception  of  the 
eastern  coasts  of  Asia. 

The  Africa  of  Pliny  does  not  differ  in  its  general  outline  from  that  of  Mela.  His  access, 
however,  to  the  archives  of  the  empire,  and  his  acquaintance  with  some  of  the  Roman 
generals,  enabled  him  to  give  new  details  as  to  some  of  its  most  interior  tracts.  The  region 
of  Atlas  had  boon  first  penetrated  in  tho  reign  of  Claudius,  by  iEdemon,  an  adherent  of 
the  extinct  family  of  the  Ptolemies,  who  souglit  refuge  there,  Suetonius  Pauliiuis,  with 
whom  Pliny  had  conversed,  found  it  of  immense  height,  covered  with  snow  even  in  summer; 
on  one  side  rising  fVorn  the  sands,  rough,  horrid,  and  bare ;  on  tlie  other,  covered  with  thick 
groves  of  unknown  species  of  trees,  and  sparkling  with  fountains.  An  account  is  given  of 
a  voyage  along  the  western  coast,  which  Polybius  had  made  by  order  of  Scipio.  Only  the 
names  of  the  places  and  tho  distances  are  given.  Tho  former  coincide  in  a  great  measure 
with  those  of  Hanno;  and  if  Polybius  was  right  in  this  coincidence,  his  report  tends  much 
to  confirm  M.  Gosselin's  view  of  tho  limited  extent  of  Hanno's  discoveries.  In  the  time  of 
Vespasinn,  another  expedit  on,  under  Cornelius  Ralbiis,  pent;trated  into  and  concprered  Gam- 
ma (Germa),  and  Cydamns  (Gadamis).  Tho  Romans  here  Ixdield  with  surprise  houses  built 
of  salt,  and  on  digging  to  a  small  depth,  water  sprung  out  of  the  sand.  A  number  of  names 
of  conqnored  places  ore  here  given,  which  it  is  dillii'',ilt  to  recognize;  for  it  seems  too  hasty 
to  identify  Boin  with  Bomou. 

A  theory  of  the  course  of  tho  Niger  was  formed  by  Pliny  from  these  materials  with  con- 
siderable pains,  but  very  imperfect  success.  Its  soup"',  according  to  king  Juba,  existed  in 
Mauritania,  and  it  is  even  said  to  have  been  found  by  Suetonius  Paulinas  after  a  tew  days' 
march  to  the  south  of  the  Atlas.  Tho  Niger  springs  hero  from  a  lake ;  but  soon,  indignant 
at  (lowing  through  sandy  and  squalid  tracts,  it  passes  under  ground  for  several  days,  and 
emerges  into  another  lake  of  Mauritania.  After  a  circuit,  however,  of  some  extent,  it  again 
disappears,  and  having  pursued  a  .subterranean  course  of  twenty  days,  re-appears,  dividing 
Africa  from  Ethiopia.  At  last,  in  its  passage  through  Ethiopia  itself,  it  assumes  the  charac- 
ter of  the  Nile,  first  in  two  channels,  Astusapes  and  Astaboras,  enclosing  the  island  of 
Meroe,  and  afterwards  uniting  to  form  the  entire  and  proper  Nile.  This  wild  and  absurd 
detail  evidently  includes  the  course  of  several  rivers  telonging  to  different  and  widely  re- 
mote regions  of  Africa.  It  may  even  be  doubted,  if  any  part  belongs  to  what  by  motlems 
has  been  considered  tho  Niger.  It  seems  very  probable,  however,  that  the  middle  part, 
which  divides  Africa  from  Etliiopia,  has  been  suggested  by  the  river  of  Bomou,  or  the  Yeou, 
as  it  has  been  called  by  our  recent  discoverers. 

Sect.  III. — Itineraries. — Peutiiifferian  Table. 

Of  the  itineraries  composed  by  the  masters  of  the  world,  and  employed  by  them  as  nn 
instnimcnt  in  its  conquest,  some  fragments  yet  remain.  Tlie  most  memorable" is  that  which 
bears  the  name  of  Antoninus.  It  has  been  ascribed  by  some  to  Sevenis,  by  others  to  Theo- 
dosiuB,  and  in  fiict  contains  many  particulars  which  could  not  have  been  written  prior  to  the 
era  of  tho  last  sovereigns;  but  it  seems  probable  that  there  were  .successive  editions,  with 
such  amendments  and  alterations  as  time  suggested.  It  is  a  mere  skcloton  road-book,  with 
nothing  but  the  names  of  places  and  their  distance  fVom  each  other.  The  same  may  be 
said  of  the  Jenis;ilem  Itinerary,  exhibiting  in  great  detail  tho  route  from  Bordeaux  to  that 
holy  city. 

i'lie  Peutingcrian  Table  (the  Italian  portion  of  which  is  exhibited  in  FHir.  9.  p.  50.)  is  a 
more  remarkable  monument,  and  may  be  considered,  probably,  as  a  s])ecimen  of  the  "painted 
roads"  of  the  ancinnts.  It  fijrms  a  map  of  the  world,  constructed,  however,  on  the  most 
novel  and  peculiar  principles.  Its  dimensions  being  twenty  feet  in  length  and  one  in  breadth, 
nn  idea  may  be  formed  of  the  correctness  with  which  the  proportion  of  tho  different  parts  is 
exhibited.  The  iiigh  road  which  traversed  the  Roman  empire  in  tho  general  direction  of 
cast  and  west  vj  made  the  first  meridian,  and  to  this  every  other  part  is  subjected.     The  ob- 

VoL.  f,  5  « 


h*..  l». 


BuuH  r. 


KKCOND  ALKXANDIllAN  S<;iIO()K 


61 


jortii  nlonjj  this  linn  nro  iniiiiiti'ly  nt\<\  fiiitliriilly  cxIiihitfHl ;  ,>f  thiMn  lyipR  to  Ihn  north 
miiilli  lit'  It  iiiily  H<iiii(>  K'''!*'"'!  notion  riin  Im>  ronvi'yi'il :  iIii'ihi  itro  M  rvpriwoutuil,  of  "' 
nioxt  unornioiiNly  fxtundiNl  in  lonKtIi  uml  rMluci»l  in  brnoilllt. 


'J 


CIIAI'TKIl  VI. 

RKCONI)  AI.KXAMIKIAiy  XtMOOI.. 

At.RXANiiRiA  by  her  rontribntionH  l^i  u<'oi;rn|ihy  Nii|i|ilii<il  tn  «  jfrnut  rxtcnt  tlifi  (li'fioioncicH 
of  tlio  Itoiiiiiim,  who,  iiiiiiil  tho  NU''ci'NM  with  which  lhi*y  culliviituil  hiHtory  iinil  literature, 
never  iittiiMieil  to  any  eininencn  in  thii«  MiMeni-e.  'I'hiit  ciimtal,  evvn  in  lli  Hiihject  utiite, 
retitineil  Mlill  tho  inipiilHit  received  t'roiii  thn  I'toleniieH,  ami  contiiuieil  to  \m  tliii  MerontI  iu 
iiiiii;tiitnile,  iiMil  the  liireiiioxt  in  leiirniii);,  ot'  ull  in  the  empire.  In  lli»  Heconil  century  thern 
wiu  eHliililiHlitMl,  here  iind  at  Tyre,  ii  f;eii^rnphiciil  ncIiooI,  [KiHMVMiin);  more  am|ile  ninterinlN 
nnd  renourneH  thim  imy  thiit  hnd  liitlii-rto  exiHted.  To  the  coniiueMtM  imd  itineraries  nf  Alex- 
ander were  now  lulded  thoNii  of  llomo,  which,  extending;  in  ii  ilili'erent  direction,  eiiilirnred 
many  roiintrieN  lo  tho  north  nnd  to  the  went,  (iaul,  llritain,  (iermnny,  N|min,  nnd  Muuritn- 
nia,  reN|N'ctin|{  which  tho  (iroekN  had  imNNeiwed  only  ronfuHed  and  imp^'rfect  notionn.  ThuH 
n  (rrenler  (Kirtion  of  the  ^IoImi  thnn  nt  any  former  |M'riiHl  wan  now  united  under  one  (rovorn- 
ment,  which,  hy  a  Nttindini;  army  and  n  regular  NyHlein  of  lawH,  priMorved  the  whole  iu  [mace 
and  order.  The  terror  of  tho  Roman  arnm  enabled  truvellerH  to  [)enrtrato  with  naft'ty  oven 
beyond  tho  limits  of  tho  empirn.  lANtly,  tho  unlM)unded  luxury  of  tho  ((rent  capitnhi,  and 
aUivo  all  of  imperial  Rome,  enriched  with  tho  njioilH  of  tlie  t'lolie,  fired  tho  entoriirise  of  tho 
merchant,  who  lliund  hiM  way  int/)  thoKo  remoteiit  marketH  of  tho  raHtem  world,  tho  rich 
cnmmcxIiticH  of  whicli  Imd  hiliinrto  boon  oithcr  bruu({ht  by  cnrnvnuH  or  found  nt  intunnediato 
fltntionii. 

Theno  eidar|;ed  material*  woro  connected  togethnr  hy  n  much  moro  nccurato  and  Hcion- 
tific  nrrnnf;emeut  than  had  been  ndopti-d  under  tho  hcIiooI  of  EmtoHtheneti.  Tho  molhod 
miffi^oMted  hy  IlipiNirchiiH  of  mibjectin;;  the  whole  of  (jeojrraphy  to  otitronomicnl  principloH, 
and  of  fixing'  the  poHition  of  every  H|iot  upon  tho  j;lobo  accordiii);  to  itH  lonf^itude  ami  Inti- 
tu<le,  wiiH  now  attempted  to  \m  carrii^l  into  full  eflect.  The  iittemnt,  however,  wa.s  mado  but 
in  a  very  rudo  inaimor,  nnd  u[K)n  n  very  narrow  biiHia  of  olwervation.  Not  only,  theroforo, 
did  it  proHent  a  very  im|X!rfect  edition  of  tho  new  nyHtoni,  hut  involved  errors  which  caused 
it  in  Homo  res[K!ctH  lo  retroffrado  even  from  tho  rudo  HtJito  to  which  it  hod  been  brought  by 
tho  formor  hcIiooI  of  Alcxaudrin. 

Sk«t.  T, — MnrinuK  of  Tyre. 
No  Tyrinn  Hystcm  of  jjoogrnphy  has  come  down  to  uh,  notwithstondinff  tho  noinniercial 
OToatnosH  of  itH  people  at  an  early  period.     Froni  the  Ilrbrow  writers  wo  hnvo  accounts  per- 
haps of  nearly  tho  whole  of  tho  iliBtont  conntricB  with  which  tho  Tyrians  held  intorcourgc ; 


NORTH  PART. 
1.  Hlipia 
'I  Hariluna 

3.  A()ninrn 

4.  Bninntio 


0.  Jnilf  ra 
n.  Raf  aitana 

7.  fabaria 

8.  Camunto 

9.  CjOtija 

10.  Vindnbnlia 

11.  Tanntica 
13.  Kmuna 

13.  Pnia 

14.  Rilvn 
).f.  Paritnlin 

1ft.  Ftin(t?'iiiniaia 

17.  Aiiuileia 

la  0>ilia 

IU.  Altino 

90.  Rnaino 

Sl.Trldrnta 

92.  Placenlia 

'2.'!,  .Aqua'  Pnmilanip 

'J4.  Kliirpntia  TuKOium 

3.V  Hoiia  Julia 

!M.  Riluiiba 

i!7.  Vcrnna 

3R  Manilla 

Sn.  Mutina 

:iO,  Cma 

31.  Ailn-lio 

39.  Biiiionitt 

3:1.  riuiio 

.14.  Volainia 

It.  Aquaa  Paiaatii 

30.  Ravenna 

37.  Arimino 

3H.  nianiaca 

3W.  Conlum  cellia 

to.  Aquaa  luari 


Keferttice$  lo  Ike  I'tulingerian  7bWe  (pn/fe  W). 

41.  Anonna 

a  Riibiriim 
1  Nrlnrum 

31.Tnrento 

70.  Ourra 

49.  CHHirn-nnvo 

39.  Rriniliii 

71.  Ad  llnrraa 

43.  Aquaa  Apulliuaiia 

44.  Hiili'ln 

u  Maliina 
V  Ml«i 

IM.Iinalia 
34.  N«rur<M 

79.  Iffipinminua 
ri.  Wiforo  Col. 

4.-..  Pnl.-nlia 

wj'lnala 
X  1'umii 

M.  ."laterni) 

74.  Ad  Aquaa 

49.  KoalK 

47.  ('aniplloFirinHnl 

rw.  Niircria 

7.1.  Tapnrura 

r  Niirninum 

'n.  Oplonlia 

7H.  Tacapi^ 

4H.  Ad  Hum.  Pmiura 

a  Amu 

3H.  Hi'iii'vi'nto 

77.  llrtipanid 

411.  Kiima 
.VJ.  hiiaiia 
.tt.  Charlailna 
M  ('lira  Colonla 

311.  Venuiie 

7H.  i.ilyhmi 

BOimi  PART. 

40.  Ni'apidl 

7(t.  Aqimi  I.abndoa 

1.  Ad  Pniluiiim 

41.  Cnpuii 

HO.  Hiriiruaiii 

4.  8.^r»iiio 

49.  Cumaa 

HI.  Afliiia  Mona 

.M.  Aquia 

M.  titponte  rilariln 

K.  Capm  (^nlonia 

3.  Ad  Praloium 

4.  Miina  Major 

43  SyWitt 

«9.  Mmiuna 

44.  Aonii* 

a.  liidHnaa 
H.  Titlobiirgo 

43.  Pritlunium  Laucria 

„        Divert. 

M.  All  Modna 

num 

a  Danubiuri 

.'i7.  Tlii.lmilo  t'ol. 

7.  Rayuriu 
H.  Hirlla,  run. 

4tl.  Pip<lTllll 

b  Ilrlnum 

W.  'rhonano 

47.  K«.>rnio 

n  Hmvuoi 

.W.  Sirca-vpria 

n.  Haliina 

4H.  Tiinnii  Sccdiclno 

d  Maraum 

HO.  All  Aquaa  CaiiiiriR 

111.  Kpetin 
11.  limrnna 

4<l.  Hinucua 

0  (•unt.'ais 

.V).  Monturnil 

f  llapaum 

liioert. 

19.  Hirmiuin 

.M.  Fundia 

a  Tannn 
h  Cralor 

a  DanubiUB 

3.  Naruit;! 

rti.  Trrrarinn 

h  Drinum 

4.  Tatiriinn 

.VI.  Fnrfnllnimi 

i  Hilarum 

c  Bavum 

a.  Ad  Matrlcum 

M.  Fidiralcriy 

It  AvHdium 

d  Anta 

n.  Binaiduna 

.V'l.  Inlnntltn 

a  Frifido 
f  Lirpnna 

7.  Kpitauro 

.Ml.  f 'nniniii 

1  Aufidnnui 

i>.  Slaneiti 

.'>?.  Mnrniliiii 

in  Larinum 

a  Afnaia 

1 M.  l.iHun 
90.  Viminatio 

.W.  Trea  Toljernaa 

n  Clocnria 

h  rii'iiKia 

.V.I.  Ciiriiulia 

0  Bannum 

Umaiia 

91.  nirrrnliu 

IU).  nnia  di.-rni 

p  Cumari 

Padua 

I  Puala 

99.  Aulona 

ni.  Pinna 

q  NornMm 

'it.  Oia  Cul. 

li'J.  <'m\!n  nova 

r  Arno 

1  Aninio 

94.  Babrata 

63.  PreneilB 

a  Tiboria 

m  laex 

9X.  Rrtio 

(14.  Roma 

1  Siifo 

n  Umbra 
0  Palha 

9A.  Caulon 

IK.  Hnilii 

u  Vultamui 

77.  Lacenlum 

HA.  Chanaaine 

V  Hlmera 
w  Niranua 

p  AnneaiK 
q  Maria 

9n.  Ciiitra  Minervb) 

07.  Mnxula 

91).  Vibona  Valenlia 

HN.  Ad  Aqiiai 

a  Auaere 

r  Tiberia 

30.  Temn 

W.  Miiua  Clipcia 

y  Geiin 

M 


f.,.  M 


m 


•'ill 


■     ,-  ': 


88 


HISTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pabt  I. 


but  if  those  writers  are  supposed  to  have  borrowed  from  tliem  their  ideas  respecting,'  the 
general  structure  and  boundaries  of  the  earth,  gcograpiiy  among  tlie  early  Phoenicians  will 
not  appear  to  have  passed  ita  infancy.  As  Tyre,  however,  even  under  the  Roman  empire, 
remained  still  the  seat  of  an  extensive  commerce,  some  of  her  intelligent  citizens  availed 
themselves  of  the  lights  afibrded  by  the  learning  of  Alexandria,  and  applied  them  to  the 
illustration  of  those  subjects  on  which  the  greatness  and  prosj)erily  of  their  city  depended. 
If  the  merchants  of  Tyre  had  notliing  left  of  that  proud  rule,  and  tliose  nionoiwlizing  profits, 
which  enabled  tliem  to  rival  the  pomp  of  princes,  their  commercial  relations  probably  ex- 
tended over  a  wider  surface  of  tlie  globe  than  ever.  Thejr  seem  to  liave  been  en^ged 
in  that  vast  caravan  route  which  was  opened  firom  Byzantium  across  tlie  whole  interior 
of  Asia,  conductmg  the  merchants  by  a  journey  of  ten  or  eleven  months  to  tlie  Chinese 
frontier,  whence  they  brought  silk,  the  staple  product  of  that  great  country.  Collect- 
ing these  enlarged  materials,  Marinus,  a  native  of  Tyre,  sought  to  apply  to  them  the 
astronomical  principles  of  Hipparchus,  and  tlius  to  arrange  geography  into  a  new  and  more 
accurate  form. 

The  works  of  Marinus  have  perished,  and  are  known  to  us  only  by  tlie  references  and 
extracts  of  Ptolemy ;  but  these  are  sufficient  to  show  that  his  system  partook  lorgely  of  the 
imperfection  of  a  first  eflbrt.  Aware  that  the  degree  of  longitude  diminished  as  it  receded 
from  the  equator,  he  "et  did  not  attempt  to  express  this  difference  by  representing  the  meri- 
dians with  curved  lines  approaching  each  other,  although  this  had  been  already  shown  by 
Hipparchus  to  be  the  proper  course.  He  made  them  parallel  to  each  otlier,  not  at  the  equa- 
torial distance,  but  at  that  which  belonged  to  them  at  the  meridion  of  Rhodes.  Thus  in  the 
part  of  tlie  glube  which  came  into  his  immediate  observation  he  avoided  any  material  error ; 
but  the  meridians,  adjusted  only  to  this  latitude,  became  too  near  each  other  as  tliey  were 
carried  southward,  and  too  distant  as  they  went  northward.  He  fell  into  a  still  more  per- 
nicious error  in  adopting  the  geodesic  measurement  of  Posidonius,  according  to  which  the 
circumference  of  the  earth  was  made  to  consist  of  only  180,000  stadia,  and  consecjucntly  the 
degree  to  contain  only  500  stadia.  This  short  degree,  being  calculated  out  of  the  e,\agge- 
rated  itineraries  upon  which  the  maps  of  those  days  were  constructed,  enormously  amplified 
all  the  dimensions  of  the  globe.  Marinus  appears  also  to  have  admitted  with  excessive  cre- 
dulity the  extravagant  reports  of  the  merchants  who  had  penetrated  across  the  vast  moun- 
tain and  desert  tracts  in  the  east  of  Asia.  The  rugged  and  difficult  character  of  the  region, 
the  circuitous  route  which  they  w  're  frequently  obliged  to  follow,  and  the  obstacles  often 
encountered  from  the  rude  inhabitants,  caused  this  journey  to  occupy  a  much  longer  time 
tlian  tliose  performed  through  districts  better  known ;  and  time,  as  alrea<ly  observed,  was  the 
element  out  of  which  tlie  ancients  were  chiefly  accustomed  to  calculate  space.  Ptolemy 
also  accuses  the  mercliants  of  vain-gloriou*  propensities,  which  led  tliem  to  magnify  beyond 
truth  the  extent  and  vastness  of  the  regions  which  they  traversed.  Hence  the  great  line 
upon  wiiich  Marinus  measured  the  length  of  the  habitable  globe,  instewl  of  one  hundred  and 
twenty-nine  degrees  given  to  it  in  the  measurement  of  Eratosthenes,  is  swelled  out  to 
two  hundred  and  twenty-five  degrees,  not  much  less  than  two-thirds  of  the  globe ;  whereas 
tlio  actual  length,  placing  Thinm  even  at  the  eastern  extremity  of  China,  is  not  much  more 
than  one  tliird.  The  exaggeration  is  enormous  chiefly  with  respect  to  the  country  beyond 
India,  which  is  made  to  comprise  one  hundred  degress.  This  being  probably  a  new  route 
opened  through  the  Himaleh,  and  across  the  vast  deserts  of  Eastern  Tartary,  had  been 
affected  by  all  the  sources  of  amplification  in  a  remarkable  degree. 

Sect.  II. — Ptolemy. 
Ptolemy,  tlie  la.st  and  greatest  of  the  geographers  of  antiquity,  and  equally  illustrious  as 
an  astronomer,  instituted  a  complete  reform  of  the  science,  and  undertook  to  purify  it  from 
all  the  flilae  elements  with  which  it  hud  been  alloyed.  The  principles,  in  fact,  which  he 
adopted  were  strictly  correct;  tor  though,  as  an  ustroncjmcr,  his  theory  of  the  universe  was 
subfituntinlly  fiilse,  yet,  in  admitting  the  globular  fonn  of  the  earth  and  the  revolution  of  the 
hea\'enly  bodies,  lie  admitted  all  the  elements  which  were  requisite  for  the  Ic^s  lofty  .siiherc 
of  earthly  dclinpatinii.  He  n.lopted  tlie  system  of  Hipparchus  in  its  utmost  extent,  subject- 
ing e\pry  f-pot  on  the  known  globe  to  ostrononiical  data,  and  constructing  his  tablets,  never 
accordiiiLT  to  itiiiemry  dlHtiince,  but  according  to  the  supposed  latitude  and  longitude  of  oacii 
place,  lie  siiw  and  corrected  tlio  error  of  Marinus  in  making  tiie  degrees  of  longitude  c>\\m\ 
under  every  hititiule.  Thus,  though  Ptolemy  did  not  actually  intro<luce  any  now  principle 
into  gpogrnphy,  he  was  the  first  who  combined  together  all  the  sound  views  of  his  prede- 
cessors, and  formed  out  of  them  a  just  and  harmonious  delineation.  Yet  he  was  far  from 
reaciiinir  liis  aim  offormhig  a  perf'-ct  sy.steni.  Ho  still  retjiined  the  erroneous  ineaFurcnient 
of  the  degree  fiirmed  liy  Posidonius,  and  of  which  Marinus  liiid  made  so  uiitiirtunato  a  use. 
Hence,  while  lie  t'eit  the  extravagance  of  the  distances  a.ssignod  by  his  predecessor,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  adoption  of  the  degree  of  500  stadia,  he  extricated  himself  but  partiiilly 
from  the  same  error.  All  his  longitudes,  extended  along  the  length  of  the  known  world, 
present  a  similar  accumulation  of  f.'rrors,  onli'  somewhat  diminished   in  amount.    These 


.W 


daj'f 

show 

the 

eonti 

his 

Runij 


;t-'-H 


Book  I. 


PTOLEMY— EUROPE. 


53 


If;  the         -^i 
la  will 
•mpire, 
iivailed 
to  the 
jended. 
profits, 
ibly  ex- 
mgaged 
interior 
Chinese 
CoUect- 
liem  the 
ind  more 

noes  and 
ly  of  the 
t  receded 
the  meri- 
shown  by 
the  equtt- 
[lus  in  the 
rial  error ; 
tliey  were 
more  per- 
which  the 
juently  the 
le  exagge- 
y  amplified 
jessive  cre- 
vast  moun- 
the  region, 
Uicles  often 
longer  time 
cd,  was  the 

Ptolemy 
nify  beyond 
great  line 
lundrcd  and 
;lled  out  to 
e;  whereas 
much  more 
[itry  beyond 
new  route 

had  been 


Uustrious  as 
irify  it  IVom 
which  he 
inverse  was 
ution  of  the 
lofty  sphere 
p.'nt,  subjcct- 
abley,  never 
lule  of  each 
gitude  e(iuiil 
>w  principle 
r  his  predo- 
kvns  far  from 
icasuroniont 
unate  a  use. 


Issor,  in  con- 
liut  partially 
liiown  world, 
lunt.    These 


errors,  beginning  from  Cape  St.  Vincent,  constantly  increase  till,  in  India,  they  amount  to 
^.  upwards  of  forty  degrees.    M.  Gosselin  ha.s  even  accused  him  of  an  error  wliich,  as  lie  jiwtly 

observes,  would  mark  a  strange  departure  from  overy  principle,  and  a  neglect  of  what  ought 
♦  to  be  the  first  care  of  a  geograpiier.  This  consists  in  giving  to  his  degrees  of  latitude  ii 
different  dimension  from  that  of  the  degrees  of  longitude,  an<l  retaining,  with  regard  to  the 
former,  Eratosthenes's  standard  of  7(KJ  sbidiiu  I  suspect,  iiowever,  that  M.  Gosselin  has 
been  somewhat  precipitate  in  advancing  so  serious  a  eliarge  against  the  first  geographer  of 
antiquity.  Tlie  ground  on  which  he  pmceods  seems  to  be,  that  while  Ptolemy  has  changed 
materially  all  tlie  longitudes  of  Eratosthenes,  the  latitudes  along  the  groat  line  continue 
unaltered  and  generally  correct.  The  real  cause  of  this,  however,  appears  to  be,  that  the 
latitudes  of  Rhodes  and  several  other  leading  points  of  this  great  line  were  determined  by 
observations  which,  though  not  perfect,  at  least  approached  to  the  truth,  while  the  loniritudes 
were  calculated  merely  out  of  the  itineraries.  This  central  line,  therefore,  bisecting  the 
breadth  of  the  iinown  world,  was  fi.xed  upon  sound  data,  and  the  errors  could  accumulate 
only  to  the  north  and  sontli  of  it.  In  fact,  wo  shall  find  that  they  did  accumulate  as  rapidly 
as  in  the  longitudes,  when  tlie  sphere  of  observation  was  passctl,  which  was  bounded  by 
Syene  on  the  south,  Marseilles  and  Byzantium  on  the  north.  The  mouth  of  the  Seine  is 
placed  one  degree  too  far  north ;  that  of  the  Rhine,  nearly  two  degrees ;  that  of  the  Elbe, 
more  than  two  degrees ;  York  is  three  degrees ;  and  the  farther  accumulation  is  only  pre- 
vented by  that  singular  conformation  which  we  shall  find  given  by  Ptolemy  to  the  northern 
part  of  Britain.  To  the  south,  again,  Axum  is  placed  thJee  degrees  too  far  south ;  Cape 
Aromata  (Guardaflii),  nearly  six  degrees ;  and  from  tliat  point  tlie  errors  continually  become 
greater.  Thus  it  appears,  that  as  soon  as  Ptolemy  quits  the  sphere  of  observation,  his  lati- 
tudes are  calculated  exactly  as  his  longitudes,  out  of  itineraries,  and  exhibit  the  same  accu- 
mulation of  errors. 

The  manuscripts  of  Ptolemy  arc  clearly  shown  by  M.  Gosselin  to  have  reached  us 
in  a  very  imperfect  state.  In  collating  with  care  the  difTerent  editions,  that  learned  writer 
has  found  a  ^eater  number  of  variations  than  in  those  of  almost  any  other  ancient  writer. 
These  variations  were  of  coiurse  very  likely  to  occur  in  copying  cyphers  where  there  was 
no  connexion  of  sense  to  check  the  copyist.  The  manuscripts  and  the  maps  appear  to  liave 
been  copied  by  different  hands,  holding  no  communication  with  each  other ;  and  accordingly 
these  two  parts  of  the  same  work  do  not,  in  many  instances,  correspond.  Lastly,  tiie  work 
of  Ptolemy  appears,  for  several  centuries,  to  have  been  carried  about  as  a  guide  by  mariners 
and  travellers,  who,  wherever  they  found  any  feature  which  did  not  agree  with  their  obser- 
vations, altered  tlie  writing  or  the  map  accordingly.  This  process  appears  in  the  numerous 
variations  of  the  Latin  copies  with  regard  to  the  western  part  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  of 
tlie  Greek  with  regard  to  the  eastern.  Tlie  alterations  thus  made  would  often,  and  indeed, 
most  generally,  be  improvements;  but  tlie  great  discrepancies  which  they  introduced  into 
the  different  copies,  must  have  greatly  bewildered  the  public. 

In  delineating  the  geographical  system  of  Ptolemy,  we  can  only  consider  the  general 
outline,  which  is  pretty  nmch  the  same  in  all  the  editions.  Ptolemy  begins  with  rejecting 
the  tiieory  of  his  predecessors,  from  Homer  to  Stralio  downwards,  who  represent  the  whole 
eartli  as  enclosed  by  a  circumambient  ocean.  Mercantile  caravans,  especially  in  tlie  east 
of  Asia,  had  now  proceeded  considerably  beyond  the  line  of  coast  which,  according  to  tlie 
last  school,  liad  marked  the  eastern  bounding  ocean.  They  had  passed  that  line  without 
reaching  the  distant  corresponding  one  by  whicli  the  Pacific  and  Arctic  seas  were  actually 
drawn  around  tliis  vast  continent.  The  eastern  Atlantic,  and  tlie  Northern  Oceans  were, 
therefore,  efliiced  from  the  delineation  of  Asia,  and  an  indefinite  expanse  of  terra  incognita 
(unknown  land)  was  substituted  as  the  boundary  of  the  world.  This  proceeding  must 
certainly  be  considered  as  more  precise  and  pliilosophical  than  the  gratuitous  theoretical 
one  for  which  it  was  substituted.  Men,  however,  seldom  know  exactly  where  to  stop : 
Ptolemy,  having  once  formed  the  idea  of  a  Ixiunding  terra  incognita,  extended  it  round 
nearly  the  entire  circuit  oftiic  known  world.  All  the  reports  of  tlie  circumnavigation  of 
Africa  were  rejected;  tliat  contirient  was  re])rescnted  as  stretching  indefinitely  south,  and 
it  was  even  carried  round  to  join  the  east  of  Asia,  and  form  the  Erytlirean  or  Iiuliun  sea 
into  a  vast  basin.  Thus  the  wliolo  system  and  structure  of  these  two  continents  underwent, 
in  the  hands  of  Ptolemy,  a.  complete  transmutation. 

SuBSECT.  1.  Europe.  {Fifr.  10.) 
In  regard  to  all  the  remoter  boundaries  of  Europe,  Ptoleiny  displays  an  advancement 
in  knowledge,  truly  wonderful,  considrring  the  short  period  which  had  elapsed  since  the 
days  of  Strabo.  The  fiicts  wiiich  wo  have  stated  under  the  head  of  Roman  geography 
sliow  the  vast  additional  mass  of  intiinnation  dorived  from  the  conquests  of  Ca'sar,  and  from 
tlie  iinperiiil  surveys.  This  hnvinij  lieen  incorporated  info  the  writinirs  of  Mela  and  Pliny,  a 
century  bo  fore  the  age  of  Ptohniiy.  would  eiisily,  thrnugh  these  and  other  channels,  roach 
his  knowlodgo.  It  is  not  surprising  that  the  rriide  delineation  of  the  exterior  coasts  of 
Europe  under  the  Stnilionic  system  should  liave  been  iiiaterially  amended;   that  Spain 

5* 


^■li 


IJfe, 


04 


THE  WORLD  ACCORDING  TO  PTOLEMY. 


Fia.  la 


■^ 


Book  L 


PTOLEMY— EUROPE. 


56 


should  have  now  a  soutliern,  and  Gaul  (.  western  coaat;  and  that  the  Bay  of  Biscay  should 
appear  clearly  under  the  appellations  ci't)<e  Cantabrian  Ocean  and  the  Aquitanian  8ea.  In 
regard  to  Britain,  also,  or,  at  least,  England,  a  groat  reform  had  been  effected.  Its  coast, 
after  passing  tlie  promontory  of  Kent,  bends  inward  toward  the  estuary  of  the  Thames, 
called  here  Idumanus.  Still  more  decided,  on  the  opposite  side,  is  the  "  Sabrina  estuarium" 
(the  estuary  of  the  Severn),  a  very  appropriate  appellation  for  the  Bristol  Channel.  The 
projection  of  Wales,  and  its  entire  outline,  appears  then  drawn  in  a  very  unexceptionable 
manner.  With  regard  to  Ireland,  Ptolemy  has  not  been  able  wholly  to  shako  off  the  errone- 
ous impressions  of  the  first  Alexandrian  school,  according  to  which  that  country  lay  to  the 
north  of  Britain.  He  makes  it  west,  indeed,  but  at  the  some  time  greatly  too  mr  north,  its 
southern  coast  being  on  a  line  with  that  of  Lancashire,  or,  at  least,  with  the  north-western 
point  of  Wales.  The  consequence  is,  that  the  island  of  Mona  (Man)  is  placed  off  the  south- 
eastern point  of  Ireland,  not  far  firom  Wexford.  Having  pointed  out  this  great  error,  we 
must  add,  that  the  whole  form  and  circuit  of  Ireland  is  given  with  a  correctness  which  ap- 
pears very  surprising,  when  contrasted  with  so  great  a  mistake  as  to  its  relative  position. 
Again,  the  eastern  coast  of  England  proceeds  correctly  till  it  reaches  the  vicinity  of  York, 
when  an  aberration  takes  place  of  the  most  extraordinary  nature.  The  rest  of  the  English 
coast,  with  the  whole  of  that  of  Scotland,  instead  of  ranging  from  north  to  south,  runs  from 
west  to  cast  The  eastern  coast  becomes  thus  the  southern,  the  western  becomes  the 
northern ;  and  the  coast  of  Germany  appears  opposite  and  parallel  throughout  its  whole 
extent  The  most  northerly  extremity  of  Britain  is  thus  fixed  at  a  point  which  Mr.  Pinker- 
ton  supposed  to  be  the  Mull  of  Galloway,  but  which  seems  more  probably  to  be  some  point 
near  Port  Patrick,  which  might  be  supiKjsed  the  most  westerly,  for  the  west  is  here  the 
north.  It  is  part  of  this  arrangement,  that  the  iBbuda;  (Hebrides)  are  placed  in  the  Deuca- 
ledonian  Ocean,  which  washes  the  western  coast  of  Scotland,  made  herp  the  northern ;  and 
the  Orkneys  are  in  the  same  ocean ;  for,  instead  of  following  the  line  of  the  main  land,  they 
are  placed,  as  '■•''•  sd,  they  ought  to  be,  nortli,  becoming  thus  at  right  angles  to  that  line. 

To  accoun'  tor  =»  strangely  distorted  form  of  northern  Britain,  M.  Gosselin  has  formed 
a  very  ingenit-  r  .     The  southern  extremity  of  the  island  being  in  lat  52°  N.,  and 

Thule,  the  re ■.■  c    remity,  in  63°,  Ptolemy  could  not,  within  these  limits,  find  space 

for  that  vast  ex,  i>  -r  coast,  which  tlie  itineraries  represented  to  him  as  belonging  to 
Britain,  To  make  out  this  space  ho  had  no  alternative  but  to  give  to  the  northerr.  part  the 
form  it  actually  bears  in  his  maps,  and  under  which  the  latitude  is  augmented  only  by  the 
breadth  of  Scotland,  a  much  smaller  dimension  than  the  length.  The  question,  however,  is, 
by  what  circumstance  Ptolemy  was  checked  in  his  latitude  of  Thule,  and  why  he  should 
not  have  driven  it  out  to  the  north  as  far  as  his  itineraries  seemed  to  require.  We  at  one 
time  thought  it  possible  that  tiiis  grand  boundary  point  might  have  been  fixed  by  some  rude 
observation  which  was  not  applied  to  the  intermediate  points.  But  it  appears  very  improba- 
ble, that  any  expedition  which  should  have  made  an  observation  of  latitude  at  Shetland, 
should  not  have  done  the  same  in  the  southern  and  much  more  accessible  parts  of  Britain. 
I  rather  incline  to  adopt  the  following  solution.  We  have  seen,  that  in  the  ideas  of  the 
Roman  navigators,  Thule  was  in  a  great  measure  separated  from  Britain,  and  attached  to 
the  east  of  Germany,  or  rather  to  Scandinavia;  whether  its  existence  was  made  known  to 
them  by  Scandinavian  navigators,  or  whether  a  part  of  the  coast  of  Norway  was  actually 
fixed  upon  by  them  instead  of  Shetland  for  this  most  northern  limit  of  the  earth.  This  idea, 
which  attached  Thule  to  Scandinavia,  appears  to  have  been  combined  in  Ptolemy's  mind 
with  tliat  of  Pytheas,  who  made  it  the  remotest  extremity  of  Britain.  Such  a  combination 
could  be  accomplished  only  by  stretching  Scotland  across  the  German  ocean  in  that  strange 
direction. 

The  details  of  Scotland,  if  we  pass  over  this  radical  error,  are  given  in  a  manner  much 
more  tolerable  than  could  have  been  expected  in  o  country  unsubdued  by  the  Romans,  and 
with  their  imperfect  navigution.  Thule,  in  Ptolemy,  is  not  a  -iluster  of  islands,  like  those 
of  Shetland,  but  onu  large  island,  upwards  of  a  hundred  miles  in  length :  this  circumstance 
more  and  more  strengthens  tlio  suspicion  that  Norway,  to  a  considerable  extent  entered 
into  the  idea  attached  to  tliat  celebrated  name. 


Reference!  to  Ow 

Map  nfihe  WorU 

according  to  Ptolemy. 

EunopA. 

5.  Sinnpn 

11).  naraoura 

A  Pntyltmoliu 

5.  Cvrene 
fl.  Alvxandria 

1.  (yurtlmgu  Nova 

3.  Amiaui 

30.  noaynga 

n  .l«xftrt«'M 

S.  Mnisilia 

4.  Iiwua 

SI.  B»raliiB 

f  (Echardca 

7.  Hernopulu 

3.  (tcnua 

.*>.  Klana 

22.  Taenia 

g  Rnutiaus 
ASeniH 

8.  .lyene 

4.  Rfinm 

6.  Ziiaram 

9:l.  Hatmiia 

0.  Piiilomaia 

S.  Allienm 

7.  Mum 

24.  ( 'Htisnra 

i  Ganiiei 

10.  Mermi 

6.  Brzuntium 

fl.  Werro 
(1  Tcrcdnri 

9.5.  Thinm 

j  Indua 

11.  Adulii 

5fi.  Aspillira 

Rittcrt. 

10.  nahylon 

VI.  Timiaia 

Taprobana  Inauta. 

Rivera 

a  Rhciiui 

II.  Ninut 

2H.  Simla 

a  Gange§ 

a  Stachir 

b  Chcuinn* 

H.  DioBcuriaa 

m.  nai.ina 

b  I>Hratui 

c  Tnnnii 

n.  Oniinra 

30.  8eiB 

LIBYA  VEL  AFRICA 

c  Nigir 

>l  Rhn 

14.  Sii«a 

1.  Nigim 

dCif 

c  UorysthoncK 

I.V  Pflrtionnlis 

Rirer*. 

'}.  Rira 

5  Nilui 

Itl.  Hunlni 

a  fliipliraien 

3.  rarlhago 

1  Antapus 
f  Aaiaboras 

ASIA. 

17.  Piitalri 

h  TijriH 

4.  Phycui 

I.  EphesiiJi 

16.  Palibulhrj 

C  1>XU< 

f1 


M 


HISTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  1. 


!  I 


;      U 


Under  the  licads  of  great  Germany  and  of  Sammtin,  Ptolemy  lias  jriven  nil  tlie  knowledge 
he  had  acquired  of  the  north  ond  east  of  Eiirtpe,  wliicli  was  not  incoiiBidernblo.  The  line 
■jf  the  German  coast  is  very  well  formed,  and  tiio  Anmrii\is  or  Ems,  tiie  Visurgis  or  Weser, 
the  Aibis  or  Elbe,  the  Vedra  or  Odor,  and  tlie  Visula  or  Vistula,  appear  in  regular  sncccs- 
sion,  and  almost  under  their  modern  names.  Jutland  appears  as  the  Cimbric  Cliersonese, 
and  the  soutlicrn  coast  of  the  Baltic  is  carried  on  very  correctly ;  but,  in  regard  to  Scandi- 
navia, he  fails  entirely.  Evidently  ignorant  that  the  Biiltic  is  an  enclosed  gulf,  ho  calls  it 
"  the  Sarmatic  Ocean,"  and  places  in  it  fbur  islands.  Three  of  those,  close  to  tlii^  Cimbric 
Chersonese,  are  clearly  recognised  in  the  islands  of  Denmiirk;  but  the  other,  of  grciiter 
extent,  farther  to  the  east  and  opposite  to  the  mouth  of  the  Vistula,  is  probably  part  of  Swe- 
den, and  perhaps  Gothland.  It  is  clear,  that  navigators  had  not  then  rounded  Jutland,  and 
passed  through  the  Skagerrack  or  Cattegat,  otherwise  tliey  must  have  noticed  these  straita, 
and  the  great  extent  of  continent  opposite  the  Cimbric  Chersone.-o.  The  Alocciau  islands, 
however,  situated  off  the  northern  extremity  of  Jutland,  must  have  been  suggested  by  some 
part  of  the  Norwegian  coast,  as  there  are  no  islands  in  that  quarter.  The  more  northern 
part  of  the  Norwegian  coast  was  probably,  as  already  observed,  identified  with  Thule. 

The  coast  of  Sarmatia  is  described  by  Ptolemy  on  passing  the  Vistula,  and  he  truces  with 
accuracy  the  great  bend  which  it  takes  northward  to  the  gulf  of  Riga.  Four  rivers  are 
giveli,  which  cannot  be  recognised  by  their  names,  but  which  M.  Gosselin  conceives  to  be 
the  Pregel,  the  Niemen,  the  Windau,  and  the  Dwina.  Beyond  this  he  places  "  tlie  end  of 
the  sea  of  the  known  land,"  and  immediately  commences  that  boundary  of  (irra  incognita 
which  he  carries  around  the  whole  of  Asia. 

In  regard  to  the  south  of  European  Russia,  Ptolemy  recovers  much  of  the  knowledge 
which  had  been  wholly  or  partially  lost  under  Stnibo.  He  appears  indeed  to  have  gone  back 
in  a  great  measure  to  Herodotus,  whom  he  imitates  in  giving  most  nnreasonabl(>  extension 
to  the  Palus  Mieotis.  There  is  little  room  for  complaint  as  to  the  Tanais,  the  Boryslhencs, 
and  the  other  great  rivers  which  fall  into  the  Euxine.  In  this  remote  and  wild  extremity 
of  Europe,  however,  he  has  found  a  place  for  certain  poetical  and  historical  fictions,  which 
experience  had  banished  from  better  known  quarters,  but  which  could  not  find  a  place  here 
with  any  propriety; — the  grove  of  Diana,  the  race-course  of  Achilles,  the  altars  of  C-esar 
and  of  Alexander ;  neither  of  whom  ever  carried  their  arms  into  this  part  of  the  ancient 
Scythia. 

In  tracing  the  Mediterranean,  Ptolemy  improves  considerably  upon  the  labours  of  his  pre- 
decessors. Sicily,  in  particular,  is  much  better  constructed,  and  the  straits  of  Messina  ore 
placed  nearly  in  their  true  latitude.  He  still,  however,  merits  deep  reproach  for  the  utterly 
barbarous  form  which  he  has  given  to  Italy,  that  ruling  country,  winch  must  of  all  others 
have  appeared  to  him  the  most  interesting,  and  for  which  he  must  have  possessed  the  most 
ample  materials.  Yet  Italy,  with  the  exception  of  a  slight  bend  at  its  extremity,  is  oriented 
almost  entirely  east  and  west,  having  tlie  Adriatic  for  its  northern,  and  tiie  Tyrrhenian  for 
its  southern  boundary.  I  cannot  find  any  account  of  an  error  so  strange,  except  by  supposing 
that  Ptolemy  must  have  been  led  into  it  by  one  of  those  itinerary  ma])s  which,  like  the 
Peutingerian,  made  everything  sul)servient  to  the  direction  of  the  Roman  high  road,  and 
drew  it  in  a  straight  line  from  one  extremity  to  the  other.  It  is  easy  to  siipjiose  that  he 
might  not  comprehend  the  very  odd  principle  upon  which  this  map  was  constructed,  and 
might  conceive  that  being  made  with  regard  to  Italy,  a  country  so  near,  and  so  completely 
within  reach,  it  might  be  implicitly  relied  on.  This  suspicion  is  strengthened  when  we 
find,  after  passing  Dyrnichiuni,  the  port  of  embarkation  for  Greece,  this  being  the  direction 
of  the  great  road  of  the  empire,  that  the  coast  of  Italy  suddenly  resumes  its  just  form,  and 
the  peninsula  of  Campania  makes  oven  too  abrupt  a  bond  to  the  south. 

SmsECT.  2. — Asia. 
In  regard  of  Asia  also,  important  discoveries  had  been  mrtde  pince  the  time  of  Eratos- 
tliencs.  Immense  territories,  included  by  that  geographer  within  the  domain  of  the 
ocean,  were  known  to  Ptolemy  as  occupied  by  the  wandering  hordes  of  Scythia,  or  by  the 
peaceful  and  industrious  nation  of  the  Sores  or  Ciiinese.  This  advantage  might  be  partly 
due  to  the  military  itineraries,  especially  that  of  Trajan  in  his  victorious  expedition  into 
Parthia.  The  grand  source,  however,  evidently  was  that  bold  spirit  of  commercial  enter- 
prise, to  which  an  impulse  was  given  by  the  vai^t  consumption  of  Rome,  when  the  wealth  of 
tlie  world  centred  in  that  mighty  ami  voluptuous  capital.  The  East  was  tiie  region  mainly 
resorted  to  for  the  supjily  of  the  boundless  wants  which  arose  in  that  artificial  ami  luxurious 
ebite  of  society.  The  merchants  soon  learned  to  trace  routes,  both  by  land  and  sea,  much 
longer  and  more  adventurous  than  had  been  achieved  by  their  predecessors  at,  any  tornier 
period.  Under  the  narrative  entitlod"tho  Pcriplusof  the  Erythrean  Sea,"  we  liave  lidlowcd 
tirj  maritime  career  by  which  the  merchants  of  Alexandria  were  led  to  the  cn:i;-t  of  .Mala- 
bar. Whether,  in  the  time  of  Ptolemy,  thr^  (Jre(>k  iiavif:nt<irs  had  acttialiy  procei-deil  tiirtlier, 
it  may  be  dilFunilt.  to  say  with  certainty.  He  has  cirtainly,  however  obtained  a  considera- 
ble accessi;)ii  of  knowli'ilge  with  reganl  to  this  eastern  extremity  of  the  known  world.     He 


Book  I. 


PTOLEMY— ASIA. 


vr 


f  Eratos- 
II   of  the 
or  by  the 
U)  partly 
ition  into 
■cial  pnter- 
wcaltli  of 
ion  mainly 
luxurious 
-('!!,  inucli 
uiy  tornier 
vc  foUowctl 
of  Miilti- 
■a  furtlicr, 
,MiisiiU;ra- 
ssorld.     He 


goes  fur  beyoi"]  t!>»  raonth  of  tlic  Ganges,  at  which  wc  have  olisorved  the  termination  of 
all  precise  knowledge  in  the  author  of  the  Periplus.  After  delineating  a  coast,  with  a 
succession  of  ports  which  it  is  difficult  to  identify,  he  comes  to  a  grand  feature,  wliich  he 
calls  "  tlio  Golden  Cliersonese,"  formed  by  three  great  estuaries  discharging  their  waters 
into  the  sea.  These  phenomena  are  actually  presented  by  the  mouths  of  the  Irrawaddy  at 
tiie  sonthcm  extremity  of  Pegu.  This  is  followed  by  an  extensive  feature,  the  Magnus 
Sinus,  or  Great  Bay,  penetrating  far  inland,  and  receiving  some  considerable  rivers.  The 
jfulf  of  Malacca  is  not  nearly  so  largo  or  so  deep  as  this  Magnus  Sinus;  but  its  mouth 
Coing  very  broad,  and  its  shores  very  winding,  it  is  not  very  improbable  that,  in  the  eyes  of 
ancient  and  unskilful  navi  \tors,  it  might  assume  this  exaggerated  form  and  dimension. 
Beyond  the  Magnus  Sin\  the  coast,  in  continuity  with  its  eastern  shore,  stretches  due 
routli  to  tiio  farthest  known  extremity  of  the  world.  On  tliis  coast  tiie  leading  features  are 
Tiiino!,  a  great  interior  metropolis,  and  Cattigara,  its  sea-port  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Cotiaris. 
This  coast,  it  should  seem,  can  only  be  that  of  Malacca  and  the  Isthmus  of  Kraw,  which 
runs  exactly  in  the  direction  here  assigned  by  Ptolemy.  Gosselin  identifies  Thinse  with 
Tenasserin ;  but  there  seems  more  reason  for  acceding  to  Dr.  Vincent's  opinion  that  it  ia 
Siam.  This  exposition,  which  is  supported  by  Vossius,  Gosselin,  and  Vincent,  appears  to  me 
undoubtedly  preferable  to  the  more  general  one  supported  by  the  authority  of  d'Anville, 
which  makes  the  coast  of  the  Sinie  extend  along  the  gulf  of  Siam  and  tlie  sea  of  China. 
Such  a  line  would  involve  Ptolemy  in  the  strange  and  incredible  blunder  of  making  a  coast 
face  the  east  wliich  really  feces  the  west  Sumatra,  indeed,  is  so  land-locked  that  it  might 
easily  enough  have  been  taken  for  a  part  of  the  continent,  and  have  been  called  the  Golden 
Chersonese.  But  it  seems  inconceivable  how  the  straits  of  Malacca  and  of  Sunda,  so  im- 
portant and  so  critical  to  navigators,  and  by  one  or  the  other  of  which  they  must  have 
entered  the  eea  of  China,  could  have  been  overlooked.  On  this  supposition,  indeed,  the 
coasts  are  swelled  very  fer  beyond  tlieir  due  dimensions ;  but  we  have  oftc^n  remarked  how 
enormously  this  is  apt  to  be  the  case,  in  regard  to  routes,  and  above  all  coasts  which  are 
traversed  for  the  first  time,  and  by  inexperienced  navigators.  Ptolemy,  as  we  liavo  seen, 
after  retrenching  the  eastern  itineraries  of  Marinns  one  half,  left  them  still  greatly  too  large ; 
and  he  does  not  mention  any  similar  retrenchment  in  regard  to  the  coasts.  If,  on  the  other 
hand,  those  of  Ptolemy  extend  to  the  Chinese  sea  and  to  China,  then,  contrary  to  every 
ancient  example,  he  must  have  immensely  underrated  the  extent  of  these  imperfectly  dis- 
covered tracts ;  an  error  wjiicii  would  be  contrary  to  all  precedent : — this,  however,  does  not 
imply  that  there  may  not,  within  tliis  line  of  positive  knowledge,  have  been  a  confused 
blending  of  features  that  lay  in  reality  beyond. 

The  increased  knowledge  of  Ptolemy  respecting  the  eastern  part  of  the  Asiatic  continent  was 
chiefly  derived,  as  we  have  already  remarked,  firom  the  great  caravan  wiiicli  proceeded  from 
Byzantium,  having  the  country  of  Serica  for  its  ultimate  destination.  This  caravan,  having 
traversed  Asia  Minor,  crossed  the  Euphrates  at  Hierapolis,  and  journeyed  through  Media, 
by  way  of  Ecbatana  (Hamadan),  to  Hecatompylos  (Daumghaun),  the  capital  of  Partliia.  It 
then  advanced  north  to  Hyrcania  (Horkan  or  Jorjan),  thence  south,  to  take  in  the  fine 
province  of  Aria  (Herat).  It  now  again  turned  north,  to  include  the  capital  of  Marglana 
(Moru  Rood),  thence  due  east  to  Bactria  (Balk),  which  then  formed,  as  at  present,  the  main 
centre  of  the  commerce  of  interior  Asia.  The  caravan  now  quitted  the  easy  and  level  tract 
through  which  its  route  had  hitherto  led,  and  began  to  ascend  that  vast  and  rugged  mountain 
world  which  fills  the  eastern  interior  of  Asia.  Alter  accomplishing  the  steep  iiscent  of  the 
Monies  Comedorum,  which  seems  to  be  the  chain  of  the  Beloor,  it  reached  a  station  called 
the  "  Stono  Tower,"  which  there  is  nothing  to  identify i.e,xcept  that  the  direction  towards  it 
is  north-east,  and  it  may  be  either  I.adauk  or  Yarcund,  the  great  modem  emporium  of  this 
part  of  the  East.  From  the  Stone  Tower  to  the  frontier  of  Serica,  Marinus,  on  the  authority 
of  the  merchants,  reported  a  journey  of  seven  months,  which  Ptolemy  considers  as  monstrous 
and  incredible,  though  ho  admits  tiiat  the  road  is  exposed  to  the  greatest  liardships  and  difl[i- 
culties.  The  question,  what  is  the  country  described  by  Ptolemy  and  his  contemporaries  as 
Serica,  is  the  most  curious  in  the  ancient  geography  of  Asin.  The  earliest  modern  opinion 
identified  Serica  with  northern  China,  while  tiie  country  if  the  SinK  composed  tiie  southern 
part.  D'Anville,  however,  wiio  transported  the  Sina:  into  the  coast  of  Cambodia,  carried 
westward  also  the  Seres  into  the  country  of  the  Igours,  or  Eygurs,  including  in  their  terri- 
tory only  the  small  projecting  portion  of  the  Chinese  province  of  Shensec.  Mr.  Pinkerton 
places  it  still  fiirther  west,  in  Little  Bucharia.  M.  Gosselin,  followed  generally  by  the 
present  French  school,  contends  that  Scrinagur,  in  the  north  of  Hindostin,  is  the  real  Sera 
metropolis  of  Ptolemy.  I  can  see  no  reason  for  altering  the  grounds  on  which  I  concluded 
formerly,  and  endeavoured  to  prove,  Serica  to  bo  simply  China.  (See  EiUnburg  Phil.  Trans. 
vol.  viii.  On  the  ancient  Geogrnpliy  of  Central  and  Eastern  Asia.)  All  the  natives  of  India 
whom  Ptolemy  saw  assured  him  that  the  Sores  lay  beyond  tlie  Sinm,  and  China  is  beyond 
Siam.  The  Sinai  (Siam)  had  to  the  north  Scythia  beyond  Imaus,  which  rmintry  had  Srrica 
on  tlio  oast.  Sprica  is  described  as  traversed  by  two  great  rivers,  flowing  eastwiiril,  as  the 
Himng-h-  nnd  Yang-t.-e-kiang  actually  do.     Soricii,  according  to  Ptolemy's  graduation,  was 

Vol,.  I.  II 


r 


M 


HISTORY  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Past  I. 


I 


I! 


ii!l 


•,  i 


fourteen  hundred  miles  from  north  to  south,  and  eleven  hundred  from  east  to  west,  a  very 
close  approiicii  to  the  dimensions  of  modern  China.  Herica,  tlieii,  in  form,  extent,  peogra- 
phical  features,  and  relations  to  the  neighbouring  countries,  exactly  corresponds  to  the  mo- 
dem China.  Not  less  conformable  is  the  report  given  of  the  national  character,  Tlie  Seres 
are  represented  as  frugal,  quiet,  sedate,  and  tranquil  beyond  all  other  nations;  as  of  all 
others  the  most  unwarlike,  and  the  most  averse  to  the  use  of  arms;  as  shinming,  with  the 
most  studious  care,  the  society  and  intercourse  of  strangers,  and  scarcely  ever  allowing 
them  to  enter  their  territory ;  as  carrying  on  trade  at  a  fixed  frontier  station  only,  and  under 
•he  strictest  precautions;  as  selling  their  own  commodities  without  receiving  the  commo- 
dities of  other  nations  in  return.  Silk  waa  the  staple  of  Serica,  and  it  is  of  China.  Witli 
regard  to  M.  Gossclin's  Indian  theory,  it  must  now,  we  suppose,  be  on  all  hands  given  up, 
since  Thibet  and  Northern  India,  instead  of  being  connected  bv  the  valley  of  the  Ganges, 
have  been  found  separated  by  the  unbroken  continuity  of  the  loftiest  ridge  of  the  Iliininaleh, 
which  can  be  penetrated  only  by  a  few  most  perilous  and  tremendous  passes. 

Respecting  Ilindostan,  and  its  limitary  regions,  the  details  given  by  Ptolemy  include  a 
great  mass  of  sound  information.  In  some  important  particulars,  indeed,  his  map  is  decidedly 
superior  to  those  possessed  by  the  moderns,  previous  to  the  late  important  accessions  to  their 
knowledge.  He  describes  the  Ganges  rising,  as  it  really  docs,  on  the  southern  side  of  the 
Himmaleh,  and  in  the  outer  limits  of  Ilindostan,  while,  prior  to  the  mission  sent  by  Col. 
Colebrooke,  in  1806,  its  origin,  and  a  considerable  part  of  its  early  course,  were  supposed  to 
be  in  Little  Thibet.  The  mission  to  Caubul  first  found  that  all  the  great  western  rivers 
emptied  themselves  by  one  channel  into  the  Indus,  as  they  had  been  represented  hy  Ptolemy, 
while  modern  maps  had  exhibited  them  entering  by  two  great  separate  chiinncls.  The 
same  mission  discovered  two  very  considerable  rivers,  western  tributaries  of  the  Indus, 
the  Kauraeh  and  the  Suaut,  of  which  no  trace  had  yet  appeared  in  modern  delineation ; 
but,  on  turning  to  Ptolemy,  we  find  them  accurately  traced  under  the  names  of  the  Coo  and 
the  Suoste.  Thus  we  find  him  delineating  with  success  geographical  features  in  the  most 
secret  recesses  of  Asia,  which  remained  unknown  till  lately  to  tlie  best-informed  of  modem 
geographers. 

The  site  of  Palibotlira  is  one  main  point  in  which,  after  much  discussion,  geographers 
have  in  vain  endeavoured  to  form  an  unanimous  opinion.  It  was  found  by  Mcgiisthenes  the 
proud  capital  of  the  Gangetic  kingdom,  and  the  greatest  city  of  all  India.  Yet  modern 
geographers  have  not  been  able  to  agree  within  several  hundred  miles  upon  this  marked 
and  celebrated  position.  Arrian  states  that  it  is  situated  at  the  junction  of  the  Ganges  with 
the  Erranaboiis,  the  third  river  of  India  as  to  magnitude,  being  surpassed  only  by  the  Ganges 
and  the  Indus.  This  scale  of  magnitude  suggests  the  Jumna,  and  at  the  confluenee  of  the 
Jumna  with  the  Ganges  actually  stands  Allahabad,  a  city  of  great  magnitude  and  high  anti- 
quity, which  is  even  revered  by  the  Hindoos  as  the  "  king  of  holy  cities."  Upon  this  general 
idea  D'Anville  and,  after  him,  Robertson,  have  considered  Allahabad  as  occupying  the  site 
of  Palibothra.  On  examination,  however,  this  is  found  in  contradiction  to  the  most  jxjsitive 
statements  of  Pliny  and  Ptolemy.  Pliny,  in  express  words,  states  Palilxithra  to  be  425  miles 
distant  fram  the  junction  of  these  two  rivers.  Ptolemy  makes  the  distance  somewhat  greater 
still.  In  considering  Allahabad,  then,  as  Palibothra,  we  abandon  altogether  the  authority  of 
these  two  great  geographers,  a  step  in  which  we  should  be  very  little  justified,  either  by  a 
reference  to  thi'ir  general  character,  or  by  our  knowledge  of  their  remarkable  accuracy  with 
regard  to  the  other  features  of  central  and  northern  India.  Their  account  of  Palibothra,  too, 
is  given  upon  the  authority  of  Greek  ambassadors,  who  actually  visited  that  capital.  The 
river  next  in  magnitude  is  the  Gogra  or  Sarayu.  But  the  junction  of  this  river  with  the 
Ganges  is  not  nearly  so  far  from  that  of  the  Jumna  as  the  above  statements  v.-ould  require. 
Besides,  Ptolemy  actually  gives  us  tlie  Sarabus  (Sarayu),  with  its  junction  ii\  the  due  relative 
position  to  that  of  the  Jumna,  but  Palibothra  much  fiirther  down.  Major  Rennel  has  made 
choice  of  Patna,  and  considers  the  junction  of  the  Soane,  at  present  thirty  miles  above  that 
city,  as  having  taken  place  formerly  by  a  different  and  nearer  channel.  This  theory  stands 
on  much  higher  ground  than  the  other;  yet  it  by  no  means  closely  corresponds  with  the 
ancient  data.  Pliny  mentions  both  the  Sonus  and  the  Erranalwas  as  quite  distinct  tributaries 
of  the  Ganges,  and  he  places  the  city  considerably  farther  down  than  Patna  is.  Ptolemy, 
also,  in  giving  the  junction  of  the  Soa  and  the  Ganges,  places  Palibotlira  more  than  two 
hundred  miles  below.  Major  Rennell's  theory,  then,  brings  us  considoral)ly  short  of  the 
point  at  which  this  great  capital  ought  to  be  situated. 

Another  point  which  appeared  to  ine  to  unite  the  name  and  position  of  Palibothra  has 
been  mentioned  {Discoveries  in  Asia,  v.  i.  p.  491.),  and,  without  being  inclined  very  confi- 
dently to  dogmatize,  it  still  appears  to  me  to  combine  better  the  difierent  rpf|nisili's  than 
any  other  yet  named.  The  name  of  BoffUponr  may  be  considered  identical  \\itli  I'aliboor; 
for,  in  transferring  Indian  terms  into  our  characters,  P  and  B,  O  and  A,  are  always  used 
promiscuously;  and  the  termination  attached  by  the  Romans  is  evidently  ncrording  to  their 
system  of  harnionizing  foreign  sounds  with  their  own.  A  name  is  of  little  cnn.sequence 
when  it  is  not  !iccom|ianied  wit''  a  corresjwnding  position ;  but  here  this  appears  to  couicide 


i  '! 


■w 


Hook  I. 


PTOLEMY— AFRICA. 


b» 


>tlirii  lias 
ry  confi- 
ics  than 
'iiliboor; 
xys  used 
'to  their 
pqiienco 
coijic'ide 


nearly,  though  not  indeed  quite  exactly,  with  Pliny,  He  makes  Palibothra  4'V)  miles  from 
the  junction  of  the  Ganges  and  Jumna,  and  6(M)  from  Gauge,  a  capital  ttituuteJ  ut  the  mouth 
of  the  former.  Boglipoor,  however,  iuHteud  of  being  only  two-fifllis  of  tlio  distance  between 
these  two  points,  is  about^  exactly  midway.    Tlie  space  lower  down  the  river,  being  less 

'  I  most  easterly 
place  assigned 

position  of  Bogli- 
poor. Near  it  the  Ganges  receives  tiie  Coosy,  or  river  of  Nepaul,  certainly  not  the  third 
m  India  as  ti  magnitude ;  but  the  ambassadors  might  not  have  very  precise  means  of  os- 
certaininj^  the  relative  dimensions  of  the  Indian  rivers.  There  is,  therefore,  a  great  weight 
of  evidence,  as  to  name  and  position,  in  favour  of  the  theory  here  proposed.  I  must  confesii, 
iiowevcr,  that  I  find  no  description  of  any  monuments,  such  as  might  be  expected  to  mark 
the  ancient  site  of  so  splendid  a  capital.  Indian  structures,  however,  are  not  usually 
composed  of  materials  sufficiently  solid  to  resist  the  ravages  of  sixteen  centuries.  If  the 
local  data  could  at  all  have  allowed  us  to  fix  upon  tlie  thrice  ancient  and  holy  Benares,  its 
character  would  have  given  it  at  once  a  pre-emiuence ;  but  this  is  impossible.  Ra- 
jemahl,  suggested,  is  not  very  distant  from  Boglipoor;  but  besides  losing  the  coin- 
cidence of  name,  it  agrees  less  than  the  other  position  with  the  statements  both  of  Ptolemy 
and  Pliny. 

SuBSECT.  3. — Africa. 

In  the  delineation  of  Africa,  Ptolemy,  himself  an  African,  had  obvious  advantages.  Ac- 
cordingly his  delineations  of  ceveral  of  tlie  most  interior  features  have,  as  in  the  case  of 
southern  India,  proved  to  be  more  accurate  than  those  given  by  modern  geographers  down 
to  a  very  recent  period.  The  course  of  tlie  Nile,  up  to  its  highest  probable  source  in  the 
central  range  of  the  mountains  of  the  Moon,  has  been  justified  by  recent  inquiry,  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  Portuguese  missionaries,  who  drew  it.  from  the  mountains  and  lakes  of  Abys- 
sinia. This  original  fountain-head  has  not  yet  \  .1  traced  by  the  daring  foot  of  the  modern 
traveller ;  but  the  description  given  to  Brown,  of  its  descent  from  the  great  mountain  chain 
south  of  Darfoor,  corresponds  very  exactly  with  Ptolemy,  making  allowance  only  for  his 
erroneous  graduation.  With  equal  fidelity,  lie  delineates  the  Astaboras,  or  Atbara,  the  As- 
tapus,  or  river  of  Abyssinia,  successively  fiillinff  into  it  from  the  east.  He  has,  indeed,  made 
Meroe  an  island,  enclosed  by  brandies  of  the  Nile ;  but  modern  discovery  has  shown  it  to 
be  so  very  nearly  insular,  in  consequence  of  the  great  bend  taken  to  the  south,  that  the 
error  cannot  be  considered  excessive. 

In  regard  to  central  Africa,  Ptolemy  had  not  equal  advantages,  on  account  of  the  dis- 
tance, kjcause  no  track  had  yet  been  formed  across  the  vast  ocean  of  desert  which  inter- 
vened. It  appears  to  me  a  matter  of  some  difficulty  to  ascertain  the  precise  extent  of  hia 
knowledge  as  to  this  region.  M.  Gossclin  lias  not  hesitated  to  assert,  that  he  knew  nothing 
of  Africa  south  of  the  desert,  and  tliat  all  the  features  which  he  has  assigned  to  interior 
Libya,  and  the  course  of  the  Niger,  belong  in  fact  to  Fezzan  and  that  region  behind  the 
Atlas  which  we  call  the  B'led-el-Jereedc,  or  Land  of  Dates.  This  opinion  certainly  receives 
much  countenance  when  we  find  the  Garamantes  and  the  Garamantica  vallis  placed  on  thu 
same  line  with  the  Niger,  the  lake  of  Nigritia,  and  the  other  leading  central  features.  I 
still,  however,  think  it  probable  that  Ptolemy  might,  by  way  of  tlie  Upper  Nile,  have  ob- 
tained intelligence  respecting  a  portion  at  least  of  tliese  vast  regions,  the  approach  to  which 
by  way  of  Dongola  and  Sennaar  was  not  obstructed  by  any  very  insurmountable  barriers. 
Besides  the  agreement  of  several  names,  as  Gaua,  Tagana,  Panagro,  the  general  picture 
of  this  region  as  one  of  lakes,  rivers,  and  mountains,  agrees  much  better  with  the  interior 
tiian  with  the  arid  tract  between  Atlas  and  the  desert.  My  suspicion  tiiercfore  is,  that  Ptol- 
emy, unacquainted  with  any  route  across  the  great  desert,  was  not  aware  of  the  wide  in- 
terval between  the  features  to  the  nortli  and  those  to  the  south  of  it,  and  linked  them  to- 
gether in  his  description  as  contiguous  and  connected.  As  his  knowledge  of  central  Africa 
w:is  thus  obtained  only  in  a  westerly  course  from  the  Nile,  it  was  not  likely  to  extend  be- 
yond the  eastern  part  of  the  vast  brea/lth  between  the  Nile  and  the  ocean.  The  Mons  Man- 
drus,  his  mo.st  western  feature,  with  a  great  river  flowing  from  it  into  tlie  lake  of  Nigritia, 
may  pcriinps  be  recognized  in  the  miglity  range  of  the  mountains  of  Mandara  and  the  river 
Shary  flowing  from  them  into  the  lake  or  sea  of  tlie  Tchad.  About  this  quarter  I  should 
conceive  the  knowledge  w!iich  reached  Ptolemy  by  inland  channels  probably  terminated ; 
and  llie  Atlantic  coast,  known  to  exist  by  the  voyages  of  Ilanno,  Scylax,  and  Polybius,  was 
united  to  those  objects  by  a  merely  hypotlietical  construction.  In  regard  to  the  course  of 
the  Niger,  it  is  difficult  to  say  very  precisely  what  were  Ptolemy's  views,  and  we  only  per- 
ceive that  he  made  it  an  inland  river,  neither  flowing  into  the  Atlantic,  nor  by  the  Nile  into 
the  Mediterranean. 

Respecting  tliis  gretrt  central  region  of  Africa,  however,  Ptolemy  had  obtained  some  no- 
tices from  whicii  he  might  have  estimated  itp-  magnitude.  Two  Roman  expeditions  had 
been  reported  to  him,  one  made  by  Septimius  Flaccus  from  Garama,  and  the  other  by  Julius 


■A  ;i 


m 
m 


S-? 


I-  '  Mil 


r'     ■("'  •■  map* 


,*     *• 


m 


00 


HISTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY, 


Pa»tI. 


! 


Matornug  from  tho  coast  of  Cyrcnc.  Tho  former  in  three,  and  the  latter  in  four  month*, 
had  penetrated  into  tlic  country  of  the  Ethiopians.  Ptolemy  expresses  himself  very  scepti- 
cal lis  to  tho  possible  length  of  tliis  marcli ;  nevertheless  he  loys  down  the  conntry  of 
Agisynibu  as  tliat  furthest  region  of  intc^rior  Etiiiopia  into  which  these  commnnders  had 
ponotratcd.  Agis}'mba  wo  suspect  to  ho  Agndoz ;  at  leust  as  tho  march  comprehends  no 
rivers  or  lakes,  it  cannot  well  have  reached  the  lino  of  the  Nifjer.  Nevertlieless  Ptolemy 
places  it  considerably  to  the  south  of  Nigritiu ;  which  is  doubtless  in  fiivour  of  the  limited 
ext'mt  which  M.  Gossclin  allows  to  his  information.  But  we  may  observe  that,  supposing 
Ptolemy  to  have  formed,  in  the  manner  above  supiKwcd,  his  idea  of  tho  plain  of  tho  Niger 
as  little  removed  to  the  south  of  Fczzan,  ho  must,  in  protracting  marches  of  throe  or  four 
months,  necessarily  have  carried  the  lino  much  farther  to  tho  south. 

In  regard  to  the  western  coasts  of  Africa,  Ptolemy's  delineation  is  not  very  luminous,  but 
appears  on  the  whole  to  favour  M.  Gosselin's  views  respecting  tho  extent  of  Hanno's  voy- 
age and  of  the  knowledge  of  the  ancients.  He  does  indeed  present  two  rivers,  the  Daradus 
and  the  Stochir,  flowing  on  a  line  witli  tho  plain  of  Nigritio.  But  I  have  no  idea  that 
Ptolemy  could  have  any  precise  information  reaching  across  tho  entire  breadth  of  the  con- 
tinent, and  conceive,  as  already  hinted,  that  the  coast  and  interior  were  hero  hypothctically 
united.  As  Ptolemy  placed  the  plain  of  tho  Niger  much  too  fkr  north,  he  might  make 
these  rivers  on  a  line  with  it,  without  identifying  them  with  the  Senegal  and  Gambia. 
His  position  of  the  Fortunate  Islands  (Canaries)  opposite  to  their  mouths,  and  south  of 
Cemc,  is  not  at  all  in  favour  of  tho  opinion  which  carries  these  last  features  deep  into  cen- 
tral Africa. 

On  the  eastern  coast  of  Africa,  Ptolemy  adds  to  the  line  described  by  the  author  of  the 
Periplus  a  coast  extending  from  the  promontory  of  Rhaptum  to  that  of  Prasum.  At  this 
point  the  coast,  hitherto  running  Bouth-west,  changes  to  soutli-east.  No  details  are  given 
of  this  coast,  which  is  described  as  rough  and  difficult  to  navigate.  We  can  neither,  with 
M.  Goeselin,  lunit  Prasum  to  Brava,  nor  with  Vincent  carry  it  so  far  as  Mosambique.  There 
is  no  part  of  the  coast  to  which  the  direction  assigned  to  it  belongs,  except  from  Quiloa 
to  Cape  Delgado;  and  if  Rhaptum  be  at  or  near  Quiloa,  tho  latter,  allowing  for  some  exag- 
geration of  distance  on  a  coast  so  little  known,  will  be  the  promontory  Prasum.  Five  de- 
ffrees  east  and  three  degrees  south  of  this  promontory  is  the  island  of  Mcnuthios.  The 
Mcnouthesias  of  the  Periplus  appeared  pretty  plainly  to  bo  one  of  tho  smaller  islands  near 
the  African  coast,  and  probably  Zanzibar ;  but  none  of  these  could  be  the  Menuthias  of 
Ptolemy,  which  is  manifestly  Aiodagoscar. 


BOOK    II. 

GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES. 

Undek  the  "  geography  of  the  middle  ages  "  may  be  comprehended  that  of  the  Arabian  or 
Saracen  nations,  during  the  period  when  science  was  successfully  cultivated  among  them ; 
and  the  geographical  ideas  prevalent  in  Europe,  during  that  long  darkness  which  preceded 
the  revival  of  learning,  and  the  commencement  of  maritime  discovery. 


-  CHAPTER  I. 

ARABIAN  GEOGRAPHY. 

The  Arabs  wore  for  some  time  the  most  learned  of  nations.  As  the  mantle  of  science 
dropped  from  the  sagos  of  Greece  and  Rome,  it  fell  upon  this  wild  and  strange  race,  sprung 
fhjm  the  bosom  of  bigotry  and  barbarism.  The  fanatic  hordes,  who,  under  the  guidance  of 
their  fiilse  prophet,  rushed  from  the  heart  of  Arabia,  at  first  owned  no  law  but  the  Koran  ond 
the  sword.  When  they  had  conquered  half  tlie  world,  however,  and  founded  splendid  capi- 
tals on  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates  and  the  Guadalquivir,  there  arose  a  race  of  humane  and 
polished  princes,  who  studiously  sought  to  reluraine  the  ailmost  extinguished  lamp  of  science. 
Almamoun  above  all,  in  the  ninth  century,  may  rank  among  the  most  distinguished  of  its 
patrons  who  have  ever  filled  a  tlirone. 

Geography  among  the  Arabian  states,  appears  to  have  been  studied  with  greater  ardour 
than  at  any  other  place  or  country,  except  at  Alexandria.  It  employed  the  pens  of  several 
of  their  most  eminent  writers ;  Masudi  and  Ebn  Haukal  in  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries  j 
Abulfoda  and  Edrisi  in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  ;  to  whom  may  be  added  the  respectable 
names  of  Ibn-al-Vardi,  Bakoui,  and  Schoabeddin.  Although  none  of  their  works  Jiavo  be- 
come at  all  familiar  to  the  European  reader,  yet  learned  men  have  translated  jwrtions,  which 


J. 
4. 
s. 
n. 


s. 
«. . 


10.  ' 
!1.  , 

(2.  , 


■%' 


ART  1. 

lonthii, 
Bcepti- 
ntry  of 
■rs  had 
t-nds  no 
•tolcmy 
limited 
pposing 
3  Niger 
I  or  four 

lous,  but 
io'b  voy- 
Daradus 
(lea  that 
the  con- 
heticully 
ht  make 
Gambia. 
Bouth  of 
into  cen- 

lor  of  the 
At  this 
ire  given 
ther,  with 
je.  There 
)m  Quiloa 
)me  exag- 
Five  de- 
lias.    The 
lands  near 
muthias  of 


•   1^ 


Arabian  or 
long  them; 
h  preceded 


of  science 
ace,  sprung 
Etuidance  ot 

Koran  and 
lendid  capi- 
humane  and 

of  science, 
ished  of  its 

cater  ardour 
18  of  several 
h  centuries ; 
rospectoble 
ks  liavc  be- 
•tions,  whicli 


Book  II. 


ARABIAN  GEOGRAPIIV. 


01 


not  only  convey  a  general  idea  of  their  system,  but  have  enabled  gcom-aphcrs  to  delineate 
Nome  districts  of  the  globe  wb  >:h  otiiorwiso  would  have  long  remained  unknown. 

i   1  Sect.  I. — Qeneral  System,    Fiff.W.  ^. 

The  mathematical  sciences,  and  above  all  astronomy,  wore  among  the  most  fovourito  pur- 
suits of  the  covirt  of  Bagdad ;  and  the  ample  resources  which  they  afl'onlod  were  applied 
with  considerable  care  to  tlie  improvement  of  geography.  In  833,  tiie  calipli  Almamoun  en- 
deavoured, l)y  observations  of  latitude  made  at  Kufa,  and  at  a  point  in  tiio  desert  of  Pal- 
myra, Ijo  measure  the  circumference  of  the  globe.  In  all  the  countries  subject  to  the  Maho- 
medan  arms,  numerous  observations  are  recorded  which,  though  not  always  rigorously  cor- 
rect, appear  at  least  to  have  been  real,  and  not  merely  calculated  out  of  itineraries,  like  those 
of  the  Alexandrian  gecjgranhers.  The  tables  of  Abulfcda,  of  Ulug  Beg,  and  of  Nuzir  Eil- 
din,  edited  by  Gra;vius,  anil  republished  by  Hudson,  alford  miterials  that  are  still  useful  for 
the  construction  of  the  maps  of  interior  Asia. 

Fig.  ll.-MAr  OP  TIIR  WORLD  TAKEN  FROM  AN  ARARIAN  MANIJBCRIFT  OF  AL  EDRISI,  IN  TIIE 

UODLEIAN  LIBRARY. 


1. 


Mnuntnina  of  Uie  15 
Mi>i>nun(l  SourcuB  Iti 
of  tho  Nilo  17 

BL'rtiiira  (kingdom  18 
of  AJfl) 

Al-Zunt[(/an7iiebar)  19. 

Hcliilii  (Snfnlu) 

Al-Wttk  VVnk 

Scrrniieeb  (t'liylun) 

Al-Comor   (Xliuiu- 
!in»ciir) 

A-I)ll!| 

AlVcman  (Arnbia 

Felix) 
Ti'hnma 
Al-lli-jii7.  (ArabiaT 

Dranrlu) 
Al-Shujnr  (SoKor) 
AI-linnma{Yimania) 
Al-Habp0h  (Klbiupiii, 

AliyMinia) 

Vol.  I 


AI  Nuha(NuI)ia)      rtl 
AI  Tigdiien  3: 

AI-Hi-jah 
Al-aaiieed  ((Tpper    3; 

C(iypt,  S(ii(1) 
Aloiihal-what  (Oa-  :\3. 

Gowas 

Kaiiuii 

itolHd  Al-Iomlum 

Hulail  Mufratlfi 

IIaIiuI  Ni-manch 

At-Multtini.Sitihiijcli 

Cnniii  {Karooaiit 

KurtMic) 
NnKroliinfl 
AI-SoHs  Xijia 
Al-Mu«hnili  AI 

Amkftm  (Mosrob   4.'*. 

Iliu  VV(Mt)  4ti. 


•M. 
35. 

rw. 

:w. 

m. 

40. 
41. 
41 
4X 
44 


Afieokei'a  (ATripa) 
llola.U-lGcrid(I)ute 

Cmmtry) 
Sphiirt'(',Henmnfik(nr 

Dyst'rtnf  Hcniiike) 
Mi^fltir  (r.KVpl) 
Al-8bain  fHynn) 
Al-lrak  (Puraian 

cmiiiru) 
Fnt8(Por!»iii  Proper) 
Kirriiun  (Canniniia) 
Altiiziih 
Miiuhan 

AI-Hiinila(Scin()i) 
Al-Hind  (India) 
Al-Seeii  (China) 
Khnrnsan 
AI-ltoharuB 
AzRihijan  (Mcdis) 
Klmwarizra 

6 


Al-Slinsh 

KhirktH'E 

Al-Sefur 

Al-'I'ibut  (Tibet) 

Al-Nufuz  Izz 

Kurjisoa  (Goorgia) 

Kt'ymak 

Kultusa 

l7zea 

A/kush 

TurkcBh 

Ittirab 

Hut^har  (Hulgnria) 

Al-Miitenah 

Yiijooj  (G..S) 

Mnjoiij  (MuKop) 

Asiatic  (IluBSta) 

Bpjot-rut 

AI  Alinan 


66.  Al-Kliuiiziis  Khosra 

/CaHpian  Sea) 

67.  Tirkoa  (Turkey) 
nn.  Albfiian(Alhuma) 
til>.  Miikodunoeab  (Ma- 

ccfionia) 
TO.  Baltic  Sea 
71.  Jenubda  (probably 

Sweden) 
73.  Gerinania(Gormany) 
7X  OonniBTk 
71.  Alrnngpenh  (France) 
T.*!,  Felttwiuh  (Norway) 
"S.  Unrtoa  nr  ISurtenou 

(Britnin) 
77.  rorplca,Sardinia.&c. 
7H.  Italy 

7i).  Ashicerimiah  (part  ol 
tipaiQ,Q.Andaluiia) 


'hi 


» 


i :     I 


!l 


I 


m 


I  J 


J I 


J 1    ' 


« 


HISTORY  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


P*«T  I. 


Many  countrico,  hitherto  unknown  awl  liarbaroim,  wore  explored,  and  in  sonio  de^co 
civilizeil,  by  the  Moslem  armij.  Tho«o  on  tlie  Oxus  iind  the  JuxiirtoH,  the  AHJutic  Scythui  of 
the  ancients,  and  occupied  then  only  liy  Nomiulic  hordoH,  were  covered  l>y  tiicin  with  (^eot 
and  flourishinp  cities.  Among  thews  Bamarcand  became  aftcrwiinls  tiie  capital  of  an  empire 
that  extender  over  half  of  Axia.  At  tjio  opiK)Nite  extremity,  Mauritania,  wiiich  had  been 
regardod  by  the  Romans  aa  almoHt  beyond  tlio  limits  of  social  existetiee,  lincame  a  flourishing 
kingdom,  and  possessed  in  Fez  an  eminent  school  of  learning.  Even  beyoml  the  limits  ot 
the  Mahomedan  world,  missions  were  sent  to  explore  the  remotest  limits  of  the  east  and 
west.  One  i'lterestinjf  result  of  these  has  been  conmiunicated  ui  the  relation  of  two  Maho- 
medan travellers,  Wahad  and  Abuzaid,  who  in  the  ninth  century  penetrated  into  China;  and 
gave  a  description  of  that  country  ;  which,  though  only  recently  known  to  us  by  the  transla- 
tion of  Renaudot,  must  have  licen  Uie  earliest  ever  conununicoted  to  the  nations  of  the  west. 
From  Lisbon,  also,  the  brothers  Almagrurim  sailed,  endeavouring  to  anticipate  the  discoveries 
of  Columbus,  by  exploring  unlmown  countries  beyond  "  the  sea  of  durkiiess."  For  ten  tvr 
eleven  days  they  steered  westward ;  but  seeing  a  storm  approachinjj,  the  light  faint,  and  tlie 
sea  tempestuous,  they  <lreaded  having  come  to  tlie  dark  boundaries  of  the  earth.  They  turned 
therefore  waith,  sailed  twelve  days  in  that  direction,  imd  came  to  an  island,  which  they  called 
Ganam,  or  the  island  of  birds ;  but  the  flesh  of  these  binls  was  too  bitter  to  be  eaten.  They 
Bailed  on  twelve  days  fartlier,  and  came  to  another  island,  the  kinjj  of  which  assured  them 
that  their  pursuit  wos  vain:  that  his  father  had  sent  an  experlition  for  tlie  same  purpose;  but 
that,  after  a  month's  sail,  the  light  had  wholly  failed,  and  Uiey  had  been  obliged  to  return.  The 
adventurers,  therefore,  mode  their  way  back  to  the  coast  of  Africa,  which  they  reached  in 
three  days.  The  bearings  stated  seem  to  point  out  Madeira  and  the  Canaries  as  the  two 
islands  visited  in  tliis  expedition. 

In  regard  to  the  general  outline  of  the  earth,  the  Arabs  seem  to  have  closely  adhered  to 
ancient  theories.  They  revived  the  early  impression  of  an  ocean,  which,  like  a  zone,  encom- 
passed the  whole  earth.  This,  according  to  a  natural  feeling,  was  characterized  as  the  "  Sea 
of  Darkness,"  an  appellation  most  usually  given  to  the  Atlantic ;  but  the  northern  sea  of 
Europe  and  Asia,  inspiring  still  more  mysterious  and  gloomy  idea.s,  is  called  the  "  Sea  of 
pitchy  Darkness."  Edrisi  has  even  imagined  tlie  land  as  doating  in  the  sea,  and  only  part 
appearing  above,  like  an  egg  in  a  basin  of  water.  At  the  same  time  he  divides  it  into  seven 
seas,  fancifiilly  appropriated  to  the  seven  climates  into  which  the  earth  was  divided.  Ac 
cording  to  these  climates,  he  describes  the  earth  beginning  at  the  western  and  proceeding  to 
the  eastern  extremity ;  an  ill-judged  arrangement,  which,  by  a  mechanical  section,  separates 
portions  of  territory  the  most  intimately  connected.  The  knowledge  of  the  Arabs  was  sub- 
jected to  another  and  a  voluntary  limitation.  They  studiously  desisted  from  nil  inquiry 
respecting  those  blinded  nations,  whose  minds  had  never  been  illumined  by  the  light  of  the 
Koran.  Ibn  Ilaukal  even  makes  it  a  subject  of  glory,  tliat  he  had  found  nothing  worthy  of 
remark  among  nations  who  could  not  be  viewed  without  horror  by  men  who  had  any  innate 
principles  of  virtue,  wisdom,  or  religion.  Those  views  of  the  subject  greatly  restricted  their 
means  of  knowledge  in  respect  to  Europe,  and  rendered  it  of  little  value,  unless  with  regard 
to  those  two  continents,  which  their  arms  had  rendered  to  a  great  extent  Mahomedan, 

Sect.  II, — Asia, 

The  Asia  of  the  Arabs  comprised  a  wider  range  than  had  belonged  to  that  continent  under 
any  former  system.  China  is  distinctly  marked,  partly  under  the  appellation  of  Seen,  ond 
partly  under  that  of  Catliay ;  the  former  term  appearing  to  comprehend  India  beyond  tlic 
Ganges.  Lamery,  productive  in  camphor,  gold,  ivory,  and  dye-woods,  appears  by  these 
products  to  be  Sumatra,  and  mention  is  even  made  of  Al  Djavah.  The  countries  on  the 
Oxus  and  Jaxartes  having  become  the  seat  of  an  extended  Moslem  empire,  of  which  Samar- 
cand  was  the  capital,  Tartary,  both  ca-stem  and  western,  was,  for  the  first  time,  delineated 
with  tolerable  accuracy ;  many  of  tlie  leading  ptxsitions,  in  this  hitherto  inaccessible  part  of 
the  continent,  were  even  fixed  by  astronomical  observation ;  and  some  positive  though  tiiint 
and  indistinct  notice  appears  to  have  been  received  respecting  the  people  situated  along  the 
shores  of  the  Northern  Ocean.  Unfortunately  the  main  objects  of  curiosity  and  inquiry  were 
Gog  and  Magog,  The  authentic  application  of  these  names  has  been  observed  under  the 
Hebrew  system  as  belonging  to  a  devastating  race  from  the  shores  of  the  Euxine  and  Caspian, 
Oriental  mncy  had  transformed  them  into  two  enormous  giants,  who  had  erected  an  impreg 
liable  castle  on  the  borders  of  Scythia.  The  eflforts  made  by  the  court  of  Bagdad  in  pursuit 
of  this  chimera  were  very  extraortlinary.  The  first  expedition  woe  undertaken  with  the 
hope  of  finding  it  somewhere  on  the  shores  of  the  Caspian ;  but  a.s  their  conquests  soon 
embraced  the  whole  of  that  region,  without  the  slightest  trace  of  this  tremendous  castle,  the 
more  southern  country  of  Bokhara  was  the  next  object  of  search.  When  that  also  had  been 
surveyed  in  vain,  the  court  wua  involved  in  much  perplexity,  and  scarcely  knew  to  what 
ulterior  region  their  view  was  to  be  directed.  At  length  one  of  the  caliphs  di&patched  a 
mission,  with  strict  injunctions  on  no  account  to  return  without  having  discovered  the  castle 
of  Gog.    The  envoys,  according  to  Edrisi's  report,  proceeded  first  along  the  shores  of  the 


^^ 


TUtou.  n. 


IN  EUROPE  DURING  THE  DARK  AGES. 


nt  under 
cen,  and 
rond  Uie 
by  these 
on  the 
Somnr- 
■lineatod 
part  of 
igh  faint 
long  the 
iry  wore 
nder  the 
Caspian, 
imprcfj  ■ 
\  pursuit 
with  the 
fcsts  soon 
jitlc.tlie 
hod  been 
I  to  what 
atched  u 
hie  castle 
bs  of  the 


Ciiflpiiin,  then  through  a  vart  extent  of  desert,  probably  the  country  of  t!i«  Kirghisfi,  when 
tliey  arrived  at  a  atuiicndous  range  of  mountaing,  which  must  have  been  tlie  Altai.  IIiTC 
they  (lid  nrtuiilly  finu  or  protend  to  find  immothing  whicli  they  concluded  to  be  the  castle  of 
(log  and  Magog.  Perhaps  they  reached  Home  of  thoao  ancient  monuments  which  have  been 
found  alonp  tlilH  range,  and  gladly  etnbraced  thiH  pretext  to  rid  thomMclvcH  of  so  troubloHomu 
a  coinmiKMioii.  The  picture  they  drew  of  it  wan  certainly  very  highly  colour<'d,  according 
to  Oriental  tante.  Tl'o  walls  were  of  iron  cemented  with  brass,  and  a  gate  fitly  cubits  high 
was  8<!curod  by  bolts  and  bars  of  enormous  magnitude.  The  minds  of  the  Arabs  were  thus 
set  at  rest,  and  in  all  the  future  delineations  of  Asia  this  mighty  castin  was  seen  towering  at 
its  fiirtlicft  extremity. 

Skct.  ni. — Africa. 
In  regard  to  AtVica,  the  wide-extended  settlements  of  the  Arabs  afforded  them  new  sources 
of  inibrmatiun.  The  Mediterranean  coast,  indeed,  as  fiiras  Numidia,  had  been  fully  explored 
by  the  ancients,  and  hod  even  formed  a  more  intimate  part  of  their  political  system  than  it 
has  done  of  that  of  the  moderns.  By  the  Arabs,  however,  who  had  established  here  a  suc- 
cession of  kingdoms,  it  was  described  in  greater  detail  than  over ;  and  as  the  most  wentt-m 
of  those  kingdoms  was  the  flourishing  one  of  Morocco,  tliis  region,  comprising  the  nearly 
unknown  tracU  of  ancient  Mauritania,  formed  an  almost  entirely  now  ac<iuisition  to  know- 
lodffo.  But  their  grandest  achievement  consisted  in  forming  a  road  across  the  Great  Desert, 
and  in  colonising  a  considerable  part  of  the  central  regions  of  Africa.  They  here  tuunded  a 
series  of  powerful  kingdoms :  Ghana,  the  modern  Kano ;  Tocrur,  which  we  conceive  to  be 
Sackatoo ;  Kuku  and  Kaugn,  which  recent  travellers  have  found  in  and  near  the  modem 
region  called  Bornou.  They  described  tliose  countries  as  situated  on  the  Nile  of  the  Ne- 
groes, which,  contrary  to  ancient  opinions,  they  represented  as  rising  indeed  from  the  same 
fountain  with  theNde;  but  as  flowing  westward  across  all  Africa,  and  falling  into  the 
Atlantic  ocean  or  sea  of  darkness.  At  its  mouth  they  placed  the  island  of  Ulil,  \vnence  salt 
was  conveyed  to  all  the  Negro  territories,  which  were  entirely  destitute  of  that  necessary 
of  life.  This  view  of  the  subject,  though  erroneous,  was  naturally  suggested  by  the  course 
of  tho  rivers  within  the  region  with  which  they  were  alone  intimately  acquainted ;  but  we 
reserve  this  discussion  for  a  separate  chapter,  when  we  propose  to  give  a  succinct  view  of 
tho  successive  theories  respecting  this  great  African  river.  We  shall  at  present  only 
observe,  that,  as  Tocrur  is  described  to  be  only  eighteen  days'  journey  ♦rom  the  ocean,  it  is 
plain  that  the  knowledge  of  tho  Arabs  did  not  extend  to  Tombuctoo ;  that  they  know  nothing 
of  the  Senegal  or  Gambia,  or  the  countries  upon  these  rivers ;  and  that  the  ocean  into  which 
they  represented  the  Nile  of  the  Negroes  as  falling  was  either  a  hypothetical  feature  alto- 
gether, or  was  at  least  hypothetically  connected  with  all  that  they  knew  of  tlie  eastern  tracts 
of  interior  Africa. 


CHAPTER  II. 


EUROPEAN  GEOGRAPHY  DURING  THE  DARK  AGES. 

Even  the  imperfect  knowledge  possessed  by  the  ancient  geographers  became  involved  in 
the  general  progress  of  that  intellectual  darkness,  which  ensued  on  the  decline  of  the  Roman 
empire.  Europe,  overwhelmed  with  a  deluge  of  barbarism,  no  longer  cultivated  art  or 
science ;  and  the  rude  states  into  which  it  was  divided  had  only  a  vague  idea  of  each  other's 
situation.  The  advance  of  this  darkness  may  be  observed  in  an  anonyniniis  work,  published 
at  Ravenna  in  the  eighth  century.  The  writer  presents  only  confused  fragments  of  the 
information  contained  in  Ptolemy  and  Pliny.  The  coast  of  India,  indeed,  the  mercantile 
route  to  which  appears  to  have  been  kept  open,  is  still  delineated  with  some  degree  of  cor- 
rectness. But  the  whole  interior  of  Aisia,  from  China  to  Uactriana,  is  included  under  the 
name  of  "  Seric  India :"  the  Caspian  re-appears  as  a  gulf  of  tho  Nortliern  Ocean ;  in  short, 
all  these  distant  regions  are  viewed,  in  tho  manner  natural  to  ignorance,  as  a  dim  and  inde- 
finite expanse,  the  features  of  which  were  all  confusedly  blended  with  each  other. 

The  monasteries  during  the  dark  ages  afforded  an  asylum  for  all  that  remained  of  ancient 
knowledge ;  in  them  the  manuscripts  of  many  of  the  classic  writers  wore  Btill  preserved, 
though  little  consulted.  The  reading  aloud  of  histories,  and  descriptions  of  noighlxHiring, 
and  even  of  distant  countries,  formed  a  mode  of  beguiling'  the  tedious  hours ;  but  these  being 
recorded  under  the  title  of  "  Wonders  of  the  World,"  and  crowded  with  the  most  extrava- 
gant fables,  served  rather  for  the  amusement  of  the  fire-side,  than  for  any  real  instruction. 

The  missions  undertaken  for  the  conversion  of  the  northern  pagans  wore  tho  principal 
channel  by  which  any  geographical  knowledge  was  convoyed.  The  missionnrio.s  did  not,  at 
this  time,  attempt  to  pass  the  limits  ot  Europe ;  but  directed  their  efforts  towards  the  con- 
version of  the  Slavonic  tribes,  who  occupied  Poland,  Prussia  and  Livonia.  Other  appears 
even  to  have  penetrated  through  the  interior  of  Russia  to  the  White  Sea ;  he  undertook  also 
an  extensive  voyage  along  the  coasts  of  Norway.  The  Anglo-Saxon  Wilfrid,  named  by  the 
pope  the  apostle  of  the  Germans,  appears  to  have  been  the  person  who  transmitted  the  most 


;l 


¥: 


m 


i; 


If 

I: 


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HISTORY  OP  fJKOORAPHV. 


■I* 


PabtI 


ftill  (li'tnilH  rt'liitivo  t<i  thn  Sliivonie  trilmn.  St.  Otto,  biiihop  of  n(inil)or(r,  niiil  AiiHoairc,  ii 
monk  of  Corhio,  itcnclriiti'il  to  llm  kiii^nloiim  of  Swotloii  ami  Doiimiirkj  l>iit  the  (lutniU  of 
tlicir  iiiiHHJoii  havo  not  Ix'nn  prcuprvvd.  AlthonKlii  liowiiviT,  thn  nionkii  llnii  did  HonK'thinf; 
to  illustrnti-  tlic  j(''"({"'l'''y  "'"  I'liiropo,  tlieru  in  Hiiflicifnt  I'vidunco  that  thoy  lulHiurrd,  in 
many  in^tunci-H,  under  tho  jfronw^Hl  i^noriinKo;  komio  of  tlioni  knew  not  eviMi  the  ca))ital  of 
tlicir  own  country,  or  tlin  citii'H  nt-nrcNt  to  tlii'ir  own. 

'J"he  ifriMil  inoniirrlm  niiulo  homip  otlortu  to  rcHcuo  tlio  iijfo  from  tlii»  ntnto  of  prnfonnd  i(nio- 
ranci'.  'I'lit!  two  iiluflriouH  nionnrclip,  ('liiirli-niajrno  iind  Alfred,  distin^fniHlicd  tlK'niwlvoi 
by  tlii'lr  t'liduavonrH  to  proniolu  ^•'"(ri'opliy :  tlio  Ibrmor  con»truct(:d  a  nilvcr  taldn  of  lar)(o 
dunonHJiinH,  on  wliii-li  whh  d<'linpiili'<l  tho  wlioln  world  ho  fiir  iim  known  to  him  ;  untortnniitcly 
tlio  miitcriiiirt  wirn  too  cowtly,  und  tlio  nilvor  world  wim  wxm  inclti-d  down  lo  cupply  the 
nPccxHitii'y  of  r)iic  n|'  itu  kintfdoniH.  Alfn-d  pro<liircd  a  more  vuliiublu  nioiiunient  in  ii  (lfi«rri|i- 
tioii  of  tlio  north  (f  Kuropi-,  from  tlio  host  niaforiiils  which  coiilil  bo  then  ctdlcctcd,  nml  which 
ft)nns  ofili  tlip  Im-sI  record  of  the  peo/jriiphical  knowlcdj{0  of  that  n(fn.  Under  the  direction 
of  Willinm  tin?  (.'ompieror  wan  dravvn  up  that  important  docnnicnt  called  Doonmday  Book,  in 
which  the  populati  hi,  the  culture,  and  the  taxcH  paid  by  cuch  diHtrict,  aro  ('xhihitcd  hi  the 
jp-eate.Ht  detail.  A  ^limilar  aurvey  of  nomnark  wa.-*  made  in  tho  thirteenth  century,  by  its 
Boverei<^n  VValdein  ir  II.;  and  of  tho  Mark  of  Brandenburg,  in  tho  fourteenth  century,  by  tho 
cniperor  Charles  IV. 

The  Dnwn  and  Norwoffians,  the  Northmen  bh  they  were  called,  while  under  their  mighty 
iea-kin<;s  they  spread  desolation  over  the  maritime  diNtricfn  of  Europe,  nercMsarily  ac(|uirod 
a  very  extenaive  kiii)\\1edpc  of  its  sens  and  coasts.  Such  knowledge,  though  nowhere  formed 
into  any  regular  system,  may  1h!  traced  in  the  sagas,  or  metrical  historicH  in  which  they 
celebrate  the  gallant  exploits  of  their  countrymen.  Th('y  were,  of  course,  familiar  with  all 
tho  countries  bordering  on  tho  Baltic.  They  knew  by  conquest  Orkney,  Hhetland,  the  He- 
brides, anil  the  western  coast  of  Ireland.  Their  fleets  reached  even  the  shores  of  Italy  and 
Sicily.  Towards  the  north,  they  established  colonies  in  Iceland  and  fireenland.  But  the 
most  iniiHirtant  ili-rovery  of  the  Northmen  was,  undoubtedly,  America,  if  their  claim  to  tho 
merit  of  that  discovery  shall  bo  admitted  to  lie  made  gixxl.  In  the  lieginning  of  the  eleventh 
ccnlnry,  Thorwald  and  Leif,  two  natives  of  Iceland,  having  sailed  fiir  to  the  -Hiuth-we.-'t,  came 
to  a  I'oiintry  wliirli  appeared  to  them,  doubtless  by  comparison,  to  he  mild  and  ngreeahlo ; 
the  natives  were  of  dwarfish  stature,  and  maintained  with  them  sometimes  a  hostile,  but 
ottener  a  friendly  intercourse.  Finding  that  the  rivers  abounded  with  fish,  and  that  the  finest 
furs  could  be  procured,  they  and  their  countrymen  repeated  their  visits;  and  in  1211,  Bishop 
F>ic  is  said  to  have  re|)aired  thither  with  the  view  of  converting  the  natives.  The  name 
given  to  tho  reirion  is  Vinland,  from  the  i'/He.<t  growing  in  it;  a  feature  which  certainly 
occurs  to  us  aa  very  foreign  to  this  part  of  the  world;  but,  in  fact,  wild  vines  arc  found 
growing  in  all  the  most  northerly  districts  of  America.  It  is  highly  probable  that  tho  conti- 
nent was  not  rearlied  by  tho  Icolandic  adventurers,  and  that  Vinlund  was  nicruly  a  southerly 
district  of  Greenland. 


CHAPTER  m. 

OKOCIlAPItlCAL  KXOVVLEDCE  DEUIVKD  FROM  THE  CRUSADES. 

The  crusades  tormed  a  scries  of  events  which  roused  the  European  mind  from  its  local  and 
limited  range,  und  directed  its  ken  into  the  regions  of  another  continent.  The  high-wrought 
enthusiasm  which  impelled  Europe  to  pour  itself,  os  it  were,  in  one  mass  on  tho  eastern 
world,  however  blind  might  have  been  the  zeal  which  inspired  it,  was,  on  the  whole,  highly 
beneficial :  it  drove  back  the  tide  of  Saracen  and  Turkish  conquest,  which  might  have  swal- 
lowed up  the  whole  West,  and  involved  it  in  tho  same  gloom  of  barbarism  and  superstition 
that  pervaded  the  East.  Above  all,  the  cniHiides  had  a  powerful  influence  in  dispelling  the 
mental  darkness  in  which  the  western  regions  were  involved,  and  in  projmring  that  light  of 
science  and  intelligence  which  was  so  soon  to  dawn  upon  them.  The  attention  of  Europe 
wos  thus  directed  to  these  interesting  and  meiiiorable  regions,  known  hitherto  only  by  tne 
meagre  re|X)rt  of  some  occasional  pilgrims.  Not  only  the  Holy  1-and,  with  the  kingiloins  of 
Jorusttleiu  and  Edessa,  founded  by  the  victorious  cru.«derH,  but  the  extensive  domains 
belonging  to  the  Saracen  and  Turkish  empires,  became  objects  of  inquiry;  search  was  now 
made  in  thn  writings  of  the  ancient  geograpliers,  anil  perhaps  some  lights  were  derived  even 
from  the  .\raliian  writers.  Samido  compiled  a  ma))  of  tho  world,  annexed  to  Hjngar's 
"Gesta  Dei  per  Francos,"  (fff.  12.)  in  which  the  ideas  formed  out  of  the  crusading  expedi- 
tions arc  fully  cxeuiplified:  Jerusalem  is  jilnced  in  the  centre  of  the  world,  ns  the  iNiiiit  to 
which  every  other  object  is  to  be  referred;  tho  earth  is  made  a  circle  suriouiided  by  tho 
ocean,  the  shore.-i  of  which  are  represented  ns  everywhere  nearly  ccpiidisfant  from  that 
spiritual  capital,  the  site  of  which  is,  indeed,  remarkable  tor  its  relation  to  the  three  conti- 
nents, Asia,  Kuro|)e,  and  Africa.  Persia  ritands  in  its  pro|K'r  jdace ;  but  India,  mwler  the 
modifications  of  Greater  and  Lesser,  is  confiisedly  rejieated  at  ditlerent  |K)iiits.  while  the 
river  Indu:i  is  muntiuncd  in  the  text  as  the  eastern  boundary  of  Asia.    To  tho  north,  the 


cast 
wlii( 
pian 
feati 
the  I 
Euro 
thouj 
toget 


Til 
quart) 

anciei 
and  di 
turies 
Tartn 

Gengi 
over  I 
most  : 
Asia, 
and  pe 
ments 
prossil) 
was  811 

Vo7,. 


;Si 

i 

Bom  n. 


* 


KNOW  LKDT.E  FROM  TFrR  CUUSADES. 

ng.  IS-HANUDOU  MAP  OF  THE  WORUi. 


«' 


I   ,.l 


r  I 


w 


>  it 


i  local  an^ 
h-wrouRht 
lio  eastern 
)lc,  higUlv 
iiiive  swal- 
uporiitition 

at  lidht  of 
of  Europe 
inly  by  tne 
nRiloins  of 
■0  (lomivina 
111  was  now 
Irivcd  cvon 
l()  Bonsftr's 
linjr  oxpodi- 
Ihc  |M)iiit  to 
li(l(i\  by  tho 
from   tliiit 
Itlirrc  conti- 
T,  yiuilor  the 
k  while  the 
le  north,  the 


castlo  of  Gog  and  Mogop,  an  Arabian  feature,  crowns  a  vast  ranpe  of  mountains,  withiii 
wiiich  it  is  Httid  that  tho  Tartars  had  been  imprisoned  by  Alexander  the  Great.  The  Cbji- 
pian  appears,  with  tho  bordorintf  countries  of  Gcorjfia,  Hyrcania,  ond  Albania ;  but  these 
features  stand  nearly  at  the  northern  boundary  of  the  Imbitable  earth.  Africa  has  a  sea  to 
the  south,  stated,  however,  to  bo  inaccessible,  on  account  of  the  intensity  of  tho  heat.  The 
European  countries  stand  in  their  dun  place,  not  even  exccptinff  Russia  and  Scandinavia ; 
though  some  overiiglits  are  observable  in  tho  manner  in  which  the  two  are  connected 
together. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

TARTAR  OEOORAPIIY. 

The  revolutiotia  of  tho  north  of  Asia  next  attracted  llie  eyes  of  Europeans  to  the  distant 
quarters  of  tho  world.  Tho  roaming  tenants  of  those  boundless  wilds,  l.'.-rifn  under  the 
ancient  name  of  Scythia,  and  the  modern  one  of  Tartary,  have  at  various  .  riods  conquered 
and  desolated  tho  civilized  world  of  Asia.  Tlie  offspring  of  Tartar  hi  is  .--dt  for  many  cen- 
turies on  tl\o  tlirones  of  Pekin,  of  Delhi,  of  Ispahan,  and  of  Constantinople :  but,  of  the 
Tartar  rulers,  none  ever  raised  so  terrible  a  niinie,  or  established  so  wiae  un  empire,  as 
Gengis  or  Zingi.s;  originally  an  individual  chief  of  the  Mongiil8,ho  attained  the  general  sway 
over  that  warlike  race,  and  led  them  as  coraiuorors  froi.i  empire  to  empire.  His  first  and 
most  signal  exploit  was  tlic  couijuest  of  China;  liaving  thence  crossed  the  wliolo  breadth  of 
Asia,  ho  died  on  the  phoresoftlie  Caspian.  Ilissuccossor.-"  pressed  on  westward,overran  Russia, 
and  penetrated  tlirongh  Poland  into  Ilungnry  and  Silesia;  their  approach,  their  rapid  move- 
ments, and  the  e.\agi;erated  reports  of  their  ravages,  stnirk  tho  nations  of  Europe  with  inex- 
pressible terror;  this  was  greatly  heightened  by  tho  prevailing  ignorance  of  geography,  which 
was  sucli  thai  none  know  when  they  might  arrive,  or  where  they  might  bo  encounteretl.  The 

Vor,.  I.  0*  L 


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HISTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  I. 


Danes  wore  thus  dotorrcd  one  season  even  from  going  t»)  tlio  lierring-fisliery,  on  the  coast  of 
Scotland.  Tlie  Tartars  defeated  and  killed  the  Dnke  of  Silesia ;  but  a  general  muster  of 
the  Gerniun  chivalry  lioing  made  to  oppose  them,  they  retreated  into  the  interior  of  Poland, 
and  even  fnrther  to  tlie  ea.'st,  leaving  only  a  numerous  vanguard ;  but  it  was  susiwctcd  that 
they  were  only  mustering  their  strengtli,  agam  to  invade  Europe,  in  more  dreadful  and 
destructive  array. 

Embassy,  at  this  crisis,  was  deemed  the  expedient  most  likely  to  appnisc  the  fury  of  these 
dreaded  invaders.  According  to  the  ideas  of  the  age,  the  pope  appeared  the  most  respectable 
character,  in  whose  name  a  mission  could  be  undertaken,  and  monks  tiie  mewt  fitting  ambas- 
sadors. Tlio  choice  was  injudicious :  these  envoys,  ignorant  of  the  political  relations  of 
countries,  of  the  usages  of  society,  and  the  mode  of  treating  with  mankind,  obtained  no 
respect  in  the  eyes  of  the  fierce  conquerors  of  Asia.  They  returned  without  fulfilling  any 
obiect  of  their  mission ;  and  if  Europe  was  not  again  exposed  to  this  barbarous  inundation,  it 
owed  its  safety  only  to  the  division  of  the  immense  empire  of  Kaptchak,  and  the  dissension!) 
among  its  princes.  These  ambassadors,  however,  traversed  a  large  portion  of  the  continent, 
Uetbre  unknown  to  Europeans.  One  mission,  indeed,  under  Ascelin,  which  mec  the  Monguls 
on  the  frontier  of  Persia,  does  not  communicate  any  geographical  information;  but  the 
journey  of  Carpini,  and  after  liim  of  Rubruquis,  (Jig.  13.).  led  Ihem  through  the  north  of 


Fig.  13.— MAP  OF  THE  JOURNEY  OF  RUBRUQUIS. 


Russia,  along  the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea,  and  the  Caspian,  and  thence  into  the  very  heart 
of  the  immense  plains  of  interior  Asia,  where  thoy  found  the  great  Tartar  capital  of  Kara- 
koruin,  the  chief  seat  of  the  posterity  of  Zingis.  Here  the  masters  of  the  world,  while 
embassies  and  presents  were  w.iitiiig  them  from  all  the  courts  of  southern  Asia,  were  living 
in  the  rudest  Scythian  fashion,  feeding  scantily  on  iiorse-flcsh  and  mares'  milk,  roving  about 
in  tents,  destitute  of  arts,  and  occupied  only  witii  war  and  plunder.  The  Tartars,  however, 
treated  with  a  proud  disdain  all  other  nations,  over  whom  they  lield  themselves  as  commis- 
sioned by  Iieaven  to  rule,  while  they  paid  the  most  abject  submission  to  their  own  Khan,  re- 
vering him  as  the  appointed  representative  of  the  doity  on  earth. 

Karakoruin  was  tbund  scarcely  entitled  to  the  name  of  city,  being  little  larger  than  one 
of  the  suburbs  of  Paris,  and  its  most  sumptuous  edifices  scarcely  suitable  to  a  European 
country  town.  The  situation  of  this  capital  of  so  great  an  empire  has  been  a  subject  of  some 
controversy.  D'Anvilh;  places  it  at  a  point  to  the  north  of  China,  ne.ir  the  eastern  limit  of 
the  great  desert  of  Sliamo  or  Cobi,  while  Fischer  fixes  it  on  the  Orclion,  one  of  the  rivers 
which  unho  in  (i)rming  the  Selingha.  I  have  elsewhere  endeavoured  to  show  (Discoveries 
in  Asia,  F.)  that  both  these  positions  must  be  about  a  thousand  miles  to.  the  eastward  of  the 
real  site.  It  is  true  tliat  upwards  of  four  months  was  occupied  in  pa.ssiiig  from  the  western 
frontier  of  Russia  to  this  capital;  and  the  missionaries  complniuof  the  grievous  rajudity  with 
wliirli  they  were  conveyed.  They  estimate  the  daily  riite  as  equal  to  the  distance  from  Paris 
to  Orleans,  or  about  seventy  miles;  and  this  time  iind  route  would  doubtless  bo  sufficient  to 
carry  them  to  the  most  eastern  extremity  of  the  cuntinent.  But  whenever  they  give  us  the 
time  ttctiiiilly  employed  in  tnivelling  between  known  |X)ints,  a  rate  is  found  which  does  not 
even  approach  to  the  alxwe.  Two  months  nre  spent  by  Ciir|)ini  in  travelling  from  the  Dniei)er 
to  the  Volira,  and  by  RnbriHjuis  *rnm  the  Daniibu  to  the  Don,  "  riding  |>ost  as  the  Tartars 
do;"  yet  neither  of  these  spaces  exceeds  in  direct  distance  six  hundred  miles.  Tiicn  from 
the  Volga  to  the  Unil,  which  may  be  two  hundred  and  fifty  miles,  we  have  twelve  days; 
while  the  journey  fi'.in  the  Ural  to  the  inland  sen  of  Balkash,  or  Palcafi,  occupied  aliove 
forty-three  days.  Tli.is  down  to  that  ix):iit  it  re(;uired  four  months  to  travel  not  (piite  eighteen 
hundred  miles.   From  the  BilkiUih  to  Karakoruin,  the  journey  was  performed  in  three  weeks. 


' 


I. 

of 
of 
nd, 
Imt 
iml 

ese 
ible 
jas- 

of 
.  no 
any 
ti,  it 
ions 
lent, 
gills 

the 
hof 


I 


1  one 
bpcan 
yome 
lit  of 
livers 
Icriea 
the 
fetcrn 
I  with 
I'aris 
ntto 
ttie 
1  not 
lopfr 
Irtiirt! 
Ifrom 
lays; 
llmve 
Iteen 
I'cks. 


Book  II. 


VENETIAN  GEOGRAPHY. 


67 


Is  it  possible  to  suppose  that  they  could  in  that  time  have  travelled  fifteen  hundred  mucs,  the 
space  wiiicli  would  be  necessary  to  enable  Uiem  to  reach  the  Karakorum  either  of  D'Anville 
or  of  Fischer  !  They  could  not  have  passed  the  great  table  plain  of  Soongaria,  compared  by 
the  OrieiitJil  histories  to  a  groat  sea  of  verdure,  and  consequently  of  all  others  the  best  fitted 
to  foriii  the  central  encampment  of  tiiis  great  pastoral  and  military  empire.  All  the  geo- 
graphical indications  given  by  Rubruquis  agree  witli  this  position;  and  disagree  wholly  with 
Ilie  oilier  two.  He  says  all  the  rivers  observed  by  him  flowed  to  the  westward,  which  is  true 
as  fiir  iio  Soongaria,  but  directly  contrary  to  wiiat  takes  place  in  the  other  pasitions,  botli  of 
whicli  are  even  placed  upon  rivers  that  flow  to  the  eastward.  China  is  said  to  lie  to  the 
south-ciiht,  as  it  does  from  Soongaria;  but  from  the  two  other  positions  it  would  be  directly 
south.  The  Kirghises  are  said  to  lie  to  the  north,  and  the  Baschkirs  to  the  west;  but  these, 
according  to  the  ordinary  site,  would  liavc  been  at  a  distance  quite  immense,  and  could  have 
had  no  relations  with  Karakorum.  The  hypothesis  which  places  that  city  in  Mongolia  is 
founded  upon  the  latter  having  been  the  original  seat  of  Zingis ;  but  Rubruquis  expressly 
states,  that  this  arrangement  had  now  ceased,  and  that  Tartaria  was  "  the  chief  and  royal 
city."  Such  a  change  was,  indeed,  almost  necessary  to  ftn  empire  which  was  to  embrace  at 
once  the  East  and  the  West ;  to  hold  China  in  one  hand,  and  Russia  in  the  other. 


CHAPTER  V, 

VENETIAN    GEOGRAPHY. 


The  republics  of  Italy,  and  above  all  that  of  Venice,  were  the  states  in  which  the  spirit  of 
commerce  and  inquiry,  after  being  long  dormant,  revived  with  the  most  brilliant  lustre. 
The  commerce  which  they  carried  on  was  one  which  connected  them  with  the  most  distant 
regions :  they  traded  in  the  jewels,  the  spices,  and  the  fine  cloths  of  India,  a  country  situated 
at  a  distance  really  vast,  and  which  then  appeared  almost  immeasurable.  It  was  not  by 
Venetians,  however,  or  by  any  Europeans,  that  the  vast  intervening  space  was  traversed. 
They  found  the  Indian  commodities  in  the  ports  of  the  Mediterranean  or  the  Black  Sea,  to 
which  tliey  were  brought  by  the  Arabs  up  the  Red  Sea,  or  by  the  interior  caravans  across 
central  Asia.  It  was  impossible,  however,  that  they  could  see  these  precious  end  profitable 
commodities  continuing  to  enter  their  ports,  without  feeling  some  curiosity  as  to  the  splendid 
and  beautiful  regions  whence  they  came ;  and,  in  that  age  of  enterprise,  it  was  likely  that 
some  would  be  impelled  to  brave  even  the  obstacles  presented  by  this  vast  unknown  space, 
occupied  by  people  of  a  hostile  and  bigoted  fiiitli.  The  Abbe  Zurla  has  collected  notices  of 
a  considerable  number  who,  actuated  by  this  spirit  of  discovery,  penetrated  to  a  considerable 
depth  into  the  interior  of  Asia.  But  the  feme  of  all  tlicse  is  eclipsed  by  one,  whose  travels 
extended  fer  beyond  the  rest,  and  who  has  always  ranked  among  the  greatest  of  discoverers 
of  any  age. 

Marco  Polo  was  a  noble  Venetian,  whose  family,  like  many  others  of  the  same  rank,  was 
engaged  in  extensive  commerce.  His  uncles,  Maffeo  and  Nicole,  had  visited  Tartary,  and 
afterwards  China,  though  without  leaving  any  narrative  of  their  observations.  The  pope, 
however,  being  apprized  of  their  discoveries,  sent  out  an  ecclesiastical  mission,  accompanied 
by  the  young  Marco  Polo,  then  only  nineteen.  They  spent  twenty-four  years  in  traversing 
the  most  remote  regions  of  Asia.  The  result  of  their  religious  mission  is  not  stated ;  but  they 
returned  laden  with  precious  jewels,  with  which  tliey  dazzled  the  eyes  of  their  countrymen, 
by  whom  they  were  not  at  first  recognised.  Marco  being  afterwards  made  prisoner  by  the 
Genoese,  was  persuaded  to  amuse  the  hours  of  confinement  by  dictating  a  narrative  of  his 
travels,  which  was  read  with  avidity,  and  soon  translateil  into  all  the  European  languages. 
He  has  suffered  like  many  other  eminent  travellers,  under  those  injurious  suspicions  which 
arise  in  the  minds  of  persons  unwilling  to  believe  any  event  or  object  which  goes  beyond 
the  sphere  of  tlieir  ordinary  experience.  His  name  even  fiimislied  the  nickname  given  to  a 
personage  introduced  into  the  comedies  of  the  age,  to  recite  every  species  of  e.xtravugant 
fable.  But  modem  information  has  verified  in  all  its  most  es.sontial  points  the  narrative  of 
Marco  Polo,  leaving  only  a  slight  tincture  of  that  credulity  which  was  characteristic  of  the 
age,  and  is  confined  to  what  was  told  him  by  otiiers  of  countries  which  he  did  not  himself 
visit.  Ho  appears  to  have  first  proceeded  along  the  northern  shore  of  Asia  Minor,  then  the 
seat  of  a  flourishing  Turkish  dynasty.  He  passed  throii'rh  Armenia,  along  the  lofty  ridges 
of  Ararat,  and  descending  the  Kuphratos  through  Curdistaii  ranio  to  Bagdad,  no  longer  the 
capital  of  the  caliphate,  but  still  a  flourishing  and  civilized  city  under  its  Tartar  ronquerors. 
He  visited  the  groat  commercial  capital  of  Orniuz,  and  tlmnce  proceeded  eastward  throupli 
the  southern  part  of  Persia  by  Kermn'i  and  Kiibboes,  across  tlie  great  salt  desert.  At  length 
he  reachefl  Balkh,  which,  though  st'i!  a  considerable  emporium  of  central  Asia,  presented 
only  in  its  ruined  temples  and  spacious  squares  the  vestiges  of  \Xs  ancient  grandeur.  Then 
passing  along  the  borders  of  Cashniire  and  the  mountain  tract  of  Balashan  (Badakshan),  cele- 
brated for  its  mines  of  rubies,  lie  nscrndcd  to  tJie  elevated  plain  of  Pamere,  forming  the  sum- 
mit of  that  cross  branch  of  the  Hinimaleli  called  the  Beloor.     On  this,  which  appeared  to  hiiu 


' 


I 

1                    1 

\';   ' 

,-!".; 

i  r' 

I 


r! 


68 


mSTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pabt  1. 


the  highest  ground  in  the  world,  he  felt  tliat  difficulty  in  rcrspiration,  and  in  producing  com- 
bustion, which  is  peculiar  to  the  most  elevated  mountain  sites.  He  atlerwards  reached  the 
lar^e  Tartar  cities  of  Yarkund  and  Cashgar,  and  entered  on  that  great  eastern  table-land 
which,  before  and  since,  has  formed  the  Terra  Incognita  of  Asia.  He  then  entered  Northern 
China,  which  he  calls  Cathay,  and  visited  its  capital  Cambalu,  his  description  of  which  strik- 
ingly coincides  with  that  of  the  modem  Pekin.  He  atlerwards  visited  Mangi  or  Southern 
China,  and  found  in  its  capital,  Quinsai,  a  scene  eclipsing  all  that  he  had  beheld  cither  in 
Europe  or  in  the  East  It  is  described  as  a  most  immense,  and,  from  its  splendour  and  the 
beauty  of  its  situation,  almost  a  magic  city.  In  fact  Hongtchooibo,  which  corresponds  with 
Quinsai,  though  it  has  long  ceased  to  be  the  capital  of  China,  is  still  a  very  large  city,  very 
charmingly  situated.  From  China,  Marco  Polo  passed  tlirough  the  Indian  Archipelago,  hear- 
ing only  of  Great  Java,  but  visiting  Sumatra,  which  he  calls  Little  Java.  He  touched  at 
the  coasts  both  of  Malabar  and  Coromandel,  and  learned  many  particulars  respecting  India 
and  its  people,  which  have  since  been  confirmed  by  modem  observation.  He  returned  by 
the  Red  Sea  to  Europe. 

A  map  of  the  worlo  on  a  large  scale,  (Jig.  14.)  by  Fra  Mauro,  which  is  preserved  at  Venice, 
and  of  which  a  highly  finished  copy  exists  in  the  British  Museum,  exhibits  a  view  of  the 
geographical  ideas  ibrmcd  by  the  Venetians,  founded  upon  the  information  derived  from  tlieir 
Asiatic  travellers,  and  prior  to  the  discovery  of  America. 

Fig.  14. — Map  or  tub  Wobld  by  Fra  Mavro. 


1.  Buira 

2.  Difur 

3.  Fundan 

4.  Maruchu 

5.  Bienc 
fl.  Mncha 
7.  Thui 
a  Thale 

9.  Stilunfur 
1C   Pellirondi 
II.  Ilweneia 
IS.  T'lrrailli 

13.  Deli 

14.  Avi 


S   Chsracan 

29. 

Zanlavo 

43.  Bnpolcro  Uncain 

e   Nilo 

fi.  Charaiaii 

M. 

Hire 

41.  fainargaiu 

1    Kufratn 

17.  Mlhen 

31. 

Baleh 

4.^.  Nngra 

fc  l"i«ri« 
li   Indua 

ti.  Moiinan 

32. 

Tangui 

4G.  Moacliftvia 

9.  Biachone 

33. 

Chansay 

47.  I'ormia 

i    Mandua 

SU   Bclfetoii 

34. 

NanKin 

4H.  Nuvuaradu 

j    Ganvea 

iti.  Canilar 

35. 

Uimnzu 
Cambalu 

4'.i.  Kiga 

k  Uuian 

1    Mam  Ureunto 

*i3.  Thrmchain 

M. 

!iO.  Praia. 

iO.  lIuLiluuia 
34.  Minciputamia 

■.r. 

Arctidiiara 

m  Ainu 

3H. 

Silan 

Rineri,  Lake:  ie. 

n  P(ilr*anchin 

tU.  Artha  Noo 

3U. 

Olraf 

a  Oalla 

0  MareBttiKhu 

!».  Tiphilii 

40. 

Chatajo 

b  Xebe 

p  Edit 

37.  Armenia 

41. 

BMenach 

c  Avaai 

q  Tanai 

W.  Spalma 

43 

Sepultun 

b  Abtvi 

r    Oanubio. 

n  1. 


mice, 
f  the 
their 


BooKin. 


MODERN  GEOGIL*rprY. 


'    A-  BOOK  III. 

MODERNr-prw.-.r. 
GB«o„.r„vwa,„owtoa.umo  ^^OGRAPHY.  .'  ' 

prehended  within  her  domahf  aIk  "*'T  '^P«"=*'  "nd  worlds  before  .,  l 
nont  astronomers.  skilfbrSts'^S^Fh  '^e  Italian  states  p^uM""^"  ^«'«  ^  be  con- 
by  land  conveyance,  am]  thlT'  ■      ■  ^'^y  navigators  thpirV»  ^?  "^most  exclusively  Pmi 
or  even  attemjt  to  foUoVtut   n'.'""!'""  °*""'«  '"terSet  of  P.  r""°"  ^"^  "•'"ly  S^" 
coasts  of  Europe,  and  eLdallv  X-V;^'"?5  '^^^ioiuZverf  %V  ^7'^'^  "otorSX^ 

discovery,  conquest,  and  coL^^r^'-P"-"^  ^'"^  "*•  t^e  a^e  emLSed°i^  Sl^S 


cba 


CHAPTER  I 

The  progress  of  di'I^rvrvT.r.r'"'''''^ ''"'"  ™^ '=^''' ^"'Es. 
astonishinelyraDid-  n„^    7^"  *be  globe,  when  th»  a    . 

<ar  as  Virginia.  In  the  next  tlo^nr^h  P'"'""'  ^rritSry  "f  thelfn^i''S!P'*="''  discovered 
guese  navigators,  began  the  ]o„„  2l  "■•  ^  ^'^'''  'he  Cor?erSs  „  ,.  "^^  ®'^'"''  P^°bably  as 
they  saiiod  along  tht  coa^t  of  f  T  i"^'"  ^"''i*  of  a  pas^^p  i™  '',*l"ng  family  of  Portu- 
which  they  seen?  to  haTmltat„'lT%r'^  '^'^^^^^S^^^^^Mir^^^''^'^^^-- 
them  unbippily  perished.  hmTrZ  "j"  t^"  ^^^ween  Africa  fndi^.''^-^^'''^^'^  ^h 
coast  of  Brazil,  which  he  clahntd  fnV  D  f ''  '',*''*'"«''  for  Indk  strnct  ^"'^™a;  but  two  of 
P«rt  of  Terra  Firma,  and  Sna  ZFuT'^"^'  ^'""'?°  ^t^ucTLZ^^T'^^^y  °»  »b« 
ot  Brazil ;  services  which  ohta  inf  A  <•    ,  •   ""^^  "lade  two  extpn«iv„         ^''^''  along  a  great 

gulf  of  Mexico,  In  Kill  ivr  ^  '  "^ound  a  great  n»rt  «♦•  .u^  •  ^  "'*  "ame  to  the  whnU 
boundless  expanse  oflh^  fe??!"^^'  "°-'5  tt Srowtthr "''.  ST  *''«  ""^^^  of  tt 
prompted  Cortez  and  Pizarrr?^  f    ^'^?"-     '^''^^e  discovwTefnff  "?  of  Panama,  beheld  the 

^vith  a  handful  of  darfn7fo^oteTtfe '"  '\'''  -'ventumus  "„"  ±11;"^  ^'P"'^-  which 
Mexico  and  Pern      P. 5  ,"'.*'^^~  tney  subverted  Hm  -,  »  "^"'"ary  career- in  wfifoi, 

Siam  and  Pegu;  and  even  „f  ,*'''*  «nd  Uie  Spice  iS     ,   '^'^"' ^fr'™,  of  Ara- 

joalousy  of  tlfat  ^wer  wa  s^TP't'  '"."'"*''  *be  S  of  C,fca  T^l*''"  existence^f 
be  presence  of  {he  emjeror  and  f '""^V  *'"'  I'ortuguese  emZ^  ^  ^^^  characteristic 
boards  and  larrre  eves  shn'.U  '  .  t  """"'ate  was  issued  th!^^  Z^^  ""'  ndmittrd  into 
coverie.,  the  fTranJ  achiovSn  f  ^  '^^  ''''^""^  of  the  cele'stS  «  ""^  °^  ""'  "i^"  with  long 
and  western  discovery  an  „f/  ^'*  '•^""''■"'■<''  of  cL^t^'^L^y -^/f^^'  ""  "'ese  d"f 
of  the  globe,  whic"  d'.ough  Ll^'"^.  "P*'"  ^°  ^he  wondSevTs  If^*"  *•>? .'*"??''«  of  easto  n 
mankin,!  contrary  tn\JrtlinKr  "nf'^  '-"  *''"  '^«t~erfs"emeT?o;h'  '''^'  ^^""^t"- 
,    Magellan,  in  ir,2(),  Mndertr!?tT    •  ^''"  ^""''^s-  °  ""^  &onpraIity  of 


%^ 


/  11 


•^j 


i 

il 

i 

1 

i 

1 

!^ 


I 


70  HISTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Pabt  1. 

CHAPTER  H. 

EARLY  BVBTF.M  OF  MODERN  GEOcnAPIlY. 

The  systematic  arrangement  of  the  immense  rcjfions  thus  discovered,  tlieir  adjustment  to 
each  otl\er,  and  to  the  mass  of  knowledge  previously  ]X)S£C8sed,  was  a  task  as  yet  beyond  the 
resources  of  modem  geography.  It  was  to  Venice  tliat  the  results  of  discovery  were  still 
referred  to  be  arranged  and  systematised ;  but  the  Venetian  geographers,  however  skilful, 
laboured  under  many  diflRculties.  The  navigators  seldom  furnished  them  with  any  celestial 
observations,  or  even  accurate  survey.?;  for  which,  indeed,  science  had  as  yet  provided  no 
suitable  instruments :  they  gave  only  rude  delineations,  on  which  the  geographer  was  obliged 
to  trace  his  uncertain  way ;  most  of  the  countries  formerly  known  were  touched  at  new 
pomts,  and  recognised  under  new  names ;  and  tlie  continents,  being  made  to  contain  both  the 
olil  and  the  new  features,  were  swelled  to  a  preposterous  magnitude.  The  east  of  Asia 
WHS  obliged  to  contain  at  once  tlie  Serica  of  Ptolemy,  the  Mangi  and  Cathay  of  Marco  Polo, 
and  the  Ciiina  of  tlie  Portuguese,  all  as  f-parate  empires.  The  relative  site  of  the  two 
continents  of  Asia  and  America,  the  presentation  of  the  west  coast  of  the  one  to  the  cast 
coast  of  the  otiicr,  was  of  course  the  problem  which  they  had  the  fewest  means  of  solving. 
In  a  series  of  Venetian  map?,  preserved  in  the  king's  library,  the  two  continents  are  de- 
scribed througiiout  tlieir  whole  extent  as  either  united  or  separated  only  by  the  narrow  Strait 
of  Anian :  the  former  delineation  is  retained  even  in  a  map  by  Bertclli,  dated  1571 ;  and  in 
one  by  Cimertinus  (1560),  Cathay  is  placed  upon  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  expedition 
of  Magellan,  it  might  be  suppose*!,  would  already  have  opened  their  eyes  to  the  extent  of  that 
vast  ocean  which  here  intervened :  but  Magellan  scarcely  penetrated  into  tlie  northern 
Pacific;  and  his  ill-understood  course  was  probably  supposed  to  reach  direct  from  Cape 
Horn  to  the  Moluccas,  which  did  not  interfere  with  the  hypothesis  of  the  two  continents 
meeting  each  other  in  a  diflerent  latitude.  The  breadth  of  America,  like  all  unknown 
spaces,  was  vastly  exaggerated  in  the  early  maps;  while  eastern  Asia,  by  the  procc.-s  above 
pointed  out,  was  tripled  ui  all  dimensions,  and  thus  made  to  cover  an  ample  portion  of  the 
Pacific. 

Sebastian  Munster,  in  1572,  produced  a  delineation  of  the  world,  which  is  cleared  of 
some  of  the  grossest  mistakes,  and  which  very  tolerably  delineates  the  general  outline  of  the 
earth.  He  commits,  however,  ,•  very  discreditable  mistake,  in  tjiking  Ptolemy  for  his  guide 
ill  regard  to  Scotland,  and  consequently  representing  that  country  as  extending  from  west  to 
east;  a  blunder  the  more  singular,  as  his  forms  of  Scandinavia  and  Ireland  are  liable  to  little 
exception.  Singular  flights  of  fancy  are  found  in  the  works  of  these  early  geographers. 
Munster  undertakes  to  describe,  not  only  the  surface  of  the  earth,  but  also  its  interior :  this 
i.s  stated  to  be  occupied  by  hell,  a  huge  cavern  two  or  tliree  thousand  German  miles  in  length 
and  breadth,  and  "capable  of  holding  many  millions  of  damned  souls."  Its  existence  was 
proved  by  the  spirits  which,  in  the  depth  of  mineral  cuvcrns,  as  he  had  been  assured  by  Cor- 
nelius Agrippa,  often  killed  instantly  a  great  number  of  men.  The  inflammatory  gases, 
which  are  still  frequently  producing  such  disasters,  afibrd  certainly  no  unplausible  ground 
for  that  strange  conclusion. 

Ortelius,  in  the  commencement  of  the  sixteenth  century,  exhibits  a  remarkable  im- 
provement in  geography.  In  his  maps,  all  the  parts  of  the  globe  begin  to  assume  their  real 
form  and  dimensions ;  America  and  Asia  are  ^\  idely  separated,  the  expanse  of  the  South  Sea 
interposing  between  them.  The  south  pole  is  invested  with  a  Terra  Avstralis  Incognita ; 
whicl),  as  it  relates  to  New  Holland,  is  said  to  rest  on  the  autliority  of  Marco  Polo  and  Bar- 
thema,  and  in  regard  to  the  West,  on  that  of  Magellan.  Terra  del  Fiieffo  is  made  a  por- 
tion of  this  Austral  continent ;  while  in  lat.  41°  S.,  and  long.  10°  west  of  Ferro,  is  Protnon- 
torium  Terrts  Australis.  There  is  a  Terra  Septentrionalis  Incognita,  nearly  as  extensive, 
and  seeming  to  include  Nova  Zembla.  Greenland,  however,  exists  distinct  from  it.  In  the 
interior  of  Asia,  the  Caspian,  under  the  appellation  of  Mer  de  Bachu,  presents  the  same  form 
and  dimensions  as  in  Ptolemy,  and  receives  all  the  rivers  falling  really  into  the  Aral,  the 
exi.«tence  of  which  seems  not  to  be  suspected  by  this  geographer. 

Mercator  advanced  considerably  farther,  particulnrly  by  siiowing  tlie  imperfections  of 
Ptolemy,  and  the  mjudicious  manner  in  which  the  Jelineatior.s  given  by  him  had  been  mixed 
with  tliosp  furnished  by  modern  authority.  Mer.-.ator  retiiins  the  .Austral  continent,  includ- 
ing in  it  Terra  del  Fiiego.  The  lakes  of  Canai.a  appear  for  the  first  time  in  his  maps,  as  a 
hoa  of  tresli  water^  the  termination  of  which  is  unknown.  In  Africa,  .Abyssinia,  enormously 
amplified,  is  made  the  principal  and  almost  sole  feature;  it  extends  soutliwiinl  to  the  vicinity 
of  the  Ciipe,  romprehending  Mosiimbiriue,  and  bordering  on  CaflrarlH  :  tlie  Nile  rises  only 
"bout  ton  degrees  north  of  the  Cape,  and  consequently  traverses  all  Africa  from  south  to  north. 
iVitli  respect  to  the  extreme  northern  regions,  this  very  learned  man  has  indulged  in  some 
extnioriiinary  (lights  of  iniii!.'inatinii.  The  ocean  resumes,  as  in  Homer,  the  character  of  o 
river,  and  is  seen  riisliintj  by  tmir  mouths  into  the  Polar  (Julf,  to  lie  absorbed,  it  is  said,  into 
the  tiowels  of  the  i>artli.     On  one  of  the  river  brunches  are  placed  pigmies,  scarcely  four 


f 


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ifomi 
the 

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Iclud- 
aa  a 
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ymity 
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into 
four 


fioOK  UI. 


MODERN  ASTRONOMICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


n 


feet  high ;  a  notion  Buirjrosted,  perhaps,  by  the  diminutive  stature  of  the  Laplanders  and  Sa- 
inoyedfM :  on  another  is  phic<;d  u  Mort  of  northern  paradise,  wliile  the  Pole  iteelf,  a  black  and 
immenao  rock,  towers  to  u  prodigious  height. 

From  the  timu  of  Mercalor  modern  geography  made  rapid  and  continued  progress,  till  it 
attained  the  state  approaching  towards  perfection,  in  which  it  now  exists :  tliis  will  appear, 
when  we  consider  it  as  astronomical,  critical,  or  statistical ;  and  when  we  view  it  in  its  rela- 
tion to  tlie  dilferent  quarters  of  the  globe. 


CHAPTER  UI. 

MODERN  ASTIIONOMICAL  OEOGRAPHY 

The  astronomical  geogrophy  of  the  Greeks  rested  on  a  basis  exceedingly  narrow.  It  was 
only  at  Alexandria,  Syene,  Rhodes,  and  a  few  other  leading  points,  that  observations  of  lati- 
tude appear  to  have  been  mode  witlj  a  tolerable  approach  to  accuracy ;  all  the  otlicrs  seem  to 
have  been  only  extended  froni  rude  itineraries.  With  regard  to  the  longitudes,  altliough  the 
mode  of  calculating  tiiem  by  means  of  eclipses  appears  to  have  been  understood,  only  one  or 
two  actual  observations  of  this  nature  are  recorded ;  nor  does  it  seem  to  have  exerted  any 
important  influence  on  geography  in  general.  The  Arabs  made  much  greater  progress  in 
this  department;  but,  through  the  separation  produced  by  religious  antipathy,  their  works 
were  scarcely  at  all  known  in  P^urope  at  the  period  of  the  revival  of  letters.  At  that  time, 
the  pompous  display  of  latitudes  and  longitudes  made  by  Ptolemy,  venerable  as  it  hod  become 
from  its  antiquity,  commanded  universal  assent. 

Modern  observations  have  gradually  shown  the  magnitude  of  Ptolemi's  errors.  The  first 
great  shock  to  his  authority  was  given  by  the  latitude  of  Constantinople,  v'hich  Amurath  III. 
caused  to  be  taken  in  1574,  when  it  ))rovod  to  bo  two  degrees  lower  than  ancient  authorities 
had  assigned :  the  idea  of  such  a  ditfercnco,  however,  was  treated  with  derision  by  some 
European  geographers,  till  it  was  confirmed,  in  1638,  by  Greaves,  who  had  been  sent  to  the 
East  by  Archbishop  Laud.  Even  then,  many,  rather  than  renounce  the  authority  of  Ptolemy, 
believed  tiiat  a  change  had  taken  place  in  tiie  position  of  the  earth ;  but  this  notion  became 
no  longer  tenable  to  any  extent  when  Alexandria  and  other  points  were  found  very  nearly 
to  coincide  with  ancient  observation.  But  tlie  groat  alarm  as  to  the  unsoundness  of  ancient 
graduation  was  given  in  1635,  when  M.  de  Peiresc  caused  an  eclipse  of  the  moon  to  be 
observed  at  Marseilles  and  at  Aleppo ;  and  the  difierenco  of  longitude,  instead  of  45°  as  it 
had  l:cen  represented,  was  found  to  bo  only  about  30°  :  such  an  enormous  error,  in  a  dimen- 
sion which  ought  of  all  others  to  have  been  most  exactly  ascertained,  shook  altogether  the 
blind  confidence  hitherto  reposed  in  the  longitudes  of  Ptolemy.  It  was  at  last  perceived, 
that  an  entire  reform  of  his  graduations  must  be  effected,  before  geography  could  rest  on  any 
secure  basis.  Numerous  observations  upon  eclipses  now  began  to  be  made ;  but  it  was  then 
discovered,  that  this  only  known  mode  of  ascertaining  tiic  longitude  was  attended  with  many 
imperfections.  In  the  observation  of  fifty-six  eclipses,  collected  by  Ricciolus,  there  were 
no  two,  observed  in  tlie  same  two  places  by  the  same  men,  which  exhibited  the  same  quantity 
of  longitude :  even  the  same  ecl'ps'^  gave  different  results,  when  observed  at  its  four  critical 
periods.  As  it  was  found  impossible  to  guard  against  errors  amounting  even  to  three  or 
four  degrees,  on  opinion  became  prevalent,  in  tlie  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  that  unless 
for  very  great  distances,  even  itinerary  measures  would  give  the  result  with  greater  accu- 
racy ;  yet  Galileo,  in  1610,  had  already  pointed  out  a  source  of  more  accurate  knowledge : 
he  had  in  that  year  discovered  three  of  the  satellites  of  Jupiter,  and  in  his  Nuncius  Sidereus, 
pointed  out  the  use  to  which  they  miglit  be  applied.  As  his  hints  did  not  meet  with  the 
attention  tlicy  merited,  lie  communicated  them  more  fully,  in  1631,  to  Philip  II.  of  Spain  ; 
but  that  bigoted  prince  was  unable  to  estimate  their  importance.  Galileo  met  with  a  more 
tavourahlc  reception  from  the  Dutch,  who  sent  Hortensius  and  Bleau  to  Florence,  to  commu- 
nicate with  Jiini  on  the  subject.  Tliey  found  that  great  man  involved  in  the  storm  of 
jwrsccution  which  tlie  ignorant  bigotry  of  the  Romish  church  had  raised  against  him :  he 
was  thrown  into  prison ;  and,  after  having  asked  pardon  on  his  knees,  for  asserting  that  the 
earth  moved  round  tlie  sun,  obtained  only  a  mitigation  of  his  confinement.  This  discovery 
was  therof()rc  of  little  use  till  1668,  when  Cassini  published  his  tables  of  the  revolutions  and 
clipses  of  these  satellites  ;  and  tiiree  years  afterwards,  he  and  Picard  made  joint  observations 
at  Piiris,  and  in  the  observatories  of  Tycho  Bralie  at  Copenhagen,  by  which  tlie  longitude 
of  these  two  importiint  points,  which  had  been  tlic  subject  of  long  controversy,  was  finally 
fixed. 

The  French  government  now  took  the  most  active  measures  for  extending  geographical 
observation.  Two  academicians,  Picard  and  I)e  la  Hire,  were  employed  to  construct  a  new 
map  of  Franco  upon  astronomical  principles.  In  this  operation  they  almost  everywhere 
reduced  the  previous  dimensions,  wliieh  h-id  been  tbundod  upon  itinerary  measures,  and  were 
liable  to  tlioir  usuiil  excess:  they  took  ofl'  a  whole  dt.'gree  from  the  western  coast  between 
Britanv  and  Gascoiiy,  and  half  a  ilegree  from  the  coa.sts  of  Ijanguedoc  and  Provence;  so  that 


wm 


f 


4'- 


72 


HISTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY 


Past  I. 


on  their  return,  Louis  XIV.  facetiously  roproncliod  tiicin  with  having  robbed  hini  of  a  part 
of  his  kingdom.  Other  academicians  were  employed  to  determine  the  longitude  of  Goree 
on  the  coast  of  Africa,  and  of  Guadaloupo  and  Martinico  in  the  West  Indies;  and  M.  Cha- 
zelles  was  sent  up  the  Levant  on  a  similar  mission.  E.xpeditions  on  a  much  grander  scale 
were  dispatched,  under  Alappcrtuis  to  the  Arctic  circle,  and  Condamino  to  the  eiiuator. 
The  primary  object  of  these  was  to  determine  the  figure  of  the  earth  by  the  application  of 
the  pendulum;  but  the  opixjrtunity  was  taken  of  making  various  observations  of  longitude 
and  latitude,  in  regions  which  had  been  formerly  delineated  only  by  processes  of  the  meet 
vague  description. 

In  the  operation  of  determining  the  position  of  places  on  the  globe,  importniit  improve- 
ments have  been  made  since  the  above  criw.  Although  there  can  be  no  more  accurate  mode 
of  detennining  the  longitude,  thon  by  the  eclipses  of  Jupiter's  satellites,  these  ore  of  too 
unfrequent  occurrence  to  answer  the  practical  purposes  roqiiiretl.  Observations  of  the  transits 
of  Mercury  and  Venus  over  the  sun,  of  the  occultations  of  the  fixed  stars,  and  of  what  are 
called  lunar  distances ;  processes,  the  nature  of  which  will  bo  fiilly  explained  in  the  following 
book,  have  been  employed  with  success.  Nay,  to  such  perfection  have  chronometers  been 
brought,  that,  by  showmg  the  difference  of  time  between  known  and  unknown  points,  they 
serve  many  of  the  ordinary  purposes  of  navigation.  The  voyages  undertaken  by  Capt  Cook, 
under  the  auspices  of  George  III.,  afforded  the  means  not  onlj^  of  exploring  many  islands  and 
regions  of  the  Pacific  and  Polar  sens,  but  of  throwing  much  light  upon  the  general  structure 
of  the  earth.  The  expeditions  of  Capt.  Parry,  and  the  nautical  surveys  executed  under  the 
direction  of  the  British  government  by  Flinders,  King,  Owen,  and  other  officers,  have  gone 
far  to  fix  the  outlines  of  the  great  continents.  The  trigonometrical  surveys  of  France  and 
England,  executed  within  the  last  thirty  years,  have  almost  completed  tlie  delineation  of 
tliose  countries.    Still  tliis  branch  of  geography  remains  very  imperfect 


CHAPTER  IV. 

MODERN  CRITICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


Thb  application  of  a  sound  criticism  to  geographical  materials  cannot  be  discerned  in  the 
rude  and  infant  stages  of  the  science.  There  is  no  branch  in  which  the  inquirer  is  so  likely 
to  be  misled  by  fiilse  and  fabulous  rumours.  Tlio  persons  from  whom  ho  must  draw  his 
in.ormation, — the  navigator,  t!ie  merchant,  the  traveller, — make  observations  often  only  in  a 
rough  and  superficial  manner,  and  are  swayed  in  their  reports  by  fancy  or  vanity.  The  results 
of  their  own  observation,  or  the  authentic  relations  of  well-informed  persons,  are  confounded 
with  the  most  vague  rumours  which  float  among  the  vulgar.  Hence  almost  all  the  early 
systems  have  a  portion  of  truth,  mingled  with  many  ideal  and  fabulous  creations.  The  human 
mind  imwillingly  owns  its  ignorance  even  to  itself.  The  geographer  was  reluctant  to  stop 
short  at  the  point  where  his  authentic  information  ceased.  Having  to  delineate  a  kingdom 
or  a  continent,  he  filled  up  the  really  unknown  parts  from  vague  rumour,  or  a  fanciful  pro- 
longation of  those  that  were  known.  Whatever  object  had  once  foimd  a  place  was  copied 
mechanically  without  any  inquiry,  tmtil  modem  maps  and  descriptions  became  crowded  with 
objects,  for  Uie  position  of  which  no  reason  could  be  assigned. 

Strabo,  among  the  ancient  geographers,  was  alone  endowed  with  a  critical  spirit :  but  not 
having  a  sufliciently  ample  stock  of  materials,  he  exercised  his  judgment  with  a  blind  severity, 
which  appears  to  have  done  injustice  to  several  individuals  whose  exertions  in  the  infiint 
cause  or  discovery  were  highly  meritorious.  This  extreme  of  scepticism,  opposite  to  that 
of  credulity,  has  indeed  thrown  unjustly  into  shade  the  merits  of  some  of  tlio  most  eminent 
discoverers,  both  ancient  and  modem.  It  is  only  by  the  collation  of  numerous  authorities, 
accumulated  by  time  and  extended  intercourse,  that  the  just  medium  can  be  observed,  and 
an  equitable  sentence  pronounced  on  the  report^  of  each  party. 

D'Anville,  in  the  eighteenth  century,  possessed  of  ample  materials,  endued  with  indefa- 
tigable patience  and  sound  judgment,  undertook  to  revise  the  whole  system,  upon  which  the 
world  and  its  regions  had  boon  hitherto  delineated.  The  maps  of  the  aire  wore  still  rnvered 
with  many  obsolete  and  many  fanciful  particulars;  and  largo  portions  of  tlm  world,  con- 
cerning which  absolutely  nothmg  was  known,  were  filled  with  imaginary  citits  nnd  coimtries. 
D'Anville  subjected  every  geographical  feature  to  the  strictest  revision,  and  c.vpunged 
without  mercy  those  which  rested  on  no  positive  and  actual  authority.  'I'lic  world,  imder 
his  hands,  assumed  a  new,  and  in  some  respects,  a  less  flattering  aspect.  INIaps,  wiiich  had 
before  boon  amply  and  regularly  covered,  now  exhibifod  vast  and  unsornily  hl.iiilis,  which, 
amid  the  boiisted  learning  of  this  age.  implied  a  mortifying  confession  of  itrnoriiiico.  It  was 
in]|KPSsil)lo,  however,  to  deny,  that  this  was  the  soimd  system  upon  wiiicii  to  proceed. 
Oociirrapliy  rested  at  last  upon  sure  bases,  and  prociv-dod  in  u  regular  coiirso  of  iuijiroveiiient. 

Jlajor  Rennell,  with  a  skill  and  siiiracity  not  inlrrjor  to  that  of  D'Anville,  arnniged  and 
illustrated  tlie  mass  of  important  materials  collected  respecting  India  and  Africa ;  and.  though 


Book  III. 


MODERN  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


W 


not 
Irity, 
lifiint 
jthat 
Incnl 
Ities, 

and 


Icon- 


ulditional  contributions  of  vast  importance  have  in  some  ilcfprec  superseded  his  actual  delinea- 
tion, his  example  has  intro(Uiced  a  still  preatcr  precision  into  the  mode  of  troatinj?  the  subject. 
The  comparison  of  ancient  and  modern  geography,  and  the  tracing  of  tiie  infant  steps  of 
early  discovery,  conntitutu  an  iuterestiMg  field  of  inquiry,  which  lias  been  much  cultivated 
during  the  present  age.  Vonsius,  Bochart,  and  other  learned  scholarsofthesoventeenth cen- 
tury, had  exercised  much  diligence  in  tiiese  researches  ;  but  they  were  not  always  guided 
by  tiie  soundest  judgment,  nor  were  tiiey  sufficiently  acquainted  with  the  objects  actually 
existing,  to  be  able  to  recognise  them  under  the  early  descriptions.  Rennell,  Vincent,  and 
Mannert,  seemed  to  have  carried  this  research  nearly  as  far  as  it  can  go,  though  without 
being  able  to  dispel  that  impenetrable  darkness  in  which  some  questions  arc  still  involved. 
Gosselin  has  applied  to  the  science  an  extent  of  investigation,  and  a  critical  acumen,  which, 
perhaps,  none  of  his  predecessors  have  equalled ;  but  animated  by  too  Strabonic  a  spirit,  and 
seeking  to  subvert  all  the  bases  on  which  ancient  geography  had  before  rested,  he  has  in 
many  instances  ratlier  given  lustre  to  bold  and  ingenious  paradoxes,  than  made  solid  addi- 
tions to  the  science. 

CHAPTER  V. 

MODERN  DESCRIPTIVE  AND  STATISTICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

The  mere  outline  of  the  globe,  its  continents  and  countries,  the  leading  features  of  moun- 
tains, rivers,  and  cities,  their  distance  and  position  witli  respect  to  each  other,  constitute  all 
that  in  the  very  strictest  sense  can  bo  called  geogrephy.  But  tlie  mind  cannot  pass  these  in 
review,  without  feeling  its  interest  excited,  in  even  a  superior  degree,  by  ether  objects,  for 
which  thosd  only  serve  as  the  basis.  The  productions  of  the  cartli,  whether  natural  or  arti- 
ficial ;  the  treasures  hid  in  its  bosom ;  the  animals  which  roam  or  are  bred  on  its  surface ; 
above  all,  the  men  by  whom  each  region  is  peopled, — their  manners,  laws,  industry,  com- 
merce, the  revolutions  through  which  they  have  pas%d, — these  possess  the  strongest  claim 
on  our  attention,  and  are  of  an  importance  superior  to  that  of  the  mere  geometricol  outline. 

The  ancients  did  not  occupy  themselves  with  much  more  than  the  simple  and  fundamental 
bases  of  the  science.  The  delineation  of  these  formed  alone  an  arduous  task,  which  the 
geographer  was  required  to  accomplish  before  he  could  attend  to  the  accessary  and  orna- 
mental parts.  Eratosthenes  does  not  appear  to  have  extended  his  research  beyond  those 
branches  which  were  connected  with  astronomy.  The  work  of  Ptolemy  forms  a  mere  naked 
tabular  list  of  positions,  rarely  enlivened  by  any  historical  or  descriptive  notices.  Pliny  does 
not  go  much  farther.  Strabo  alone  has  enriched  his  work  with  numerous  anecdotes  and  de- 
scriptions whicii,  though  not  given  on  any  complete  or  systematic  principle,  constitute  a 
great  portion  of  its  value. 

Early  modem  writers  confined  themselves,  like  the  ancient  geographers,  to  mere  outlines. 
All  the  first  treatises  were  formed  on  the  model  of  Ptolemy ;  D'Anville,  the  head  of  the 
French  school,  applied  himself  solely  to  the  boundaries  and  positions  of  countries,  which  he 
fixed  with  a  precision  before  unknown,  but  without  directing  much  attention  to  their  physical 
and  social  relations. 

Statistics,  the  science  which  treats  of  kingdoms  and  states  in  their  relations  of  population, 
wealth,  productions,  commerce,  and  public  force,  is,  as  a  separate  branch  of  knowledge,  only 
of  recent  origin.  From  the  first  it  had  a  natural  alliance  with  geography.  Busching  may 
be  considered  us  the  father  of  sUitistical  geography :  his  vast  research,  strict  fidelity,  and 
access  to  the  best  sources,  enabled  him,  in  his  description  of  Europe,  to  assemble  a  mass  of 
infijrmation  unequalled  by  any  of  his  predecessors.  He  has  arranged  it,  however,  nearly  in 
the  same  mechanical  manner  in  which  they  had  drawn  the  mathematical  outlines  of  the 
globe.  His  writings,  instead  of  convoying  to  the  mind  striking  general  views,  are  loaded 
with  minute  and  burdensome  details,  which  can  bo  usefiil  only  as  matter  of  reference,  and 
would  therefore  have  most  properly  appeared  in  the  form  of  a  dictionary.  His  successors  have 
been  numerous,  a!nd  their  labours  are  of  similar  character  and  value.  Brnns,  with  regard  to 
Africa,  and  Ebcling  to  Asia,  continued  the  series.  The  great  geographical  work  recently 
completed  by  Ilassel,  Cannabich,  Gaspari,  and  Gutsmuth,  in  twenty-five  octavo  volumes,  each 
equal  to  three  or  four  of  ordinary  size,  comprises,  probably,  the  largest  mass  of  statistical 
information  ever  assembled  into  one  work. 

The  English  compilations  of  Bowen,  Guthrie,  Salmon,  and  others  of  the  same  school  were, 
perhaps,  the  first  works  which  embraced  nearly  all  tiie  objects  that  can  give  interest  to  a 
system  of  geography;  and  though  indiflcrently  executed,  and  devoid  of  any  charms  of  style^ 
they  ac(iuired  a  very  extensive  popularity.  Mr.  Pinkerton  has  executed  a  work  on  the  same 
plan,  in  a  su|)prior  manner,  adding  notices  of  the  difl^erent  branches  of  natural  history,  and 
of  the  diffemnt  languages  of  nations.  M.  Malte-Brun,  by  his  acquaintance  with  the  eastern 
and  northern  literature  of  Eluropo,  and  by  an  animated  and  interesting  style,  has  produced  a 
work  in  some  respects  superior.  M.  Rilbi  has  distinguished  himself  by  the  industry  with 
which  he  has  collected  geographical  facts. 

We  shall  now  take  a  view  of  modern  discovery  in  the  remoter  quarters  of  the  globe. 
Vol.  I.  7   ■  K 


I 


m 


r#» 


Mi 


74 


HISTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 
CHAPTER  VI. 

MODERN  GBOORArilY  OC  ASIA. 


Past  I. 


Asia  was  the  firet  continent  wliicli  attracted  the  ottention  of  Europeans,  and  tlie  journeys 
of  all  the  early  travellers.  The  enterprise  of  the  Venetians  penetrated  into  womo  of  the 
wide  and  perilous  tracts  of  its  interior,  which  tlie  boldest  of  more  modern  travellers  liavo  in 
vain  essayed  to  reach.  Since  the  passage  of  the  Cape,  the  career  of  discovery  has  been 
ciiiefly  maritime.  We  liavc  seen  liow  rapidly  the  Portuguese  fleets  explored  all  the  south- 
ern coasts  and  islands.  Tlio  eastern  shores  beyond  Japan,  as  thoy  presented  nothing  tempt- 
ing to  conuiiorcial  avidity,  wore  left  to  be  examined  by  expeditions  having  science  and  curi- 
osity for  their  object.  This  task  was  efi'eoted  by  Cook,  Perouse,  Broughton,  and  Krusenstern. 
Jesso,  which  had  figured  as  a  large  continental  tract,  stretching  between  Asia  and  America, 
was  reduced  by  tliem  to  its  insular  form  and  dimensions,  and  its  separation  from  Saghalicn 
established ;  the  range  of  the  Kurile  islands  was  also  traced ;  but  some  questions  respecting 
tliis  very  remote  and  irregular  coast  remain  yet  to  be  solved.  Along  its  northern  boundary, 
beset  by  tlie  almost  perpetual  ices  of  the  polar  sea,  the  progress  of  navigation  was  slow  and 
laborious.  The  English  and  Dutcli,  tlio  chief  maritime  states,  made  extraordinary  eflbrtb 
and  braved  fearful  disasters,  in  the  hopeless  attempt  to  effect  by  this  route  a  nearer  passogo 
♦o  India ;  but  though  they  penetrated  beyond  Nova  Zemblu,  they  never  could  pass  the  formi- 
dable promontory  of  Severovostochnoi,  the  most  northern  point  of  the  Asiatic  continent.  The 
Russians  now  claimed  for  tliemselves  the  task  of  advancing  farther.  They  had  most  rapidly 
discovered,  and  conquered  the  whole  south  and  centre  of  Siberia,  and  reached  the  eastern 
ocean  at  Ochotzk ;  but  the  fVozen  bounds  of  the  north  for  some  tune  defied  their  investiga- 
tion. Proceeding  in  little  bnrks,  however,  they  worked  their  way  from  promontory  to  pro- 
montory. Bchring  and  Tchirikoff,  early  in  the  last  century,  sailed  through  tlie  Northern 
Pacific,  discovered  the  American  coast,  and  the  straits,  bearing  the  name  of  the  former,  which 
divide  Asia  from  America.  Deschnew  and  Shalaurof,  by  rounding  the  Asiatic  side  of  this 
Cape,  and  discovering  the  coast  stretching  away  to  the  westward,  were  supposed  to  liave  es- 
tablished the  fact  of  the  entire  separation  of  the  two  continents.  There  still  remained  a 
portion  of  coast  on  the  side  of  Asm,  which,  it  was  alleged,  might,  by  an  immense  circuit, 
have  connected  the  two  together ;  but  the  late  voyage  of  Baron  Wrangle  seom.s  to  have  re- 
moved every  ground  on  whicli  such  conjecture  could  rest,  and  to  have  established  beyond 
doubt  or  dispute,  the  existence  of  Asia  and  America  as  continents  altogether  distinct. 

Respecting  the  interior  of  Asia,  the  British  obtained  much  additional  information  from 
India,  after  they  became  undisputed  masters  of  that  region.  Tliis  information  was  in  many 
respects  only  a  revival  of  ancient  knowledge.  The  mountain  boundary  of  India  was  traced, 
and  found  to  rise  to  a  height  teforo  unsuspected.  Tlie  sources  and  early  courses  of  the 
Ganges  and  the  Indus,  were  found  in  quarters  quite  different  from  those  which  modern 
geography  had  long  assigned  to  them.  The  mountain  territories  of  Cabul  and  Candahar, 
the  vast  .sandy  plains  of  Mekran,  were  illustrated  by  the  missions  of  Elphinstone  and  Pottin- 
ger ;  while  Turner  and  Moorcroft  penetrated  into  the  high  interior  table-land  of  Thibet. 
Recent  and  authentic  information  has  al.so  been  furnished  by  Burnes  respecting  Bochara  and 
Samarcand,  those  celebrated  capitals  of  the  early  masters  of  Asia :  but  there  remains  still  a 
great  central  Terra  Incognita,  respecting  which  our  information  rests  chiefly  upon  the  desul- 
tory and  somewhat  clouded  reports  of  Marco  Polo,  and  the  meagre  narrative  of  Goez ;  thougli 
iome  important  and  more  precise  information  has  recently  been  aiTordcd  by  the  researches  of 
Humboldt  and  Klaproth. 


CHAPTER  VH. 

MODERN  GEOGRAPHY  OF  AFRICA. 


Africa,  more  than  any  other  quarter  of  the  globe,  has  defied  the  research,  and  humbled  the 
pride,  of  motlern  inquiry.  After  accurate  surveys  had  been  made  of  tlie  remotest  oceans  and 
shores,  this  continent,  placed  almost  in  view  of  Europe,  still  baffled  every  attempt  to  pene- 
trate the  mighty  secrets  which  it  held  in  its  bosom.  Tliis  vast  and  unbroken  region  enclosed 
by  huge  expanses  of  desert,  and  occupied  by  barbarous  and  predatory  tribe.s  for  a  long 
period  proved  fatal  to  every  daring  mortal  who  attempted  to  penetrate  into  its  depths.  The 
Portuguese,  however,  at  an  early  period,  made  very  extraordinary  exertions,  impelled  by  tlie 
odd  chimera  of  Prester  John,  a  Christian  prince,  whom  they  expc'cted  to  find  in  tlio  interior. 
With  this  view  they  explored  Abyssinia,  of  which  they  vastly  exaggerated  the  dimensions, 
making  it  extend  even  to  llii'  Cape,  in  the  vicinity  of  which,  according  to  their  idea,  the 
Nile  took  its  origin.  In  thfir  progress  also  along  the  western  coast,  thoy  sent  repeated  em- 
bassies into  the  interior,  to  discover,  if  pwsible,  the  alxxle  of  Prestor  Jolin;  and  tiiougli  that 
favourite  object  always  eluded  their  search,  they  apjiear  to  have  reached  on  one  o<'cu.sion  as 
fiir  OS  Timbuctoo,  and  learned  at  Benin  some  particuhrs  respecting  tlie  great  interior  king- 
dom of  Ogane  or  Ghana. 


-*. 


Book  III. 


MODERN  GEOGRAPHY  OF  AFRICA. 


75 


lied  the 
uns  and 
pene- 
iicloscd 
la  long 
The 
I  by  the 
litprior. 
Insionf, 
len,  the 
ImI  cin- 
li  that 
fiion  as 
king- 


Tho  preiit  interior  river  called  by  Ptolemy  the  Niger,  was  the  object  wliich  from  the  first 
excited  the  chief  intcreiit  in  respect  to  the  African  interior.  All  tlio  curly  Euroixian  navi- 
gatora,  on  coining  to  the  two  broad  eBtimries  of  the  Senegal  ond  Gainbiu,  concluded  thnt  one 
or  both  formed  the  termination  of  the  long  courac  which  the  Niger  had  been  described  as 
taking  across  the  entire  breadth  of  Africa.  For  several  centuries  the  Knrofii.'un  nations, 
intent  ojily  on  the  trade  in  slaves,  merely  touched  at  different  pointd  of  the  const,  to  which 
tiiose  unhappy  victims  were  brougiit  down  by  large  caravans.  In  the  beginning  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  however,  tiio  French  and  English  having  rcs])octivcly  settled  on  the 
Senegal  and  Gambia,  wore  tempted,  by  the  rejiort  and  view  of  the  gold  brougiit  from  the 
interior,  to  push  up  these  rivers  and  endeavour  to  reach  Tiinbuctoo.  They  had  nut  ascended 
tlir,  when  tliey  became  sensible  that  the  extraordinary  magnitude  and  distant  origin  ascribed 
to  both  waa  altogether  chimerical.  They  were  traced  so  near  to  their  sources  as  to  be 
little  more  than  rivulets ;  yet  still  the  explorers  were  far  from  Tiinbuctoo,  and  from  the 
great  central  plain,  through  wiiich  the  main  course  of  the  Niger  was  understood  to  flow. 
At  the  same  time,  notices  were  transmitted  to  the  French  geographers  Delislc  and  D'Anville, 
which  led  them  to  infer  that  there  was  in  that  region  another  and  greater  river,  which 
flowed  eastward  towards  the  interior,  and  of  which  they  were  unable  to  learn  the  termina- 
tion. Vet  this  delineation  of  these  great  geographers  had  been  in  a  great  measure  lost 
sight  of,  even  among  their  own  countrymen. 

The  information  obtained  by  the  African  Association  at  first  tended  to  confirm  this  impres- 
sion.  The  persons  who  hod  crossed  the  Niger  at  the  most  eastern  part  of  the  central  Afri- 
can plain,  described  it  to  Mr.  Lucas  as  flowing  westward :  but  these  conflicting  statements 
were  silenced  by  tlie  first  expedition  of  Mr.  Park,  who  at  Sego  behold  it  a  broad  and  majes- 
tic stream,  flowing  through  the  plain  of  Bambarra  from  west  to  east,  and  directing  its  course 
into  the  depths  of  interior  Africa.  From  tliat  time,  the  termination  of  tlie  Niger  became 
the  grand  problem  which  the  science  and  the  enterprise  of  the  age  were  exerted  to  solve. 
A  boundless  field  was  open  to  conjecture.  By  one  theory,  the  Niger  was  lost  in  some  great 
inland  seas  or  lakes  of  the  interior ;  by  anotlier,  it  bent  to  the  south  and  west,  and  reached 
the  Atlantic  either  in  the  Gulf  of  Benin,  or  by  the  estuary  of  the  Congo ;  lastly,  it  rolled  to 
the  eastward,  till,  under  the  name  of  the  Abiad,  or  Wliite  River,  it  became  the  principal 
head  of  the  Nile  of  Egypt.  At  last,  by  the  persevering  exertions  of  the  British  govern- 
ment, an  expedition  fairly  succeeded  in  penetrating  into  the  hitliorto  unknown  interior  of 
Africa,  and  m  tlirowing  a  wonderful  addition  of  light  upon  its  structure.  This  mission,  how- 
ever, broke  up  the  gnmd  question.  They  discovered,  flowing  through  the  great  African 
plain,  not  one  river  in  one  direction,  but  several  in  different  directions ;  all  of  which,  it 
appears,  have  been  considered  at  dillerent  times,  and  under  difl'creiit  circumstances,  as  the 
Niger.  These  rivers  are  four: — 1.  The  Senegal,  considered  by  the  Arabians  and  modern 
Europeans  as  the  embouchure  by  which  the  Niger  entered  the  ocean.  2.  The  Joliba,  which 
ever  since  it  wos  visited,  and  its  course  ascertained,  by  Park,  has  been  fixed  in  the  mind  of 
Europeans  as  the  only  Niger ;  though  probably  not  known  to  any  of  the  ancient  geographers 
who  used  tliat  term.  3.  The  Quarrama,  or  river  of  Zinnio,  first  discovered  by  the  late 
mission,  flowing  from  east  to  west,  and  falling  into  the  Joliba  or  QuoUa.  This  is  evidently 
the  Arabian  Nile  of  the  negroes,  on  or  near  which  are  situated  all  their  great  cities — Ghana, 
now  known  under  the  name  of  Cano ;  Bcrissa,  under  that  of  Bcrshee ;  Tocrur,  as  I  appre- 
hend, under  that  of  Sackatoo.  4.  The  Yeou,  flowing  eastward  into  the  great  lake  of  Bornou, 
and  which  appears  to  have  been  the  western  Nile  of  Herodotus,  visited  by  the  Nasamonian 
adventurers  fVom  Tripoli.  The  mission  also  ascertained  the  site  of  the  kingdom  of  Bornou, 
which  had  been  very  erroneously  placed ;  they  discovered  the  fertile  kingdom  of  Loggun, 
perhaps  the  Cauga  of  Edrisi,  and  the  great  mountain  region  of  Mandara,  which  appears  to 
lie  the  Mons  Mandrus  of  Ptolemy.  The  subsequent  expedition  of  Clapperton  from  the 
Gulf  of  Benin  showed  the  connexion  between  the  Atlantic  coast  and  the  interior,  and  com- 
pleted the  diagonal  section  made  across  the  greatest  breadth  of  the  African  continent.  It 
allowed  also  the  continuity  of  large  ond  populous  kingdoms  extending  in  this  direction : 
Eyeo,  tlie  Gago  of  Leo  and  the  early  geographers;  Zegzeg,  wuth  its  large  capital  Zoria; 
Nyffe,  tiio  most  industrious  of  the  African  states ;  Boussa,  Koolfu,  and  other  flourishing 
cities.  The  Niger  of  Pork  was  here  seen  holding  a  southerly  direction  towards  the  Gulf 
of  Benin;  but  it  was  reserved  for  Lander  finally  to  solve  the  grand  problem  by  tracing  the 
Niger  down  to  its  termination  in  the  Gulf  of  Benin.  This  discover}-,  with  that  of  its  numer- 
ous tributaries,  opens  to  commerce  the  prospect  of  being  able  to  penetrate  into  the  most 
interior  and  finest  regions  of  the  African  continent. 

Among  partial  but  important  contributions  to  the  knowledge  of  Africa,  may  be  mentioned 
tlio  observations  of  Bruce  and  Salt  in  Abyssinia;  those  of  Brown  in  Durfiir;  of  Waddington 
and  Caillniid  in  the  upper  part  of  tlia  Nile;  and,  lastly,  of  Lichtenstein,  Campbell,  and 
Burchcll,  upon  tlie  countries  wliich  lie  in  the  interior  northward  from  tlio  Cape  of  Good 
Hope.  Yet  a  vast  field  still  remains  for  future  difcovory.  In  particular,  all  the  southern 
interior,  from  the  equator  nearly  to  the  Cape,  has  scarcely  been  the  subject  even  of  rumour. 
The  sources  of  the  Nile,  after  the  search  of  so  many  ages,  are  yet  unexplored ;  as  well  as 


A'i\ 


W 


11 


I 


^'i 


76 


HISTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Paht  1. 


Ihftt  wide  rnndo  of  territory  wliirli  iiitervenon  bcUvcrn  it  nml  the  series  of  rivers  wliirh  wo 
have  jtiMt  noticed  us  Bssumiiis:  the  iiuiiie  of  i\i(ror.  The  (•(nitiiiiiity  uiiil  striiKtiiro  also  of 
that  vast  chiiin  of  inouiitjiiiis,  whieli,  nccordinff  to  rereiit  tnivcllers,  iipiH-iirs  to  cnms  Africa 
ut  its  (jrentcst  breadth,  mul  gives  rise  to  so  (nuny  iiiigiity  ►frettiiis.iiavoyet  by  iiomeansbeen 
completely  traced. 


CHAPTER  Vni. 

MODERN  OEOOUAI'liy  OF  AMKHICA. 

Th«  discovery  of  America,  as  formerly  observed,  was  made  in  tiio  first  instance  with 
extraordinary  rupiditv.  The  tliirat  for  gold  and  the  spirit  of  adventure  urged  niition  after 
nation  to  explore  '.,3  consts,  and  |)enetrate  its  interior.  Within  twenty  years  was  formed 
a  fliU  and  tolerably  precise  outline  of  the  whole  eastern  coast,  from  the  nioulh  of  Hudson's 
Bay  to  the  Straitu  of  Magellan.  The  conquest  of  Cortez,  of  Pizarro,  and  of  their  im- 
mediate successors,  soon  conveyed  a  pretty  accurate  idea  of  tlic  western  coast  of  South 
America,  of  Mexico,  and  even  of  the  peninsula  of  California.  But  the  northern  regions, 
Btretcliing  into  the  ices  of  the  Pole,  presented  barriers  of  a  formidable  description,  which 
long  baffled  tiic  utmost  efforts  of  navigators.  America  on  this  side  resisted  for  a  longer 
time  the  attempts  to  complete  its  delineation  than  any  other  continent. 

To  explore  the  north-western  coast  seems  to  have  been  an  undertaking  properly  belong- 
ing to  Spain,  the  possessor  of  all  the  vast  and  opulent  regions  which  extend  along  the 
Pacific.  Recent  notices  have  shown  that  they  did  not  neglect  tliat  inquiry,  for  Cortez  and 
several  of  the  other  viceroys  sent  expeditions  along  this  coast,  to  which  they  gave  the  name 
of  New-Mexico.  The  Spaniards,  however,  as  usual,  shrouded  in  deep  mystery  even  these 
limited  discoveries,  and  were  long  able  to  prevent  the  other  nations  of  Europe  from  visiting 
tiiis  coast,  the  moat  remote  and  inaccessible  of  any  in  the  circuit  of  the  globe.  Europeans, 
therefore,  were  not  aware  of  the  vast  breadth  to  which  this  ccmtinent  expanded  towards  the 
north.  They  rather  supposed  that,  like  South  America,  it  narrowed  to  a  point  or  cape, 
upon  passing  which  the  navigator  wm'ld  enter  upon  the  expanse  of  the  Pacific,  and  might 
bear  down  upon  Japan,  China,  and  the  Eii*t  Indies.  The  commercial  nations  therefore, 
made  vigorous  and  almost  ceaseless  clK)rts  to  turn  this  point,  and  effect,  as  tlicy  imagined,  a 
nearer  and  more  direct  route  into  the  eastern  st^as. 

The  English  took  the  lead  in  this  important  career.  Under  the  reign  of  Queen  Eliza- 
l)eth,  Frobisher  and  Davis  made  each  three  HUcocs.«ivo  voyages.  One  discovered  tlie 
entrance  into  Hudson's  Bay,  the  other  fiiuiui  the  nntranco  into  the  great  sea  wliieh  bears 
the  name  of  Baffin's  Bay ;  but,  partly  urrohted  by  Mie  well  known  obstructions  to  which 
these  seas  are  liable,  partly  divertc^d  by  a  cliimcriciil  search  after  gold,  they  could  not  pene- 
trate beyond  the  numerous  islands  and  inlut.^  by  which  these  entrances  are  besot.  Hudson, 
in  1610,  steered  a  bolder  course,  and  cntert'il  the  vast  bay,  which  has  received  its  appella- 
tion from  that  groat  navigsitor,  wiio  there  unfortunately  terminated  his  adventurous  career. 
The  treachery  of  a  ferocious  and  mutinous  rrew  exi)oi-ed  him  on  these  frozen  and  desolate 
shores,  where  he  miserably  perished.  Sir  Thomas  Button  followe<l  in  1612,  and  finding 
himself  in  the  middle  of  this  capacious  Iwsin,  imagined  himself  already  in  the  Pacific,  and 
stood  full  sail  to  the  westward.  To  his  utter  (U.-imay  he  came  to  the  long  continuous  line 
of  shore  which  forms  the  western  Iwundary  of  Hudsdn's  Bay.  He  expressed  his  disappoint- 
ment by  giving  to  the  coast  the  name  of  "Hope  chcclovl."  Bylot  and  Baffin,  who  followed 
three  years  after,  were  stopped  by  the  ice  at  SoutIian»pton  Island.  Baffin,  however,  made 
afterwards  a  more  impf)rtant  voyage,  in  which  he  completely  rounded  the  shores  of  that 
great  sea  which  bears  his  name,  and  which,  appearing  to  him  to  be  inclosed  on  all  sides  by 
land,  has  been  denominated  Baffin's  Riy.  The  error  involved  in  this  appellation  deterred 
subsequent  navigators  from  any  further  attempt ;  for  Baffin,  in  passing  the  great  opening 
of  Lancaster  sound,  had  concluded  it  to  be  merely  a  gulf  From  that  period  the  English 
navigators,  though  they  ceased  not  to  view  this  object  with  ardour,  hoped  to  flilfil  it  only  by 
the  channel  of  Hudson  s  Bay.  In  1631,  two  vessels  were  sent  thither  under  Fox  and  James. 
The  latter,  entangled  in  some  of  the  southern  bays,  returned  after  dreadful  sulferings  from 
the  cold  of  tlie  winter;  but  the  former,  (piaintly  calling  hitiiself  North-west  Fox, explored  a 
part  of  that  great  opening  called  Sir  Thomas  Roe's  Welcome,  which  appeared  now  to  afford 
almost  the  only  hope  of  a  passage;  but  he  stopped  short  at  a  point  which  ho  termed  "Fox's 
farthest."  Under  Charles  II.  a  company  was  formed  for  the  purpose  of  settlement  and 
commerce  in  Hudson's  Bay,  and  engaged  to  makf  the  most  strenuous  exertions  to  discover 
western  passage;  but  it  is  believed  that  the  only  exertions  really  moile  by  the  Company 
ended  to  prevent  any  such  discovery.  Middletoti,  an  officer  in  their  service,  was  sent  out 
in  1741,  sailed  up  the  Welcome,  and  believed  himself  tf)  have  discovered  that  the  head  of 
that  channel  was  completely  closed.  He  was  strongly  charged  with  having  roeeived  a  high 
bribe  from  the  Hutlson's  Bay  Company  to  stifle  the  discover}-,  and  Moor  and  i^iiiith  were 
sent  out  in  the  following  year  with  the  most  sanguine  hopes;  but  when  they  returned  with 


^ 


A, 


DOOK  III. 


TlIE  AUSTRAL  SEAS  AND  ISLANDS. 


opening 

English 

;  only  by 

":  James. 

ligs  Irom 

Kplored  a 

I  to  afford 

I "  Fox's 

lent  and 

Idiscover 

'()rn|)any 

|sont  out 

I  load  of 

a  high 

Ih  weir 

k  wilh 


out  having  e(foctnd  any  thing,  tiio  puhjic  Pxpeotations  wero  greatly  ahate<l.  Tt  became  the 
general  impreHHion  that  America,  on  thim  side,  formed  a  musM  uf  iinuroken  land,  and  that  the 
long  Bought  pasmgo  had  no  exiHteiice. 

New  viewH  of  Iho  extent  and  form  of  the  northern  extrumitifiR  of  America  were  opened 
by  the  dincov(<ries  of  (^Jook,  corroborated  by  thone  of  nomo  other  Englisii  navigators  in  the 
Nortiiem  Pacific.  It  a|>p«'ttred  that  America  there  stretched  away  tn  tiie  iiorth-weKt,  till  it 
reached  a  breadth  equal  to  one-fourth  port  of  the  circumferenee  of  tiie  globe.  Cook  ])eno- 
trutcd,  indeed,  through  the  strait  which  lK)und8  the  continent  and  separates  it  tVom  Asia ;  hut 
the  coast  appeared  there  extending  indefinitely  north  ;  and  it  l)ecame  a  general  impression 
that  America  formed  a  huge  unbroken  mass  of  land  approaching  tiie  I'ole,  and  perlmpa 
reaching  tliat  ultimate  |xiint  of  the  globe.  This  belief  received  a  sudden  shock  from 
Ileariie's  voyage  down  the  Copper  Mine  River,  and  his  discovery  of  the  sea  into  which  it 
fell,  in  a  latitude  not  liigher  than  that  of  the  north  of  Hudson's  Bay.  Soon  afVer,  Sir 
Alexander  Mackenzie  traced  also  to  the  sea  another  river  twenty  degrees  farther  west. 
Tiiero  was  now  a  strong  jirenumption  that  a  sea  Ixnindcd  the  whole  of  America  to  the  north, 
and  that  there  really  wiw  such  a  passage  ntt  hud  been  fo  long  sought,  and  might  be  found, 
were  it  not  too  closely  barred  by  ice  and  tempest.  The  British  administration,  animated 
with  an  active  and  laudable  zeal  in  tlio  cause  of  discovery,  determined  tliot  no  ixjssiblo  effort 
should  be  omitted  by  which  this  imixirtant  and  long  agitated  question  might  be  brought  to  a 
final  decision. 

A  series  of  exploratory  voyages  was  now  begun.  Capt.  Ross,  in  1918,  made  the  circuit 
of  Baflin's  Bay,  and  returned  with  the  belief  that  no  optining  existed  :  Lieut.  Parry,  second 
in  command,  formed  a  different  judgincnt,  and  having  satisfied  the  Admiralty  aa  to  hia 
grounds  of  belief,  was  sent  out  with  the  command  of  a  new  expedition.  In  this  memorable 
voyage,  Capt.  Parry  penetrated  through  Ivincastcr  Sound,  wliich  he  found  to  widen  gradually, 
until  it  opened  into  the  expanse  of  the  Polar  Sea.  lie  did  not  touch  on  any  part  of  the 
American  coast,  but  found  parallel  to  it  a  chain  of  large  islands;  and  his  progress  through 
these  was  arrested,  not  by  land,  but  by  straits  and  channels  encumbered  with  ice.  In  con- 
sideration of  these  obstacles,  his  next  attempt  was  made  through  Hudson's  Buy,  by  the  yet 
imperfectly  explored  channel  of  the  Welcome.  Struggling  througli  various  obstacles,  ho 
readied  at  length  a  point  considerably  beyond  that  where  Middleton  ha<l  stopped,  and 
found  a  strait  opening  from  Hudson's  Bjiy  into  the  Polar  Sea.  This  strait  was,  however,  so 
norrow,  and  so  completely  blocked  with  ice,  that  there  appeared  no  room  to  hope  that  it 
would  ever  aflbrd  an  open  passage.  Capt.  Parry  was  therefore  again  sent  out  in  his  first 
direction;  but  he  made  no  material  addition  to  his  former  discoveries.  Meantime  a  land 
journey,  under  Capt.  Franklin,  following  in  the  footsteps  of  Ilearnc,  reached  the  sea,  and 
discovered  a  considerable  extent  of  the  hitherto  unknown  northern  coast  of  the  American 
continent.  A  tolerably  clear  glimpse  was  thus  obtained  of  its  extent  and  boundaries ;  and 
the  zealous  eflbrts  of  government  wero  employed  to  verify  the  whole  by  actual  survey.  A 
second  expedition  under  Capt.  Franklin  extended  this  survey  over  three-fourtlis  of  this 
boundary  coast,  and  reached  beyond  the  140th  degree  of  hmgitude.  Meantime  an  expedi- 
tion, under  Captain  Beechy,  sent  to  meet  Captain  PVanklin  from  the  westward,  passed  the 
ley  Cape  of  Cook,  and  arrived  at  neorly  150°  W.  longitude ;  between  which  point  and 
Captain  Franklin's  farthest  limit  there  intervene<l  only  7°,  or  150  miles. 

The  belief  was  hence  entertained,  that  the  whole  coast  extended  in  a  line  not  vanring 
much  from  the  70th  degree  of  latitude ;  but  tlic  important  expedition  which  Captain  Rosa 
has  just  achieved  through  so  many  difliculties,  proves  the  existence  of  a  large  peninsula, 
extending  as  far  north  as  74°  N.  latitude.  It  remains  still  probable  that  a  naval  passage 
may  exist  farther  north,  in  the  line  of  Captoin  Parry's  first  voyage.  But  the  encumbering 
ice  is  so  thick,  and  so  wedged  into  various  straits  end  channels,  that  probably  no  vessel  will 
ever  be  able  even  once  to  work  its  way  through ;  and  certainly  a  ship  could  never  set  out 
with  any  assurance  of  thus  finding  its  way  from  the  .\tlantic  into  the  Pacific.  Britain  has, 
however,  reaped  an  ample  share  of  glory  in  contributing  so  essentially  to  delineate  the 
boundaries  and  dimensions  of  this  great  and  important  continent. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

MODERN  GEOGRAPHY  OF  TIi..  AL'STRAh  SEAa  AND  ISLANDS. 

More  than  lialf  the  surface  of  the  globe,  including  long  groups  of  islands  and  vast 
expanses  of  ocean,  remained  unexplored,  even  after  regular  naval  routes  had  been  formed 
round  the  Capo  of  Good  Hope,  and  Cape  Horn;  yet  there  soon  arose  the  belief  of  an  Austral 
continent,  as  extensive  and  as  abounding  in  wealt'i  as  that  which  had  been  discovered  by 
Columbus.  An  ideal  balance  was  fancied,  which  It  was  supposed  must  exist  between  the 
lands  of  the  northern  and  those  of  tiie  Bouthcrn  hemispheres;  and  the  more  disproportionate 
tlie  extent  of  sea  which  existed  in  the  known  parts  of  the  latter,  the  greater  it  was  sup- 
posed must  be  the  mass  of  southern  continent  which  was  to  establish  this  ideal,  imaginary 

7* 


i  48 


I'JJ 


IIM 


«l 


I 


I 


rl 


i' 


V8 


HISTORY  OF  0KO<JRAl'IIY. 


Paut  I.  IkwK  III. 

bnlnnco.  In  all  the  onrly  mn|w,  n  \\\\\fn  continoiitiil  ninH*  r'ncirclp*  the  Antnrctin  tmlp,  ami 
prrHontH  to  lli<!  (jrcitt  kccuii  ii  (-iintiiiiiouN  rirciiit  of  Mliorc  ri'iicliinjr  rtmiid  the  (tIoIh):  tho 
iiIk)Vi!  iiniilo/iics  wiTc  ilmilttlcsM  iiidiMJ  liy  iliMovcrirH  iiiiulo  <m  ffrciit  irifiiilHr  Iriii'tH  of  tlio 
Simtli  Sell,  Ml  pnrtiiil  tliiit  tht>y  might  be  niiittiikcti  t(>r  |iroriioiittirinH,  or  imrtuiim  of  u  i^rcat 
niiitiH  of  Aiitarrtir  l.'iiul. 

Till'  l'orfiii,'iiL'si',  HI  l(iii;j  III"  iiioct  Mkiiriil  mill  iiifropid  niivijfntorH  of  tlip  vxTiiii,  npp<'iir  lo 
hnvc  livi'ii  tli(<  tlr^t  w  lio  threw  iiiiy  li}r|it  u|Hin  iIiIh  titUi  ami  iiiont  miioto  |xirtioii  of  iIk-  ciirth ; 
ill  Irnn  than  twi'iify  yciirs  alh'r  their  imssnift'  of  the  Capo  tlioy  hiul  riMclu'il  thr  iiiomI  oxtroinc 
iHlniKJ!)  of  thn  Orii'iitiil  Arcliipola^o,  iiicliiiliii);  Java  mid  tho  MoiiiccaH,  mid  np|H<iir  ovt'ii  to 
have  ohwrvod  mhuo  |)nrt«  of  tlip  c<Kist  r)f  Now  (iiiiiiiMi.  Tlu'rc  iiro  no  ri'vordn  of  thnir  hiiving 
priK'podpd  tiirtlior;  but  iimpM  huvc  boon  liinnd  in  tlio  DritiHli  Miixoiiin,  niid  other  collections, 
which  rxliiliit  iiii  cxtcnHivi!  iiiiid  to  thu  niuth  of  Javn,  under  tho  titio  of  bivii  Major,  on 
wliicli  occur  n  number  of  iiniin>H,  wmie  of  them  I'ortuKUCHO :  ono  of  these  iimpn,  iHirtly 
translated  into  French,  has  the  "  VttU'.  dv»  llrrlM^rii"  a.  iiaino  somewliiit  curioiiHly  coinciiU 
ing  with  Botany  lluy.  Noiio  of  these  discoverien,  however,  liavo  been  uinUiiiied  in  any 
known  narration. 

The  SiMiiiiardu  also,  durinfj  their  early  and  advnnturoiiH  career,  made  streniiouH  cfl'orln  to 
explore  Uio  soitlhern  snaM:  Majrcllan,  u.s  already  observed,  by  hiH  firnt  circumnaviiration  of 
the  (flobe,  ett'ected  a  grand  utep  in  );eo(;rapliicul  dincovery.  Alvaro  Mcndanii,  in  iriflH, 
Bailed  iVum  Lima,  and,  allcr  croxHinfr  tiio  breadth  of  thu  I'aciHc,  iliHCovercd  a  j;roup  of  larffc 
maritime  landfi,  to  which,  fVom  a  chiinnrical  rcfercnco  to  Ophir,  he  save  the  name  of 
"  Islands  of  Solomon  :"  they  appear  to  bo  part  of  that  great  Rroiip  which  Ibrnw  tho  outer 
range  of  AustraiaMia.  Mendana  Het  out  on  a  Bocond  voyage,  and  reachetl  tho  wimo  quarter, 
but,  by  Koniu  liitulity,  could  not  again  find  the  inlandn  tbrmcrly  discovered.  Qiiiroa  made  a 
btill  more  important  expedition  ;  ho  pawed  through  tho  l>(dynciiimi  group ;  and  Sagittaria, 
one  of  tho  islanda  dincovcred  by  him,  appearn  clearly  identiticd  with  Otaheito  ;  ho  ter- 
minated hin  Voyage,  like  Mendana,  among  the  exterior  ialandB  of  AustralaBia ;  and  with 
him  expired  the  spirit  of  Spanish  cntcrpriMe. 

Tlio  Dutch,  when  tliey  had  expelled  the  I'ortuguoHC  from  Java  and  tlie  Spice  Ivlandp,  and 
hul  established  in  them  the  centre  of  their  Indian  dominion,  were  placed  in  such  clocie 
proximity  with  New  Ilidlnnd,  that  it  was  scarcely  |)oHsihlo  tor  a  great  maritime  nation  to 
avoid  extending  their  search  to  that  region.  Van  Dienien,  the  Dutch  governor  of  India 
about  tho  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  greatly  promoted  this  object,  and  sent  succesaive 
vessels  to  explore  the  coast  of  New  Holland,  llertog,  ('arpenter,  Nuytz,  and  Ulaming 
niaile  very  extensive  obscrvationB  on  tiio  northern  and  western  shores,  but  found  them  so 
dreary  and  unpromising,  that  no  settlement  of  any  description  was  over  attempted.  Abel 
Tasman,  however,  went  b<'yoiid  his  predecessors;  he  ri^ached  the  southern  extremity  of  this 
great  mass  of  land,  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  Van  Diemen,  without  discovering  it  to  be 
an  island :  he  then  sailed  across,  surveyed  tho  western  coast  of  New  /calaiid,  and  returned 
home  by  the  Friendly  Islands.  This  important  range  of  discovery  was  not  followed  up ;  it 
reftited,  however,  tho  delineation  by  which  New  Holland  had  been  made  part  of  the  imagined 
Austral  continent.  In  the  newly  arranged  charts,  that  continent  still  remained,  but  with 
its  position  shifted  farther  to  the  south,  and  New  Zealand  probably  contributing  to  form  part 
of  Its  fancied  outline. 

The  English  nation,  by  the  voyages  of  several  navigators,  and  particularly  of  Cook,  secured 
the  glory  of  fully  explormg  the  depths  of  the  great  Pacific.  The  previous  voyages  of  Byron, 
Wallis,  and  Carteret  had  already  mode  known  some  of  the  interesting  groups  of  islands 
with  which  its  vast  surface  is  studded.  Cook  fully  traced  the  great  chains  of  the  Society 
Islands,  and  of  the  Friendly  Islands ;  he  discovered  and  surveyed  tho  eastern  coasts  of  New 
Holland  and  Van  Diemen's  Ijund.  He  settled  the  form  and  relations  of  New  Zealand,  New 
Caledonia,  and  the  otlier  great  Australasian  lands  and  islands.  This  side  he  passed  thrice  the 
Antarctic  circle,  and  ranging  along  the  yet  unvisite<l  bonlers  of  tho  southern  polo,  solved,  by 
refuting,  the  famous  modern  hypotiicsis  of  an  Austral  continent.  Ho  navigated  also  through 
the  northern  Pacific,  observed  carefully  the  group  of  the  Sandwich  Islands,  and  establishe<l, 
in  the  mamicr  before  pointed  out,  the  relation  between  the  continents  of  Asia  and  America. 
Many  eminent  navigators,  among  the  French,  1-a  Perouse,  Marchand,  D'Entrecasteaux ; 
among  the  Russians,  Kotzebue  and  Krusenstern ;  among  the  English,  Vancouver  and  Beechey, 
followed ;  and,  though  the  grand  prizes  of  discovery  had  been  carried  ofT,  found  still  some 
gleanings  in  so  vast  a  field.  The  circumnavigation  of  tho  globe  has  ended  in  becoming  a 
mere  trailing  voyage,  which  conveys  neither  name  nor  glory  to  him  by  whom  it  is  nchioved. 
Captain  Wcddell,  however,  has  lately,  in  New  South  Shetland,  finind  a  tract  of  land  situated 
nearer  to  the  Antarctic  pole  than  any  previously  supposed  to  exist 

New  Holland,  much  the  most  extensive  of  the  lands  belonging  to  tho  southern  hemisphere, 
and  rendered  doubly  interesting  by  its  recent  relations  with  Europe,  has  formed  the  theatre 
of  late  southern  discoveries.  Bass,  in  an  open  boat,  found  tlie  strait  which  bears  his 
name,  separating  New  Holland  from  Van  Diemen's  land,  and  making  the  latter  a  separate 
island.     Baudin  and  Flinders,  cunteni(X)raneou8ly  employed  by  the  French  and  Englisl 


III. 


c,  secured 
I  of  Byron, 
jf  islands 
Society 
of  Ni'W 
ind,  New 
khrice  the 
)lved,  by 
throiijjii 
:jiblislip<l, 
lAmorica. 
^nsteaux ; 
iBeechoy, 
kill  Bome 
|comin<;  n 
ncliieved, 
|l  situated 

fiisphcre, 

theatre 

cars  his 

I  separate 

Englisl 


Past  IT. 


PRINCIPLES  OP  GKOWRAPIIY. 


I 


nntioiiN,  innde  a  cnntinunuN  Murvey  of  tlio  vnnt  circuit  of  itn  coiwtii,  which  had  Ih-ch  Ixiforc 
ti>uuh)!il  only  nt  piirtiiil  \Mnt».  At  a  lutiT  poriud,  Frcyciiu't  iiiiulo  hoiiid  ndditioiiiil  i)l»«>rva- 
tionii;  and  kiin{  Ibuiid  hIUI  u  xroiit  cxtriil  of  north  Mn<I  norlh-wcHli'rn  cihimI  to  Hiirvry  fur  the 
Hrnt  tiiiie,  .More  recently,  the  dincovery  of  8wan  River  and  itit  HJiores  pnuniHi'M  to  redeem 
the  ri'proucli  of  »torility  which  had  been  uttttched  to  the  whole  wcHtern  I'miHt  of  lliJM  conti- 
nent ;  the  interior  on  the  eaMern  side  aU),  thouKh  .xuardtui  by  Hteep  and  loOy  barrierH,  hiin 
b<'en  penetrated  to  a  considerable  depth,  and  found  to  contain  extiMmive  pliiinH  traverM'd  by 
lar(;e  rivern.  Htill  the  explored  traut«  form  only  a  uniuU  pro|iurliuii  of  litu  viut  nurfacu  ul' 
thin  louthcrn  continent. 


PART  II. 
PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 

Amono  the  various  branches  of  human  knowlodiro  there  is  so  intimnto  a  connexion,  that 
no  science  can  bo  truly  said  to  be  independent  of  all  others.  Some,  indee<l,  may  bo  re^^ardcd 
as  primary,  because,  to  a  certain  extent,  they  have  had  an  independent  existence,  and  be- 
cause other  sciences  have  sprunfr  from  them.  Huch,  for  example,  are  arithmetic  and 
geometry,  the  prolific  parents  of  oil  the  branches  of  modern  mathcmaticH.  Other  sciences, 
again,  are  connecte<l  by  collateral  relationship,  in  respect  of  their  aflbrding  mutual  aid :  and 
in  this  manner  all  the  branches  of  human  knowledge  depend  one  on  another,  each  repaying 
the  advantages  which  it  has  received. 

The  subject  of  this  treatise,  (JEOoRAPinr,  which  in  common  with  other  sciences  owes  its 
origin  tt)  the  wants  of  man,  joined  with  his  inherent  desire  of  knowledge,  has  arrived  at  its 
present  state  of  improvement  by  the  aid  of  several  sciences,  and  of  a  very  great  number  of 
the  arts  which  are  the  fruit  ot  human  ingenuity.  It  is  more  particularly  indebted  to  the 
mathematical  sciences,  either  directly,  as  Aimishing  rules  and  methods  by  which  the  mog- 
nitude  of  the  earth,  its  figure,  and  the  position  of  the  different  parts  of  it.s  surface,  moy  be 
determined ;  or  indirectly,  inasmuch  as  it  has  been  improved  by  astronomy,  navigation,  and 
other  sciences  which  owe  their  perfection  to  the  matnematics.  To  tlie  arts  it.s  obligations 
are  innumerable :  for  every  step  of  progress  which  has  been  mailo  in  the  construction  and 
management  of  ships,  in  the  fabrication  of  mathematical,  optical,  and  nautical  instruments, 
and  in  the  collateral  arts  on  which  those  depend,  has  contributed  to  the  advancement  of 
geographical  knowledge. 

The  doctrines  of  geography  strongly  support,  and  have  a  close  affinity  with,  those  of 
astronomy.  It  is  only  by  the  application  of  this  latter  science  that  we  have  been  able  to 
discover  the  true  figure  of  the  earth,  and  its  magnitude :  and  some  of  the  most  important 
divisions  of  the  earth's  surface  are  marked  out  by  astronomical  phenomena.  On  tlie  other 
hand,  an  exact  knowledge  of  the  figure  and  magnitude  of  the  earth  is  of  the  highest  import- 
ance in  th A  explication  of  the  more  recondite  doctrines  of  astronomy.  Hence,  while  the 
doctrines  of  astronomy  involve  the  principles  of  geography,  it  holds  equally  true  that  the 
principles  of  geography  can  only  bo  understood  by  a  due  application  of  some  of  tho  more 
simple  theories  of  astronomy. 

The  science  of  geology  has,  if  possible,  a  still  more  intimate  connexion  with  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  earth.  While  astronomy  delineates  the  form  and  movements  of  that  planet,  and 
its  relation  to  otlier  bodies  in  the  universe,  geology  describes  the  materials  which  compose 
its  surface,  and  the  order  in  which  they  are  arranged,  with  the  composition  and  phenomena 
of  the  surrounding  atmosphere.  The  various  inequalities  into  which  it  is  formed,  the  Aif>- 
tinction  of  land  and  sea,  with  their  origin  and  effects,  come  all  within  the  sphere  of  this 
important  science. 

The  organized  and  living  beings  which  cover  the  surface  of  our  planet,  form  a  most  in- 
teresting feature  in  its  delineation.  For  the  support  and  nourishment  of  these,  tho  whole 
of  its  vast  structure  was  originally  destined.  In  taking  a  survey  of  this  interesting  range 
of  objects,  we  may  begin  with  plants ;  then  ascend  to  animals ;  and,  lastly,  to  man,  who 
holds  tlio  chief  rank  in  the  constitution  of  this  lower  world. 

Three  divisions,  comprehending  each  a  separate  book,  will,  on  the  grounds  now  stated. 
comprehend  the  Principles  of  Geography :  these  are — I.  Astronomical  Principles.     II.  Geo- 
logical principles.    III.  Geography  considered  in  relation  to  the  organized  living  and  rationa  , 
natures  which  cover  the  surmce  of  the  earth. 


.ii:] 


I 


ij 


II 

lA: 


f^m 


>• 


s 


'\  ^:4^- 


80 


PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


PabtII. 


BOOK    I. 

ASTRONOMICAL    PRINCIPLES. 


CHAPTER  I, 

GENERAL  VIEW  OF  THE  PHENOMENA  OF  THE  HEAVENS,  APPARENT  MOTIONS,  FIXED 

8TAR3,  PLANETS,  ic. 

The  succession  of  day  and  niglit  brings  under  our  observation  the  sun,  the  moon,  and  an 
innumerable  multitude  of  luminous  bodies,  which  appear  like  points  on  the  concave  surface 
of  the  heavens.  Of  these  the  sun  and  the  moon  are  tlie  most  remarkable.  The  sui  at  all 
times  presents  to  us  a  circular  disc :  the  disc  of  the  noon  is  also  at  certain  periods  circular, 
but  she  undergoes  a  succession  of  changes  in  the  appearances  of  her  luminous  part,  which 
are  denominated  phases.  With  regard  to  the  distances  of  the  sun  and  moon  from  tliis  earth, 
we  are  certain  that  they  are  very  remote ;  for  we  observe  that  their  apparent  magnitude  is 
not  sensibly  affected  by  any  change  in  our  l(>cal  position.  We  may  with  probability  suppose 
the  star?  to  be  bodies  of  the  same  nature  witl»  tlie  sun  and  moon,  appearing  smaller  only 
because  they  are  at  a  greater  distance. 

The  apparent  motion  of  the  heavens  from  east  to  west  about  a  fixed  point  in  the  nv^rthern 
quarter  of  the  sky,  as  seen  in  thi:i  country,  is  a  phenomenon  quite  familiar  to  every  one.  Tf 
we  change  our  position  on  the  earth  by  going  always  south,  this  fixed  point  appears  to  de- 
scend, and  at  last  it  sinks  below  the  horizon :  but  we  now  perceive  that  there  is  another 
fixed  point  in  the  southern  region  of  the  heavens,  exactly  opposite  to  the  former,  about 
whicii  tlie  diurnal  motion  is  also  in  like  manner  performed.  These  two  points  are  the  north 
and  SOUTH,  or  the  arctio  and  antarctic  poles  of  the  heavens. 

From  wliat  we  see  on  the  earth's  surface,  we  learn  by  experience  that  the  real  and  ap- 
parent motions  of  bodies  may  he  very  different.  An  observer  in  a  vessel  carried  along  by 
tlie  current  of  a  river,  will  feel  disposed  to  believe  himself  at  rest;  and  then,  if  he  were  to 
judge  from  appearances,  he  would  suppose  that  trees  and  fixed  objects  on  the  banks  were 
in  motion,  because  of  the  apparent  change  in  their  relative  positions.  Hence  we  may  infer, 
that  we  cannot  judge  immediately  respecting  the  absolute  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies 
from  tlieir  apparent  motions.  It  has  only  been  by  a  series  of  nice  observations,  and  the  appli- 
cation of  the  doctrines  of  mathematics,  that  the  former  have  with  absolute  certainty  been 
deduced  from  the  latter. 

The  general  plienoniena  of  the  apparent  motions  have,  however,  been  discovered  by  the 
ordinary  observation  of  mankind  from  the  remotest  ages.  To  a  spectator  in  any  place  of 
the  earth,  tlie  whole  system  of  the  celestial  bodies  appears  as  if  placed  on  the  surfiice  of  a 
concave  sphere,  the  centre  of  wliich  is  the  place  where  ho  stands ;  and  this  sphere  appears 
to  revolve  daily  on  an  ideal  line  whicli  passes  through  the  poles  of  the  heavens,  and  is  called 
the  AXIS  of  the  world.  Although  tlie  supposition  tliat  the  celestial  bodies  are  all  situated  in 
the  surface  of  a  sphere,  of  which  the  eye  is  the  centre,  be  perfectly  consiste]||  with  the 
appearance  of  the  heavens,  it  is  easy  to  understand  that  tiiis  may  be  a  consequence  of  their 
immense  distances.  To  an  observer  standing  on  an  extensive  plain,  objects  very  remote 
around  hiin,  though  at  unequal  distances,  would  appear  in  the  circumference  of  a  circle 
having  his  eye  in  the  centre. 

Besides  the  diurnal  motion  of  tlie  heavenly  bodies,  which  is  common  to  them  all,  we  dis- 
cover that  some  of  them  have  peculiar  motions  by  which  they  chanffe  their  apparent  places 
in  respect  of  one  another.  Thus  we  see  the  moon  in  the  course  of^  about  a  montli  describe 
a  circle  quite  round  the  heavens  from  west  to  east.  The  sun  also  appears  to  cfiange  his 
position  daily,  and  to  go  round  the  heavens  from  west  to  east  in  a  year.  It  is  in  consequence 
of  this  peculiar  motion  of  the  sun,  that  we  find  diflbrent  stars  at  different  seasons  of  the 
year  set  immediately  after  him,  or  rise  immediately  before  him;  and  that  the  appearance  of 
the  heavens  through  the  course  of  the  year  is  continually  changing. 

From  the  remotest  antiquity  ^'ve  stArs  hail  been  observixl  to  change  their  position  ;  and  in 
modem  times  five  others  have  been  discovered.  These  "  wandering  stars  "  have  bee.i  appro- 
priately denominated  planets  ;  and,  generally  speaking,  they  can  be  seen  at  all  times,  except 
when  their  feeble  light  is  rendered  insensible  by  the  effulgence  of  the  sun.  The  planets 
have  received  particular  names,  and  are  distinguished  by  iwrticular  characters;  these  are 
Mercury  ?,  Venus  ?,  Mars  X,  Vesta  g,  Juno  *,  Ceres  ?,  Pallas  ■$,  Jupiter  U,  Saturn  ';, 
Uranus  'i*. 

Tliprc  are  otlir r  luminous  IkxHps  having  a  proper  motion,  which  arc  seen  flir  a  short  time 
and  atlerwiirds  disippoar.  Their  existence,  iiowover,  is  permanent.  They  are  distinguished 
from  tlip  phincts  iiy  their  being  visible  only  for  a  siiort  peritK],  and  also  by  a  train  of  light 
proceeding  from  tliem  on  one  side,  fiirming  a  iiiil ;  tlicso  bodies  are  called  comets.  Tliei* 
number  is  not  known,  but  it  appears  to  be  very  considerable. 


fS 


„i:.i 


r* 


Book  I. 


»!.„„ .>  i'""iti8,  and  comfita  fho, .. 


All  the  heavenlv  bodip,  u,i,i  i,  .l-  afterwards  find  fuJlv 

science  in  investigatin"  he  r^i  ? ',  ""''  ''3'  employinff  all  tho' r^  "■'"='"S^  ""''  measunW 

CHAPTER  II. 
From  the  mscovJyZ"het^T  ""'  '^"^  '"'"°"''"  "^"^  tklescope 

est  are  reckoned  to  be  of  th;  fi'  .'"  P™.'^>Ph  arriinged  under svl'"-     ,^^°  ^^rs  visible 
to  the  sixt!,  marrnitude     T?       '  "'«8'"tu<Io,  the  next  in  hrlh     '""^«'""^e^«     The  briZ 

combining  tlH,.priS;t  of  J  LCsr"""'''"''"^  "^  '"'«  Sr  "ha  t  "f^tm  r  ^f^'^"'''  "^"d  ^on 
In  maps  of  the  heavens  and  op  .T"?'!""^^  ""ingeinent  with^  .  "I"!'"''  ftcilitated  by 
'n  each  constellation  are  t"ke,f>  ^^■"^''  ^'"^  constellatb  "  ,  f  ,,'"r''^°1°^"''«'e]lations. 
de^ees  of  bri„.htness.  ''''"'^^'^  "'"'  '"«  letters  of  the  Si  ^^1^'"'''^"''  "'«  «^-^rs 
rhe  use  of  the  telescope  has  ^m...    ■  '^        according  to  their 

fund    when  obse^ed'^,^;„,,fe«^the  .tars  wlSchJ'un   da"  vS''"^  ^'^^^  'hLfa^e' 

»"   iple  stars  ^-ere  observed  bv  Sir  Un-'"''^  ??="•  ^  "nS  another      SpJn  ^u  ""T'^^  °^  two. 

'V  t'lejonit  lalwurs  of  his  son  an^'L-^^i""^"!  Hcrechcl,  and  the  n,>mh  T  ^T^'""^  °^  t''e«e 
/n  some  of  then,  the  smafl  Xrs  1  .Ti.r""'^'*  ^'°""''  "'^o  S  e  &;;  ^^  '«^''"  "'"onsed 
Thus  a  Herculis  is  doub  e  ^  '  ,  different  m  bri.W,tness  an  1  in  n  ^^tronomer  Struvo 
'•omposed  of  four  stars  thro'n  ''f  '"Sfer  of  the  stars  i"  roc  ,n  "'°,f°'°"'-  "f  tl.eir  li,r  ,t' 
""•^qnal,  the  lar<.,"t  a  Si?  "■' ""''  ""^  red:  y  AmSo  n  '" '"'  '''"''•  '  ^-yrnV^ 
^'n?le  stars  evid<fn  Iv  ,^lff         ',  '''"''■'  t'^e  «'"alle.t  a  'k.Ti     "   "'.'"■'■^'^  "*'  t"<'  stars  verv 


'A 


ri 


>^ii 


a2 


PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  II, 


blended  together  produces  tlie  luminous  appearance.  In  a  portion  of  the  Galaxy,  about 
filleen  degrees  in  lengtii,  and  two  in  breadth,  Dr.  Herschcl  found  no  fewer  tlian  fitly  thousand 
stars  large  enough  to  be  distinctly  counted.  The  number  of  nebulce  is  very  considerable. 
Herschol  discovered  two  thousand  ;  before  his  time  only  one  hundred  and  three  wore  known. 

Continued  observation  has  shown  that  the  fixed  stars  are  not  altoffether  exempt  from 
iJutnge.  Several  stars  mentioned  by  the  ancient  astronomers  are  no  longer  visible,  while 
."omn  are  now  seen  by  the  naked  eye  which  are  not  in  the  ancient  catalogues.  Some  stars 
hiive  f\i(ldi'nly  appeared,  and  atler  having  been  seen  for  a  short  time  have  ceased  to  be  visi- 
ble. In  1575  a  new  star  appeared  in  Cassiopeia's  Chair ;  and  in  1604  another  appeared  in 
Sprpent;irius.  These  stJirs  did  not  change  their  places :  but  having  gradually  increased  in 
brilliancy,  until  they  exceeded  Venus  or  Jupiter  in  brightness,  and  were  even  seen  in  the 
(luy-tinie,  they  diminished  in  the  same  gradual  manner,  and  in  a  few  months  entirely  disap- 
pt'urod.  Sonic  stars  are  observed  to  have  periodical  changes  of  brightness.  Of  this  descrip- 
tion is  Algol,  or|3  Persei:  when  brightest  it  is  of  the  second,  and  when  least  bright  of- the 
♦burth  magnitude.  It  goes  tlirough  all  its  changes  of  lustre  in  four  dayf^,  twenty-one  hours. 
Other  stars  like (3  in  the  Whale,  have  gradually  increased  in  brilliancy;  or,  like  6  in  the 
Great  Bear,  have  continually  diminished  in  brightness. 

The  fixed  stars,  when  viewed  tlirough  the  telescope,  appear  like  luminous  points  on  the 
concave  surlace  of  the  heavens  ;  but  tlie  planets  are  found  to  exhibit  the  appearance  of  discs 
of  greater  or  less  diameter.  Mercury  and  Venus  accompany  the  sun,  appearing  at  one  time 
on  the  east,  and  at  another  time  on  tlie  west  of  that  luminary,  and  never  receding  from  him 
beyond  a  certain  distance.  Tiio  other  planets  recede  from  the  sun  to  all  nossiblo  angular 
distances.  Connected  with  tiiis  circumstance  i.s  a  distinction  which  it  is  i.o<,iul  to  make  of 
inferior  planets  and  superior  planets  ;  the  Ibriner  appellation  being  applied  to  Mercury  and 
Venus,  and  the  latter  to  the  remaining  planets. 

Mercury  and  Venus,  as  they  o.<cillate  about  the  sun,  exhibit  all  the  phases  of  the  moon. 
From  liaving  the  a])pearancc  of  a  crescent,  they  gradually  assume  that  of  tlie  lialf-moon. 
The  illuminated  part  of  the  disc  increasing,  they  become  gibbous,  and  at  last  present  a  com- 
plete circular  disc,  like  the  full  moon.  From  this  state  of  illumination  they  again  pass 
through  the  same  appearances  in  an  inverted  cmlor,  until  they  disappear  altogether.  Some- 
times these  planets  are  seen  like  black  sixjls  in  tlio  sun;  tlav  appearances  urc  called  tran- 
sits of  the  planets  over  the  sun's  disc.  They  are  rare,  but  \v!ien  observed,  particularly  the 
transit  of  Venus,  they  give  the  best  means  of  determining  the  .niagnitudc  of  the  solar  system. 
In  all  the  phases  of  Mercury  and  Venus  the  convexity  of  the  illuminated  portion  of  the  disc 
is  turned  towards  the  sun. 

The  discs  of  the  otlier  planets  are  always  nearly  circular.  Mars,  however,  in  certain  posi- 
titms  with  regard  to  t!ie  sun,  asi-iimes  a  gibbtjus  appearance  ;  but  he  never  becomes  cornicu- 
lar  like  Venus.  He  has  no  satellite.  As  viewed  from  t)ie  earth,  he  is  known  by  his  red 
and  fiery  appearance.  Dr.  llerschel  observed  that  the  polar  regions  of  Mars,  after  having 
been  turned  from  the  sun,  appeared  brighter  than  the  rest  of  the  planetary  disc ;  just  as  if 
these  regions  had  in  the  absence  of  the  sun's  heat  been  covered  with  snow. 

Certain  .spots  appear  on  the  di.'^cs  of  the  sun  and  th(;  four  planets  Venus,  Mars,  Jupiter,  and 
Saturn,  wiien  they  are  viewed  through  the  telescope,  and  are  distinguished  from  other  parts 
of  the  discs  by  the  colour  or  intensity  of  their  light.  Similar  spots  are  seen  on  fliii  moon 
with  the  naked  eye.  Jupiter  has  also  his  disc  marked  with  several  parallel  belts  or  stripes, 
which  stretch  across  it.  They  are  subject  to  considerable  variation  with  regard  to  number, 
brcadtii,  and  dist^ince  from  each  other.  Mercury  is  too  much  immorsed  in  tlie  solar  rays; 
Vesta,  Ceres,  Juno,  and  I'aD'is,  are  too  small ;  and  Uranus  is  too  distant  to  allow  points  of 
unequal  brilliaiiry  to  be  observed  on  their  surt'ace.  The  spots  uixin  the  sun  are  very  varia- 
able  in  their  miiiil)er,  position,  and  magnitude.  Often  they  are  numerous,  and  of  great  exten'. 
Each  of  them,  in  general,  consists  of  a  dark  .space,  or  iiinhra,  surrounded  by  a  pennmlirn, 
or  fiiintcr  shade,  beyond  which  is  a  border  of  light  more  brilliant  tiian  the  re.st  of  the  sun's 
di.-T.  Somotiiiie.-i,  thoujrli  seldom,  the  sun  has  been  without  .spots  for  several  yt;ars;  this  was 
the  case  from  1(570  to  lOS-'l.  Tlio  dark  nucleus  of  tiie  spot  is  seen  to  form  and  disappear 
;iiiiidst  the  greatiT  brilliancy  that  siirround.s  it.  .After  the  nucleus  ceases  to  be  soen,  the 
umbra  eontinues  visible  fir  some  time  :  the  place  where  it  at  length  disappears  becomes 
like  Iho  other  parts  of  the  .solar  surface,  unless  it  be  succeeded,  which  is  sometimes  the  case, 
by  a  luminous  spot.  Umbra;  of  great  extent  have,  with  few  exceptions,  a  nucleus  in  their 
iTiitre  ;  but  smiill  uinbnn  arc  oftnn  seen  witlioiit  it. 

Tlio  sdliir  .spots  are  never  stationary,  but  are  seen  to  move  slowly  over  the  sun's  disc  fron< 
en'f  to  west.  Tlirir  p;itli.s  across  tlie  di.-c,  when  iiccurntely  traced,  are  finiud  to  be  rectili 
tiral  in  the  beginning  of  June,  an<l  in  the  beginning  of  Decnuibcr;  but  in  the  intermediatt 
sea.sons  they  an;  Ibuiid  to  be  elliptic.  Hctweeu  Juiic>  anil  December  the  convexity  of  the 
path  is  towards  tlio  upper  part  of  the  disc,  and  between  December  and  June  it  is' towards 
t.'ie  lower  part. 

The  planet  Jupiter,  when  viewed  through  the  telescope,  appears  to  be  attended  by  four 
email  stars,  ranged  nearly  in  a  i^tniiglit  line,  which  are  seen  sometinie.s  on  the  same  side, 


iter,  and 
or  parts 
moon 
stripes, 
lumber, 
ir  rays ; 
lints  of 
variii- 
cxten^. 
umhra, 
sun's 
us  was 
ippear 
in,  the 
[comes 
case, 
their 

fron> 
potih 
hiliatt 
If  tiie 
Ivanls 

fo\ir 
I  side, 


Book  I. 


FIGURE  AND  MAGNITUDE  OF  THE  EARTH. 


83 


and  at  other  tiiK  s  on  opposite  sides  of  the  planet.  These  small  stars  occasionally  poaii 
between  us  and  Jupiter,  and  then  they  are  tbund  to  project  shadows  wliich  are  seen  to  tra- 
verse iiis  disc.  On  tile  other  hand,  they  are  often  immersed  in  the  shadow  of  Jupiter,  and 
exhibit  tiic  phenomenon  called  an  eclipse.  The  planets  Saturn  and  Uranus  are  also  simi- 
larly attended,  the  former  by  seven,  and  the  latter  by  six,  little  stars.  These  accompanying 
stars  are  calh^d  satellites,  and  also  secondary  planets,  in  contradistinction  to  the  others, 
which  are  called  primary. 

Saturn  is  distinguished  from  all  the  othc"  planets,  in  being  surrounded  by  a  circular  ring 
concentric  with  itself.  When  first  exan  ined  by  the  telescope,  this  planet  was  almost 
always  seen  between  two  small  luminous  bodies  of  an  irregular  form,  which  seemed  to  be 
attaclied  to  it,  and  which,  as  they  suggested  the  idea  of  handles,  were  denominated  ans<e. 
Sometimes  tlio  ansa)  disappeared,  and  then  Saturn  appeared  round  like  the  other  planets. 
By  tracing  witli  care  these  singular  appearances,  and  combining  them  with  the  positions  of 
Satuvu  relatively  to  tlie  sun  and  the  earth,  Huygens  at  last  discovered  that  they  are  pro- 
duced by  a  ring  which  encompasses  the  body  of  the  planet,  and  which  is  everywhere  sepa- 
rated from  it.  Being  seen  obliquely,  the  rmg  appears  of  an  oval  or  elliptic  form.  Before 
the  time  of  Herschel  the  ring  of  Saturn  was  supposed  to  be  single ;  but  this  distinguislieo 
astronomer  discovered  that  it  is  double :  so  that  two  rings  concentric,  and  in  the  same  plane, 
constitute  what  was  formerly  supposed  to  be  a  single  ririg.  The  ring,  which  is  very  thin,  is 
inclined  to  tlie  plane  of  the  ecliptic.  It  revolves  from  west  to  east  in  lO""  39'  54".  Its 
breadth  is  nearly  equal  to  its  distance  from  Saturn ;  that  is,  about  one  third  of  the  diameter 
of  the  planet.  The  interval  between  the  rings  is  very  little ;  yet  Dr.  Herschel  saw  a  star 
through  it.     The  inner  ring  is  somewhat  broader  than  the  outer. 


CHAPTER  III. 

APPROXIMATION  TO  THE  FIGURE  AND  MAGNITUDE  OP  THE  EARTH. 

The  true  figure  and  e.xact  magnitude  of  the  earth  are  elements  of  the  highest  importance 
in  geography.  Their  determination,  however,  has  required  the  aid  of  astronomy  in  its  most 
improved  state ;  yet  it  is  necessary,  to-  the  explanation  of  the  general  doctrines  of  astronomy, 
that  we  should,  in  the  outset,  know  nearly  its  figure  and  magnitude :  wo  shall  afterwards 
explain  by  what  means  the  first  conceptions  have  been  corrected,  and  its  true  figure  and 
magnitude  found.  Having  now  pointed  out,  generally,  the  phenomena  of  the  heavens — 
taking  into  view  the  more  remarkable  discoveries  made  by  aid  of  tlie  telescope — we  are  next 
to  consider  the  causes  and  mutual  dependence  of  these  phenomena.  The  first  step  towards 
obtaining  an  explication  of  the  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  is  to  form  some  notion  of  tlie 
figure  and  magnitude  of  the  earth  which  we  iniiabit,  and  from  which  all  the  celestial  phe- 
nomena are  observed.  To  a  person  placed  in  an  elevated  situation  in  an  open  country, 
where  the  view  is  unconfined  on  all  sides,  tiic  earth  appears  an  extended  plane,  with  the 
concave  sphere  of  the  heavens  resting  upon  it, — the  horizon  being  the  common  boundary. 
This  appearance  is,  however,  altogether  illusory. 

The  earth  is  a  round  body,  and  is  isolated  in  space.  This  is  sufBcicntly  established  by 
the  following  facts : — 

1.  To  an  observer  who  travels  from  north  to  south  the  nocturnal  heavens  appear  conti 
nually  to  change  their  a.spect.  The  stars,  indeed,  retain  the  same  relative  position  in 
respect  of  each  otiier,  and  the  points  on  which  the  heavens  appear  to  revolve  remain 
unchanged  ;  but  the  angle,  wliich  the  axis  of  their  motion  forms  with  the  horizon,  continually 
decreases ;  so  that  stars  which,  at  the  place  from  which  he  set  out,  appeared  to  roach  their 
greatest  elevation  to  the  south  of  the  point  directly  over  his  head,  now  that  he  has  changed 
his  position,  appear,  when  iiigliest,  on  the  north  of  that  point.  This  clearly  indicates  that 
his  path  oh  the  earth's  surfiice  has  not  been  a  straight  lino,  but  a  curve  of  which  the  con- 
vexity is  turned  towards  the  sky. 

2.  The  convexity  of  the  earth  is  quite  apparent  to  a  spectator  in  a  ship  receding  from  tin; 
shore.  At  first  low  objects  disappear ;  then  those  more  elevated;  and  at  la.'^t  the  highest 
points  of  the  land  sink  in  the  horizon,  on  account  of  the  direct  visual  ray  being  broken  by 
the  interposed  curved  surface  of  the  ocean.  In  like  manner,  when  two  ships  approach  each 
other,  the  navigators  in  each  see  at  first  the  upper  part  of  the  rigging  of  the  otiier  vessel, 
the  hull  being  still  invisible:  as  the  di.sUinco  becomes  less  the  body  of  each  vessel  conies 
gradually  into  view.  The  reverse  happens  if  the  distance  botwocii  the  vessels  is  incrcasiiiL'. 
From  these  appearances  it  is  evident,  that  a  straight  lino  joining  any  two  points  of  tin' 
eorth's  surfaces  paa.ses  within  the  IkkIv  of  the  earth. 

3.  That  the  horizon  of  the  sea,  which,  to  the  eye,  terminates  its  surface,  is  only  an  appa- 
rent limit  in  reference  to  the  position  of  the  observer,  is  evident  from  the  fact,  that  if  we 
•idvance  towards  it  we  find  it  recede ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  we  still  imagine  ourselves 
placed  in  the  centre  of  nn  extended  plane,  bounded  by  the  line  in  which  the  heavens  and 


lU 


\4 


.fi' 


1*^-^ 


64 


PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  II. 


eartn  appear  to  meet.  This  is  what  tlic  navigator  uniformly  experiences ;  wliilc,  to  an 
observer  on  the  shore,  his  vessel  appears  to  sink  below  the  horizon  ;  and  by  continuing  to 
sail  in  the  same  direction,  he  will  at  last  arrive  at  the  same  port  from  whi^h  he  set  out, — 
having  tiius  circumnavigated  the  earth.  This  enterprise  has,  it  is  well  kr  ■  in  numerous 
instances,  been  accomplished  by  navigators,  who  have  left  the  shores  of  F  '  ■  o  and  returned 
home,  some  by  sailing  always  towards  the  west,  and  others  by  holding  an  easterly  course. 
This  great  experiment  demonstrates  that  the  sea  and  land  have  a  curved  surface  which 
returns  into  itself,  so  that  no  part  of  it  is  touched  by  the  heavens. 

There  r.re  other  phenomena  which  prove  that  the  earth,  if  not  an  exact  sphere,  is  at  least 
nearly  of  that  figure.  The  various  appe,  ranees  of  the  moon,  in  the  course  of  her  revolution 
round  the  earth,  show  that  she  is  an  opaque  body,  and  is  visible  only  by  the  reflected  light 
of  the  sun.  The  earth  being  also  an  opaque  body,  must  project  a  shadow  in  a  direction 
opposite  to  the  sun.  It  will  atlerwaids  be  shown  that  the  moon,  when  full,  must  sometimes 
pass  through  this  shadow.  In  this  case,  when  the  moon  begins  to  penetrate,  or  is  about  to 
leave,  the  shadow,  the  greater  part  of  the  disc  is  still  illuminated  by  the  sun ;  and  it  is 
found  tliat  this  luminous  part  is  always  of  the  form  of  a  crescent,  having  its  concave  side 
bounded  by  an  arch  of  a  circle.  The  section  of  the  earth's  shadow,  shown  by  its  projection 
on  the  moon,  is,  therefore,  as  to  sense,  circular, — a  proof  that  the  earth  is  a  sphere,  or  nearly 
of  a  spherical  figure ;  whence  we  may  conclude  that  there  is  a  point  within  the  earth  which 
is  its  centre. 

That  the  earth  is  a  round  body,  is  thus  completely  proved  by  experience  and  observation  j 
yet,  when  this  doctrine  is  pre-^nted  to  the  mind  for  the  first  time,  there  is  some  difficulty 
in  believing  that  the  earth  is  balanced,  as  it  were,  on  its  centre,  without  any  visible  sup- 
port ;  while  all  things  at  rest  on  its  suriface  require  to  be  supported.  We  must,  however, 
consider  tliat  the  bodies  which  we  see  tall  towards  the  centre  of  the  earth  are  mere  atoms 
in  comparison  to  the  earth  itself;  and  that,  although  their  tendercy  to  its  centre  is  another 
fact  established  by  experience,  yet  it  does  not  thence  fijllow  that  the  earth  itself  should  move 
towards  one  point  of  space  rather  than  towards  another.  A  little  reflection  will  show  tliat 
there  is  no  inconsistency  in  supposing  the  earth,  an  immense  mass,  to  bo  at  rest,  and  all 
things  to  be  retained  on  its  surface  by  some  force  analogous  to  tliat  by  wliich  a  i)icce  of  iron 
is  drawn  towards  a  magnet.  This  is  roiilly  the  fact ;  and  a  consequence  of  it  is,  that  on 
opposite  sides  of  the  earth  its  iniiabitiints  stand  in  opjwsite  directions,  with  their  feet  towards 
each  other,  for  which  reason  they  are  called  Antipodes ;  and  every  country  has  its  own 
Antipodes. 

The  knowledge  of  the  true  figure  and  magnitude  of  the  earth  is  of  the  greatest  importance 
in  geography,  and  on  tliis  account  we  shall  treat  of  them  in  a  particular  manner.  In  the 
mean  time,  as  a  near  approximation  to  tlie  trutii,  the  earth  may  be  considered  as  differing 
but  little  from  a  sphere,  7916  miles  in  diameter,  and  consequently  nearly  24,870  miles  in 
circumference.  In  geometry,  t'ln  circumierenco  of  every  circle  is  supposed  to  be  divided 
into  360  equal  parts,  called  dogrees ;  and  each  of  these  into  fiO  equal  parts,  called  minutes, 
and  so  on.  A  degree,  therefore,  of  any  circle  on  the  eartli's  surface,  whose  centre  is  the 
same  with  that  of  tiie  earth,  \v  ill  be  rather  more  than  69  miles ;  and  a  minute  of  a  degree 
will  be  about  Ij^  mile. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

DOCTRINE    OF  T1!E   PPHERE. 

The  motions  of  the  celestial  bodies  being  in  appearance  all  performed  on  a  sphere,  of 
which  the  eye  of  the  spectator  is  the  centre;  with  a  view  to  describe  the  nature  of  these 
motions,  it  has  been  found  nxpedieni  to  suppose  cf^rtain  circles  to  1x2  traced  on  this  sphere, 
to  which,  also,  the  positions  of  the  heavenly  boiiins  in  space  are  roCerrod. 

The  distance  of  tlie  fixed  stars  is  immensely  great  in  respect  of  the  earth's  semi-diameter; 
for  it  is  found  that,  when  viewed  from  any  two  jjoints  of  tlic  earth's  surface,  they  have  the 
very  same  relative  (Xjsition.  mil  the  same  apparent  distances,  at  a  given  instant  of  time. 
Hence  it  follows,  that  the  appciiriince  of  the  heavens,  and  the  imgular  distonces  of  the  fixed 
stars,  will  be,  as  to  sense,  the  same,  whether  thoy  be  viewed  from  the  centie  of  the  earth, 
or  from  a  point  on  its  surfiice.  We  may,  therefore,  conceive  the  axis  of  the  diurnal  revo- 
lution to  pass  through  the  centre  of  the  cartli,  which  will  be  also  the  centre  of  the  celestial 
sphere. 

DEFSNITIONS. 

A  groat  circle  of  the  sphere  is  that  whoso  plane  passes  through  its  centre ;  and  all  others 
are  called  small  circles. 

A  circle  of  the  celestial  sjihere,  whose  phine  passes  through  the  earth's  centre,  and  i« 
perpendicular  to  the  axis,  is  called  the  Ecjuaiok.  TIi(>  lino  in  which  tliLs  plane  meets  tin., 
earth's  surface  is  called  the  Eiulvtor  of  the  f  irt'!,  or  the  Eiivinoctial. 


Book  I. 


flmoTnm     Jnt   -  t        . 


9U 


m 


''^  "  ''"'^™'  '«te  bo  the  centre  of  „  «< 

.--^'^^T^'^*^  onrti,    „    .  ,      '^o'ncide  with  tfwT         -^'  *""^'» 

cle,  ^/'osediamete/sEA'";  .^?'^-  thou  the  c  ! 

fho   circles  which   tfm   ..     ^',"'  "'^  £/tt«/«r 

;'""-'m    revolution   are  nn'"'"'  t''"''''^^  by  the 

'-;,    «"c|i  is  the  circle  tiCt'  '°  "'«  ^"J"'- 

,^  circle,   v.'hosp   ,>i       ^  """""etor  is  A  R 

P«l««.  is  called  the  £""  '"'««-«   through    L 

F"  the  MEHrniANof  all  tho  ni^  ""'V'''"'«  ^  call- 

t  passes.     Thus  PRp^  f  ^n""^?^''  ^^''i<''' 

jn  the  heavens.     Th/r^uJu       "meridian  circle 

«  mdefinite.  ""^  "'""ber  oC  these  circles 

iownZitgXl  IT.  P"'"'  "»^h      a  ;g«  of  water  at  ret  "^  f  'ToT'  ^^"^P'^'"^ 
the  Zenith  and  N!;"''i'^^^KTioAL,wml'r'^'=''''^P'-oduc,.l  ind'efinW  ^""^  ">  the 

semidiameter  v!k  ^'''^'"'■•*i-  Horizov   0„  ,.       *''°  "^''"r,  the  former  k  „.,'^?  '^  'I'so  called 
'^-viwn.se  of  the  hi      ""■"™  "^  «»>'  Phce  ton.h      .,  ""'  "  ^^''"  "early 

'•"^'^"n-     The  m^Wdian        ";  ''^  "'«  Proportie     '  •  T     T"''''' 
""«    '«   PornondicuT ''..'"  «'"'-.«  verti^:,  l-.'LfP'"^''*": 


are  -.A    ""'^,"' '"r  exninp 
•-  -III  porpendicnhir  tn  f ,    -  ••".-'^-  i^ircie  /.ON     ',.,  „  '■  "-v  I'lace  are  called  V..„ 

"      """'''^-^'— id,an,a„dit..,l, 


m 

'hni 

1  jpS 

/ 

l\  VM 

*) 

■'  1 

^V.if; 


« 


^  ■' 


"ifS 


36 


PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Past  a 


have  cqiml  altitudes  when  it  is  at  equal  distanuea  from  tlio  meridian ;  tliat  is,  when  ito  eastern 
and  western  azimuths  arc  equal. 

SuppciFO  a  meridian  to  pass  through  a  star,  then  the  arc  intercepted  between  tlie  star 
and  the  equator  is  called  the  Declination  of  tlie  star.  Thus  P  Hip  beinff  a  meridian  that 
passes  through  tlie  star  S,  and  meets  tlie  equator  in  K,  the  arc  S  K  is  the  declination  of  the 
star. 

If  the  meridian  circle  pass  through  the  zenith  of  any  place,  the  arc  intercepted  between 
the  zenith  and  the  equator  is  called  the  Latitude  of  that  place.  Thus  Z  being  the  zenith  of 
any  place,  and  E  K  Q  the  equator,  the  latitude  of  the  place  is  the  arc  Z  E. 

Assuming  the  meridian  circle  that  passes  through  the  zenith  of  any  particular  place  as  the 
First  Meridian,  the  arc  of  the  equator  intercepted  between  tlie  first  meridian  and  the  meri- 
dian circle  passing  through  the  zenith  of  any  other  place,  is  called  tlie  IjONoitvde  of  that 
place.  It  is  usual,  in  this  country,  to  reckon  the  longitude  of  places  from  the  meridian  circle 
that  passes  through  the  zeinUi  of  the  Observatory  at  Greenwich. 

Because  the  arcs  Z  R,  the  distance  of  the  zenith  from  the  horizon,  and  P  E,  the  distance 
of  the  pole  from  the  equator,  ore  each  one-fourth  of  the  circumference  of  a  circle  or  a 
quadrnnt,  they  are  equal,  and  consequently,  leaving  out  the  common  arc  PZ,  the  arcs  ZE 
and  P  R  are  equal.  Hence  it  appears  that  P  R,  the  distance  of  the  pole  from  the  horizon  of 
any  plnco,  cul'ed  the  elevation  or  uUitndc  of  tlie  pole,  is  equal  to  the  latitude  of  that  place. 


^   m 


CHAPTER  V. 

Uii-  '.VTIOa  0«'  the  sun,  moon,  and  planets  on  their  AXEa    THEIR  FIGURE. 

Vrou  '.!ip  liienomena  of  the  spots  which,  by  aid  of  the  telescope,  are  visible  on  his  disc, 
\\t;  urn  le('  ti-  conclude  that  tho  sun  revolves  from  west  to  cast  on  an  axis,  in  about  twenty- 
^:ve  lis  v.-  iii'l  n  li.ilf.  Though  these  spots  are  subject  to  many  variations,  they  are  suffi- 
c\f>nth  1.(1  .  wT^nt  ij  enable  us  to  discover  that  they  have  regular  motions  across  the  disc, 
exoft'3  the  .-m-ii  lui  iiust  belong  to  corresponding  points  on  the  surface  of  the  sun,  supjxaing 
him  ai'tu.illy  o  have  a  motion  of  rotation  from  west  to  east  on  an  axis  nearly  perpendicular 
to  ti,  nliiue  of  the  path  or  ordit,  which,  in  virtue  of  his  apparent  motion,  he  describes 
round  i'  heavens  in  the  course  of  a  year.  When  a  spot  is  first  discovered  on  the  eastern 
edge  of  the  disc,  it  appears  like  a  fine  line:  as  it  approaches  the  centre  of  the  disc  its 
breadth  i.icreases ;  as  it  advances  towards  the  western  edge  the  breadth  again  diminishes, 
until  the  spot  at  length  entirely  rtisanpears.  The  same  spot  is  sometimes  again  observed, 
after  fourteen  days,  on  the  ciist  side  ol  the  disc ;  but  more  frequently  the  spot  is  dissolved, 
and  is  no  more  seen.  By  curcfiil  observation  of  the  time  occupied  by  a  spot  in  crossing 
the  disc,  taking  also  into  account  the  proper  motion  of  tlie  sun  from  west  to  east  during 
that  period,  the  tiu"  of  the  sun's  rotation  on  his  axis  is  found  to  be  about  twenty-five  and  a 
half  days. 

That  the  moon,  and  the  plii,  is  Mercury,  Venus,  Mars,  Jupiter,  and  Satuni,  have  each  a 
motion  of  rotation  from  west  to  east,  on  an  axis  inclined  to  the  plane  of  the  sun's  orbit,  is 
inferred  in  like  manner  from  the  spots  that  are  seen  to  traverse  their  discs.  The  moon  pre- 
sents always  nearly  the  same  side  to  the  earth ;  and  must,  therefore,  revolve  on  her  axis  in 
the  same  time  in  which  she  is  carried  round  the  heavens  by  her  apparent  motion,  namely,  in 
27  d  7  D,  4^ ,  Mercury  revolves  in  24  '■  5  ■" ;  Venus  in  23 ''  :j(t "' ;  Mars  in  V± ''  39  "> ;  Jupiter  in 
9''  r-iC)'";  Saturn  in  lO""  29"".  In  the  remaining  planets  no  appearances  h.iVL'  been  discovered 
which  enable  us  to  ascertain  whether  or  not  tliey  revolve  on  axes;  though,  from  analogy,  it 
is  hiijhly  probable  that  they  do. 

Witli  regard  to  the  figure  of  the  sun  and  of  those  planets  which  are  known  to  revolve  on 
axes,  we  may  conclude  that  they  are  nearly  spherical ;  because  no  other  but  a  spherical  body 
can,  when  revolving  on  an  axis  in  the  manr  o  of  thr  ■  lanets  (with  the  exception  of  the 
mcxjii),  present  in  every  positio.i  the  appearan  e  -*'  a  eiiculiir  disc.  The  spherical  figure  of 
the  moon,  and,  indeed,  of  the  other  planets  whir!>  exhibit  phases,  ni.Ty  hi;  inferred  from  the 
tiiet,  that  the  concavity  of  the  crescent  which  th.  v  from  time  to  time  lii.splay  is  boun(Ie<l  by 
an  elliptic  lin".  The  planet  Urnims  always  presents  a  disr  that  is  nearly  circular,  and  it  lia.i 
not  been  ascertained  that  he  revolves  on  an  axis;  hut  it  i.s  very  improbable,  when  wc  con 
sider  how  very  irregular  his  motions  among  tin-  fixed  stars  appenr  when  seen  from  the  eartli, 
that  he  should  k(>ep  the  same  side  alway-  turned  towards  us.  Ilis  apparent  motion  is  some- 
times direct,  that  is  from  west  tn  east,  .sometimes  retr.ijrrade,  or  ui  ;he  eoiitrarv  direction ;  .so 
that  to  present  ronstantly  fiie  iipju'rinince  of  a  cir"iiliir  dise,  flu-  |)lMMet  would  re(|uire,  wore 
it  not  spherical,  to  have  iiinfions  in  f)pprisite  riri^rlinns  about  trie  sanie  axis.  The  same  rea 
soning  will  apply  to  the  remaining  plnrifts.  We  may  conclude,  tlieretl  ro,  tl.\t  the  sun, 
inioii,  and  planets,  are  b(jdies  nearly  spliorical. 


C 

c 

in 
III 

si 
n; 
fb 


Ivc  on 

rbody 

of  the 

lire  of 

ni  the 

0(1  by 

it  1ms 

con 

eartli, 

some- 

)n ;  so 

were 

rea 

sun. 


\' 


Book  L 


4 


DISTANCES,  ETC.  OP  THE  HEAVENLY  BODIES. 


.,  CHAPTER  VI. 

BISTANCES  AND  MAGNITUDES  OP  THE  HEAVENLY  BODIES. 

DiSTAN'oEs  of  the  fixed  stars.  From  wlmtcvcr  point  of  the  earth's  surface  we  observe  the 
fixed  stara,  they  always  appear  to  preserve  the  very  same  relative  positions.  We  may  hence 
conclude  thut  these  bodies  are  situated  at  immeasurable  distances  from  the  earth ;  and  that 
though  tu  us  who  inhabit  it  the  dimensions  of  the  earth  appear  very  ^cat,  they  are  insensi- 
ble when  compared  with  these  immense  distances.  The  earth  is  in  reality  but  as  a  point  in 
space.  But  though  the  fixed  stars  r.ro  vastly  too  remote  to  admit  of  their  distances  being 
determined,  we  have  reason  to  believe  that  they  are  placed  at  very  different  degrees  of 
remoteness.  They  shine  with  very  various  degrees  of  brilliancy ;  multitudes  are  not  visible 
without  tho  aid  of  the  telescope,  and  it  muy  rea-sonably  be  supposed  that  many  more  have 
not  yet  been  discovered  by  tho  most  powerful  instrumenta  which  have  been  directed  to  the 
heavens. 

The  distances  of  the  fixed  stars  being  unknown,  we  can  only  form  conjectures  from 
hypothesis  and  analogy  respecting  tlieir  true  magnitudes.  When  viewed  through  tho  best 
telescopes,  they  have  no  apimrent  diameter,  but  appear  like  points  in  the  heavens. 

Mode  of  determining  the  distance  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  planets.  In  reference  to  the 
sphere  of  the  fixed  stars,  then,tlie  eartli  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  point.  To  a  spectator,  at  the 
sun,  moon,  and  planets,  however,  it  would  present  a  disc  subtending  an  angle  of  greater  or 
less  magnitude,  and,  even  when  smallest,  nilmitting  of  measurement.  This  angle  can  be 
determined  by  an  observer  on  the  earth's  surface ;  and  as  wo  know  the  true  magnitude  of  the 
earth,  it  affords  us  the  means  of  estimating  the  distances  of  these  bodies.  Let  O  o  (Jig.  16)  be 
the  places  of  two  observers  under  tho  same  meridian,  but  very  distant  firom  each  other.  Let  P 
be  a  planet  in  tho  meridian  of  those  jilaces,  and  let  some  fixed  star  which  comes  to  the  meri- 
dian at  the  same  time  with  the  planet,  be  seen  by  tlie  observers  at  O  and  o,  in  the  directions 
O  S,  o  s.  Join  O  P,  o  P,  and  produce  O  P,  to  meet  o  s  in  A.  Then,  because  O  S,  o  s,  are 
parallel  (tho  distance  of  the  star  S  bninfr  regarded  as  infinite),  tlie  angles  O  A  o,  A  O  S  are 
equal ;  and,  because  O  P  o  is  the  exterior  angle  of  the  triangle  o  A  P,  it  is  equal  to  the  sum 
of  the  two  interior  and  opposite  angles  A  o  P,  o  A  P.  Wiiereforo  tho  angle  O  P  o  is  equal 
to  tho  sum  of  tho  angles  A  o  P,  P  O  S ;  that  is,  tho  angle  subtended  at  the  planet  by  tho 
chord  of  the  terrestrial  arc  intercepted  between  the  points  of  observation,  is  equal  to  the  sum 
of  the  apparent  distances  of  the  planet  from  tho  star,  provided  the  planet  is  seen  (as  we  have 
here  supposed)  on  opposite  sides  of  llin  star  liy  the  two  observers.  If  the  star  is  seen  on  the 
same  side  by  both,  the  angle  at  the  planet  will  then  be  equal  to  the  difference  of  the  appa- 
rent distances. 

If  the  observers  are  so  situated  that  P  O,  P  o  (Jig.  17)  are  tangents  to  the  circle  O  E  o  at  the 
points  O  and  o,  the  angle  O  P  o  will  be  the  angle  subtended  by  the  disc  of  the  earth  at  the  planet. 


But  if  P  O,  P  o  are  not  tangents,  draw  P  O'  and  P  6  tangents  to  the  circle  O  E  o,  and  from 
C  the  centre  draw  C  O',  C  «  to  tiio  points  of  contjict:  draw  also  tlio  vortical  lines  C  Z  and 
C  7.'  tlirough  ()  and  o  tlie  places  of  the  obs(>rvcrs,  and  produce  P  O,  P  o  to  meet  C  O',  C  d 
in  B  and  IX  Now,  for  the  sun  and  planets  the  an<rlc  O  P  »  is  very  small,  and  oven  for  the 
moon  it  is  not  very  considerable.  'I'lic  distance  P  C  may  therefore  bo  regarded,  in  every 
case,  as  mm  h  greater  than  C  O',  nr  C  6.  Ilcnco  the  lines  C  O',  C  B,  C  D  may  without  sen- 
sible error  lie  considered  as  proportional  to  the  angles  C  P  0',  C  P  B,  C  P  I)  ;  sfi  that  we 
nave  Z  C  P  O' :  /  C  P  O  =  C  (J' :  C  B  and  Z  C  P  0 :  Z  C  P  o  =  C  O' :  CD;  where- 
fore Z  C  P  O' :  Z  C  P  O  +  Z  C  P  »  or  Z  O  1'  «  =:  C  O' :  C  B  +  C  D     But  the  anglers 


m 

i 


'irnii 


m 


m 


M 


I   !      J' 


1-1 


« 


I- 


I. 


^i'       I 


de 


*ti  'if.-    , 

PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  II. 


at  B  and  D  are  very  nearly  rij^lit  iingli:--<i  mul  tliorutorp,  to  rudiiix  C  O',  we  Imvo  C  B  = 

Sin.  C  O  B  =  Sin.  P  O  '/;  and  C  IJ  =  Sin.  C  o  I)  =  Sin.  P  o  '/':  lloncc  wo  obtain 

ZCPO':  ZOPo  =  (CO:CB+  C  D=--)Rml.:   Sin.  P  O  v, -f-  Sin.  P  o  Z' :  And 'i  Z 

Riul. 

C  P  O'  or  /  C  P  d  =  2  Z  O  P  o  X  5^-ir,.  .>  jI  «—  »-  v-  ' 

Sin.  P  O  Z  +  Sin.  P  o  Z 

If  tho  planet  be  on  the  same  side  of  tlio  zpiiitli  to  both  olwerv-ers,  then  the  difference, 
instead  ot  the  sum  of  the  sines  of  titc  zenith  di^tanccR,  miiHt  bo  ttikon  tor  thi>  donominator. 
Expressing  the  above  formula  in  wonls,  wo  give  tho  followinf^  .siniplo  riilo : — Divide  the  arc, 
{expressed  in  parlt  of  the  radius,)  which  measures  the  observed  angle  at  the  plaurl,  liu  the 
sum  of  the  sines  of  the  zenith  distijnces  of  the  planet,  if  it  is  between  the  zeniths  of  the 
two  observers ;  or  by  the  difference  of  these  sines  if  the  planet  is  on  the  same  side  of  the 
zenith  to  both  observers ;  and  twice  the  result  will  6f  the  arc,  expressed  in  parts  of  the 
radius,  that  measures  the  angle  subtended  at  the  planet  by  the  disc  of  the  earth. 

Since  small  angles,  tliat  require  for  their  measurement  only  tho  use  of  the  micrometer, 
con  be  determined  with  much  more  accuracy  than  large  angles  retiuiring  tho  whole  telescope 
to  be  moved,  it  is  best  to  employ,  in  finding  the  angle  O  P  o  a  star  which  is  near  the  planet ; 
a  small  error  in  taking  the  zenith  distances  of  tlic  planet  will  produce  no  sensible  error  in 
the  result 

Another  method  of  determining  this  angle,  is  by  obserA-ations  on  the  transit  of  Venu.s  over 
the  disc  of  the  sun ;  a  phenomenon  in  which  the  planet  is  seen  like  a  dark  spot  on  the  disc ; 
but  the  method  now  explained  is  sufficient  for  our  present  purpose. 

Tho  following  arc  the  angles  subtended  by  the  earth's  disc  at  the  tun,  moon,  and  planets. 
when  the  earth  is  nearest  to  each : 

Sceondf.  8c<onil». 

Angle  at  the  Sun  =  17  Anglo  at  Uranus    =        1 

Mercury    =  28  Vesta    "^ 

Venus        =62  Juno 

Mars  =42  "•    .         Ceres 

Jupiter       =    4  Pallas 

Saturn       =    2  Moon    '  =2"  2' 

To  determine,  now,  the  distance  of  the  sun  or  moon,  or  of  a  planet : — Tn  tho  right  angled 

triiinglf  P  O  C  we  have  given  the  angle  P  equal  to 
half  the  angle  subtended  by  the  earth's  disc  at  tho 
body  wliftso  distance  is  to  bo  fijund ;  also  O  C  the 
earth's  semi-diameter:  therrfore  'lie  distance  P  C 
may  bo  determined  by  the  proportion  Sin.  P :  Rad.= 
C  O  :  P  C.  Since  tho  angle  P  is  small,  its  sine 
must  be  nearly  equal  to  the  arc  whicli  moasurcs  it. 
Observing  therctbre  that  the  arc  to  whicli  tho  radius 
is  equal,  expressed  in  seconds,  is  2(1020.'")"  we  have 
Z  P  (in  seconds)  :  2(K)2G.J  =  C  O  :  PC.     Hence 

Whence  wo  derive  the  followin''  nilc : — Divide  the  constant 


9 


PC  =  2CO  X 


206265 
2P 


number  2(X)205  by  the  number  of  seconds  in  the  angle  subtended  by  the  rarlh'n  disc  as  seen 
from  the  body  whose  distance  is  tn  be  determined ;  mulliply  the  ri.\ult  by  the  diameter  of 
the  earth,  and  the  product  is  the  distance  refjiiiicd.     In  the  case  of  the  sun  ;  assuming  the 

20(326.5 
diameter  of  the  earth  as  unity,  we  have  the  distance  equal  to  "—-- —  or  121S;}  diameters  of 

the  earth.  In  like  manner,  Uiking  4",  2",  1"  for  the  angles  subtended  by  the  earth's  disc  at 
Jupiter,  Sotuni,  and  Uranus,  tho  distances  of  those  planets  from  tlif!  earth,  wlien  least,  will 
be  oliVif),  1031:52,  20G2(;.j  diametors  of  the  onrtli  respectively.  The  moan  distance  of  the 
moon  is  nl)oiit  si,xty  scmi-diniiu'tcrs  of  the  earth. 

Tiie  apparent  dianietor  of  any  one  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  is  the  nimiher  of  seconds  in  the 
measure  of  the  angle  under  which  its  circular  disc  is  .seen  by  a  spectator  ujKjn  the  earth. 
When  measured  by  a  inirrometer,  the  apparent  diameters  of  tho  sun,  moon,  and  planets  are 
found  to  be,  when  greatest,  as  follows : 

Hni-oiiils.  Spriiiiila. 

Diameter  of  tho  Sun  =  1923  Diameter  of  Jupiter  —      46 

Mercury  =      12  Saturn  —      IS 

Venus       =61  Unmus  :=        4 

Mars        =      18  Moon     —  2020 

Tho  four  remaining  planrtf.  according  to  the  most  careful  obserx'ations,  appear  to  subtend 

only  a  small  part  of  a  s(>cond. 

Now,  for  deducing  the  real  diameters  from  the  np])arent,  we  have  this  rule: — As  the 

apparent  diameter  of  the  earth,  {or  the  seconds  in  the  angle  which  ils  disc  subtends,)  as 


ll 


4;=. 


II. 


M' 


"^.i 


^* 


Booa  I. 


9^ 


4> 


ROTATION  OF  THE  EARTH. 


Been  from  the  planet,  i»  to  t.«e  apparent  diameter  o/  ihn  planet  as  teen  from  the  earth,  st 
it  thi:  true  dinmetrr  of  the  earth  to  the  true  diameter  of  the  planet. 
Calling;  tiiR  diameter  of  the  earin  unity,  or  8(N)0  miles  in  round  numbers,  we  obtain, 

Uisinnlsra  of 


Diameter  of  the  Sun           = 

Ihe  Garth. 

111.4.')4 

— 

Miln. 

882,000  nearly 

Mercury    = 

0.308 

= 

3,140    — 

Venus       = 

0.0 

= 

7,200    — 

Mars         = 

0.617 

=^ 

4,100    — 

Jupiter      = 

10.860 

= 

87,000    — 

Saturn       = 

9.982 

= 

70,068    — 

Uranus      = 

4.332 

^ 

34,500    — 

Moon        = 

0.273 

= 

2,160    — 

As  the  sun,  moon,  and  planets  are  spherical  bodies,  Iheir  magnitudes  compared  witli  the 
magnitude  of  the  earth,  may  be  found  upon  the  principle  that  similar  solids  arc  to  one 
another  as  the  cubes  of  their  similar  dimensions ;  so  that  as  the  cube  cf  the  diameter  of  the 
earth  is  to  the  cube  of  the  diameter  of  the  sun,  moon,  or  a  planet,  so  is  the  magnitude  of 
tlie  former  to  the  magnitude  of  the  latter. 
Assuming  the  magnitude  of  the  earth  as  unity : 

The  magnitude  of  the  Sun  =  1384472.000     ' 

Mercury     =  .063 


Venus 

= 

.927 

Mars 

=z 

.139 

Jupiter 

= 

1280.900 

Saturn 

= 

993.000 

Uranus 

= 

80.490 

Moon 

= 

.020 

Having  now  ascertained  the  distances  and  magnitudes  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  we  proceed 
to  inquire  whether  the  diurnal  motion  which  we  observe  in  them  be  a  real  or  only  an  ap- 
parent motion ;  and  whether  the  earth  is  the  centre  to  which  the  proper  motion  of  any  of 
them  is  to  be  referred. 


(IS  seen 

<t(r  of 

ning  the 

letcrs  of 

s  disc  at 
iist,  will 
of  the 

Is  in  the 
earth, 
nets  are 

1) 


pubtend 

-As  the 
tills,)  as 


CHAPTER  VII. 

ROTATION  OF  THE  EARTH. 

The  diurnal  motion  of  the  heavenly  bodies  suggests  the  existence  of  some  cause,  under ., 
the  influence  of  which  they  either  perform  or  appear  to  perform  a  revolution  from  east  to 
west  round  the  axis  of  the  celestial  sphere  in  the  space  ot  a  day  and  a  night.  Now,  there 
are  two  suppositions,  on  either  of  which  tlie  diurnal  motion  may  be  explained.  We  may 
suppose  the  heavens  to  be  carried  round  the  earth,  while  the  latter  remains  immoveable  in 
the  centre ;  or  we  may  suppose  the  heavens  to  be  at  rest,  and  the  earth  to  revolve  on  an 
axis  in  an  opposite  direction ;  that  i.*,  from  west  to  east.  To  which  of  these  hyjiotheses  tlie 
preference  is  due,  will  be  evident  if  we  consider  that  the  heavenly  bodies  are  independent 
one  of  another,  and  are  placed  at  very  different  distances  from  the  earth ;  that  variations  in 
the  apparent  diameters  of  the  planets  indicate  great  changes  in  their  distances,  while  the 
comets  traverse  the  heavens  in  all  directions;  so  that  it  is  difficult  to  conceive  that  one  and 
the  same  cause  should  impress  on  all  these  bodies  a  common  motion  of  rotation. 

Since  the  earth  is  a  globe  of  alwut  8000  miles  diameter,  it  is  small  when  compared  with 
the  immense  mass  of  the  sun.  Were  the  centres  of  the  sun  and  earth  brought  into  coinci- 
dence, the  former  body  would  fill  the  orbit  of  the  moon  and  extend  as  far  again  beyond  it. 
Besides,  the  sun  is  distant  from  us  about  twelve  thousand  diameters  of  the  earth ;  so  that  to 
revolve  round  the  heavens  in  the  interval  of  twenty-four  hours,  he  must  move  at  the  im- 
mense velocity  of  about  twcnty-nve  millions  of  miles  in  an  hour.  It  is  therefore  more 
reasonable  to  suppose  the  earth  to  iiavo  a  motion  of  rotation  on  an  axis,  than  to  suppose  the 
sun,  a  body  so  distant  and  of  such  immense  magnitude,  to  move  with  the  vast  rapidity  that 
would  be  requisite  to  carry  him  round  the  heavens  in  so  short  an  interval.  With  regard  to 
the  fixed  stars,  we  may  reason  in  the  same  manner  with  still  greater  force :  for  the  velocity 
necoptary  to  carry  the  sun  round  in  twenty-four  hours  is  really  insensible  when  compared 
with  thi'  rapidity  with  which  the  ii.xed  stars  must  move  to  accomplish  a  like  revolution.  In 
order  to  account  for  the  diurnal  motion  of  the  heavens  on  the  hypothesis  that  the  earth  is 
at  rest,  it  must  he  supposed  that  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars  have  tiieir  velocities  so  adapted 
to  their  respective  distances,  that  all  of  them  com[)lcte  tiieir  revo'utions  round  the  earth 
in  exactly  the  same  numlier  of  seconds.  Such  an  adaptation  among  innumerable  indepen- 
dent botlies,  placed  at  such  a  variety  of  distances,  it  is  impossible  to  admit. 

There  are  other  phenomena  of  the  heawns  which  serve  still  farther  to  confirm  the  con- 
elusion,  that  the  diurnal  motion  of  the  hciivenly  bodies  is  not  a  real  motion.  Every  difficulty, 

Vol.  I.  8*  M 


^y 

-'  V 

\41ffl 

H 

^l 

■t 

•S  1 

_s    U^Hf 

if. . 

'-■' 

1*  ■ 

IBk 

1 

h 

Mm 

fi 

'■■■'.' 

I 

p 

m 

~  w^ 

li. 

m 

4 


00 


PRINCIPLES  Ov  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  II. 


however  difiupponrs,  if  wu  Hiippotic  tlio  earth  to  have  a  motion  of  mtntion  on  an  iixIh  from 
west  to  caHt.  Ciiiricd  round  with  a  velocity  cunimun  to  all  tlio  olijrctB  whicii  gurround  iw 
on  the  enrthV  Hiirfuco,  we  are  in  a  situation  similar  to  tiiat  of  a  Hpnctator  placed  in  a  vcsmd 
in  motion.  ,\t,  thn  first  careloss  i;lanco  ho  iiiiagiiirH  liiniHolf  nt  rc^t,  whili*  the  HJinri',  ml 
all  the  ohji'utrt  which  iio  scoh,  unconnected  with  the  vcsiicl,  appciir  to  bo  in  motion,  liy 
reflecting,  however,  on  the  extent  of  the  RJiore,  on  the  mapiitude  of  the  ninuntaiiin,  i.'ij 
otiier  ohjoclH  on  land,  when  comiinred  with  the  vowel  from  which  he  observes  (horn,  he  free* 
hin  mind  from  thin  momentary  illuHion,  and  becomes  convinced  that  the  motion  of  thoHC 
objects  is  only  apparent,  and  that  it  is  produced  by  the  real  motion  of  the  vohhoI.  The 
nmltitude  of  Hturs  scattered  over  the  heavenii  are,  with  retspect  to  us,  what  the  shore  and 
the  objects  u|X)n  it  are  with  regard  to  the  Bi)ertator  ])hicod  in  the  vessel :  nnd  by  the  same 
considerations,  by  which  his  first  impressions  are  so  corrected  that  ho  becomes  assured  of 
the  reality  of  his  motion,  we  are  led  to  the  conclusion  that  the  rotation  of  the  earth  on  an 
axis  produces  the  apparent  diurnal  motion  of  the  heavens. 

An  arj;iiment  tor  the  rotation  of  the  earth  may  also  be  drawn  firom  analogy.  Several  of 
tlie  planets  are  known  to  have  a  motion  on  an  axis  similar  to  that  which  we  have  supposed 
to  belong  to  the  earth.  Jupiter,  for  example,  which  is  miiny  times  greater  than  the  earth, 
revolves  on  his  axis  from  west  to  east  in  less  than  half  a  day;  and  to  an  observer  on  his 
surtace,  tlie  iieavcns  would  appear  to  revolve  round  that  planet  in  the  same  manner  as  wo 
see  them  revolve  round  the  earth,  but  in  about  half  the  time.  This  motion  of  tiie  heavens 
in  reference  to  a  spectator  on  the  planet  Jupiter  would,  however,  be  only  apparent ;  and 
hence  we  may  reasonably  conclude,  that  the  case  is  the  same  in  reference  to  a  spectator  on 
tlie  earth. 

Lastly,  if  the  earth  is  actually  in  motion,  there  will  be  generated  a  cvntrifusrnl  force,  or 
a  tendency  to  throw  off  objects  from  its  surface,  which  must  diminish  the  torco  of  gravity, 
particularly  at  the  eciuator,  where  the  motion  is  most  rapid.  Now,  by  observations  mode 
with  the  pendulum,  this  diminution  of  the  force  of  gravity  has  been  found  to  e.vist.  The 
same  cause  affects  also  the  figure  of  the  earth,  which  has  been  found  to  be  flattened  some- 
what at  the  points  of  rotation,  and  elevated  at  the  e(iuatorial  regions.  The  same  is  ob.-;orved 
to  be  the  figure  of  Jupiter, — a  circumstance  wliicli  greatly  strengthens  the  argument  drawn 
from  analogy.  The  evidence  which  iius  now  been  adduced  leaves  no  doubt  respecting  the 
earth's  motion  of  rotation ;  and  tlms  we  are  enabled  to  ascertain  the  true  place  which  the 
globe  that  we  inhabit  holds  in  the  \miver.se. 

The  points  in  which  the  axis  of  rotation  meets  the  surface  are  called  the  poles  of  the 
eaith;  and  it  is  evident  that  the  nxis,  if  produced,  must  pass  through  the  ))oles  of  the 
iicavens. 


CHAPTER  Vin. 

APPARENT  ANNUAL  MOTION  OP  THE  SVfi.     VICISSITUDE  OP  SEASONS. 

While  the  sun  participn.tes  in  the  diurnal  motion  of  the  heavens,  he  also  apjiears  to  move 
eastward  among  the  fixed  sfjirs.  This  motioi.  it  will  be  of  importance  now  to  trace  out, 
and  to  explain  the  change  of  seasons  to  which  it  gives  rise.  If  we  observe  each  day  of  the 
year  thj  meridian  altitude  of  tlie  sun,  and  note  the  time  which  elapses  between  his  passage 
over  the  meridian  and  the  passage  of  any  particular  star,  we  shall  have  the  apparent  motion 
of  the  sun  in  the  direction  of  the  meridian,  and  of  the  circles  parallel  to  tlio  e(|uator  in 
which  lie  appears  daily  to  be  carried  by  the  diurnal  motion  of  the  heavens.  Tlio  result  of 
the  composition  of  these  two  motions  will  give  the  true  motion  for  each  day.  In  this  manner 
it  has  been  found  that  the  sun  moves  in  a  path  or  orbit  which  cuts  the  equator  in  two  oppo- 
site points,  and  makes  with  it  an  angle  equal  to  23°  28'  jiccrly. 

The  name  of  eclintic  is  given  to  the  circle  which  tlie  pluno  of  this  orbit  marks  out  on  the 
sphere  of  the  heavens.  It  passes  through  twelve  constellations,  which  are  culled  the 
TWELVE  SIGNS.  Tliis  has  given  rise  to  the  division  of  the  ecliptic  into  twelve  equal  parts, 
called  SIGNS,  each  containing,  of  course,  30°.  The  twelve  signs  are  coiituinod  in  a  zone  of 
the  starry  heaven.",  called  the  Zodiac.  The  names  of  thorc  constellations,  with  '.lie  charac- 
ters by  which  they  are  usually  denoted,  are  as  follow: — AriesT,  Taurus  b,  (ieniini  IT,  Cancer 
2E,  IjCo  il.  Virgo  "I,  Libra  ===,  Scorpio  HI.,  Sagittarius  /,  Ciipriconuis  V5,  Aquarius  'Xc,  Pisces  >;• 

The  vioLssitiide  of  seasons  arises  from  the  combination  of  the  apparent  iiiotidn  of  the  sun 
m  the  ecliptic  with  his  apparent  diiirnul  motion.  When  tlie  suii  is  in  cither  of  the  points 
in  whicii  the  ecliptic  intersects  the  equator,  he  do.=i';;Ml)os  the  equator  on  tliat  duy  in  virtue 
of  his  diurnal  motion;  and  as  by  the  properties  of  tlio  sphere  this  circle  is  divided  into  two 
equal  parts  by  the  iiorizon,  at  whatever  point  of  lli"  oartii's  surface  the  sjiectator  is  situated, 
the  d.ay  is  then  o(iuiil  to  the  night  over  nil  tlie  globe. 

The  points  of  intersection  of  equator  and  ecliptic  are  called  the  Equlnoctiai,  Points. 
The  first  point  of  tlie  av^n  Arks  is  supposed  to  coincide  with  the  point  of  the  vernal  equinox ; 
and  from  that  jwint  the  signs  of  the  ecliptic  are  reckoned :  the  first  point  of  the  sign  Libra 


^t 


Book  I. 


VICISHITUDE  OP  HBASONS. 


91 


It  nn  tlie 
lied  the 
111  parts, 
Izoiie  of 
Icharac- 
IC'ancer 

f-cps  y{, 

llic  Sim 

points 

virtue 

bto  two 

tiiated, 

fOINTS. 

liinox ; 
\  Libra 


will  tlicroforo  coincido  with  tlio  )K)int  uf  tliu  uututmuil  miuiiiox.  Ah  the  min,  when  ho  IcavcH 
till!  [Miint  of  tli(>  vorriiil  G(|iiiiiux  advancoM  in  tlii!  ecliptic,  hi.s  iiioriiliaii  allitudu  iiliovo  our 
liori/.iiri  daily  mcrcuHi'M,  ami  a  largor  |>urtiun  ot'tlic  paiiilld  which  hf  daily  dcscribcw  bocoiiicii 
viHiliji'.  lloiico  arises  a  gradual  incrcai!u  in  the  le!ii;tii  of  the  day  in  all  countries  to  the 
north  (if  the  equat4)r;  until  the  mm  haviii);  reached  IiIh  ^n-eatest  altitude,  the  day  ai'ipiireii  itti 
(rreiiteNt  lenjrth,  and  bef^ins  to  Hhurten.  Ah  the  variationx  of  the  altitude  on  each  ^idu  of  the 
pointH  ut  which  it  is  (greatest  are  iiiHcnsiblo,  the  eun,  if  wc  attend  only  to  his  altitude, uppoar»i 
»<t-iti{)iiary,  and  the  day  continiiGri,  for  Bonic  time,  very  nearly  of  the  same  lenjrtli.  Tho  point 
of  llio  ecliptic  at  which  the  maximum  taknti  place  is  theri'iiiie  ilciiouiinated  the  |)oint  of  the 
HiiMMKK  SoijrricE.  Tho  sun,  having;  reached  this  point,  now  returns  towards  the  eipiator, 
which  he  crosseH  at  tho  point  of  the  autunnial  ccjuinox.  His  meridian  altitude  gradually 
diminishes  until  it  reaches  tlie  minimum  at  the  point  of  the  VVintkii  SoLsneE.  ^'he  day, 
which  has  been  ^rradually  shortenmi^  from  tho  sninmor  Bolsticc,  is  then  the  shortest  in  the 
year,  mid  for  some  time  does  not  sensibly  lengtlicn.  The  sun,  however,  agaui  jrraduully 
a|){iroachcs  the  equator,  and  reachoH  it  at  tiic  vernal  equinox. 

Such  is  the  constant  pro^fresa  of  the  sun  in  the  heavens,  and  such  the  succession  of  tlie 
sensoiis  of  the  year.  Tho  Spring  is  the  time  comprised  between  the  vernal  or  spring  equinox, 
which  tails  about  tiic  '21st  of  March,  and  the  summer  solstice,  which  happens  about  the  21st 
of  June  :  the  interval  between  thn  solstice  and  the  autumnal  e(iuinox,  which  liills  about  the 
"2nd  of  September  is  the  Summer:  the  time  between  the  autumnal  eciuinox  and  tho  winter 
solstice,  which  occurs  atiout  tho  22d  of  December,  is  the  Autumn:  and,  lastly,  tlie  Winter 
is  tlio  time  that  elapses  between  tho  winter  Rolstico  and  the  spring  equinox. 

Tho  two  circles  parallel  to  the  cipiator,  which  the  sun  describes  on  the  longest  and 
shortest  days,  arc  called,  one  the  summer  or  northern  Tropic,  and  tlie  other  the  winter  or 
southern  1  ropic.  They  are  also  respectively  denominated  the  tropic  of  Cancer  and  tlie 
tropic  of  Capricorn,  in  reference  to  the  points  in  which  they  touch  the  ecliptic. 

The  ])rescnco  of  the  sun  aliove  tho  horizon  being  the  cause  of  heat,  and  tho  temperature 
increasing  as  tho  altitude  increases,  it  might  be  inferred  that  the  temperature  should  bo  the 
same  in  summer  as  in  spring,  and  in  winter  as  in  autumn ;  because  the  altitudes  of  the  sun 
in  these  seasons  exactly  corretoond.  But  it  is  to  be  observed  that  the  temperature  is  not  an 
instantaneous  effect  of  the  sun's  presence ;  hut  is  the  result  of  the  continued  action  of  his 
rays.  On  this  account  it  is  not  greatest  on  the  day  when  the  altitude  is  greatest,  but  some 
time  between  the  summer  solstice  and  autumnal  equi"')X.  In  like  manner,  tho  greatest  cold 
of  winter  does  not  occur  on  the  shortest  day,  but  some  time  between  the  winter  solstice  and 
the  spring  equinox. 

With  regard  both  to  temperature  and  tho  length  of  tlie  day,  great  difl'erences  arise  from 
the  different  elevations  of  tho  polo  above  the  horizon,  as  we  proceed  from  the  et|uator 
towards  either  of  the  poles.  The  horizon  of  an  observer  at  the  equator  passes  through  the 
poles,  and  by  the  geometrical  properties  of  the  sphere  it  divides  the  equator  and  all  tlie  circles, 
parallel  to  it  into  two  equal  parts.  It  also  cuts  them  at  right  angles ;  and  hence  the  position 
of  the  celestial  sphere,  in  reference  to  the  horizon  of  an  observer  at  the  equator,  is  called  the 
RioiiT  position  of  the  sphere.  In  whatever  point  of  the  ecliptic  the  sun  is  situated,  his 
diurnal  course  is  therefore  at  right  angles  to  the  horizon,  and  one  half  of  it  is  in  the  visible 
hemisphere,  and  the  other  half  in  the  invisible ;  hence,  at  the  equator,  the  day  is  at  all 
seasons  equal  to  the  ni<^it. 

When  the  sun  is  in  either  of  tho  equinoctial  points,  he  passes  through  the  zenith  at 
mid-day.  When  he  is  in  either  of  the  solstitial  points  his  meridian  altitude  is  the  least,  and 
is  equal  to  tho  complement  of  the  inclination  of  the  ecliptic  to  the  equator.  In  these  two 
positions  of  the  sun  tho  shadows  of  objects  fall,  at  mid-day,  in  opposite  directions, — a  pheno- 
menon which  at  no  season  occurs  in  our  climate,  where  the  solar  shadows  are  at  mid-day 
always  directed  towards  the  north :  there  are,  then,  properly  speaking,  two  summers  and 
two  winters  in  the  year  at  the  equator.  The  same  thing  takes  place  in  all  the  countries 
where  the  elevation  of  tho  pole  above  tho  horizon  is  less  than  the  obliquity  of  tho  ecliptic. 
In  every  country  beyond  this  region  there  is  only  one  summer  and  one  winter  in  the  year, 
with  the  intervening  seasons  of  spring  and  autumn:  tho  sun  is  never  in  the  zenith:  the 
length  of  the  longest  day  increases,  and  that  of  the  shortest  day  diminishes,  as  wo  advance 
towards  either  of  tho  poles ;  and  when  we  liave  reached  such  a  position,  that  the  zenith  is 
distant  from  the  pole  by  an  arc  of  the  meridian  equal  to  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic,  the 
sun  docs  not  set  at  the  summer  solstice,  nor  rise  at  the  winter  solstice. 

The  polar  circles.  About  eacii  of  the  poles  of  the  celestial  sphere,  suppose  a  circle  to  be 
described  distant  from  it  by  an  arc  equal  to  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic ;  these  tw^o  circles 
are  called  the  Polar  Circlks.  In  the  region  of  the  earth  situated  around  either  of  its 
poles,  at  every  point  whose  zenith  lines  within  the  jxilar  circle,  the  time  of  the  sun's  presence 
above  the  horizon  and  of  his  absence  below  it,  at  certain  seasons,  exceeds  twenty-four  hours : 
it  increases  as  wo  approach  the  iwle,  and  may  amount  to  days  or  even  to  months.  Thus, 
when  the  sun's  declination  north,  increasing,  becomes  equal  to  the  distance  of  the  zenith  of 
.iny  place  in  the  northern  polar  region  from  the  north  \Kilc  of  the  heavens,  he  ceases  to  set 


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PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Past  II. 


at  that  place,  and  continues  above  Uie  horizon  until  he  has  reached  the  same  declination  in 
returning  towards  the  equator.  From  timt  time  the  sun  rises  and  sets  in  the  course  of 
twenty-four  hours,  until  the  sun's  declinatiun  south  becomes  equal  to  the  distance  of  the 
zenith  iVom  the  pole,  and  then  he  ceases  to  rise  and  continues  below  the  horizon  tL"  he  has 
again  acquired  the  same  declination  in  returning  northward. 

At  the  pole,  the  equator  coincides  with  the  horizon,  and  all  the  circles  parallel  to  tlip 
equator  are  also  parallel  to  the  horizon.  This  is  called  the  Paraixel  position  of  the  sphere. 
To  an  observer,  placed  at  the  pole,  the  heavenly  bodies  would  appear  to  move  round,  either 
in  the  horizon  or  parallel  to  it  Hence  the  sun  is  constantly  above  the  horizon  when  he  is 
on  the  same  side  of  the  equator  with  the  pole,  and  constantly  below  it  when  on  the  other 
side ;  so  that  at  either  of  the  poles  of  the  earth  there  is  only  one  day  and  one  night  in  the 
year. 

At  any  point  on  the  earth's  surface,  between  the  equator  and  either  of  the  poles,  the 
equator  and  the  circles  parallel  to  it,  are  oblique  to  the  horizon.  This  is  called  the  Obuque 
position  of  the  sphere ;  and  by  the  geometrical  properties  of  the  sphere,  the  horizon,  in  this 
position,  divides  all  the  circles  panulel  to  the  equator  into  two  unequal  parts ;  hence  arises 
the  inequality  of  the  days  and  nights  at  all  places  between  the  equator  and  either  pole.  In 
thia  country,  for  example,  in  summer,  when  the  sun  is  on  the  north  side  of  the  equator,  the 
larger  portion  of  his  diurnal  course  liies  in  the  visible  hemisphere,  and  the  less  in  die  invisible, 
■0  that  the  day  is  longer  than  the  night  The  reverse  is  the  case  in  the  winter  when  the 
■un  is  on  the  south  side  of  the  equator. 

If  two  places  are  situated  on  opposite  sides  of  the  equator,  the  spring  and  summer  of  the 
one  will,  it  is  evident,  correspond  to  the  autumn  and  winter  of  the  other. 

With  regard  to  the  temperature,  it  is  higher  in  the  equatorial  regions  than  in  any  other 
part  of  the  earth,  because  there  the  action  of  the  sun's  rays  is  most  direct  To  every  point 
of  tlie  earth's  surface,  whose  zenith  lies  between  the  tropics,  the  sun  is  vertical  twice  in  the 
year ;  so  that  his  rays,  acting  perpendicularly,  produce  their  greatest  effect  In  the  polar 
regions  the  temperature  is  lowest,  in  consequence  of  the  obliquity  with  which  the  sun's  rays 
fkll  on  the  earth's  surfkce,  and  the  great  length  of  the  winter  night  In  the  countries  situated 
between  the  equatorial  region  and  the  two  polar  regions,  there  prevails  a  medium  tempera- 
ture, increasing  as  the  zenith  approaches  the  nearer  of  the  two  tropics,  and  diminishing  as 
it  approaches  the  nearer  of  the  polar  circles. 
A  division  of  the  earth's  surfkce  into  five  zones  has  been  suggested  by  this  difference  of 

temperature  fh>m  the  equator  towards  either  pole. 
In  the  adjoining  figure  let  P  p  represent  the  earth's 
axis,  P  £  p  Q,  a  meridian,  and  E  Q  the  equatorial 
diameter.  Let  E  C  Q  be  the  representation  of  a 
circle  on  tlie  earth's  surface  equally  distant  fVom 
the  poles,  which  will  therefore  be  the  equator: 
and  F  G  H,  fg  h  circles  on  the  earth's  surface 
parallel  to  the  equator,  and  at  the  distance  of  about 
23i  degrees ;  on  each  side  of  it,  and  A  B  D,  a  6  d 
circles  round  the  poles  P,  p,  and  at  the  same  dis- 
tance of  2.3i  degrees. 

At  the  times  of  the  year  when  the  sun  is  in  the 
tropic  of  Cancer,  he  will,  in  his  apparent  revolu- 
tion, be  vertical  to  all  places  on  tlie  circle  F  G  H ; 
and  when  he  is  in  the  tropic  of  Capricorn,  he  will 
be  vertical  to  the  circle/^  h.  The  space  on  the 
earth's  surface  between  these  circles  is  the  Torrid 
Zone. 

When  the  sun  is  in  the  southern  tropic  he  will  not  be  seen  anywhere  in  the  space  bounded 
by  the  circle  A  B  D.  This  is,  therefore,  the  northern  Frigid  Zone :  and  when  he  is  in  the 
northern  tropic  there  is  a  like  tract  bounded  by  the  circle  abd,  round  the  south  pole,  where 
he  will  then  be  invisible.  This  is  the  southern  Frigid  Zone.  The  two  tracts  between  the 
torrid  zone  and  the  frigid  zones  are  the  temperate  zones. 

Another  division  of  the  earth  into  zones  was  used  by  the  ancient  geographers,  founded  on 
the  different  lengths  of  the  longest  day,  as  we  proceed  fhim  the  equator  towards  either  of 
the  poles.  These  zones  were  denominated  Climates,  and  were  each  of  such  a  breadth,  that 
the  longest  day  at  the  boundary  nearer  tlie  pole  exceeded  the  longest  day  at  tlie  boundary 
nearer  the  equator  by  some  certain  space  of  time,  as  half  an  hour  or  an  hour.  Within  the 
polar  circle,  the  climates  were  supposed  of  such  a  breadth  as  to  make  the  longest  day  at  the 
opposite  sides  differ  by  a  month. 

The  points  in  which  the  equator  and  ecliptic  intersect  each  other  are  not  immoveable,  but 
appear,  with  respect  to  the  fixed  stars,  to  recede  towards  the  west  at  the  rate  of  SOttj" 
nearly,  annually,  or  about  1°  in  72  years.  This  motion  is  called  the  Precession  of  the 
Equinoxes.    When  the  constellations  of  the  zodiac  were  first  delineated  by  the  ancient 


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Mtronomers,  the  middle  of  the  sign  Ariel  was  at  the  point  of  tlio  vernal  equinox,  from  which 
it  is  now  distant  more  than  58°  towards  the  east  In  consequence  of  the  precession  of  the 
equinoxes,  the  time  in  which  the  sun  moves  fh>m  the  vernal  equinox  to  tlie  vernal  equinox 
again,  is  less  than  the  time  in  which  he  moves  from  any  star  to  the  same  stor  a^in ; — the 
point  of  the  vernal  equinox  moving  westward,  so  as  to  meet  the  sun,  and  thus  anticipate  the 
time  of  his  crossing  the  equator  in  the  preceding  year. 

The  intervals  of  time  which  separate  the  equinoxes  or  the  solstices  are  unequal.  Almost 
eight  days  more  elapse  from  the  spring  to  the  autumnal  equinox,  than  from  the  latter  to  the 
former.  We  may  therefore  conclude,  that  the  motion  of  the  sun  is  not  uniform.  From 
precise  and  multiplied  observations,  it  has  been  ascertained  that  his  motion  is  most  rapid  at 
a  point  of  the  ecliptic  situated  near  the  winter  solsticial  point,  and  slowest  at  the  opposite 
point  towards  the  summer  solstice.  At  the  former  point  the  sun  describes  daily  1°  1'  10", 
at  the  latter  only  57'  IIJ^".  The  distance  of  the  sun  from  the  earth  is  also  variable.  This 
is  proved  by  variations  observed  in  his  apparent  diameter,  which  increases  and  diminishes  at 
tiie  some  tune  with  his  angular  velocity,  but  not  in  the  same  ratio.  The  angular  velocities 
at  any  two  instants  of  time  ore,  to  one  another,  as  the  squares  of  the  apparent  diameters. 

If  V  and  v'  be  the  angular  velocities  of  the  sun,  or  his  daily  advances  in  the  ecliptic  at  any 
two  seasons  of  the  year,  and  d  and  d'  his  apparent  diameters  at  the  same  time,  then  v  :  v'  ^= 
«r:d". 

To  diminish  the  apparent  motion  of  the  sun,  it  would  be  sufficient  to  suppose  that  body 
removed  to  a  greater  distance  from  the  earth,  without  altering  his  true  angular  velocity. 
But  if  the  diminution  of  his  motion  depended  entirely  on  this  cause,  the  apparent  velocity 
would  diminish  in  the  same  ratio  with  the  apparent  diameter.  Since  it  diminishes,  however, 
08  the  square  of  the  diameter,  there  must  necessarily  be  an  actual  diminution  of  the 
velocity  of  the  sun  while  he  recedes  to  a  greater  distance  from  the  earth. 

His  distance  being  reciprocally  as  his  apparent  diameter,  if  D  and  D'  be  his  distances  at 
the  two  seasons  when  his  diameters  are  d  and  d',  we  have  »  :  w'  =  D" :  D" ;  and  »D*  =  v'D". 
Hence  it  appears,  that  from  the  combined  effect  of  the  two  causes  influencing  the  sun's 
apparent  motions, — namely,  the  diminution  of  his  velocity  and  the  increase  of  his  distance, — 
his  daily  angular  motion  diminishes  as  the  square  of  his  distance  increases ;  so  that  the  pro- 
duct of  the  Eojare  of  the  distance  by  the  velocity  is  a  constant  quantity. 

Let  us  imagine  a  straight  line  to  join  the  centres  of  the  sun  and  of  the  earth.  This  line 
is  usually  called  the  Radivs  Vector.  It  is  not  difficult  to  prove  that  the  small  sector,  or 
the  area  which  the  Radius  Vector  traces  in  a  day,  in  consequence  of  the  sun's  motion,  is 
proportional  to  the  product  of  the  square  of  this  radius  by  the  sun's  daily  motion,  that  is,  to 
V  D*.  This  area  is  therefore  constant ;  and  the  whole  area,  described  by  the  Radius  Vector, 
setting  out  from  a  fixed  radius,  increases  as  the  number  of  days  reckoned  from  the  epoch 
when  the  sun  was  at  the  fixed  radius. 

Since  vD*  =  »'D'*,  we  have  D'  =  'D-,/1.    Assuming,  therefore,  any  Ime  whatever  for  D,. 

and  finding,  by  observation,  the  sun's  angular  velocity  for  every  day  of  the  year,  the  value 
of  D'  for  each  day  may  be  found. 

Thus  we  shall  be  able  to  trace  a  curve  lino  representing  the  orbit  of  the  sun.  This  curve 
is  ibund  to  be  not  exactly  circular,  but  a  little  elongated  in  the  direction  of  the  straight  line 
passing  through  the  centre  of  the  earth,  and  joining  the  points  in  the  orbit  at  which  the  sun 
IS  at  its  greatest  and  least  distances.  The  resemblance  of  this  curve  to  an  ellipse  having 
given  rise  to  a  comparison  between  them,  their  identity  has  been  discovered.  Hence  we 
conclude,  that  the  apparent  solar  orbit  is  an  ellipse  having  the  centre  of  the  earth  in  one 
of  its  foci. 

The  solar  ellipse  is  not  much  different  from  a  circle ;  for  its  eccentricity,  which,  from  the 
geometrical  projierties  of  the  ellipse,  is  equal  to  holf  the  diffijrence  of  the  sun's  greatest  and 
least  distances  from  the  earth,  is  a  quantity  which  bears  but  a  very  small  proportion  to  the 
distance  of  the  sun.  It  appears,  from  observation,  that  there  is  a  small  diminution  of  the 
eccentricity, — so  small,  indeed,  as  scarcely  to  be  perceptible  in  a  century. 

The  position  of  the  greater  axis  of  the  solar  ellipse  is  not  constantly  the  same.  Its 
extremities  have  an  annual  motion  eastward,  in  reference  to  the  fixed  stars,  of  about  12"  in 
the  direction  of  the  sun's  motion. 

The  obliquity  of  the  sun's  orbit,  or  of  the  ecliptic  to  the  equator,  is  also  subject  to  change, 
and  appears  to  have  been  continually  diminishing  from  the  remotest  date  of  astronomical 
observation.    Its  present  rate  of  diminution  may  te  stated  at  nearly  49"  in  a  century. 

The  apparent  elliptic  motion  of  the  sun  does  not  represent,  with  perfect  exactness,  the 
results  of  modern  observation.  The  great  precision  now  attained  in  the  art  of  observing 
has  made  known  to  us  small  inequalities,  the  laws  of  which  it  would  have  been  almost 
impossible  to  determine  by  mere  observation.  These  laws  can  be  investigated  only  after 
the  physical  cause  has  been  discovered  upon  which  the  phenomena  depend. 


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PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 
CHAPTER  IX. 

DIVISION  AND  MEASURE  OP  TIME. 


i 

PabtII. 


The  notion  of  (imc  is  suggested  by  tl»e  succession  of  phenomena  in  the  universe.  When 
two  events  exactly  correspond  in  all  ineir  circumstances,  they  are  conceived  to  occupy 
equal  portions  of  time.  The  descent  of  a  heavy  body  to  the  earth,  for  example,  from  a 
given  height,  if  repeated  under  precisely  similar  circumstances,  will  in  every  case  be  per- 
formed in  the  same  interval  of  time.  Suppose  then  that  a  number  of  heavy  bodies  fell  to 
the  ground  one  after  another  from  the  same  height,— the  descent  of  the  second  and  of  each 
succeeding  body  commencing  at  the  instant  in  which  the  body  that  preceded  it  had  reached 
the  ground ;  the  whole  time  occupied  by  the  fall  of  these  bodies  will  be  divided  into  equal 
portions,  one  of  which  may  be  assumed  as  the  mcnsuring  unit  of  time.  The  vibrations  of 
a  pendulum,  performed  under  precisely  the  same  circumstances,  are  employed  for  estimating 
the  smaller  portions  of  time :  the  larger  portions  are  determined  by  tlie  motions  of  the  sun ; 
from  which  arise  the  vicissitude  of  day  and  night,  and  the  changt)  of  seasons. 

The  Day,  in  civil  life,  is  the  time  that  elap$<es  between  the  rising  and  setting  of  the  sun ; 
and  the  Night  the  time  between  his  setting  and  rising.  The  AerrRONOMicAi.  or  Solah  Day, 
on  the  other  hand,  comprehends  the  whole  period  of  tlie  sun's  diurnal  revolution,  and  is 
reckoned  trom  the  time  of  his  passing  any  particular  meridian,  to  the  time  of  his  returning 
to  the  same  meridian.  The  pendulum  usually  employed  is  of  such  a  length  as  to  divide  the 
mean  astronomical  day  into  24X00X60=86400  equal  parts  called  lecondt;  60  of  these 
parts  make  a  minute ;  60  minutes  make  an  hour  ;  and  24  hours  complete  the  day. 

As  the  apparent  motion  of  the  sun  carries  him  eastward  among  the  fixed  stars,  the  time 
that  elapses  between  his  passing  the  meridian,  and  his  returning  to  it  again,  is  longer  than 
llie  time  that  intervenes  between  two  successive  passages  (called  transits)  of  any  particular 
star.  This  latter  period  is  the  exact  time  of  the  earth's  revolution  on  its  axis,  and  is  called 
a  SiDEHEAL  day :  it  is  about  23''  56"  4'  in  length. 

The  motion  of  the  earth  on  its  axis  being  perfectly  uniform,  the  length  of  the  sidereal  day 
is  always  the  same.  This  is  not,  however,  the  cose  with  respect  to  the  astronomical  or  solar 
day,  which  is  ulTected  by  the  unequable  motion  of  the  sun,  and  by  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic. 
At  the  summer  solstice,  towards  which  the  sun's  motion  in  the  ecliptic  is  slowest,  the  solar 
day  is  more  nearly  equal  to  the  sidereal  day  than  at  the  winter  solstice,  when  the  sun's  motion 
is  quickest. 

With  regard  to  the  effect  of  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic  in  reference  to  the  length  of  the 
solar  day,  it  is  to  be  observed,  that,  by  the  geometrical  properties  of  the  sphere,  equal  portions 
of  any  circle,  whose  plane  is  perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  revolution,  pass  over  the  meridian 
in  equal  times ;  but  if  the  plane  of  a  circle  is  oblique  to  the  axis,  the  arcs  that  pass  over  the 
meridian  in  equal  times  are  not  equal.  Hence,  if  the  sun  moved  uniformly  in  the  equator, 
the  solar  day  would  be  always  of  the  same  length :  but  as  he  moves  in  the  ecliptic,  whose 
plane  is  oblique  to  the  axis,  even  if  he  did  proceed  with  a  uniform  motion,  the  equal  area 
which  he  daily  described  would  pass  over  the  meridian  in  unequal  times ;  so  that  the  solar 
day  would  be  longer  or  shorter  according  to  the  sun's  place  in  the  ecliptic. 

The  motion  of  the  shadow  on  a  sun-dial  marks  out  time  as  measured  by  the  sun's  motion 
in  the  ecliptic :  but  if  the  sun  moved  uniformly  in  the  equator  at  such  a  rate  as  to  complete 
the  annual  circuit  of  the  heavens,  in  the  same  time  as  he  does  by  his  actual  motion  in  the 
ecliptic,  time  measured  by  his  motion  would  then  correspond  with  that  of  a  well-regulated 
clock. 

The  difference  between  the  time  shown  by  the  sun-dial,  and  that  shown  by  the  clock,  is 
sailed  the  E<iuation  of  Time.  The  part  of  this  equation  which  depends  on  the  obliquity  of 
the  ecliptic,  vanishes  at  the  equinoxes  and  at  the  solstices ;  because  at  these  seasons  the  sun 
comes  to  the  meridian  at  the  same  moment  as  ho  would  do  if  he  moved  in  the  equator. 

Prom  the  vernal  equinox  till  the  summer  solstice,  and  from  the  autumnal  equinox  till  the 
winter  solstice,  the  time  as  shown  by  the  sun-dial  is  in  advance  of  that  indicated  by  the 
clock;  because  then  the  sun's  distance  from  the  first  point  of  Ane#,  and  first  point  of  Libra, 
passes  sooner  over  the  meridian  than  the  equal  arc  upon  the  equator,  which  the  sun  would 
have  described  had  he  moved  in  that  circle. 

Again,  the  hour  shown  by  the  sun-dial  is  behind  that  shown  by  the  clock,  from  the  summer 
and  winter  solstices,  till  the  autumnal  and  vernal  equinoxes ;  because  at  these  two  seasons 
the  distance  of  the  sun  from  the  first  point  of  Aries,  and  from  the  first  point  of  Libra,  re- 
quires longer  time  to  pass  over  the  meridian,  than  the  equal  arc  tipon  the  equator. 

The  port  of  the  equation  of  time  which  arises  from  the  unequable  motion  of  the  sun,  will 
vanish  when  ho  is  at  his  greatest  and  least  distances  from  the  earth ;  because  he  is  in  these 
two  points  of  his  orbit  at  the  same  instants  of  time  as  he  would  be  if  he  moved  uniformly 
with  his  mean  velocity ;  that  is,  with  a  rate  of  motion  by  which  he  would  describe  equally 
the  ecliptic  in  the  same  time  in  which  he  describes  it  by  his  unequable  motion. 

The  dial,  during  the  time  when  the  sun  is  moving  from  the  point  of  his  greatest,  to  the 
point  of  his  least  distance  from  the  earth,  is  faster  than  the  clock;  bccnuso  the  sun  is  then 


\  •• 


Book  I. 


DIVISION  AND  MEASURE  OF  TIME. 


9B 


at  no  instant  so  far  advanced  in  his  orbit,  as  he  would  have  been  if  he  had  been  moving  uni- 
formly with  his  mean  velocity.  The  reverse  is  the  case  while  the  sun  is  moving  from  the 
point  of  his  least  to  that  of  his  greatest  distance.  Time  measured  by  the  dial  is  called 
APPARENT  time ;  that  shown  by  a  well-regulated  clock  is  called  true  time.  The  eflect  of 
the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic,  and  that  of  the  sun's  unequable  motion,.in  rendering  the  dial 
fbister  or  slower  than  the  clock,  sometimes  combine  with  and  at  other  times  counteract  each 
other.  The  amount  of  each  is  given  in  the  two  fdlowing  tables  for  every  fifth  day  of  the 
vear ;  and  by  taking  the  sum  or  difference,  according  as  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic  and 
ihe  sun's  unequable  motion  produce  similar  or  opposite  effects,  a  table  may  be  formed  of 
Jie  equation  of^  time. 

Tabk  showing  the  Part  of  the  Equation  qf  Time  that  arises  from  the  Obliquity  of 

the  Ecliptic. 


Dial  Filter. 

Dial  Blower. 

Dial  Falter. 

Dial  Slower. 

M. 

8. 

M. 

B. 

M. 

& 

M. 

B. 

March  -    - 

31 

0 

0 

June     •    • 

31 

0 

0 

Beptember 

33 

0 

0 

December- 

81 

0 

0 

31 

1 

39 

36 

1 

48 

38 

1 

39 

30 

I 

48 

30 

3 

IS 

July  •    •    • 

1 

3 

33 

October 

3 

3 

IS 

31 

3 

38 

April    .    . 

4 

4 

46 

7 

S 

8 

8 

4 

46 

January   - 

S 

S 

8 

9 

6 

9 

12 

6 

3S 

13 

6 

9 

10 

6 

3S 

14 

7 

S3 

17 

7 

48 

18 

7 

33 

IS 

7 

48 

ig 

8 

83 

33 

8 

4S 

S3 

8 

S3 

20 

8 

45 

34 

0 

9 

38 

9 

36 

38 

9 

9 

3S 

9 

SO 

30 

0 

40 

Auguit-   - 

3 

9 

49 

November- 

3 

9 

40 

39 

9 

49 

Mty-    •   • 

5 

B 

S3 

7 

9 

S3 

7 

9 

S3 

February  • 

3 

9 

S3 

10 

9 

49 

13 

9 

40 

13 

9 

49 

8 

9 

40 

is 

9 

36 

17 

9 

0 

17 

9 

36 

13 

9 

9 

90 

8 

4S 

33 

8 

S3 

33 

8 

4S 

18 

8 

S3 

36 

7 

48 

38 

7 

33 

37 

7 

48 

S3 

7 

S3 

31 

6 

3S 

September 

3 

6 

9 

December  - 

3 

0 

3S 

38 

6 

9 

June    •   • 

5 

S 

8 

7 

4 

46 

7 

s 

8 

March  .    . 

9 

4 

46 

10 

3 

» 

13 

3 

IS 

12 

3 

32 

10 

3 

IS 

10 

1 

48 

17 

1 

39 

17 

1 

48 

15 

1 

38 

1 

SO 

0 

0 

Table  showing  the  Part  <f  the  Eqtiation  of  Time  that  arises  from  the  Inequality  of  the 

Sun^s  Motion. 


Jtill  the 
Iby  the 
l^&ra, 
1  would 

liramer 
leasons 
fa,  re- 
will 
I  these 
Ibrmly 
finally 

,tht 
I  then 


Dial  Falter  than  Oock. 

Dial  Slower  than  Clock. 

M. 

B. 

M. 

B. 

M. 

B. 

M. 

8. 

July    •    • 

1 

0 

0 

October    • 

3 

7 

43 

December  • 

31 

0 

0 

March  •    . 

.*» 

7 

43 

7 

0 

40 

8 

7 

43 

January    • 

5 

0 

41 

April    -    . 

4 

7 

40 

13 

1 

19 

13 

7 

:n 

lU 

1 

33 

9 

7 

M 

17 

1 

57 

18 

7 

S9 

15 

3 

8 

14 

7 

24 

S2 

S 

35 

83 

7 

18 

SO 

3 

41 

19 

7 

13 

38 

3 

13 

38 

7 

3 

35 

3 

19 

34 

6 

56 

Auguit.  - 

3 

3 

47 

November. 

8 

6 

45 

89 

3 

56 

30 

0 

36 

7 

4 

SI 

7 

6 

34 

February  . 

3 

4 

30 

May.   .   . 

5 

6 

14 

. 

12 

4 

Si 

13 

5 

30 

H 

5 

3 

10 

5 

50 

17 

5 

33 

17 

S 

33 

13 

5 

32 

IS 

5 

33 

33 

5 

SO 

38 

5 

S 

18 

S 

39 

SO 

4 

53 

38 

6 

14 

87 

4 

30 

33 

6 

84 

36 

4 

31 

September 

3 

6 

36 

December  • 

3 

3 

56 

38 

6 

45 

31 

3 

47 

7 

6 

S6 

7 

3 

19 

March  •    ■ 

5 

7 

3 

June     •    • 

S 

3 

13 

13 

7 

13 

13 

8 

41 

10 

7 

18 

10 

3 

35 

17 

7 

34 

17 

3 

3 

15      7 

SO 

16 

1 

57 

3:1 

7 

34 

31 

1 

23 

20  ,   7 

37 

21 

1 

I» 

1 

38 

7 

40 

36 

0 

« 

35      7 

43 

90 

0 

40 

The  difference  between  the  apparent  and  the  true  time,  is  very  observable  about  the 
season  when  the  day  is  lengthening  or  shortening  with  most  rapidity.  It  is  a  common 
remark,  that  when  the  day  is  shortening,  the  change  is  more  observable  in  the  evening  than 
in  the  morning;  but  that  the  reverse  is  the  case  when  the  day  is  lengthening.  This  arises 
from  the  clock  being  before  or  after  the  sun.  Thus,  in  the  end  of  October,  the  dial  is 
upwards  of  sixteen  minutes  faster  than  the  clock;  so  that  the  time  of  sun-rise,  and  tlie  time 
of  sun-set,  will  each,  as  indicated  by  the  clock,  appear  earlier  by  16  minutes,  than  as  indicated 
by  the  motion  of  the  solar  shadow.  Hence  tiie  instant  of  noon,  as  shown  by  the  clock, 
appears  not  to  divide  equally  the  time  during  which  the  sun  is  above  the  horizon :  the  time 
from  sun-rise  till  noon,  appears  longer  than  from  noon  till  sun-set.  Again,  about  the  middle 
of  February,  the  dial  is  about  15  minutes  slower  than  the  clock;  so  that  the  time  of  sun-rise 
and  the  time  of  sun-set  will  each,  as  indicated  by  the  clock,  be  later  by  15  minutes  than  as 
indicated  by  the  dial ;  and  the  time  from  sun-rise  till  noon,  as  shown  by  the  clock,  will 
appear  shorter  than  the  time  from  noon  till  sun-set. 


4   i;l 


fy^i.t 


'iU 


i(! 


,# 


ii 


06 


PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Paut  n. 


Aa  the  return  of  the  frnn  to  the  meridian  marks  out  the  day,  so  hia  return  to  the  same 
equinox  murks  out  another  pnrlion  qf  time  of  much  importance  to  bo  determined  with 
accuracy ;  namely,  the  Year.  Thin  period  comprehends  tlie  seasons  which  divide  it  into 
four  parts.  Within  tliis  period  also,  the  moon  jroes  twelve  times  througli  all  her  phases, 
which  occupy  the  space  of  nearly  twenty-nine  and  a  half  days :  hence  the  year  has  been 
divided  into  twelve  months,  three  of  which  arc  allotted  to  each  season.  By  accurate  obser- 
vation it  is  found,  that  the  time  which  elapses  between  the  instant  at  which  the  sun  paaaes 
the  vernal  cquiiio-x,  and  the  period  of  his  return  to  it,  is  365''  5''  48"  48*.  Tliis  period  is 
called  the  Tropical  year.  It  is  found  to  be  shorter  than  the  interval  between  two  successive 
returns  of  the  sun  to  the  same  star  by  20"'  20'.  This  last-mentioned  period  is  called  the 
Sidereal  year,  and  consists  of  305''  6''  9"'  11'. 

In  order  to  mnkc  sucli  a  distribution  of  time  as  is  accommodated  to  the  purposes  of  liffe, 
it  is  necessary  so  to  adjust  the  reckoning  of  the  solar  revolution  to  the  length  of  the  mean 
solur  day,  that  the  beginning  of  the  year  may  coincide  with  the  beginning  of  the  day,  and 
the  seasons  may  always  recur  in  the  same  months.  If  the  solar  revolution  consisted  of  an 
exact  number  of  days,  there  would  be  no  difficulty ;  but  as  it  includes  a  fraction  of  a  day, 
it  is  evident  that  one  year  cannot  be  mode  equal  to  one  revolution,  without  incurring  the 
inconvenience  of  making  the  year  commence  at  a  different  point  of  time  from  the  beginning 
of  the  day.  But  though  one  year  cannot  be  made  equal  to  one  revolution,  a  certain  number 
of  years  may  be  made  equal  to  a  like  number  of  revolutions. 

Julius  Cvsar  introduced  the  first  near  approximation  to  accuracy  on  this  subject,  in  the 
4.5th  year  before  the  commencement  of  the  Christian  era.  The  Romans  had  before  that 
time  estimated  the  year  according  to  the  course  of  the  moon,  in  imitation  of  the  Greeks ; 
dividing  it  into  twelve  months,  which  consisted  in  all  of  354  days;  but  as  an  odd  number 
was  thought  the  more  fortunate,  one  day  was  added  which  made  the  year  consist  of  355 
days.  To  make  the  lunar  year  correspond  witli  the  course  of  the  sun,  on  which  depends 
the  vicissitude  of  seasons,  an  intercalary  month  was  inserted  every  other  year,  between  the 
23d  and  24th  day  of  February.  The  intercalation  of  this  month  was  left  to  the  discretion 
of  tlie  priests,  who,  from  interested  motives,  inserted  often  more  or  fewer  than  the  proper 
number  of  days,  so  as  to  make  the  year  longer  or  shorter,  according  as  it  suited  their  own 
purposes.  This  caused  the  montlis  to  be  transposed  from  their  stated  seasons,  the  winter 
months  being  carried  back  into  autumn,  and  the  autumnal  months  into  summer.  When  Julius 
Cajsar  became  master  of  the  state,  he  resolved  to  put  an  end  to  this  disorder,  by  abolishing 
the  use  of  intercalations  which  had  been  the  source  of  it ;  and  for  that  purpose,  by  the 
assistance  of  Sosipcnes,  a  celebrated  astronomer  of  Alexandria,  he  adjusted  the  year  to  the 
course  of  the  sun,  and  assigned  to  the  respective  months  the  number  of  days  which  they 
still  contain.  That  matters  might  proceed  with  regularity  from  the  beginning  of  the  ensuing 
January,  he  made  the  current  year,  which  was  called  the  last  year  of  confusion,  consist  of 
fifteen  months,  or  445  days. 

The  Julian  year  is  founded  upon  the  supposition  that  the  solar  revolution  is  exactly 
365*  6\  For  three  successive  years  the  six  hours  are  omitted ;  but  in  the  fourth  year  an 
additional  day  is  inserted  in  the  month  of  February,  which  makes  the  four  years  correspond 
with  four  solar  revolutions.  This  fourth  year,  consisting  of  366  day»,  is  called  Bissextile 
or  Leap  year.  But  as  the  true  length  of  the  solar  revolution  is  not  365''  &",  but  only 
365*  5^  48™  48',  the  Julian  year  is  too  long  by  ll"  12' ;  so  that  before  a  new  year  begins, 
the  sun  has  passed  the  point  of  the  ecliptic  where  the  preceding  year  began.  The  error 
thence  arising  is,  however,  so  small,  that  it  was  long  before  it  was  observed.  The  Julian 
Calendar  was  introduced  into  the  church  at  the  time  of  the  Council  of  Nice,  in  the  year  325 
of  the  Christian  era ;  and  the  vernal  equinox  was  at  that  time  fixed  to  the  2lBt  of  March. 
In  the  year  1582,  however,  it  was  found  that  the  vernol  equinox  fell,  not  on  the  2l8t  of 
March,  but  on  the  11th  of  that  month ;  so  that  the  Julian  year  had  fiillen  about  ten  days 
behind  the  sun.  If  this  erroneous  reckoning  had  been  continued,  the  seasons  would  have 
entirely  changed  their  places.  //  wag  there/ore  resolved  to  reform  the  calendar,  which  was 
done  by  Pope  Gregory  XIII.,  and  the  first  step  was  to  correct  the  loss  of  the  ten  days,  by 
counting  the  day  after  the  4th  of  October,  not  tiie  5th,  but  the  15th  day  of  the  month.  The 
error  in  the  Julian  year  reckoning,  being  about  eleven  minutes  yearly,  amounts  to  nearly 
three  days  in  four  centuries.  Hence  to  prevent  its  accumulr  tion  in  future,  it  was  agreed  to 
suppress  three  intercalary  days  in  the  course  of  four  hundred  years,  by  considering  the  last 
of  three  succeasive  centuries  common,  instead  of  leap  years.  The  years  in  which  the  inter- 
calary days  are  omitted  are  1700,  1800,  1900:  and,  in  general,  the  last  year  of  every  century 
not  divisible  by  four,  is  reckoned  a  common  year,  which  in  the  Julian  account  is  bissextile. 
The  degree  of  accuracy  thus  attained  is  very  considerable ;  for  taking  the  annual  error  at  llj 
minutes,  in  four  centuries,  it  will  amount  to  4480  minutes,  or  to  3' 2''  40'".  Of  this  error, 
the  fractional  part,  2''  40"',  is  all  that  remains  uncorrected ;  and  this  error  will  require  the 
lapse  of  3600  years  before  it  amounts  to  a  day.     . 

Other  modes  of  intercalation.  If  tlie  tropical  year  were  36.5''  5''  49'^  12",  the  Gregorian 
intercalation  would  be  norfuctly  exact.   Accurate  observation  proves,  however,  that  the  year 


Boos  L 


DIVISION  AND  MEASURE  OP  TIME. 


0} 


IS  shorter  by  about  2'!  seconds.  If  scientific  principles  had  been  strictly  followed,  they  would 
have  p(>intu(l  out  other  modes  of  intercalation  still  more  accurate,  though  perhaps  not  more 
convcniniit,  than  tliat  which  lias  been  adopted.  The  determination  of  the  methods  of  inter- 
calation  best  suited  to  make  the  computations  in  the  calendar  correspond  as  nearly  as  possible 
with  the  rnal  motions  of  the  sun,  requires  all  the  integer  numbers  to  be  found,  which  most 
nearly  e.\pros9  the  ratio  of  .V  48'"  48'  to  a  day.  These  numbers  are  easily  determined  by  the 
method  of  continued  fraction*.  In  the  Gregorian  calendar,  97  days  are  intercalated  in  the 
course  of  400  years;  but  it  would  be  much  more  exact  to  intercalate  109  days  in  the  course 
of  4.'}0  years.  If  the  troiMcal  yeor  were  precisely  385''  6''  48'"  48',  this  intercalation  would,  in- 
deed, bo  quite  accurate :  for  5"  48"  48",  multiplied  by  450,  give  exactly  109  days. 

The  reformation  of  the  calendar,  or  the  change  from  the  Old  Style  to  the  New  Styi.e, 
did  no.  take  place  in  Enffland,  till  the  year  1752,  at  which  time  it  was  established  by  an 
act  of  parliament.  The  alteration  was  ordered  to  be  made  on  the  2'!  nf  September;  and  as 
rho  error  of  the  Julian  reckoning  now  amounted  to  11  days,  the  3d  was  to  be  counted  the 
I4tn  of  September. 

Correspondence  between  the  days  of  the  teeek  and  month.  As  the  common  year  consists 
of  52  weeks  and  one  day,  it  is  evident  that  the  beginning  and  end  of  each  common  year  will 
fall  on  tlie  same  day  of  the  week.  In  a  scries  of  years,  therefore,  if  no  leap  years  occurred, 
the  first  day  of  each  month  would,  year  after  year,  be  one  day  farther  advanced  in  the  week, 
till,  in  the  course  of  seven  years,  the  same  days  of  the  month  would  return  to  the  same  days 
of  the  week.  But  since  leap  year  contains  52  weeks  ond  2  days,  and  occurs  every  fourth 
year,  it  follows  that  the  days  of  the  week  cannot  correspond  to  the  same  days  of  the  month, 
till  after  the  lapse  of  four  times  seven  or  twenty-eight  years.  This  period  is  called  the 
Cycle  of  the  Sun.  When  this  period  is  completed,  the  sun's  place  in  the  ecliptic  returns 
to  the  same  signs  and  degrees  on  the  same  months  and  days,  so  as  not  to  differ  a  degree  in 
a  century ;  and  the  leap  years,  as  well  as  the  common  years,  begin  the  same  course  over 
again  with  respect  to  the  days  of  the  week  on  which  the  days  of  the  month  fall.  The  year 
of  our  Saviour's  birth,  according  to  the  vulgar  era,  was  the  ninth  year  of  the  solar  cycle : 
hence,  to  find  the  current  year  of  that  cycle,  we  must  add  nine  to  the  given  year  of  the 
Christian  era,  and  divide  the  sum  by  twenty-eight ;  the  quotient  will  be  the  number  of  cycles 
which  have  been  completed  since  the  birth  of  Christ,  and  the  remainder  will  be  the  current 
year  of  the  prQsent  cycle.  Thus,  for  the  year  1829,  the  cycle  of  the  sun  is  found  to  be  18. 
The  first  .seven  letters  of  the  alphabet  have  been  employed  to  mark  the  several  days  of  the 
week.  As  one  of  those  seven  letters  must  necessarily  stand  against  Sunday,  it  is  printed  in 
the  calendar  in  a  capital  form,  and  called  the  Dominical  Letter  :  Uio  other  six  letters  are 
inserted  in  a  difieront  character,  to  denote  the  other  six  days  of  the  week.  When  January 
begins  on  Sunday,  A  is  the  Dominical  letter  for  that  year :  but  because  the  next  year  begins 
on  Monday,  the  Sunday  will  of  course  fall  on  the  seventh  day,  to  which  is  annexed  the 
seventh  letter  G,  which  will  therefore  be  the  Dominical  letter  for  all  that  year :  and  as  the 
third  year  will  begin  on  Tuesday,  Sunday  will  fiill  on  the  sixth  day,  so  that  F  will  be  the 
Dominical  letter  pr  that  year,  and  so  on.  Hence  it  is  evident  tliat  tlie  Dominical  letters 
will  succeed  each  other  in  a  retrograde  order,  viz.  G,  F,  E,  D,  C,  B,  A.  As  the  days  of  the 
week  correspond  to  the  same  days  of  the  month  only  once  in  twenty-eight  years,  it  follows 
that  it  is  only  after  the  lapse  of  the  same  period,  that  tlie  series  of  Dominical  letters  can 
proceed  in  the  same  order  in  reference  to  the  days  of  the  month.  Every  leap  year  has  two 
Dominical  letters;  one  answering  from  the  beginning  of  January  till  the  end  of  February; 
the  other  being  the  letter  immediately  preceding,  answering  for  the  remainder  of  the  year. 
The  Dominical  letter  may  be  found  for  any  year  of  any  century  by  the  following  rule : 
divide  the  centuries  by  4,  and  take  twice  what  remains  from  6:  then  add  together  this  last 
remaiiuler,  the  odd  years  above  the  even  centuries,  and  the  fourth  part  of  these  odd  years, 
neglecting  the  remainder  if  any :  divide  the  sum  by  7,  and  the  excess  of  7  above  the 
'emainder  is  the  number  answering  to  the  letter  required.  Thus,  for  the  year  1830,  the 
Dominical  letter  is  C.  For  the  centuries  18  divided  by  4  leave  2 ;  and  twice  this  remainder 
taken  from  6  also  leaves  2 ;  by  adding  to  which  the  odd  number  of  years  30,  and  their  fourth 
part  7,  we  obtain  39 :  this  sum  divided  by  7  leaves  the  remainder  4,  which  taken  from  7 
leaves  3,  answering  to  C,  the  third  letter  of  tlie  alphabet. 


CHAPTER  X. 

PROPER  MOTION  OP  THE  MOON.     HER  PHASES.    ECLIPSES  OF  THE  SUN  AND  MOON. 

The  moon,  next  to  the  sun,  is  the  most  interesting  to  us  of  all  the  heavenly  bodies.  Her 
phases,  or  that  scries  of  changes  in  her  figure  and  illumination  which  she  undergoes  in  the 
course  of  about  a  month,  are  one  of  the  most  striking  of  the  celestial  phenomena;  and  presen 
n  division  of  time  so  remarkable  that  it  has  been  the  first  in  use  among  all  nations. 

The  moon  has  an  apimrent  motion  among  the  fixed  stars  similar  to  that  of  the  sun,  bu. 
Vol.  L  0  N 


m 


M 


PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pabt  R. 


h 


hii 


much  more  rapid ;  it  carries  her  caiitward  at  the  rate  of  nciirly  13°  lOJ',  at  an  average,  in 
'H  liuurs.  Wlien  this  motion  m  accuniteljr  traced  out,  it  is  found,  tliat  the  moon  dcRcribes 
round  tho  earth,  in  2T'  7"  43",  a  path  or  orbit  inclined  to  the  ecliptic  at  an  angle  of  nearly 
.^'^  0'.  Tho  line  in  which  tho  plane  of  tho  orbit  cuts  the  plane  or  tho  ecliptic  is  called  the 
Ijnb  or  THB  NoDis.  The  point  in  which  the  moon  crosses  the  ecliptic  when  ascending 
to  the  north,  is  called  tlio  asoendino  node ;  and  the  opposite  point,  in  which  she  crosses  it 
wlinn  deeceudinff  to  the  south,  is  called  the  descgndino  node. 

Tho  figure  of  tlie  lunar  orbit  is  determined  in  the  same  manner  as  that  of  the  solar,  by 
obRcrving  the  changes  in  the  apparent  diameter  of  the  moon,  and  comparing  these  with  the 
variations  in  her  angular  velocity.  It  is  thus  found,  that  the  moon's  orbit,  like  that  of  the 
Kuii,  is  in  appearance  an  ellipse,  having  tho  centre  of  the  earth  in  one  of  the  foci,  and  that 
(lie  nulius  vector,  or  the  line  joining  the  centres  of  the  earth  and  moon,  describes  areas  pro- 
portional to  tho  times.  Neither  tlie  line  of  the  nodes  nor  the  greater  axis  of  the  lunar  orbit 
is  fixed.  The  former  has  a  slow  retrograde  motion,  by  which  it  makes  an  entire  revolution 
in  something  more  than  18 J  years ;  the  latter  has  a  progressive  motion,  by  which  it  com- 
pletes a  revolution  in  something  less  than  9  years.  The  elliptic  orbit  is  liable,  indeed,  to  so 
many  changes,  that  tho  full  investigation  of  the  lunar  motion  has  been  found  one  of  the  most 
difficult  problems  in  astronomy.  At  the  same  time  it  is  one  of  the  most  usefii^'as  connected 
with  the  finding  of  the  longitude  of  places  on  the  surface  of  the  earth.  Accordingly,  the 
eiforts  of  astronomers  have  been  assiduously  directed  to  the  perfecting  of  the  lunar  theory ; 
and  by  employing  the  resources  of  modem  science,  and  combining  these  with  continued  and 
accurate  observation,  their  labours  have  been  crowned  with  wonderful  success. 
The  phases  of  the  moon  depend  on  her  position  with  regard  to  the  sun.     Let  E  be  the 

earth,  M  the  moon  revolving  in  her  orbit 
round  the  earth,  E  S  the  direction  of  the  sun, 
and  let  us  suppose  all  the  solar  rays  which 
illuminate  the  moon  to  proceed  in  straight  lines 
parallel  to  S  E.  The  moon  is  an  opaque  body 
like  the  earth,  and  is  visible  only  in  conse- 
quence of  reflecting  the  light  of  the  sun.  When 
she  comes  to  the  meridian,  therefore,  about  tlie 
mme  time  with  the  sun,  that  is,  when  she  is  at 
M,  she  must  bo  invisible,  on  account  of  the 
unenlightened  side  being  turned  towards  us. 
It  is  then  s.aid  to  be  new  moon :  and,  in  refer- 
ence to  her  position  with  regard  to  the  sun,  the 
moon  is  said  to  be  in  conjunction.  Again, 
when  the  moon  comes  to  the  meridian  about 
midnight,  that  is,  when  she  is  at  m,  she  is  said 
to  be  in  opposition,  and  in  that  position  she 
presents  an  entire  circular  disc;  because  the 
whole  of  the  enlightened  side  is  then  turned 
towards  the  earth.  It  is  then  said  to  be  full 
moon.  At  any  point  of  her  orbit,  between  the 
points  of  conjunction  and  opposition,  the  moon 
turns  more  or  less  of  her  enlightened  side  towards  the  earth,  occording  to  her  angular  dis- 
tance Irom  the  sun,  and  presents  exactly  the  same  appearances  as  an  opaque  spherical  body, 
of  which  one  side  is  illuminated,  would  exhibit,  if  viewed  from  a  distance,  and  in  the  same 
positions  in  which  tho  moon  is  seen  from  the  earth.  After  the  conjunction,  as  soon  as  she 
lias  emerged  sufficiently  from  the  solar  rays,  she  is  seen  in  the  western  sky,  after  sunset,  in 
the  form  of  a  Crescent,  as  at  M',  having  the  convex  side  turned  towards  the  sun,  and  the 
poncave  bounded  by  an  elliptic  line.  On  every  succeeding  night  the  luminous  part  increases, 
while  the  elliptic  boundary  continually  approaches  to  a  straight  line.  On  the  seventh  night 
from  the  time  of  new  moon,  the  moon  reaches  tiie  position  M",  where  her  distance  from  the 
sun  is  90°:  she  is  then  said  to  be  in  her  first  Quadrature,  and  exhibits  tho  appearance  of 
HALF  moon ;  that  is,  the  disc  is  a  semicircle.  The  enlightened  part  still  continuing  to 
increase  on  the  same  side,  tlie  rectilineal  boundary  of  the  semicircular  disc  passes  again 
into  an  elliptic  line,  and  the  moon  becomes  oibbovs,  as  at  M'":  on  all  sides  the  disc  is  con- 
vex, though  it  docs  not  become  entirely  fiill  orbed  until  she  reaches  tiie  point  of  opposition, 
at  m,  about  the  end  of  seven  days  from  the  time  of  half  moon.  From  tho  instant  of  opposi- 
tion the  moon  begins  to  return  to  the  sun  on  the  wostom  side ;  and  in  her  progress  towards 
the  conjunction  she  goes  throuch  the  same  series  of  changes  in  an  inverted  order,  becoming 
first  gibbous,  as  at  m' ;  then  haif  moon  at  ttie  time  when  she  reaches  the  position  m",  her 
second  quadrature ;  then  a  crescent,  as  at  m'",  which,  continually  diminishing,  at  last  dis- 
appears altogether.  Thus,  on  the  supposition  tliat  the  moon  is  an  opaque  body  and  nearly 
-spherica),  and  that  she  revolves  in  an  orbit  round  the  earth,  the  phenomena  of  her  phases 
ure  easily  explained. 


i 


Boob  I. 


PHASES  OF  THE  MOON. 


W 


Strictly  Bpeaking,  tlie  moon  is  not  exactly  00  donees  distant  fVom  tho  sun  when  ahe  pro* 

■enta  Uio  appuarance  of  half  moon.  This  phaais 
occurs  at  tho  momunt  when  tho  moon  ia  in  such  a 
position  that  two  straight  lines  drawn  from  her 
centre, — the  one  to  the  centre  of  the  earth,  tho 
other  to  tho  centre  of  the  sim, — form  a  right  angle. 
By  observing,  therefore,  the  moon's  distance  mini 
tlie  sun,  at  the  instant  when  the  boundary  between 
tho  enlightened  and  dark  part  exactly  bisects  tho 
lunar  disc,  we  should  have  in  the  right^ngled  tri- 

anglo  S  M  F  tlie  angle  at  F ;  and  hence,  since  the 

Hide  F  M  is  also  known,  S  F,  the  distance  of  tho  sun  may  bo  determined.  This  was  the 
first  method  employed  for  flnding  the  sun's  distance  from  the  earth ;  but,  from  the  nicety  of 
the  observations  required,  it  cannot  bo  expected  to  lead  to  any  very  satisfactory  result 

To  a  spectator  un  tlic  moon  the  earth  must  evidently  exhibit  a  series  of  changes  similar 
to  the  lunar  phases  as  seen  from  the  earth.  At  the  time  of  conjunction  the  moon  is  on  the 
illuminated  side  of  tho  earth,  so  that  the  earth  must  then  appear,  as  seen  from  the  moon, 
an  entire  circular  disc.  Again,  at  the  time  of  opposition,  the  moon  is  on  the  dark  side  of 
the  earth ;  so  that  the  earth  must  then  be  invisible.  When  tho  moon  is  seen  as  a  crescent, 
the  earth  will  appear  gibbous ;  and  when  the  moon  appears  gibbous,  the  earth  will  bo  seen 
as  a  crescent. 

The  fact  of  tlie  earth  appearing  to  a  spectator  on  the  moon  an  entire  luminous  disc,  at 
the  time  of  the  moon's  conjunction  with  the  sun,  furnishes  an  explanation  of  a  phenomenon 
with  which  every  one  is  fomiliar.  In  clear  weather,  when  the  moon  is  three  or  four  days 
old,  her  whole  body  is  visible.  The  horns  of  tho  enlightened  crescent  appear  to  project 
beyond  the  old  moon  as  if  they  were  part  of  a  sphere  of  considerably  larger  diameter  than 
the  unenlightened  part.  Now,  the  port  of  the  moon  not  directly  illuminated  by  the  sun  is 
seen  by  tho  light  reflected  from  the  eartli.  The  appearance  of  a  lucid  bow,  connecting  the 
horns  of  the  crescent,  is  produced  by  the  circumstance  of  the  eastern  edge  of  the  moon's 
disc  being  more  luminous  tlian  the  adjacent  regions  towards  the  centre.  Witli  regard  to 
the  enlightened  crescent  appearing  a  portion  of  a  larger  sphere,  this  is  an  optical  deception, 
and  furnishes  a  remarkable  proof  that  of  two  objects  of  equal  magnitude,  but  of  different 
degrees  of  brightness,  tho  brighter  appears  larger. 

A  lunation  or  lunar  month  is  formed  by  the  time  that  elapses  between  one  new  moon 
and  another.  It  consists  of  29''  12'  44°"  3*  nearly ;  and  therefore  exceeds  tlie  period  of  her 
mean  sidereal  revolution,  which  is  27"  7*  43°'  11^'.  This  excess  arises  from  tho  proper 
motion  of  the  sun  in  the  ecliptic ;  for  it  ia  evident  that  the  period  in  which  the  moon  goes 
through  all  her  phases  must  be  equal  to  the  time  required  to  describe  360°,  with  an  angular 
velocity  equal  to  the  difference  between  angular  velocities  of  moon  and  sun. 

Cycle  of  the  moon.  In  19  Julian  solar  years  there  are  23.'>  lunations,  and  about  one 
hour  and  a  half  more.  Hence,  alter  19  years,  the  conjunctions,  oppositions,  and  other 
aspects  of  tlie  moon  recur  on  the  same  days  of  the  month,  and  only  about  an  hour  and  a 
half  sooner.  This  period  is  accordingly  called  the  Cycle  of  the  Moon,  and  has  been 
found  of  so  much  use  in  adjusting  the  lunar  to  the  solar  year,  in  order  to  know  the  time  of 
new  and  full  moon,  and  to  determine  the  time  of  Easter,  and  other  moveable  feasts,  that  tl'>: 
numbers  of  it  have  been  called  Golden  Numbers.  The  year  of  our  Saviour's  birth,  accoi  I 
ing  to  the  vulgar  era,  was  the  first  year  of  the  lunar  cycle :  hence,  to  find  the  golden 
number,  or  the  current  year  of  that  cycle,  we  must  add  one  to  the  yeor  of  Christ  for  which 
the  golden  number  is  requured,  and  divide  the  sum  by  19 :  the  quotient  will  be  the  number 
of  cycles  which  have  elapsed  since  the  birth  of  Christ,  ond  the  remainder  will  be  the  golden 
iinmber  or  current  yeor  of  the  cycle. 

The  epact  is  the  difference  between  the  solar  and  lunar  periods  at  the  end  of  each  year, 
or  the  moon's  age  on  the  first  of  January.  Since  the  Julian  solar  year  is  365''  6\  and  the 
lunar  year,  or  twelve  lunations,  3.54''  8''  48"  36',  if  we  suppose  new  moon  to  have  happened 
on  the  first  of  January,  so  that  the  epact  for  that  year  is  0,  it  follows  that  the  epact  for  the 
next  succeeding  year  will  be  10''  Ql""  11"  24",  or  nearly  11  days.  For  the  third  yeor,  the 
epact  will  be  nearly  22  days.  For  the  fourth  year  it  will  be  3S  days,  or  (rejecting  30  days 
for  a  complete  lunation)  3  days,  and  so  oa 

The  annexed  table  contains  the  golden  num- 
bers with  the  corresponding  enacts  adapted 
to  the  Gregorian  calendar,  till  the  year  1900. 
The  epact  for  each  month  of  the  year  is,  in 
like  manner,  the  moon's  age  on  the  first  day 
of  the  month,  supposing  new  moon  to  have 
happened  on  the  first  of  January. 


GoMm 
Nujiibera. 

Epacti. 

OoMtn 
Nuniben. 

Cpactl. 

r.olJni 
.Numbtn. 

Epuli. 

I 

0 

vm. 

17 

XV. 

4 

II. 

11 

IX. 

28 

XVI. 

15 

III. 

92 

X. 

9 

XVII. 

36 

IV. 

3 

XI. 

SO 

XVIII. 

7 

V. 

14 

XII. 

1 

XIX. 

18 

VI. 

25 

XIII. 

13 

I. 

0 

VII. 

6 

XIV. 

!i3 

1 

m 


i  1'! 


!l't 


I' — 


leo 


PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


pax-c  n. 


ii; 


t- 


The  eptcta  for  the  montha  of  the  common  and  leap  year  aro  ait  followa :— 


Jin. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

r 

May. 

Junn. 

July. 

Aug. 

Bon. 

Oct. 

Nov, 

Deo. 

Common  year 

0. 

1, 

«, 

«. 

3. 

4, 

«, 

:' 

7, 

«, 

U. 

Leap  ynt 

0, 

1, 

1. 

3, 

3. 

4, 

a, 

«, 

8. 

". 

lU 

10. 

It  is  evident  that  the  moun'a  age  will  be  tuund  by  adding  to(^thcr  the  opact  of  tho  year, 
the  epect  of  the  month,  and  the  day  of  the  month,  rejecting  tliirty  if  tho  auiii  amount  to  tliat 
number.  Thua,  if  it  ia  required  to  And  the  moon'8  af^o  on  tho  11th  November  ISItO;  by 
adding  1  to  1620  and  dividing  by  19,  wo  obtain  a  rcmamder  6,  which  is  Uio  golden  number 
for  the  year  1829.  Now,  against  VI.  in  the  table,  wo  find  !25  tor  the  cpact  ot  the  year,  and 
9  ia  the  epact  for  November:  hence  25  +  9+11  — 30  =  15,  which  ia  Uie  moon's  age ;  ao 
that  the  moon  ia  flill  on  that  day. 

The  lunar  cycle  of  19  years,  though  remarkably  simple,  ia  however  far  from  being  accu- 
tate.  Nineteen  yeara  contain  about  an  hour  and  a  half  more  than  235  lunations ;  so  tliat  at 
the  termination  of  that  period  the  moon  has  odvanced  about  an  hour  and  a  half  in  tho  next 
lunation.  This  error  amounta  to  a  day  in  tho  course  of  16  cycles,  or  about  300  years.  But, 
to  compenaate  this  ezcesa,  the  epacta  may  be  advanced  one  day  every  300  years,  and  in 
thia  manner  the  lunar  and  solar  periods  will  bo  made  to  agree.  In  consequence  of  her 
apparent  motion  eastward,  the  moon  ia  about  48  minutes  later  oiler  every  diurnal  revolution 
of  coming  to  the  meridian.  Aa  48  minutea  ia  equal  to  *  of  an  hour,  an  approximation  ia 
made  to  Uie  time  of  her  southing,  by  multiplying  her  age  by  4,  and  dividing  Ly  5.  Thia 
gives  tho  time,  nearly,  before  or  after  noon,  according  aa  the  moon  is  post  tlie  opposition  or 
coniunctioa 

The  time  of  her  rising  and  setting  ia  affected  by  the  aame  cause.  In  one  part  of  the 
orbit,  however,  thia  ia  in  a  great  measure  counteracted  hy  the  smallncss  of  tho  angle  which 
the  orbit  makes  with  the  horizon.  For  facilitating  tho  illustration  of  this  phenomenon,  let 
ua  auppoae  the  moon  to  move  in  the  ecliptic,  from  which  slie  never  deviates  much  more 
than  5°.  By  turning  round  the  celestial  globe,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  ecliptic  makes  with 
the  horizon  very  different  angles,  aa  the  pointa  of  their  intersection  vary,  If  the  first  point 
vf  Aries  be  broujght  to  coincide  with  tho  east  point  of  the  liorizon,  the  angle  wliich  the 
ecliptic  makes  with  the  horizon  is  equal  to  tiiu  difference  of  the  obliquity  of  tho  ecliptic  and 
the  complement  of  the  latitude :  but  if  the  first  point  oi  Libra  be  brought  into  coincidence 
with  the  east  point,  the  angle  between  the  ecliptic  and  the  horizon  is  equal  to  the  sum  of 
the  obliquity  und  the  complement  of  the  latitude.  When  the  moon  is  in  Pitces  or  Aries, 
her  motion  m  her  orbit  will  therefore  produce  a  considerable  change,  each  succeeding  night, 
on  the  distance  between  the  east  and  the  point  of  rising,  but  the  time  of  rising  will  not  be 
much  afibcted,  The  reverse  will  be  the  case  when  the  moon  ia  in  Virgo  or  Libra.  Hence 
it  ia  obvious  that  in  every  lunation,  at  a  certain  time,  tlie  moon  must  rise  nearly  at  the  some 
hour  for  several  days  togetlicr.  This  phenomenon,  however,  for  tlie  most  part,  passes  unob- 
served ;  but  in  the  harvest  season  it  attractii  attention,  as  being  tlien  much  more  coniipicuous 
than  at  anv  other  time  of  tlic  year.  In  the  autumnal  months  the  moon  is  full  in  tlie  signs 
Pisces  and  Aries,  (the  sun  being  at  that  season  m  the  opposite  signs  Virgo  and  JAbra,)  and 
on  that  account  rises  an  entire  orb  (or  nearly  so)  for  about  a  week,  almost  at  the  time  of 
sunset,  thus  alTording  a  supply  of  li^ht  very  beneficial  to  the  husbandman,  in  gathering  in 
the  iruita  of  the  earth.  This  lunation  has  accordingly  been  distinguished  by  the  name  of 
the  BAKvnr  moon. 

The  inclination  of  the  moon's  orbit  to  the  ecliptic,  makes  the  harvest  moon  rise,  more  or 
leas,  nearly  at  the  same  time  that  she  would  if  she  moved  in  the  ecliptic,  according  to  the 
poeition  of  the  line  of  the  nodes.  If  we  suppose  the  ascending  node  to  be  in  Aries,  the 
moon's  orbit  makes  with  the  horizon  an  angle  upwards  of  5°  less  than  the  angle  which  the 
ecliptic  makes  with  it,  and  consequently  the  harvest  moon  will  rise  more  nearly  at  the  same 
time  than  if  the  moon  had  been  in  the  ecliptic.  In  a  little  less  than  9J  years,  however,  the 
line  of  the  nodes  will  have  made  half  a  revolution,  and  the  descending  node  will  be  in  Aries. 
The  moon's  orbit  will  then  make  with  tlie  horizon  an  angle  more  than  5°  greater  than  that 
which  the  ecliptic  makes  with  it ;  and,  consequently,  the  harvest  moon  will  not  rise  so  nearly 
at  the  same  time  as  if  tlic  moon  had  been  in  the  ecliptic. 

The  quantity  of  moonlight  which  we  emoy  in  winter  is  much  greater  than  in  summer. 
As  the  moon  is  always  on  the  same  side  of  tho  heavens  witli  the  sun,  at  the  time  of  new 
pioon,  and  on  the  opposite  side  at  the  time  of  full  moon ;  it  is  evident  that  at  midsummer  the 
moon,  when  seen  as  a  crescent,  will  rise  at  a  point  of  tlic  horizon  to  the  north  of  east,  and 
set  at  a  point  to  the  north  of  west,  and  will  be  seen  high  in  the  heavens  when  she  passes 
tlie  meridian.  As  she  approaches  full  moon,  however,  she  will  rise  farther  and  farther  to  the 
aouth  of  east,  will  appear  low  in  the  heavens  when  on  the  meridian,  and  will  set  farther  and 
&rther  to  the  south  of  west.  The  reverse  takes  place  at  mid-winter :  the  moon  is  low 
when  seen  as  a  crescent,  and  rises  higher  and  higher  in  the  heavens  as  she  approaches  full 
moon.  She  also  rises  to  the  south  of  east  when  a  crescent,  and  sets  to  the  south  of  west ; 
but,  when  full,  rises  and  sets  to  the  north  of  these  points.  Thus  the  great  quantitv  of  moon- 
light during  the  long  nights  of  winter  arises  from  the  moon  being  full  in  tlie  northern  eigm 


It 


%' 


Book  I. 


PHASES  OF  THE  MOON 


m 


to  the 
erand 
is  low 
es  full 
west ; 
moon- 
.  signn 


of  the  pr.liptic,  and  is  analogous  to  that  of  MiinHhino  in  tho  long  days  of  lummcr.  As  wn 
approach  tliu  pole,  the  mmntity  nf  moonlit;lit  in  wiritor  bccmnos  still  morn  rctnarkahin ;  luiil 
at  tht<  iKilu  itHclt',  nt  mi«l-winter,  thn  nioondoos  nut  set  liirtitlcun  days  toj^ethor,  nainoly,  frum 
tiie  tirHt  to  tho  last  quarter. 

TliP  liiimr  (line  is  (livorsitind  with  a  (frcnt  viirioty  of  npots,  which  aro  miito  permanent,  bn( 
dlller  very  coiwidorubiy  tVom  each  other  in  doKTees  <>t  bri)rhtness.  TlieHO  inp(|uiilitii3S  of 
ilhiminntion  aro  visiUo  to  tho  naked  eye.  Hinco  the  discovery  of  tho  telescope  tin  y  have 
entfajfod  the  porticiilnr  attention  of  Heveral  nstronomers,  by  whom  llioir  relative  |x>Niti()iiH 
have  been  careftilly  ancertained,  and  laid  down  in  maps  of  the  lunar  surface.  From  iin 
attentive  examination  of  the  li|rhts  and  shades  seen  on  tho  moon's  disc,  it  has  boon  inferred 
that  her  surface  is  very  irref^ular,  being  diversified  by  lolly  mountains,  prceipitnus  r(H-l(M,Hn(l 
deep  caverns.  The  existence  of  these  irrcf^ularitics  of  surface  is  strikin|;ly  evitlent  from  the 
serrated  appearance  of  the  line  which  separates  tho  enlijrhtnned  firom  the  dark  (lart  of  the 
moon,  and  by  a  variety  of  briji^ht  detached  spots,  almost  always  visible  on  tho  dark  part  and 
near  the  line  of  separation  between  liirht  and  darkness.  These  bright  spots  aro  the  tops  of 
mountains  illuminated  by  the  sun,  while  his  rays  have  not  yet  reached  tho  bottom  of  the 
intervening;  valleys.  Tho  dark  spots  of  the  moon  are  smooth,  and  apparently  level,  while 
the  luminous  parts  are  elevated  regions,  which  either  rise  into  high  mountains  or  sink  into 
deep  and  immense  cavities.  The  (general  smoothness  of  the  dark  spots  naturally  led  to  the 
conclusion  that  they  were  collections  of  water ;  but  moro  careful  observation  has  made  it 
appear  that  the  line  which  separates  the  enlightened  from  the  dark  part  of  tho  moon  is  not 
smooth  and  regular,  even  when  it  passes  over  a  dark  spot ;  so  that  there  is  no  reason  to  sup- 
pose tliat  there  is  any  largo  collection  of  water  in  the  moon :  and  this  conclusion  is  8trcn|)rth- 
ened  by  the  constant  serenity  of  her  appearance,  which  seems  undisturbed  bv  any  of  those 
atmospherical  phenomena  which  arise  on  our  globe  fhmi  the  existenco  of  water.  The 
mountainous  scenery  of  the  moon,  and  more  especially  the  immense  caverns  with  which  her 
surface  is  broken,  bear  little  analogy  to  what  we  see  on  the  surface  of  the  earth.  The 
resemblance  may,  however,  be  conceived  to  be  considerably  increased  if  all  the  waters  of 
the  earth  were  removed,  and  tho  beds  of  the  ocean,  seas,  and  lakes  were  led  dry  with  all 
the  inequalities  of  their  surfaces  exposed  to  view.  The  earth  would  then  be  diversified,  not 
only  with  the  rocks  and  mountains  now  seen  upon  its  surface,  but  likewise  with  deep  caverns 
of  immense  extent,  and  having  detached  mountains  and  rocks  rising  fiom  the  bottom,  similar 
to  the  cavities  discovered  in  the  moon.  From  certain  light  spots  which  have  sometimes 
been  seen  on  the  dark  prt  of  the  moon,  at  such  a  distance  from  the  enlightened  portion 
that  they  could  not  arise  from  the  light  of  the  sun,  astronomers  have  inferred  the  existence 
of  volcanoes  in  the  moon.  Dr.  Herschel,  in  particular,  two  or  three  difTorcnt  times,  observed 
such  spots. 
Tho  height  of  a  lunar  mountain  may  be  measured  by  the  following  method.     Let  D  A  R 

be  a  section  of  the  moon  made  by  a  plane  passing 
through  O,  the  eye  of  an  observer  on  the  earth,  M  the 
summit  of  a  mountain  situated  in  the  dark  part  of  the 
lunar  disc,  and  S  the  sun.  It  is  evident  that  this  plane 
will  be  perpendicular  to  the  line  which  joins  the  horns 
:  of  the  moon.  Let  D  A  be  the  arch  of  the  circle 
J)  A  F,  which  passes  ovev  ihe  visible  portion  of  the 
enlightened  hemisphere.  Whenever  the  point  M  bo- 
comes  visible  to  a  spectator  at  O,  it  must  be  illumi- 
nated by  a  ray  of  the  sun  S  A  M,  which  will  be  a 
tangent  to  the  circle  D  A  F  at  the  point  A,  and  there- 
fore at  right  angles  to  the  diameter  A  F.  Produce 
O  M  to  meet  the  diameter  D  E  in  m,  and  draw  A  r 
and  A  n  parallel  to  D  E  and  M  m ;  also  produce  E  D  to  meet  S  M  in  C.  Because  DAE 
is  a  section  of  that  hemisphere  of  the  moon  which  is  turned  towards  the  earth,  the  visual 
ray  O  M  m  is  perpendicular  to  D  E :  hence  the  angles  wi  M  C,  M  C  m  are  together  equal 
to  two  right  angles.  But  because  C  A  is  perpendicular  to  A  B,  the  angles  ABC  and  A  C  B 
(or  M  C  »n)  are  also  together  equal  to  two  right  angles :  whence  it  is  evident  that  the  angle 
m  M  C  is  equal  to  A  B  C ;  and  that  tho  triangles  A  M  r,  A  B  n  are  similar.     We  have, 

therefore.  An:  AB  =  Ar:  AM.    Hence  A  M  = r • 

An 

Now,  A  r  is  the  projection  of  A  M  on  the  lunar  disc,  and  will  be  found  by  measuring, 
with  the  micrometer,  m  a  direction  perpendicular  to  a  line  joining  the  horns  of  the  moon. 

An 
the  distance  of  the  illuminated  summit  M  from  the  enlightened  disc  at  A ;  also  ips"  Sin. 

^  A  B  C,  radius  being  unity,  the  angle  A  B  C  is  equal  to  S  M  m  the  moon's  distance  or 

A  r 


!; ' 


. 


1'^ 


1  ^] 


i 


elongation  from  Uie  sun 


wherefore  we  obtain  A  M 
9* 


Sin.  elongation 


I  a  given  quantity. 


^  v^ 


Hi 


I   if 


PRINCII>I£8  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Past  II. 


Next,  lot  A  O  II  bo  a  noction  of  tlin  inunn  modn  by  it  plonn  pamiini;  n\(mg  tim  tanir<'nt  A  M, 
and  tlirouffli  thn  contro  K :  draw  M  K  G ;  then,  by  a  wuU-kiiown 
proiMTtv  of  tlio circle,  A  M'  -  O  M  X  M  il  =  M  H  X  ((}  II  +  II  M). 
or,  II AI  binng  much  «nmllor  than  G II,  wu  have  A  M  ^  =  M II  X  G II, 

A  M' 
and  M  H  =  qjt  nearly.  Now,  A  M  and  G  II  aro  both  given ;  there- 
fore II  M,  the  hoiglit  of  the  mountain  above  the  general  aurtiico,  may 
be  dotcrminod. 

Suppow,  for  example,  that  when  tlio  a|>|Mront  diameter  of  tlio 
moon  iH  31'  15",  and  nor  okinaation  (Vom  the  lun  03°  &7i',  the  dii- 
tance  between  Uie  onlishtoneJ  part  of  her  dine,  and  the  tiimmit  of  a 
mountain  aituatmi  in  the  dark  part  of  it  ia  found  to  be  4lVi  And  let 
it  bo  required  thence  to  detcrmmo  tho  height  of  the  mountain. 

The  diameter  of  the  moon  ia  about  2180  .niloH;  hence  31'  15"  or  1875":  4U"  =  2160: 

Ar  =  48-25 


48*25,  which  ia  the  number  of  mileii  in  41^"  on  tho  lunar  dine ;  ao  that  wo  have 
miloH, 


Ar 


Affain,  tho  Nat  Sin.  of  the  elongation  08°  57J  =  "0076 }  therefore  A  M  =  Sin  elongation 


~  0076 


=  48-30  milos. 


Lastly.    The  height  =  AJ!!' 
'  OH 


(48-36)-^ 
"  2180 


=  107  mile. 


Thus  the  height  of  the  lunar  mountain  in  question  ia  found  to  bo  about  a  mile.  The 
principle  now  explained  is  correct  in  theory ;  but  witli  regard  to  the  results  obtained  iVom 
tho  practical  application  of  it,  a  greater  diflbronce  of  opinion  exists  than  might  have  been 
expected.    These  results  are,  however,  highly  curious  and  interesting. 

itfoon*«  motion  round  the  earth.  The  moon's  surface,  when  viewed  through  a  telescope, 
ia  so  strongly  characterised  by  tho  spots  visible  upon  it,  as  to  leave  no  doubt  of  ita  bemg 
always  tho  same.  From  this  the  intereiico  ia  obvious,  since  wc  are  certain  from  tho  moon's 
motion  round  the  earth,  that  she  must  revolve  on  an  axis  nearly  perpendicular  to  tlie  plane 
of  her  orbit  in  tho  same  time  that  she  revolves  about  tho  earth,  namely  in  27^  days  nearly. 
Her  rotation  on  her  axis  is  equable ;  but  this  is  not  the  case  with  her  motion  in  her  orbit, 
which  is  periodically  variable :  and  hence  there  are  parts  of  the  eastern  and  western  edges 
of  tho  moon  which  are  seen  occasionally.  This  appcaninco  ia  ciillod  the  libration  or  tub 
HooN  IN  LONGITUDE.  It  is  entirely  optical,  and  argues  no  inequality  in  tlie  moon's  motion 
on  her  axis. 

The  moon's  axis  of  rotation  is  not  altogether  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  her  orbit,  but 
inclined  to  it  at  an  angle  of  88°  20'  40".  In  consequence  of  this  position  of  her  axis  her 
poles  are  alternately  visible,  and  a  small  portion  of  tho  polar  regions;  this  phenomenon  is 
called  the  libration  or  the  moon  in  latitude. 

The  diurnal  libration  of  the  moon  is  another  optical  appearance  arising  from  tho  moon 
being  viowed  from  the  surface  instead  of  the  centre  of  the  eartli.  At  rising,  a  part  of  the 
western  edge  is  seen,  which  is  invisible  at  setting;  and,  at  setting,  a  part  of  tho  eastern 
edge  is  seen,  which  is  invisible  at  rising. 

The  explication  of  the  lunar  phases  leads  to  that  of  Eclipses — those  occasional  obscura- 
tions of  the  sun  and  moon  which  have,  in  ages  of  ignorance,  been  objects  of  superstitious 
terror  to  mankind,  and  at  all  times  objects  of  curiosity  to  the  philosopher.  At  the  time  of 
new  moon,  the  moon  is  upon  the  same  side  of  tho  heavens  with  tlie  sun,  but,  fur  the  most 
part,  passes  either  above  or  below  the  solar  disc  without  obscuring  any  part  of  it.  This 
arises  from  her  orbit  being  inclined  to  the  ecliptic :  for  it  is  evident  that  if  the  planes  of  the 
orbit  and  ecliptic  coincided,  tho  centres  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  earth  would,  at  every  nev 
moon,  bo  in  the  same  straight  line ;  so  that  the  moon  would  bo  seen  to  pass  over  tho  sun's 
disc,  and  the  sun  would  appear  to  bo  totally  or  partially  eclipsed,  according  to  the  position 
of  an  inhabitant  upon  the  earth's  surface.  Again,  at  the  time  of  fiill  moon,  tho  moon  is  on 
the  opposite  side  of  the  heavens  from  tho  sun ;  and  therefore  she  is  on  the  same  side  of  the 
heavens  with  the  shadow,  which  the  earth,  as  an  oparpic  body,  projects  into  space.  In  most 
cases,  however,  the  moon  passes  above  or  Mov/  this  conical  shadow;  so  that  she  is  not 
deprived  of  tlie  sun's  niys.  But  if  the  plane  of  tho  orbit  coincided  with  that  of  the  ecliptic, 
the  centres  of  tho  sun,  moon,  and  earth  would  evidently  1)0  in  the  same  straight  line  at  every 
full  moon  as  well  as  at  ovory  new  mixin :  the  mnon  would  thorpfnro  fiill  into  tho  earth's 
shadow,  iiiid  would  be  eclipsed  to  all  the  inhabitants  on  that  side  of  the  earth  which  is  turned 
towards  tlio  moon  nt  the  time. 

Though  the  inclination  of  tho  lunar  orbit  to  tlic  ecliptic  prevents  tho  occurrence  at  every 
now  and  full  moon  of  these  phenomena,  there  aro  certain  distances  from  the  nodes  of  the 
moon's  orbit,  called  ecliptic  limits,  within  which,  if  the  moon  is  situated  at  the  time  of 
now  or  full  moon,  there  will  be  a  solar  or  lunar  eclipse. 


i^y  •'#. 


*  * 


Bom  I. 


ECUPBE8. 


loe 


uarth  s 
i turned 


To  illuatnto  thft  Kenoral  phonomnnn  of  lunar  eclipaci.    IjBi  A  D,  D  E  be  Mctiom  of  the 
fun  tnd  oarth,  by  a  planu  iwrpeiidiculur  to  tlio  planu  of  llio  ecliptic.    Dnw  A  V,  B  V  touchin(( 


?^ 


the  circlet  A  B,  D  B  on  the  corri'spondinif  Bidoe  in  E  and  D,  and  meeting  each  other  in  V : 
alio  draw  D  O,  A  H,  tiiuchinK  tlieflo  circlci  on  tho  oppuwitn  Hidoa  in  M  onu  N.  Then,  if  wc 
auppoao  tho  figuro  A  B  H  O  to  revolve  about  tlio  lino  C  F,  which  joins  the  centre*  of  the 
circle*,  BH  an  axiii,  tlio  cone  (generated  by  the  lino  E  V  represonta  the  ihadow  which  tho 
earth  projects  into  space ;  and  iVom  every  pint  of  that  conical  shadow  tho  livht  of  the  sun 
is  entirely  excluded.  The  spaces  between  E  V,  M  O,  and  between  D  V,  N  If,  will  receive 
the  light  of  a  part  of  tlie  sun ;  and  hoiice  tho  space  round  tlie  shadow,  which  ia  generated  by 
tho  motion  of  tho  lines  O  M,  E  V,  is  called  tho  pbnviibra. 

Join  C  E.  It  in  evident  that  the  angle  E  V  F  is  equal  to  the  difference  of  the  angles 
A  E  C,  E  C  F.  But  A  E  C  is  tho  angle  under  which  tho  sun's  semidiametcr  is  seen  mm 
the  earth ;  and  E  C  F  is  the  angle  under  which  the  earth's  semidiametcr  is  seen  fVom  the 
Hun.  Both  of  thoHO  angles  being  hiM)wn,  their  diflcrence  E  V  F  is  a  given  angle.  Now,  in 
the  right  ang1e<l  triangle  E  V  F  wo  have  given  the  angle  at  V,  and  tlie  side  E  F,  which  in 
the  earth's  semidiaineter :  hence  F  V,  tho  height  of  the  earth's  shadow,  may  be  determined. 
The  height  of  tiie  shadow  varies  fi-nm  'ilU  to  2ii0  seniidiamctnrs  of  tho  earth. 

Again,  lot  F  O  be  the  distance  of  tho  motjn  fl-om  tho  cnrth :  draw  K  O  L  perpendicular 
to  P  V,  and  join  F  I*  The  angle  L  F  O,  under  which  the  somidiameter  of  tho  section  of 
the  earth's  shadow  is  seen  from  tho  earth,  is  equal  to  the  ditrorenco  of  tlio  angles,  F  L  E, 
F  V  L.  But  F  L  E  is  the  angle  under  which  tho  somidiameter  of  the  earth  is  seen  fVom  the 
moon,  and  F  V  L  is,  as  has  been  shown,  equal  to  tho  difl'erenco  lietween  tho  angle  under 
which  the  sun's  scniidiaroetor  is  seen  from  tho  earth,  and  tlio  anglo  under  which  the  earth's 
seniidianietor  is  seen  from  tlie  sun:  hence,  to  find  tlie  angle  under  which  the  section  of  tho 
earth's  shadow  through  which  tho  moon  passes  in  a  lunar  eclijise  is  seen  IVom  tho  earth, 
we  must  add  together  tlie  two  angles  under  which  the  semidiametcr  of  tho  earth  appears 
when  seen  firuin  the  sun  and  moon,  and  fVom  the  sum  subtract  the  sun's  apparent  semi- 
diameter,  the  remainder  is  tho  angle  required.  The  angle  L  F  O,  when  greatest,  is  about 
46':  but  the  inclination  of  the  lunar  orbit  to  tho  ecliptic  is  upward  of  fi''.  and  to  this  distance 
the  moon  may  recede  from  the  ecliptic.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  an  eclips«<  itf  the  moon 
can  tako  place  only  when  she  is  near  her  nodes. 

Let  tho  cwcle  A  H  B  be  tho  section  of  tho  earth's  shadow  at  tho  moon;  A  B  a  portion 
af  the  ecliptic,  and  D  F  a  portion  of  the  moon's  orbit  near  the  ascending  node.  Draw  C  (i 
fVom  the  centre  of  the  shadow,  (which  must  be  the  noint  of  the  ecliptic  directly  opposite  the 
sun,)  perpendicular  to  A  B,  and  let  it  meet  D  F  in  U ;  thon  G  is  the  point  of  opposition  at 
which  tho  moon  will  be  180  degrees  of  the  ecliptic  distant  from  the  sun.    Now,  in  moving 

from  D  to  G,  the  moon  must  enter  the  earth's  shadow, 
and  will  therefore  be  eclipsed.  The  beginning  of  the 
eclipse  will  bo  the  moment  that  she  enters  on  the  shadow 
at  K :  the  middle  of  the  eclipse  will  be  the  moment  when 
her  centre  reaches  the  point  E,  the  extremity  of  the  per- 
pendicular drawn  from  C  to  D  F;  and  the  end  of  the 
eclipso  will  be  tho  moment  when  she  leaves  the  shadow 
at  the  point  L  The  portion  of  the  moon's  disc  that  is 
obscured  will  depend  on  tlie  distance  between  E  and  C, 
which  will  vanish  when  tlie  point  of  the  opposition  coin- 
cides with  tho  node.  It  is  evident  that  Iind  the  eclipso 
happened  on  the  other  side  of  tho  node,  tho  opposite  edge  of  the  moon  would  have  been 
immersed  in  the  shadow. 

In  eclipses  there  are  various  degrees  of  immersion.  When  this  is  entire,  it  is  soid  to  be 
total;  when  only  a  part  of  the  moon  is  immersed,  the  eclipse  is  said  to  be  partial;  and 
when  the  centre  of  the  moon  passes  througii  tho  centre  of  the  shadow,  the  eclipse  is  said 
to  be  r«n/r«/ and /ofol.  The  breadth  of  the  shadow  at  the  moon  is  about  three  times  her 
diameter,  so  that  in  the  cat<c  of  a  total  central  eclipse,  the  moon  may  be  entirely  obscured 
for  nearly  two  hours. 


iS 


I 


'1 


:i: 


•I'!    .i- 


^"^ 


I  /> 


104 


PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  II 


Tho  time  when  eclipses  shall  httppeii  may  be  computed  from  the  luws  which  regulate  the 
motiurii  of  tho  Hun  aim  moon.  This  computution  requires  astronomical  tablc.«,  and  is  per- 
ftirmeil  with  considerable  labour.  But  it  may  be  observed  that  in  22;)  lunations,  or  18 years 
10  duys  (or  11  days  according  as  tbur  or  five  leup  years  occur  in  tlie  interim),  7  houM 
4<)  inllititeB,  tho  moon  returns  to  tlie  same  position  nearly  with  regard  to  the  sun,  and  the 
luniir  nodes,  and  therefore  the  eclipses,  will  return  nearly  in  the  same  order  and  circum- 
Nlitncis,  'J'iiis  is  tiiought  to  be  the  period  called  tlie  Clialdcan  Saros,  being  used  by  the 
( 'hitldeaiiH  in  predicting  eclipses. 

When  it  is  known  that  a  lunar  eclipse  is  to  happen,  it  is  easy  to  compute  its  general  cir- 
MiiimtJincee.  The  distance  of  the  moon  from  the  ecliptic  at  opposition,  the  time  of  opposi- 
tliin,  the  angles  under  which  tlie  eartli's  semidiumetcr  is  seen  at  the  sun  and  moon,  qlso  tlie 
lippiifont  diameters  of  these  two  hur'naries,  are  known  from  tlie  tables.  In  the  right  angled 
frliin^io  CEO  we  have  given  C  G,  and  the  angle  G  C  E,  which  is  equal  to  the  inclination 
•A'  the  in(xtn's  orbit  to  the  ecliptic,  nearly ;  lience  we  find  C  E  and  E  G.  From  C  E  and 
<  J  F,  tlio  HUm  of  tiio  semidiameters  of  the  section  of  tlie  earth's  shadow  and  the  moon,  we 
(Iml  E  F,  which  is  equal  to  E  D;  thence  D  G,  G  F  become  known.  We  can  compute  from 
tllo  tabloa  tho  angular  motion  of  the  moon  in  her  orbit  relatively  to  the  sun,  the  latter  body 
beliijf  Wjpposed  at  rest.  Her  motion  relatively  to  the  opposite  point  C  is  evidently  the  same : 
liondo  we  can  determine  the  time  of  describing  D  G  and  G  F;  that  is,  the  time  that  elapses 
bfltweon  tho  bcginnmg  of  the  eclipse  and  the  opposition,  and  between  the  opposition  and 
thti  end  of  tho  eclipse.  But  the  time  of  the  opposition  is  known,  therefore  the  times  of  the 
t)«tf  Itinittg  and  end  of  the  eclipse  will  also  be  known. 

For  cfltimntin^  the  quantity  of  on  eclipse,  the  diameter  of  the  solar  or  lunar  disc  is  con- 
ceived to  be  divided  into  twelve  equal  paris  called  dioith  ;  and  according  to  the  number  of 
thow  parts  which  are  obscured,  so  many  digits  are  said  to  be  eclipsed. 
Lit  It  be  Btipposed  that  the  edge  of  the  moon's  disc  just  touches  the  edge  of  the  section 

of  the  eartli's  shadow  at  P,  and  that  at  the  same  time 
the  diameters  of  the  moon  and  shadow  are  each  at  the 
maximum,  and  we  shall  find  the  ecliptic  limit  for  lunar 
eclipses.  Produce  E  D  and  B  A  to  meet  in  N :  then 
N  C  is  the  limit  of  the  distance  of  the  node  from  the 
opposition  at  which  an  eclipse  can  happen.  Since  the 
line  in  wliich  tiie  centre  of  the  moon  moves  (whicli  for 
a  short  distance  may  be  considered  as  a  straight  line) 
must  be  supposed  parallel  to  tho  tangent  to  the  circle 
A  P  B  at  the  point  P,  the  angle  at  E  is  a  right  angle. 
The  angle  N,  is  the  inclination  of  the  lunar  orbit  to  the 
eellptle !  also  C  E  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  semidiameters  of  the  moon  and  shadow. 
]{@IIC0  iVom  tho  spherical  triangle  C  E  N,  C  N  may  be  determined;  and  is  found  to  be 
Hlxitit  lU",  UnlesB  wiien  the  node  and  the  point  of  opposition,  which  are  both  liable 
U>  cuntiniinl  change  of  position,  come  within  this  distance,  there  cannot  possibly  be  a 
iuiiitr  (^cllpKe. 

('it'".i1ation  of  longitude.  The  penumbra  makes  it  very  difficult  to  observe,  with  pre- 
finltm,  tho  beginning  or  end  of  a  hmar  eclipse;  so  that  though  these  periods  may  be  em- 
plitvod  fur  determining  the  longitude  of  places  on  tlie  earth,  no  great  degree  of  accuracy  is 
U)  m  cxpcvhn],  The  best  method  is  to  note  t!ie  time  of  the  arrival  of  the  boundary  of  the 
fihttdtiw  tit  the  different  ipots  on  tlie  lunar  surface,  which  may  be  considered  as  so  many 
dilfrffnt  observations. 

Tlio  tfiooti  seldom  disappears  entirely  in  lunar  eclipses,  but  is  seen  of  a  dusky  red  colour : 
«'Vt'n  tho  iipofs  on  the  lunar  surface  may  be  distinguislied  through  the  shade.  This  effect  is 
to  hp  (tltrihtited  to  a  portion  of  the  sun's  light,  whicli  enters  the  conical  shsulow  in  conse- 
qiiflifo  of  iK^ing  refracted  by  tho  atmosphere  of  the  earth.  The  nature  and  effects  of  atmos- 
|ill"flfnl  reffnrtion  will  afterwards  be  explained. 

J'Vli|W«  of  tho  Pini.  With  regnrd  to  the  general  phenomena  of  solar  eclipses,  we  may 
'»e((ill  with  remarking,  that  when  the  sun's  light  is  intercepted  by  the  moon,  so  that  at  any 
plltcn  (III  the  enrth's  surface  he  becomes  partly  or  wholly  invisible,  properly  speaking,  it  is 
ftn  I'flipjio  nf  lliHt  portion  of  the  earth  on  which  the  moon's  shadow  or  penumbra  tails. 

Till'  i>eini"nngIo  at  tho  vertex  of  the  moon's  shadow  is  determined  in  a  similar  manner 
f«  tllNt  nn  which  the  semi-angle  at  Uie  vertex  of  the  earth's  shadow  was  found.  It  is  equal 
to  tho  difll'reiico  of  tho  angles  under  which  the  semi-<liameters  of  the  sun  and  moon  would 
l»n  piocn,  if  onrh  of  these  bodies  were  viewed  from  the  other  at  the  time  of  their  conjunc- 
tion ;  flhil  will  thorofore  not  be  very  fur  from  being  equal  to  the  apparent  semi-dinmotor  nf 
tllo  WIIM  ttf>  pvrn  from  tho  eurth.  Computing,  then,  tlin  longfli  of  tho  conical  shiulow  of  the 
moon,  Wo  pIiiiII  find  it  viiry  from  about  fi(l^  to  Twi  semi-dianicters  of  tho  earth.  Tlio  length 
of  llio  |i|iii(lnw  (it  tho  time  m  tho  ronjnnction  miiy  tlierofbre  at  one  time  exceed,  null  at 
(Hiollii'f  tiim-  (lill  short  of  the  moon's  distance  from  the  earth,  which  varies  from  (i-l  to  .")0 
•*Pftli'illiiiiii'lor9,     In  the  former  case,  if  tho  conjunction  happen  when  the  moon  is  witliin  a 


M 


i 


4 


Book  I. 


ECLIPSES. 


'* 


105 


certain  diBtancc  of  the  node,  the  lunar  shadow  will  reach  tlic  eartli,  and  a  section  of  it  will 
traverse  a  portion  of  the  earth's  surface,  producing,  wherever  it  falls,  a  total  eclipse  of  the 
sun. 

Whenjvcr  tlie  penumbra  falls,  the  sun  will  appear  partially  eclipsed ;  more  or  fewer 
digits  being  eclipsed  according  as  the  place  is  less  or  more  removed  from  the  shadow, 
Beyond  the  penumbra  tiie  sun  is  not  eclipsed  at  all.  The  section  of  the  lunar  shadow  is  so 
near  tlie  vortex,  tiiat,  even  wiien  greatest,  the  portion  of  the  eartli's  s'lrface  which  it  covers 
is  not  very  extensive,  being  only  about  180  miles  in  diameter :  the  penumbra,  however 
extends  over  a  considerable  part  of  that  hemisphere  of  the  earth  which  is  turned  towards 
tlie  sun.  A  total  eclipse  in  any  place  cannot  exceed  7'  58".  If  tlie  vertex  of  the  lunar 
shadow  just  reaches  the  surface,  tlie  total  eclipse  then  produced  will  be  instantaneous. 

When  the  vertex  of  the  lunar  shadow  foils  short  of  the  earth's  surfoce,  at  no  place  will 
there  be  a  total  eclipse :  but  at  places  near  the'  axis  of  the  cone,  there  will  be  seen  an 
ANNULAR  eclipse ;  that  is,  the  central  parts  of  the  sun's  disc  will  be  obscured,  but  a  bright 
ring  will  be  left,  visible  round  the  dark  body  of  tlie  moon.  Thus  let  A  B,  C  I)  be  sections 
of  the  sun  and  moon  and  V  the  vertex  of  the  lunar 


l; 


colour : 
fToct  is 
conse- 
atmos- 

'e  may 
at  any 

it  is 

lanner 
equal 
•oulil 
njunc- 
tor  of 
nf  tlif 
cngth 
ii(i  iit 
to  TiO 
Ithin  a 


w 


shadow  which  is  supposed  not  to  reach  the  earth.  Produce  F  V  the  axis  of  the  shadow  to 
meet  the  surface  of  the  earth  in  E.  From  E  draw  E  C  G,  E  D  H  tangents  to  the  moon, 
and  intersecting  the  sun's  disc  in  G  and  H.  The  circle  of  which  the  line  joinmg  G  H  is 
the  diameter,  marks  out  the  portion  of  the  sun  that  is  hid  by  the  body  of  the  moon  from  an 
observer  at  E,  and  the  annulus,  of  which  the  breadth  is  A  G,  will  be  visible. 

The  general  circumstances  of  a  solar  eclipse  may  be  represented  by  projection ;  and  a 
map  may  be  constructed  to  show  the  progress  of  the  shadow  over  the  surface  of  the  earth. 
The  most  simple  projection  is  that  which  supposes  the  observer  to  be  placed  in  the  sun,  and 
to  see  the  path  which  any  place  on  the  earth's  surface  describes  in  consequence  of  the 
diurnal  nio*.ion  projected  into  an  e'.lipse  on  the  plane  of  the  earth's  disc,  while  the  path  of 
the  moon's  sliadow  is  projected  into  a  straight  line  on  the  same  disc.  The  geometrical  con- 
struction thus  obtained  is  sufficiently  accurate  for  the  prediction  of  eclipses. 

The  circumstances  of  a  solar  eclipse  may,  however,  be  computed  with  considerable  accu- 
racy. Thus,  find  for  the  given  place,  from  the  tables,  the  time  of  the  conjunction  of  the 
sun  and  moon.  The  position  of  the  lieavenly  bodies  in  reference  to  the  ecliptic  is  deter- 
mined by  latitude  and  longitude,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  position  of  a  place  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth  in  reference  to  the  equator.  Find,  then,  for  the  time  of  the  conjunction, 
the  latitude  and  longitude  of  the  moon,  and  apply  to  them  the  small  change  produced  by 
the  spectator  being  placed  on  the  surface  instead  of  the  centre  of  the  earth ;  a  change 
whicli  depends  on  the  angle  which  the  earth's  .=omidiameter  subtends  at  the  sun  and  moon 
at  the  time :  this  will  give  us  the  apparent  latitude  and  longitude  of  the  moon  as  seen  on 
the  concave  surface  of  the  heavens.  Compute  from  these  and  the  longitude  of  the  sun, 
that  is,  his  distance  from  the  first  point  of  Aries,  tlie  apparent  distance  of  the  centres  of  the 
sun  and  moon  at  the  instant  of  conjunction ;  whence  we  may  nearly  conclude  tiie  time  of 
the  beginning  and  ending  of  tiie  eclipse,  by  taking  into  account  the  apparent  horary  motion 
of  the  moon  in  latitude  and  longitude  at  tiie  time  of  conjunction,  computed  from  the  tables. 
About  the  conjectured  time  of  the  beginning  of  tiie  eclipse,  compute  two  or  three  opparent 
latitudes  and  longitudes  of  the  moon,  and  thence,  combined  with  the  longitude  of  the  sun, 
the  apparent  distances  of  the  centres.  From  these  results  the  time  may  be  computed  by 
proportion  when  the  apparent  distance  of  the  centres  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  apparent 
semi-diameters,  that  is,  the  time  of  the  beginning  of  the  eclipse. 

The  magnitude  also  of  the  eclipse  at  any  time  may  be  thus  determined :  let  S  E  {fg.  28.) 
be  the  computed  apparent  diflbrcncc  of  longitude  of  the  centres  S,  M,  of  the  sun  and  moon,  and 
M  E  the  computed  apparent  latitude  of  the  moon.  In  the  right-angled  triangle  M  E  S,  we 
have  therefore  given  the  two  sides  to  find  the  hypothenuse  M  S,  which,  being  known,  we 
obtain  m  n  the  eclipsed  part  of  the  sun :  for  m  n—S  w+M  n — M  S. 

The  eclintic  limits  of  the  sun  may  be  determined  in  the  following  manner:  lot  S  and  M 
(29— ;^^>'.  1.;  be  the  sun  and  moon,  seen  from  E  the  centre  of  the  earth  at  the  moment  of  con- 
junction ;  that  is,  when  their  centres  arc  in  the  same  circle  S  B  perpendicular  to  the  ecliptic. 
Lot  the  aiisrlo  «  E  b,  formed  by  tangents  drawn  from  E  to  the  adjacent  edges  of  tiie  solar 
and  lunar  discs,  be  equal  to  the  greatest'  difference  between  the  true  place  B  and  apparent 

Vol.  I  O 


<'|l 


•U;:    M 


m 


111! 


7)f    » 


^ 


109 


principij:s  of  geography. 


Paet  n. 


ill* " 


I 


place  m  of  tlie  moon,  which  can  arise  from  her  being  viewed  from  the  surface  instead  of  tlie 
centre  of  the  earth.  It  is  not  difficult  to  see  that  this  difference  will  be  greatest  when  the 
moon  is  in  the  horizon,  and  that  its  effect  will  be  to  depress  her  altitude.  The  distance  of 
the  sun  is  so  great,  that  wo  may  at  present  consider  his  true  and  apparent  place  as  coinci- 
dent. Suppose  now  an  observer  on  tlie  eartli's  surface  at  A,  whoso  horizon  is  at  right  angles 
to  S  B,  to  have  the  moon  in  his  horizon  at  the  moment  of  conjunction ;  it  is  evident  tiiat  to 
him  the  two  discs  would  appear  to  be  in  contact:  but  to  an  observer  on  any  other  point  of 
the  earth's  surface,  the  discs  would  appear  asunder.  In  the  moment  of  conjunction,  tliere- 
fore,  the  penumbra  must  have  just  touched  the  earth  at  the  point  A ;  and  when  the  centres 
of  the  sun  and  moon  approach  nearest  to  each  other  before  or  after  tlic  conjunction,  it  will 
spread  over  a  very  small  portion  of  the  earth's  surface  near  A,  so  as  to  produce  barely  an 
ucli]iBe.  Hence  the  distance  of  the  sun  from  the  node  at  the  time  of  conjunction  will  be 
the  solar  ecliptic  limit,  nearly.  In  the  right-angled  spherical  triangle  S  m  N  (_Jig,  2.)  let 
N  S  be  a  ]x)rtion  of  the  ecliptic,  and  N  »n  a  portion  of  tlie  moon's  orbit,  N  being  tiie  node,  and 
let  the  perpendicular  S  m  be  equal  to  S  m  in^^.  1.  The  arc  N  S  is  the  ecliptic  limit  required : 
and  to  find  it,  we  have  given  tiio  angle  at  N  equal  to  the  inclination  of  tiie  moon's  orbit  to  the 
ecliptic,  and  S  m  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  apparent  diuiiicters  of  the  sun  and  moon  together 
with  the  angle  6  E  a,  which  is  e(iual  to  B  M  »n  or  A  M  E,  the  angle  subtended  by  the  semi- 
diamotor  of  the  earth's  disc  as  seen  from  the  moon.  The  angle  N  and  the  perpendicular 
S  tn  being  known,  the  base  N  S  is  easily  determined.  The  three  quantities  to  the  sum  of 
which  S  m  is  e(iual,  are  variable  in  their  values.  Taking  for  S  m  the  sum  of  the  semi- 
diameters  of  the  solar  and  lunar  disc,  and  of  the  disc  of  the  earth  as  seen  from  the  moon 
when  tiiey  are  greatest,  we  find  S  N  equal  to  17°  12'  nearly.  But  if  S  m  be  made  equal 
to  the  sum  of  the  semidiameters  when  they  are  least,  S  N  is  found  to  be  nearly  equal  to 
16°  19'.  Within  tlie  former  of  these  limits  an  eclipse  of  the  sun  may  happen,  within  the 
latter  it  must  happen. 

If  the  moon's  apparent  diameter  be  greater  than  or  equal  to  that  of  the  sun,  the  eclipse 
will  be  total  wherever  the  lunar  shadow  Bills.  But  if  the  sun's  apparent  diameter  be  greater 
than  that  of  the  moon,  the  eclipse  will  be  annular  within  the  lunar  shadow. 

Number  of  eclipses.  The  ecliptic  limits  of  the  sun  taken  on  each  side  of  the  node,  give 
an  arc  of  the  ecliptic  exceeding  30°,  so  that  the  sun  will  be  more  than  a  month  in  passing 
through  these  limits.  Hence  there  must  be  two  eclipses  of  the  sun  every  year.  Since  the 
ecliptic  limits  of  the  moon,  however,  taken  on  each  side  give  an  arc  only  of  about  2.3°,  and 
since  through  this  portion  of  the  ecliptic  the  sun  passes  in  less  than  a  month,  there  may  be 
no  eclipse  of  the  moon  in  the  course  of  a  year. 

When  a  total  and  central  eclipse  of  the  moon  happens,  there  may  be  an  eclipse  of  the 
sun  at  tlio  preceding  and  following  conjunctions,  because  between  new  and  full  moons  the 
sun  describes  only  about  1.5  degrees  of  the  ecliptic,  so  that  each  conjunction  may  happen 
within  tiie  solar  ecliptic  limits.  The  snr  j  may  take  place  at  the  opposite  node:  there  may 
therefore  ho  six  eclipses  in  the  coiir.se  of  a  year.  The  retrogradation  of  the  node  at  the 
rate  of  20°  yearly  renders  it  possible,  when  the  first  eclipse  of  the  year  luipp(>na  early  in 
January,  that  another  eclipse  of  the  sun  may  occur  in  the  end  of  the  year.  On  the  whole, 
there  may  bo  seven  eclipses  in  the  course  of  one  year;  live  of  tlio  sun,  and  two  of  the  moon: 
and  there  never  can  be  fewer  than  two,  but  though  more  s-olar  eclipses  hiippm  than  lunar, 
there  are  fewer  of  the  former  visible  than  of  the  latter;  beciiuse  a  lunar  t'cli])si'  is  visible  at 
every  place  on  the  earth  which  is  turned  towards  the  moon  diirin;^  its  contiiiuiinne ;  hut  in 
a  solar  eclipse  the  sun  continues  visible  at  all  places  over  wliicli  tin;  penuinlira  docs  not  pass. 
The  greatest  (lossiblo  duration  of  the  annular  appcaraiiro  of  a  solar  ncli|)S('  is  12  '  21",  and 
the  greatest  possible  time  during  which  the  sun  can  be  wholly  obscun^d  is  7"'  .")8'. 

Ah  the  l)eginning  and  end  of  a  solar  eclipse  can  be  observed  with  considenible  ncruracy, 
they  are  usefiil  for  determining  the  longitude,  though  the  method  which  they  furnish  is 
complex  and  laborious. 


i       i 


■  wr 


Part  11. 


Book  I. 


ECLIPSES. 


I9t 


lead  oftlte 
I  when  the 
liiitance  of 
>  as  coinci- 
ight  angles 
lent  that  to 
ler  point  of 
lion,  there- 
the  centres 
lion,  it  will 
e  barely  an 
lion  will  be 
[Jig.  2.)  let 
10  node,  and 
litrecjuired: 
1  orbit  to  the 
3on  together 
by  the  semi- 
orpendicular 
)  the  sum  of 
of  the  semi- 
m  the  moon 
made  equal 
irly  equal  to 
within  the 

the  eclipse 
•  be  greater 

node,  give 
in  passing 
Since  the 
lout  23°,  and 
here  may  be 

clipsc  of  the 
ill  moons  the 

may  Iiappen 
there  may 

node  at  the 
pens  early  in 

II  the  whole, 

of  tlin  moon : 
11  tlian  lunar, 
is  vit^iWe  at 

inco ;  but  in 

oi's  not  pass. 

12  '  21",  and 

iKTuracy, 
ev  furnish  ia 


Effects  of  atmospherical  refraction  and  parallax.  In  the  preceding'  explanation  of  solar 
eclipses  wc  have  had  occasion  to  refer  to  the  etfects  of  atmospherical  refraction;  also 
to  the  diU'orence  between  the  apparent  places  of  the  sun  and  moon,  called  their  parallax, 
produced  from  tiieir  being  viewed  from  the  surface  instead  of  the  centre  of  the  earth. 
Before  leaving  this  subject,  we  shall  state  a  little  more  fully  the  ofl'ects  arising  from  these 
causes. 

Atmospherical  refraction.  The  earth  is  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  an  aeriform  elastic 
fluid,  which  is  called  the  atmosphere.  This  fluid  possesses  weight,  and  is  compressible ; 
and  hence  the  parts  near  the  surface  of  the  earth  are  more  dense  than  those  above  them,  on 
account  of  the  greater  superincumbent  pressure  which  they  sustain.  The  same  thing  holds 
true  of  every  stratum  when  compared,  m  reference  to  density,  with  that  immediately  below 
it;  so  that  from  the  surface  upwards  the  density  gradually  diminishes,  at  a  few  miles'  eleva- 
tion  becomes  very  small,  and  at  some  point  may  be  considered  as  altogether  evanescent. 
Now,  it  is  a  well  known  principle,  that  if  a  ray  of  light,  after  passing  through  one  medium 
(air,  for  instance),  enters  another  (say  water)  of  a  difl^erent  density,  in  a  direction  not  per- 
pendicular to  its  surface,  it  is  bent  out  of  its  course  towards  the  perpendicular  to  tiie  surface  on 
which  the  ray  is  incident,  if  the  second  medium  is  the  denser  of  the  two;  hut  from  that  per- 
pendicular if  the  second  medium  is  the  rarer.  In  passing  through  the  atmosphere,  tiieretore, 
a  ray  of  light  will  be  continually  deflected  from  the  rectilineal  into  a  curvilineal  path ;  be- 
cause at  every  point  of  its  course  it  is  entering  a  medium  of  a  greater  density.  The  ray  is 
said  to  be  refracted ;  and  as  the  tangent  draws  from  tlie  eye  to  the  curve  which  it  describes 
is  the  direction  in  which  celestial  objects  appear,  it  follows,  that  refraction  renders  the  appa- 
rent altitude  of  all  tlie  heavenly  holies  greater  than  the  true.  Hence  Uiey  often  appear 
above  the  horizon  when  they  are  actually  below  it. 

The  deviation  of  the  refracted  ray  from  its  original  course  increases  with  the  angle  of 
incidence,  and  vanishes  when  the  direction  of  the  ray  is  perpendicular  to  the  surface  of  the 
second  medium.  Hence  atmospherical  refraction  is  greatest  when  the  object  is  in  the 
horizon,  where  it  may  be  about  84' :  at  45°  altitude,  it  is  about  57^" :  in  tlic  zenith  it 
vanishes. 

Whatever  alters  the  density  of  the  atmosphere  must  affect  also  its  refractive  power.  In 
all  accurate  observations,  therefore,  the  state  of  the  barometer  and  thermometer  must  be 
taken  into  account.  At  the  same  zenith  distances,  the  quantity  of  refraction  varies  nearly 
as  the  height  of  the  barometer,  supposing  the  temperature  to  remain  the  same.  The  effect 
of  a  variation  in  the  temperature  is  to  diminish  the  (juantity  of  refraction  about  ^jfth  part  for 
every  increase  of  one  degree  in  the  height  of  the  thermometer. 

In  passing  through  the  atmosphere  light  is  reflected  as  well  as  refracted.  The  reflective 
power  of  tlie  atmosphere  produces  the  splendour  of  day  by  diffusing  light  in  every  direction. 
Combined  with  its  refractive  power,  it  causes  that  faint  light  called  twilight,  which  is  per- 
ceived before  sunrise  and  after  sunset ; — ^beginning  in  the  morning  in  our  latitude,  and  end- 
ing in  the  evening,  when  the  sun's  depression  below  the  horizon  is  about  18°.  Various 
other  phenomena  are  to  be  attributed  to  the  same  cause :  the  red  and  orange  colour  of  the 
morning  and  evening  clouds  ;  the  ruddy  appearance  of  all  the  heavenly  bodies  when  near 
the  horizon ;  the  blue  colour  of  the  sky  ;  and  the  bright  azure  of  the  distant  mountains,  are 
all  the  effects  of  tlie  refiractive  powers  of  the  atmosphere. 

Refraction  is  also  the  cause  of  the  oval  appearance  of  the  sun  and  moon  when  near  the 
horizon.  The  diameter  of  the  disc  that  is  parallel  to  the  horizon  remains  unaffected  in  its 
apparent  lennrth,  because  both  extremitio.i  are  equally  refracted ;  but  the  diameter  perpen- 
dicular to  the  horizon  is  shortened  by  about  jtii  of  its  length,  because  the  lower  edge  of  the 
dLsc,  being  nearer  the  horizon,  is  refracted  nearly  five  minutes  more  than  the  upper. 

The  great  ■  apparent  magnitude  of  the  sun  and  moon  when  in  the  horizon  is  another 
remarkable  phenomenon  whicli  we  may  here  notice.  Tliis  illusion,  which  is  altogether 
optical,  is  usually  accounted  for  on  tiiis  principle,  that  we  form  an  erroneous  judgment 
respecting  the  distances  of  these  bodies  when  they  are  in  the  liorizon,  compared  with  their 
distances  when  they  have  attained  a  considerable  elevation.  When  we  see  the  moon,  for 
example,  in  the  heavens  at  a  considerable  altitude,  we  intuitively  suppose  her  nearer  than 
when  she  is  in  tlie  horizon ;  because,  in  the  latter  case,  we  see  a  multitude  of  objects, — 
many  of  thorn  at  great  distances,  and  the  moon  beyond  tliem  all ;  but,  in  the  former  case, 
we  have  no  intervening  objects  by  which  to  form  an  estimate  of  her  distance.  The  angle 
under  whicli  she  is  sepn  being  nearly  the  same,  we  infer  a  greater  magnitude  when  wo 
imagine  tlio  distance  greatest,  that  is,  when  the  moon  is  in  tiie  iiorizon.  Sucli  is  the  error 
into  wliicii  we,  in  this  instance,  fall,  in  tiie  rapid  judgments  of  the  mind  respecting  magni- 
tude and  distance  connected  with  vision.  The  more  deliberate  conclusion  on  this  subject 
drawn  by  reason  is,  tliat  the  moon  must  indeed  be  at  a  greater  distance  from  an  observer  on 
the  earth,  wlion  she  is  in  his  horizon,  than  when  she  is  in  or  near  his  zenith ;  but  that,  how- 
over  tiio  eye  may  be  doeoivcd,  her  apparent  diameter  must,  when  exactly  measured,  be  found 
leas.    This  is  accordingly  the  case ;  for,  when  accurately  measured  with  the  micrometer, 


:-t 


m 

rill 


i  ■ 

If 

Mm 

I'v 

m 

.- '^ 

f^M 

'■; 

^' 

m 

.j 

H 

HI' 
! 


r' 


■,^ 


108 


PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  II. 


'U 


i\ 


I;    «. 


the  iriiwn's  apparent  diameter,  when  she  is  in  the  horizon,  ia  actually  found  to  be  less  than 
when  she  has  attained  a  considerable  altitude. 

Parallax.  We  have  formerly  sliown  that,  in  comparison  with  the  distances  of  the  fixed 
stars,  the  earth  is  but  as  a  point  in  the  universe ;  so  tliat  tlicir  positions  in  the  heavens  appear 
the  same  when  viewed  from  the  earth's  surface,  as  they  would  if  they  wore  viewed  from 
its  centre.  This,  however,  is  not  the  case  with  regard  to  the  sun,  moon,  and  planets.  At 
each  of  these  bodies  the  earth  presents  a  disc  of  an  appreciable  magnitude:  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  tlieir  positions  among  the  fixed  stars,  when  viewed  from  difiercnt  points  of  the 
surface  of  the  earth,  vary,  and  are  diflferent  from  what  they  would  be  were  they  seen  from 
the  centre  of  the  earth. 

Let  A  B  E  (Jig.  30.)  be  the  earth,  C  its  centre,  and  M,  M",  M'  (a  heavenly  body,  for 
example)  the  moon  in  the  sensible  horizon,  the  zenith,  and 
any  intermediate  position.  The  true  places  of  tlie  moon  in 
these  positions,  as  seen  from  the  centre  C,  and  referred  to  the 
starry  heavens,  will  be  m,  m",  m! ;  and  their  apparent  places, 
as  seen  from  B,  will  be  n,  m",  n'.  It  is  evident,  that  in  the 
zenith  the  true  and  apparent  places  coincide,  so  that  there  is 
no  parallax.  In  the  horizon  the  parallax  is  greatest:  it  is 
measured  by  the  arc  m  n,  and  is  equal  to  the  an^le  B  M  C, 
under  which  the  semidiameter  of  the  earth's  disc  appears 
when  viewed  from  the  moon.  At  the  intermediate  position 
M'  the  parallax  is  measured  by  the  arc  m'  n' ;  it  is  less  than 
in  the  horizon,  and  decreases  as  the  body  ascends  until  it 
vanishes  when  the  body  reaches  the  zenith.  From  the  horizon 
to  the  zenith,  parallax  diminishes  the  apparent  altitude  of  a 
body ;  but  as  the  altitude  increases,  this  diminution  becomes  less  and  less.  Its  effect,  there- 
fore, is  contrary  to  that  of  refraction,  which  always  increases  tlie  apparent  altitude  of  a  body. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

MOTION  OF  THE  PLANETS  ROUND  THE  SUN. 

The  phenomena  of  the  motions  of  tlie  other  planets  differ  from  those  of  the  moon,  which, 
as  we  have  shown,  are  all  easily  accounted  for,  on  the  supposition  tliat  the  moon  revolves 
round  the  carth'in  an  elliptic  orbit,  subject  to  various  changes ;  whicli  ore  confined,  how- 
ever, within  certain  limits.  The  attempts  which  the  ancient  astronomers  made  to  explain 
the  celestial  phenomena,  by  supposing  the  earth  to  be  the  centre  of  the  universe,  introduced 
a  system,  the  ptolgmaio,  which  was  received  for  about  1500  years,  as  affording  tlie  true 
explanation  of  tlie  planetary  motions ;  but  which  tiie  progress  of  scientific  discovery  has 
proved  to  be  absurd.  Ptolemy,  an  astronomer  of  Egypt,  who  flourished  about  140  years 
after  the  Christian  era,  supposed  the  planets  to  revolve  about  the  eorth  in  the  following 
order ;  viz.  the  Moon,  Mercury,  Venus,  the  Sun,  Mars,  Jupiter,  Saturn.  Beyond  the  region 
of  the  planets  he  placed  the  sphere  of  the  fixed  stars.  While  he  thus  accounted  for  the 
proper  motions  of  tiie  planets  from  west  to  east,  he  conceived  the  whole  to  be  carried  round 
the  earth  by  a  diurnal  motion,  in  the  opposite  direction,  in  twenty-four  lionrs.  Tlie  irregu- 
larities of  the  planetary  motions, — these  being  sometimes  direct,  at  other  times  retrograde ; 
sometimes  swift,  and  at  other  times  slow, — were  imagined  by  him  to  arise  from  cacli  planet 
moving  in  a  small  circle,  called  an  epicycle,  whose  centre  was  carried  round  a  larger 
circle,  called  the  deferent,  having  the  earth  placed  a  little  to  the  one  side  of  its  centre. 
The  motions  in  these  circles  he  imagined  to  be  produced  by  the  revolution  of  transparent 
globes ;  eacli  planet  being  supposed  to  be  attached  to  a  globe,  which  carried  it  round  in  its 
epicycle ;  and  this  globe  again  supposed  to  be  contained  in  the  shell  of  another  globe  of 
sufficient  thickness  to  receive  it  within  its  solid  substance,  and  to  allow  it  to  revolve  on  its 
own  centre,  at  the  same  time  that  it  was  carried  in  the  deferent  round  the  earth. 

Setting  aside  the  obvious  objections  to  this  theory,  arising  from  the  extravagance  of  the 
suppositions,  as  well  as  the  awkwardness  and  complication  of  the  machinery  which  it  em- 
plovs,  an  insuperable  difficulty  remains;  viz.  that  the  whole  system  is  entirely  hypothetical, 
and  offers  no  proof  of  the  existence  of  the  agents  to  which  it  attributes  such  mighiy  effects. 
It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that  instead  of  being  confirmed  by  subsequent  discoveries,  it 
fell  to  the  ground  as  soon  as  the  true  method  of  investigating  the  laws  of  nature  was  under- 
stood and  adopted. 

Of  the  planets,  two.  Mercury  and  Venus,  always  accompany  the  sun,  never  receding  from 
him  beyond  certoin  limits :  the  rest  are  seen  at  oil  possible  angular  distances  from  the  sun.  Let 
us,  then,  fix  upon  Venus  as  the  most  conspicuous  of  the  two  wliich  accompany  the  sun,  and 
upon  Mars  as  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  among  tiiose  whirh  lecede  to  oil  angular  distances 
from  him;  and  by  trocing  out  the  opparent  motions  of  tliese  planets,  let  us  endeavour  to 
ascertain  the  centre  olwut  wliicli  thoy  revolve. 


^ 


Part  II. 

e  less  than 

of  the  fixed 
vens  appear 
•iewed  from 
(lanets.  At 
and,  on  the 
loints  of  the 
y  seen  from 

ily  body,  for 
'  zenith,  and 
the  moon  in 
ferred  to  the 
irent  places, 
that  in  the 
that  there  is 
eatest:  it  is 
n^\e  B  M  C, 
disc  appears 
iate  position 
,  is  less  than 
;ndB  until  it 
n  the  horizon 
altitude  of  a 
effect,  there- 
de  of  a  body. 


moon,  which, 

oon  revolves 

bnfined,  how- 

ie  to  explain 

introduced 

ing  tlie  true 

iscovery  has 

140  years 

followiniy 

the  region 

nted  for  the 

rried  round 

Tlie  irregu- 

retrograde ; 

each  planet 

nd  a  larger 

its  centre. 

transparent 

round  in  its 

ler  globe  of 

volve  on  its 

I, 

ranee  of  the 
liich  it  em- 
ypothetical, 
hiy  effects, 
scoveries,  it 
was  under- 
ceding  from 
lie  sun.  Let 
lie  sun,  and 
ar  distance.s 
ndeavour  to 


Book  I. 


MOTION  OF  THE  PLANETS  ROUND  THE  SUN, 


100 


When  the  planet  Venus  is  near  the  sun,  siie  is  invisible ;  bat  a  lion  she  has  emerged 
sufficiently  from  his  rays,  she  is  seen  in  the  twilight  of  the  morning  or  evening,  accordmg 
as  she  is  to  tlie  west  or  east  of  tlie  sun.  In  the  former  case  slic  is  the  murninu  stah  ;  in  the 
latter,  the  evknino  star.  Wlien  she  begins  to  be  seen  in  the  evening,  site  is  found  to  be 
receding  from  the  sun  towards  the  east,  and  thus  disengaging  herself  more  and  lucre  from 
his  rays.  Having  readied  her  greatest  angular  distance,  or  elongation,  which  is  from  45° 
to  48°,  she  begins  again  to  approach  him,  and  continues  to  do  so  till  her  angular  distance  is 
about  28°.  During  all  this  time  her  motion  is  direct,  that  is,  in  the  order  of  the  signs ;  but 
now  she  becomes  stationary,  and  in  a  short  tune  she  is  seen  moving  in  a  direction  contrary 
to  the  order  of  the  signs,  and  has  thus  acquired  a  retrograde  motion ;  but  still  she  continues 
to  approach  the  sun,  until  in  a  short  time  she  is  lost  in  his  light.  Afler  being  iiivisible  for 
about  six  weeks,  she  is  again  seen ;  but  now  in  the  morning  to  the  west  of  the  sun,  emerging 
from  the  solar  rays.  Her  motion  is  still  retrograde ;  but  when  she  has  reached  about  28° 
distance  from  the  sun,  she  again  becomes  stationary ;  and  in  a.  short  tune  resumes  a  direct 
motion,  receding  from  him  iifght  alter  night,  until  her  angular  distance  exceeds  Ao°.  She 
then  returns  to  the  sun ;  is  for  a  time  lost  in  his  rays ;  and  at  lengtli  is  seen  in  the  evening 
to  the  east  of  the  sun,  to  repeat  the  some  round  of  phenomena.  While  Venus  thus  appears 
to  have  on  oscillatory  motion  to  the  east  and  west  of  the  sun,  she  is  found,  when  viewed 
through  a  telescope,  to  present  phases  exactly  similar  to  those  of  the  moon,  the  illuminated 
portion  being  always  turned  towards  the  sun.  VVc  may  hence  infer  that  Venus  is  an  opaque 
body,  and  shines  in  consequence  of  reflecting  the  solar  light.  At  the  same  time  her  apparent 
diameter  also  varies,  its  variations  having  an  evident  relation  to  the  position  of  the  planet 
with  regard  to  the  sun.  The  diameter  appears  least  when  the  planet  is  about  to  be  immersed 
in  the  rays  of  tlie  sun  in  the  morning,  or  immecliately  after  her  emerging  from  them  in  the 
evening.  On  the  other  hand,  it  appears  greatest  when  she  is  about  to  be  lost  in  the  solar 
rays  in  the  evening,  or  when  she  emerges  from  them  in  the  morning.  Such  is  a  general 
view  of  the  apparent  motion  of  Venus ;  and  by  attending  to  the  phenomena  which  she  ex- 
hibits, we  are  led  to  the  conclusion  that  she  revolves  round  the  sun.  When  in  the  morning 
she  begins  to  disengage  herself  from  the  solar  rays,  she  is  seen  to  rise  before  the  sun  in  tlie 
form  of  a  crescent;  and  it  is  tiien  that  her  diameter  appears  greatest.  At  that  time,  therefore, 
she  must  be  nearer  to  us  than  the  sun  is,  and  not  tar  from  being  in  conjunction  with  him. 
Her  crescent  increases,  and  her  diameter  diminishes,  as  she  recedes  from  the  sun :  when  she 
has  reached  her  greatest  elongation  and  returns  again  towards  him,  she  continues  to  discover 
to  us  more  and  more  of  her  linlightened  liemisphere,  her  diameter  all  the  time  diminishing, 
until  she  is  lost,  in  the  morning,  in  the  sun's  rays.  At  the  instant  of  her  disappearing, 
Venus  is  seen  as  a  full  disc ;  and  at  tiie  same  time  her  diameter  is  least.  Hence  we  may 
witii  certainty  infer,  that  she  is  then  at  a  greater  distance  from  us  than  the  sun,  and  agaui 
nearly  in  conjunction  with  him.  After  having  remained  for  some  time  invisible,  she  re- 
appears in  the  evening  to  tlie  east  of  tlie  sun ;  and  in  receding  from  and  returning  towards 
him  exhibits,  in  an  inverted  order,  the  same  phenomena,  in  reference  to  the  changes  in  her 
disc  and  apparent  diameter,  which  she  had  presented  when  seen  in  the  morning,  on  the  west 
of  the  sun :  her  enlightened  hemisphere  turns  more  and  more  from  us,  and  her  apparent 
diameter  continually  increases,  until  she  again  disappears,  or  is  seen  as  a  black  spot  traversing 
tlie  disc  of  the  sun. 

From  these  phenomena  only  one  inference  can  be  drawn ;  viz.  tliat  Venus  revolves  in  an 
orbit,  near  the  centra  of  which  the  sun  is  placed.  This  conclusion,  which  rests  on  the  firm 
basis  of  observation,  leads  to  a  natural  and  simple  explanation  of  all  the  peculiarities  of  her 
motion. 

The  planet  Mars,  the  next  to  be  considered,  appears  to  be  carried  round  the  earth  by  a 
motion  which  is.  subject  to  greot  ineciualitics.  When  he  begins  to  be  seen  in  the  morning 
emerging  from  the  solar  rays,  his  motion  is  direct,  and  at  its  greatest  rapidity;  but  it  gradu- 
ally diminishes  until  the  planet's  angular  distance  from  the  sun  is  about  137°.  At  that  time 
it  changes  into  a  retrograde  motion,  whose  rapidity  increases  till  the  moment  that  tlie  planet 
comes  into  opposition  with  the  sun,  or  is  on  the  meridian  at  midnight.  It  is  then  at  its 
greatest  rate,  and  presently  begins  to  decrease,  continuing  to  do  so  till  the  planet  becomes 
stationary  wlien  at  the  angular  distance  of  about  137°  from  the  sun.  The  motion  now 
returns  to  its  direct  state,  after  having  been  retrograde  for  about  seventy-three  days ;  and 
in  that  period  the  planet  describes  an  arc  of  retrogradation  of  about  16°.  Mars  continues 
to  approach  the  sun,  until  he  becomes  immersed  in  his  rays  in  the  evening.  These  pheno- 
mena are  repeated  at  every  opjwsition  of  the  planet,  with  considerable  differences,  however, 
in  reference  to  the  duration  and  extent  of  tlio  retrogradations.  At  different  points  of  his 
course  round  the  iieavens,  the  apparent  dianieter  of  Mars  is  very  different:  it  varies  from 
about  13.3"  to  20.1".     It  is  greatest  wlien  tiie  planet  is  in  opposition  to  tlie  sun. 

The  phenomena  now  described  can  be  satisfactorily  explained  in  no  other  way  but  by  sup- 
posing Mars  to  revolve  round  the  sun.  As  he  recedes  from  tiie  sun  to  all  jxissible  angular 
distances,  the  earth  must  be  situated  within  his  orbit;  but  the  increase  of  his  apparent 
iiameter  as  he  approaches  his  opposition,  and  its  decrease  when  he  approaches  the  sun,  show 

Vol.  I.  10 


■Hi 


110 


PRINCIPLES  OF  'iEOGRAPHY. 


Pabt  IL 


that  Iho  (.';irt)i  is  not  the  centre  of  his  motion.  Before  he  reaches  the  point  of  opposition, 
hia  motion,  from  beinfj^  direct,  Iiccomea  retrograde;  after  the  opposition  it  resumes  its  direct 
state,  wiiou  the  planet  is  at  the  same  distance  from  the  sim,  at  which  he  was  situated  wlien 
tlie  motion  became  retrograde ;  and  it  is  at  the  moment  of  conjunction  that  this  last  motion 
is  most  rapid.  Now,  all  these  circumstances  evidently  indicate  that  tlie  apparent  motion  of 
Mars  is  the  result  of  two  combined  mot iunc,  which  alternately  conspire  with  and  oppose  eacli 
other,  and  of  which  one  depends  on  the  apparent  motion  of  the  sun.  As  we  have  found 
that  Venus  revolves  round  the  sun,  and  accompanies  him  in  his  apparent  annual  motion 
round  tlio  earth,  we  are  led  by  analogy  to  extend  the  same  law  to  Mars,  and  to  conclude  that 
he  al»!o  revolves  in  an  orbit  round  the  sim. 

Tiic  disc  of  Mars  changes  its  figure,  and  becomes  sensibly  oval,  according  to  his  position 
relatively  to  the  sun:  hence  we  may  conclude  that  Mars  is  an  opaque  body,  and  derives  his 
light  from  the  sim. 

Tiic  .same  reasoning  being  applicable  in  the  case  of  the  other  planets,  we  may  extend  to 
all  of  them  the  conclusion  which  we  have  now  established  in  reference  to  Venus  and  Mars, 
— namely,  tliat  tliey  are  opaque  bodies,  and  revolve  about  the  sun  in  orbits  nearly  circular ; 
while  that  luminary  of  the  system  either  describes  or  appears  to  describe  an  orbit  about  the 
earth  in  the  course  of  a  year.  This  general  law,  which  aflbrds  a  simple  aild  complete  expli- 
cation of  the  planetary  motions,  receives  additional  confirmation  from  the  piienomena  of  the 
satellites  of  Jupiter  and  the  ring  of  Saturn;  for  these  phenomena  prove  directly  that  Jupiter 
and  Saturn  revolve  about  the  sun  in  nearly  circular  orbits. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

.MOTION  OF  THE  EARTH  ROUND  THE  SUN. 


The  conclusion  to  which  we  have  now  been  led, — that  all  the  planets  describe  orbits  that 
have  the  sun  near  to  their  centre, — naturally  suggests  the  question,  whether  the  earth  itself 
is  not  subject  to  the  same  law,  and  therefore  to  be  ranked  among  the  planets  which  revolve 
round  the  sun.  With  regard  to  the  celestial  motions,  every  appearance  would  remain  the 
same  to  us,  whether  the  earth  described  an  orbit  round  the  sun,  or  the  sun  with  his  accom- 
panying  planets  revolved  round  the  earth.  To  which  of  these  hypotheses  the  preference  is 
due  will  appear  from  the  following  considerations: — 

The  immense  masses  of  the  sun  and  of  several  of  the  planets,  combined  with  their  great 
distances  from  the  earth,  render  it  much  more  simple  to  suppose  that  the  earth  describes  an 
orbit  round  the  sun,  than  that  the  whole  planetary  system  revolves  round  the  earth.  What 
an  inconceivable  rapidity  of  motion  is  it  necessary  to  a&sign  to  Saturn,  almost  ten  times 
more  distant  from  us  than  the  sun,  or  to  Uranus,  at  about  double  the  distance  of  Saturn,  in 
order  that  these  planets  may  complete  a  revolution  round  the  earth  in  a  year,  at  the  same 
time  that  they  revolve  about  the  sun !  It  is  a  law  which  is  found  to  pervade  the  planetary 
system,  that  the  less  body  revolves  about  the  greater  body  which  is  in  its  neighbourhood ; 
and  by  supposing  the  earth,  in  conformity  with  this  law,  to  revolve  about  the  sun,  which  in 
magnitude  greatly  exceeds  all  the  planets  taken  together,  we  avoid  all  the  complication  and 
rapidity  of  motion  which  follow  from  the  supposition  of  the  eartlj  being  at  rest. 

The  analogy  which  subsists  between  tlie  earth  and  the  planets  confirms  the  hypothesis  of 
the  earth  being  carried  round  the  sun  by  a  motion  of  translation :  Jupiter,  for  example,  is 
known  to  have  a  revolution  on  his  own  axis,  and  to  be  attended  by  four  satellites.  In  these 
particulars  the  earth  resembles  that  planet,  having  also  a  revolution  on  its  own  axis,  and 
being  attended  by  one  satellite,  the  moon.  An  observer  placed  on  Jupiter  would  be  led 
from  appearances  to  imagine  that  the  planetary  system  revolved  round  him,  in  like  manner 
ns  an  inhabitant  of  the  earth  supposes  himself  placed  at  the  centre  of  the  celestial  notions : 
and  the  greater  magnitude  of  Jupiter  woulil  give  to  such  a  conclusion,  when  drawn  by  an 
observer  placed  on  that  planet,  a  greater  resemblance  to  tlie  truth  than  it  would  have  when 
drawn  by  an  inhabitant  of  the  earth.  With  such  a  close  analogy  in  these  respects  before 
our  eyes,  may  we  not  naturally  conclude  that  it  extends  still  farther ;  and  that  as  Jupiter 
revolves  in  an  orbit  round  the  sun,  the  earth  must  also  have  a  similar  motion  1 

Let  us  imagine  ourselves  to  be  placed  on  the  surface  of  the  sun,  and  from  that  position  to 
observe  the  earth  and  the  planets.  All  these  bodies  would  appear  to  move  from  west  to  cast ; 
the  planets  would  be  found  free  from  all  that  complication  in  tlioir  motion  to  which  they 
apj)ear  subject  when  viewed  from  the  earth;  and  the  motion  of  liie  earth  itself  would  in 
every  circumstance  correspond  with  that  of  the  planets.  The  more  distant  a  planet  is  fiom 
the  sun,  the  longer  is  the  time  which  it  requires  to  perform  its  revolution  round  him ;  but 
throughout  the  planetary  system  tliis  remarkable  law  prevails,  connecting  the  periodic  times 
with  the  distances, — the  squares  of  the  former  are  proportional  to  the  cubes  of  the  latter. 
If  we  compute,  by  this  principle,  what  should  bo  the  time  of  revolution  of  a  planet  situated 
at  the  distance  of  the  earth  from  the  sun,  wo  find  the  result  correspond  exactly  with  the 
sidereal  year ;  tlms,  the  earth's  distance  from  the  sun  being  assumed  as  unity,  the  distance  of 


t 

t 
a 
li 
hi 
M 

C( 

hi 
ec 
w 
ha 
ca 
eq 
mi 

ac 
rat 
ble 
ren 
at] 
i 


10,0( 

axis 

direc 

tityr 

evide 

FEl 

face  I 

tion  c 

If  1 

angle 

tion  o 

fwssib 

of  A  J 

Fisg 

In  the 

round 

the  po 

will  bi 

greate 

throug 


Pabt  IL 

pposition, 
its  dirnct 
led  wlien 
st  motion 
motion  of 
pose  caclj 
ive  found 
al  motion 
elude  that 

is  position 
lerives  his 

extend  to 
and  Mars, 
r  circular; 
about  the 
ilctc  expli- 
ena  of  the 
hat  Jupiter 


Book  I. 


MOTION  OP  THE  EARTH  ROUND  THE  SUN. 


HI 


!  orbits  that 
]arth  itself 
lich  revolve 
remain  the 
1  his  accom- 
reference  is 

I  their  great 

describes  an 

th.    What 

It  ten  times 

Saturn,  in 

t  the  same 

planetary 

hbourhood ; 

which  in 

ication  and 

^pothesis  of 
[example,  i? 
In  these 
axis,  and 
£uld  bo  led 
Ike  manner 
lal  notions : 
1-awn  by  an 
I  have  when 
[ects  before 
I  as  Jupiter 

[  position  to 
test  to  east ; 
Ivhich  they 
Tf  would  in 

[net  is  fiom 
him;  but 

liodic  times 

Ithe  latter. 

let  situated 
'  with  the 

[distance  of 


Mars  is  known  to  be  1 '523693:  his  periodic  time  is  G80'0706  days.  Hence  we  have 
fr62693) :>:!>::  (68«-97efl)«:  (365-250)3.  The  periodic  time  of  a  planet,  at  the  same 
distance  from  tlio  sun  as  the  earth  is,  should  therefore  be  305'25G  days,  wliich  is  the  length 
of  the  sidereal  year.  This  result  leaves  no  doubt  that  the  motion  which  the  earth  would 
bo  seen  to  have,  if  it  wore  viewed  from  the  sun,  arises  from  the  same  causes,  and  is  regu- 
lated by  the  same  laws  as  the  motions  of  the  planets :  hence  wo  may  conclude  that  it  is  no 
less  real. 

The  motion  of  the  earth  in  an  orbit  round  the  sun,  which  the  preceding  considerations 
render  so  highly  probable,  is  directly  proved  by  the  phenomena  of  the  tiberralion  of  light. 
It  was  long  supposed  that  light  was  propagated  from  the  sun  and  otlier  luminous  bodies 
instantaneously ;  but  modem  observations  have  proved  that  this  hypothesis  is  erroneous,  and 
that  light,  like  all  other  projectiles,  occupies  a  certain  time  in  passing  from  one  point  of  space 
to  another.  The  fact  that  light  has  a  progressive  motion  was  first  discovered  by  Roemer, 
a  celebrated  Danish  astronomer,  from  observations  made  on  the  eclipses  which  the  satel- 
lites of  Jupiter  undergo  when  they  fall  into  his  shadow.  He  found  that  these  eclipses 
happened  sometimes  sooner  and  sometimes  later  than  the  time  deduced  from  the  tables  of 
their  motions ;  the  observation  being  before  or  after  the  computed  time,  according  as  tht 
earth  was  nearer  to  or  farther  from  Jupiter  than  the  mean  distance.  Repeated  observations 
have  proved,  that  when  the  earth  is  between  the  sun  and  Jupiter,  his  satellites  are  seen 
eclipsed  about  8|  minutes  sooner  than  tiiey  should  be  according  to  the  tables;  but  that 
when  the  earth  is  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  sun  from  Jupiter,  the  eclipses  of  his  satellites 
happen  about  8^  minutes  later  than  the  time  shown  by  the  tables.  The  only  conclusion  that 
can  be  drawn  from  these  facts  is,  that  light  occupies  about  16  J  minutes  in  traversing  a  space 
equal  to  the  diameter  of  the  earth's  orbit,  which  is  upwards  of  190  millions  of  miles ;  it 
must  therefore  move  at  the  enormous  rate  of  nearly  210,000  miles  in  a  second. 

Now,  if  the  earth  is  really  in  motion,  it  must  be  moving  at  the  rate  of  about  20  miles  in 
a  second,  in  order  to  accomplish  its  revolution  round  the  sun  in  the  course  of  a  year.  Tliis 
rate  of  motion,  although  small  when  compared  with  the  velocity  of  light,  bears  to  it  a  sensi- 
ble proportion ;  so  that  an  evident  consequence  of  the  earth's  motion  will  be,  that  the  apivi- 
rent  places  of  the  heavenly  bodies  will  not  be  the  same  as  they  would  be  if  the  earth  were 
at  rest. 

Suppose  A  B  to  be  a  portion  of  the  earth's  orbit,  S  a  fixed  star,  and  S  A  the  direction 
rif  light  proceeding  from  the  star  to  the  earth  at  A.    It  is  evident  that  if  the  earth  were  at 

rest  at  A,  a  telescope  presented  in  the  direction  A  S  would 
receive  the  light  of  the  star,  which,  proceeding  along  the  axis 
of  the  telescope,  would  reach  the  eye  at  A,  and  sliow  the 
star  in  its  true  position.  But  if  the  earth  be  supposed  to 
move  from  A  towards  B  with  a  velocity  that  bears  a  sensible 
proportion  to  the  velocity  of  light,  the  ray  S  A,  which  enters 
^E  the  telescope  at  C,  cannot  reach  the  eye,  but  must,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  motion,  be  lost  against  the  interior  of  the  tube. 
In  order  that  the  light  from  the  star  may  reach  the  eye  when 
carried  forward  by  the  earth's  motion,  the  telescope  must 
have  such  an  inclination  to  A  B,  that  S  F  being  supposed  a 
ray  parallel  to  S  A,  and  meeting  the  axis  of  the  telescope  in 
D,  A  F  may  have  to  F  D  the  same  ratio  as  the  earlli's  veloci- 
ty in  its  orbit  has  to  the  velocity  of  light ;  that  is,  of  1  to 
10,000  nearly.  In  this  position  of  the  telescope,  the  light  entering  at  D  will  pass  along  the 
axis  as  it  moves  from  A  to  F,  and  will  reach  the  eye  at  F ;  but  the  star  will  be  seen  in  the 
direction,  not  of  F  S,  but  of  F  E :  so  that  its  apparent  place  differs  from  its  true  by  a  qiuoi- 
tity  measured  by  the  angle  S  F  E  or  A  D  F.  The  angle  D  F  E  is  the  aberration  which  will 
evidently  be  towards  that  part  of  the  heavens  to  which  the  earth  is  moving.  Let  the  axis 
F  E  be  supposed  to  be  produced  to  the  starry  heavens :  it  will  trace  out  on  tiie  convex  sur- 
face a  circle,  if  the  star  S  is  in  the  pole  of  the  ecliptic  ;  but  an  ellipse  in  every  other  posi- 
tion of  the  star.    The  true  place  of  the  star  is  the  centre  of  the  circle  or  ellipse. 

If  the  star  be  in  the  pole  of  the  ecliptic,  the  angle  D  A  F  may  be  considered  as  a  right 
angle;  for  the  line  joining  the  star  and  the  earth  will  always  be  perpendicular  to  the  direc- 
tion of  the  earth's  motion.  In  this  case,  therefore,  the  angle  A  D  F  will  be  the  greatest 
possible  ;  for  the  ratio  of  sin.  A  D  F  to  sin.  D  A  F  is  constant,  being  the  same  with  tlie  ratio 
of  A  F  to  F  D,  or  of  1  to  10,000  nearly :  so  that  sin.  A  D  F  is  greatest,  and  therefore  A  D 
F  is  greatest  when  sin.  D  A  F  is  the  greatest  possible ;  that  is,  when  D  A  F  is  a  right  angle. 
In  the  case  of  any  other  star  the  greater  axis  of  the  ellipse  which  it  appears  to  describe 
round  its  true  place  as  a  centre  will  be  equal  to  the  diameter  of  the  circle  which  a  star  in 
the  pole  of  the  ecliptic  would  appear  to  describe  about  the  pole  as  a  centre:  for  the  ellipse 
will  be  the  orthographic  projection  of  a  circle  equal  to  that  described  alwut  the  pole,  the 
greater  axis  being  the  diameter,  which  is  perpendicular  to  a  circle  of  the  sphere  passing 
through  the  star  and  the  pole  of  the  ecliptic,  and  at  right  angles  to  the  cnliptin.     When  the 


i'liM' 


i:-i 


,i^;nl 


It!      ^'W 


*t 


112 


PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pa«t  11. 


h; 


?iii  .   !- 


star  ia  in  tho  ecliptic,  it  will  appear  to  describe  an  arch  equal  to  the  greater  axis  of  the 
ellipse  (lesoribcd  by  a  star  not  in  tho  ecliptic,  or  to  the  diameter  of  the  circle  of  aberration 
thot  would  1)0  described  by  a  star  in  the  pole  of  the  ecliptic. 

When  nnsflo  D  A  F  is  a  right  angle,  we  huvo  D  F :  F  A : :  rod :  sin.  £  A  D  P ;  that  is, 
10,0(M) :  1 : :  1 :  (XlOl  =  sine  of  greatest  aberration,  which  will  therefore  bo  20"  nearly. 
'I'lu!  nberration  of  a  planet  will  depend  on  its  own  motion  as  well  as  on  that  of  the  eartn. 
If  tlic  motion  of  the  planet  were  etjual  and  parallel  to  that  of  the  earth,  no  aberration  would 
tjikc  plucc.  Tlio  aberration  of  a  planet  may  be  found  by  first  considering  tiio  effect  of  the 
motion  of  the  earth  on  the  apparent  place,  and  then  the  aberration  arising  from  the  planet's 
own  motion. 

Huch  are  the  effects  which,  if  the-  earth  have  actually  a  motion  of  translation  tl.at  carries 
it  in  an  orbit  round  tho  sun,  must  arise  from  that  motion  combined  with  the  progressive 
motion  of  light.  To  obtain,  therefore,  decisive  proof  of  the  earth's  annual  motion,  it  is  only 
necessary  to  ascertain  by  accurate  observation  the  existence  of  these  phenomena. 

The  true  system  of  the  world,  which  supposes  the  Hun  to  be  at  rest  in  the  centre,  and  the 
onrth  and  planets  to  revolve  round  him,  while  the  moon  revolves  about  the  earth,  and  the 
diurnal  motioti  of  tlie  heavens  arises  from  tho  motion  of  the  earth  on  its  axis,  was  taught  by 
several  of  t!ie  ancient  philosophers,  and  particularly  by  Pythagoras.  It  was  also  held  by 
Archimedes;  but  after  him  it  was  neglected,  and  even  forjjotten  for  many  ages,  until  at 
length,  in  the  beginning  of  tlic  sixteenth  century,  it  was  revived  and  improved  by  Coperni- 
cus, from  whom  it  took  the  name  of  the  Copbrnicaji  System.  Notwithstanding  the  beauty 
and  simplicity  which  distinguished  this  theory,  it  was  at  first  coldly  received  or  utterly 
rejected.  Tyciio  Brahe,  an  illustrious  Dane,  was  among  its  adversaries.  He  regarded  the 
doctrine  of  the  earth's  motion  as  untenable,  without  abandoning  the  testimony  of  Scripture : 
hence  he  was  led  to  imagine  another  system,  which  boars  his  name  ;  in  which  the  sun,  with 
all  tho  planets  and  comets  revolving  round  him,  is  supposed  to  perform  a  revolution  about 
the  earth  in  a  solar  year,  while  at  tlie  same  time  all  the  heavenly  bodies  are  supposed  to  be 
carried  round  tlic  earth  from  east  to  west  in  twenty-four  liours. 

The  only  apparent  difficulty  connected  with  the  Copemican  system  arises  from  tlie  fact,  that 
tlie  earth's  axis  is  always  pointed  to  the  same  star,  and  that  the  stars  preserve  always  the  same 
relative  positions  ;  though  by  the  annual  motion  of  tho  earth,  a  spectator  on  its  surface  views 
them  at  any  two  instants  of  time  separated  by  the  period  of  about  six  months,  from  two 
points  nearly  200,000,000  miles  asunder.  During  tlio  seventeenth  century  tiie  supporters 
of  the  Copcrnican  system  laboured  to  remove  this  objection,  by  detecting  a  change  in  the 
(wsition  of  the  fixed  stars. 

The  minute  and  accurate  observations  instituted  for  this  purpose  led,  in  tlie  end,  to  the 
imi)ortant  discovery  made  by  the  celebrated  Dr.  Bradley,  that  the  very  effects  which  we 
have  shown,  must  result  from  the  annual  motion  of  the  earth  combined  with  the  progressive 
motion  of  light.  He  found  that  each  star  describes,  round  its  true  place  as  a  centre,  a  small 
ellipse  of  which  the  greater  axis  is  about  40" ;  and  that  this  ellipse  approaches  to  a  circle 
or  to  a  straight  line,  which  are  its  limits,  according  as  the  star  is  situated  towards  the  pole 
of  the  ecliptic,  or  towards  the  ecliptic  itself  No  parallax  ia  observable  in  the  fixed  stars 
arising  from  the  earth's  annual  motion ;  and  hence  it  must  be  inferred  that  their  distance 
is  so  great,  that  even  the  diameter  of  tho  eartli's  orbit  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  point  in  the 
universe. 

From  an  attentive  consideration  of  the  celestial  motions,  we  are  therefore  led  to  reject 
as  crrorfmis  the  notions  which  appearances  at  first  suggest  respecting  the  system  of  the 
world.  Instead  of  the  globe  which  we  inhabit  being  at  rest  in  the  centre  of  the  universe, 
it  is  a  planet  in  motion  about  its  own  axis  and  about  the  sun.  In  regarding  it  under  this 
aspect,  we  find  all  tlie  celestial  phenomena  explained  in  the  most  simple  manner,  the  laws 
of  tlic  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies  appear  uniform,  and  every  analogy  subsisting  among 
tliom  is  preserved  unbroken.  Like  Jupiter,  Saturn,  and  Urnnus,  the  earth  is  accompanied 
by  a  sateilite;  it  revolves  on  its  own  axis  as  Venus,  Mars,  Jupiter,  Saturn,  and  perhaps  all 
the  planets;  like  them  it  receives  light  from  the  sun;  and  to  complete  the  analogy,  it 
revolves  about  tlio  sun  in  tlie  same  direction,  and  according  to  the  same  laws.  By  following 
out  the  results  arising  from  tiie  earth's  motion  being  combined  with  the  real  motions  of  the 
planets  and  of  light,  we  find  all  the  phenomena  of  the  heavens  flow,  as  necessary  conse- 
quences, from  one  great  principle.  Thus  the  motion  of  the  eartii  acquires  all  the  certainty 
of  which  a  physical  truth  is  susceptible. 

The  vicissitudes  of  seasons  arise,  as  we  have  already  explained,  from  the  obliquity  of  the 
ecliptic  to  the  equator.  The  ecliptic,  which  we  have  hitiierto  considered  cs  the  path  of  the 
sun  round  tiie  earth,  we  have  now  proved  to  be  the  orbit  of  the  earth  round  the  sun.  The 
axis  of  the  eartli's  diurnal  motion  is  inclined  to  the  plane  of  its  orbit  at  an  angle  of  aliuut 
6(5''  .'32',  and  remains,  as  the  eartli  revolves  round  the  sun,  nearly  parallel  to  itself.  Hence 
tlie  circle  which  the  sun  appears  to  trace  in  the  heavens  in  the  course  of  a  year  forms  with 
the  equator  an  angle  of  about  23'  28'.  This  produces  the  differences  in  the  distributior  <f 
tiie  solar  I'flit  and  heat  wliich  we  observe  throughout  tlie  seasons  of  the  year. 


I  t 


OookI. 


ORBITS  OP  THE  PLANETS 


IM 


to  reject 

Im  of  the 

I  universe, 

Tinder  this 

the  laws 

[ig  amonff 

pmpaniea 

firhaps  all 

Jialofry,  it 

IfoUowing 

IS  of  the 

Iry  conse- 

Icertainty 

jty  of  the 

Ith  of  the 

Tin.    The 

1  of  aliout 

Hence 

Irms  with 

kutior    »f 


The  parullcliBni  of  tlie  earth  is  not  absolute ;  for  tlie  axis  is  found  to  have  n  slow  motion 
of  revolution  from  cast  to  west  round  a  line  passing;  tlirouf;li  the  centre  of  the  eartli,  and 
pcr])endiculur  to  the  ecliptic ;  its  revolution  bcinff  completed  in  the  period  of  25,745  years. 
In  consequence  of  this  motion  the  poles  in  the  sphere  of  the  starry  heavens  depcribo  each  a 
circle  round  the  polo  of  the  ecliptic,  at  the  distance  of  23°  28'  nearly ;  and  tlio  two  point* 
in  which  the  terrestrial  equator,  when  produced  to  the  starry  heavens,  cuts  the  ecliptic,  shift 
to  the  westward,  at  the  rate  of  about  50^  seconds  yearly,  which  causes  the  precession  of  the 
equinoxes.  A  small  inequality  has  been  observed  in  the  precession  of  tlie  equinoxes,  and  in 
the  mean  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic,  which  arises  from  a  slifirht  motion  in  the  earth's  axis, 
whereby  its  inclination  to  the  ecliptic  is  not  always  exactly  the  same,  but  varies  backwards 
and  forwards  some  seconds.  This  is  called  the  nutation  of  the  earth's  axis,  and  was  discovered 
by  Dr.  Bradley  while  employed  in  verifying  his  theory  of  aberration.  The  period  of  the 
changes  of  this  inequality  is  nearly  nine  years. 


CHAPTER  Xin. 

ORDira  OF  THE  rLANETS. 

To  an  observer  placed  on  the  sun,  all  the  planets  would  appear  to  trace  on  the  concave 
surface  circular  paths,  cutting  each  other  at  various  angles,  but  all  comprehended  within  a 
certain  zone  of  the  heavens  of  some  degrees  in  breadth.  The  angle  which  the  plane  of  the 
orbit  of  a  planet  makes  with  the  ecliptic  is  called  the  inclination  of  that  orbit;  and  the  line 
of  their  intersection  is  called  the  line  op  the  nodes.  If  a  planet  be  observed  twice  in  the 
same  node,  the  node  being  supposed  to  have  in  the  mean  time  remained  stationary,  the  posi- 
tion of  the  lino  of  the  nodes  can  be  determined,  and  also  the  distance  of  the  planets  from 
the  sun  at  the  times  of  observation. 

Let  a  superior  planet  be  observed  in  its  node  N  from  the  earth  at  E,  {Fig.  32),  and  after  the 
planet  has  mode  an  entire  revolution  let  the  earth  be  at  E'.  Then,  from  the  time  and  the  theory 
of  the  earth's  motion,  E  E'  is  given,  and  the  andes  S  E  E',  S  E'  E.  But  the  angles  SEN, 
S  E'  N  are  known  by  observation ;  therefore,  in  tne  triangle  E  E'  N,  the  angles  E  E'  N,  E'  E  N, 
and  the  base  E  E'  are  given ;  and  hence  the  sides  N  E  and  E'  N  may  be  found.  Wherefore 
from  either  of  the  triangles  S  E  N,  S  E'  N  the  distance  S  N  is  determined ;  also  the  angle 
ESN,  which  ascertains  the  position  of  the  node  as  seen  from  the  sun. 

From  observations  of  this  kind,  mode  at  times  considerably  distant  from  each  other,  it 
found  that  the  nodes  of  each  planet  have  a  slow  retrograde  motion. 

Again,  the  distance  of  a  planet  from  the  sun,  and  its  place  as  seen  from  the  sun,  may  be 
determined  from  observations  made  at  the  time  of  its  opposition  to  the  sun. 

32 


(Fiff,  33).  Let  E  be  the  earth,  S  the  sun,  P  the  planet,  O  its  place  reduced  to  the  eclip- 
tic, S  N  the  line  of  the  nodes  passing  through  the  sun.  Since  the  planet  is  in  its  opposi- 
tion, the  points  S.  E,  O  are  in  the  same  straight  line.  The  angle  E  S  N  is  known  by  the  last 
problem,  which  determines  the  position  of  the  line  of  the  nodes ;  therefore  the  arcli  O  N  in 
the  heavens,  which  measures  it,  is  also  given.  The  angle  P  N  O  ie  equal  to  the  inclination 
of  the  planet's  orbit  to  the  ecliptic,  ant^  is  therefore  given;  also  the  angle  P  O  N  is  a  right 
angle.  Hence  in  the  spherical  triangle  P  N  O,  the  perpendicular  P  O  and  the  hypotenuse 
P  N  may  be  found.  Now  tlie  arc  P  O  is  the  measure  of  the  angle  P  S  O,  and  P  N  is  the 
measure  of  P  S  N ;  therefore  these  two  angles  are  given.  In  the  rectilineal  triangle  P  S  E, 
the  exterior  nngle  PEG  can  be  determined  by  observation ;  the  angle  P  S  E  or  P  S  O  is 
given,  and  tlio  base  E  S  is  known  by  tlie  theory  of  the  earth's  motion ;  whence  P  S,  the 
distance  of  tlie  planet  from  the  sun,  mav  be  computed. 

Vol.  I.  10*  P 


:t^ 


i 


ii' 


lU 


PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pabt  II. 


Orbil  of  a  ptanet.  Sinco  the  an((lo  P  S  N  is  also  known,  tho  lino  P  R  io  f^ivon  in  poRi- 
tion  as  well  oa  in  umgnitudc.  If  many  opponilionii  of  u  plunot  arc  thui  olwrrvrd,  anil  it  the 
radii  obtnincHl  be  laid  down,  the  lino  cimnoctinfr  tticir  rxtrcnic  points  will  roproNc-nt  tho  orbit 
of  the  pluiint.  In  this  manner  it  in  found  that  the  orbitx  of  all  tho  planets  are  ellipxcB,  having 
the  8un  in  their  common  focus;  and  that  the  anf^ular  niotions  of  a  planet  round  the  sun  are 
invenwly  as  tho  sijuarca  of  itx  diatanco  from  tho  sim :  so  that  the  sectors  dcxcribcd  by  the 
roilius  vector  urc  proportional  to  tho  times.  This  exactly  corresponds  with  what  was  proved 
refipcctiii);  tho  apiNircnt  motion  of  tho  sun  in  tho  ecliptic,  and  therefore  tho  motion  of  the 
earth  is  re^^ulutcd  by  the  same  law. 

The  nliiiiuts  which  move  immediately  round  the  sun  are  called  primary,  their  satellites 
lire  called  hgcondary  planbtb.  Thus,  the  moon  is  a  secondary  planet  to  tho  earth.  In 
considcriiii;  the  lunar  motion,  wo  found  that  tho  moon  describes  round  the  earth  an  elliptic 
orbit,  and  that  the  radius  vector  describes  equal  areas  in  equal  times.  The  same  holds  of 
the  satcllitpx  of  Jupiter,  Saturn,  and  Uranus;  so  that  the  same  principle  runs  through  the 
raotiona  of  all  the  bodies  of  the  planetary  system. 

When  the  mean  distances  of  the  planets  are  compared,  and  also  their  periodical  times,  it 
is  found  that  the  squares  of  the  periodic  times  are  as  the  cubes  of  the  distances. 

The  great  general  facta  which  have  now  been  pointed  out  respecting  tho  orbits  of  the 
planets,  and  their  motions  in  these  orbits,  were  first  discovered  by  Kepler,  after  ho  had 
employed  immense  labour  and  ingenuity  in  the  research,  and  are  usually  called  Kepler'h 
LAWa.     It  may  be  proper  to  bring  them  under  one  point  of  view : — 

I.  The  primary  planets  all  revolve  in  elliptic  orbits  round  the  sun,  which  occupies  one  of 
the  foci  ot  the  ellipse;  the  plane  of  the  orbit  passing  through  tho  centre  of  the  sun. 

n.  The  radius  vector  describes  equal  areas  m  equal  times. 

III.  The  squares  of  the  times  of  revolution  in  the  planetary  bodies  are  aa  the  cube*  of 
their  distances  from  the  Bun. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

COMETS. 

The  fixed  stars  and  the  planets  are  always  visible  when  not  obscured  by  the  superior 
light  of  the  Kun ;  but  the  class  of  bodies  called  comets  are  seen  only  when  they  are  in  that 
part  of  their  several  paths  which  lies  nearest  to  the  sun  :  at  all  other  times  they  move  through 
regions  of  space  tar  beyond  the  reach  of  our  vision,  even  when  assisted  by  the  most  powerful 
telescopes.  The  motions  of  the  comets  are,  like  those  of  the  planets,  performed  in  elliptic 
orbits  according  to  Kepler's  laws;  but,  unlike  the  planetary  orbits,  the  ellipses  which  the 
comets  describe  are  extremely  elongated :  so  tliut  the  small  portion  of  their  orbits  through 
which  we  have  an  opportunity  of  tracing  them  coincides  very  nearly  with  a  parabola,  the 
curve  of  which  is  the  limit  of  the  ellipse  when  its  greater  axis  is  indefinitely  increased. 
The  inclination  of  the  orbits  of  the  comets  is  very  vorious;  some  move  in  planes  almost 
coincident  with  the  ecliptic,  and  others  in  planes  nearly  perpendicular  to  it  They  move 
also  in  very  different  directions ;  tho  motion  of  some  being  direct,  and  of  others  retrograde. 

The  comets  differ  widely  from  the  planets  in  their  appearance,  as  well  as  in  the  figure 
and  position  of  their  orbits.  When  a  comet  is  first  seen,  it  is  usually  surrounded  by  a  famtly 
luminous  vapour,  which  becomes  more  bright  ns  the  comet  approaches  the  sun,  and  at  lengm 
shoots  out  into  a  long  luminous  and  transparent  train,  very  much  resembling  a  streamer,  and 
extending  in  a  dirortion  opposite  to  the  sun.  The  dense  part  of  the  comet,  which  both  to 
the  naked  eye,  ami  when  viewed  through  a  telescope,  resembles  much  the  planetary  bodies, 
is  called  the  nucleus ;  the  faintly  luminous  vapour  by  which  it  is  surrounded  is  called  the 
coma ;  and  the  long  luminous  train  proceeding  from  the  comet  in  an  opposite  direction  from 
the  sun  is  called  the  tail.  Between  the  nucleus  and  the  coma  lies  a  part  fainter  than  the 
former,  but  brighter  than  the  latter,  and  in  which  the  nucleus  appears  involved :  this  is  called 
the  head  of  the  comet. 

The  length  of  the  tail  is  very  various.  Sometimes  it  extends  only  a  few  degrees ;  in 
other  cases  it  has  been  found  to  reach  over  more  than  a  fourth  part  of  the  heavens.  If  a 
comet  docs  nf)t  come  very  near  the  sun,  the  coma  docs  not  shoot  into  a  tail,  but  retains  the 
appearance  of  a  nebulosity  round  the  comet  during  the  whole  period  of  its  being  visible. 
The  tail  poinotimes  consists  of  two  or  more  diverging  streams  of  light,  and  is  always  so 
transparent  tiiat  tlie  smallest  stars  are  seen  through  it  without  any  sensible  diminution  of 
their  brilliancy. 

Nature  of  comet*.  In  ages  of  ignorance,  comets  have  always,  from  their  extraordinary 
appearance,  been  sources  of  superstitious  terror  to  mankind.  This  fear  has  been  di8sipat«d 
by  the  light  of  science,  which  has  shown  that  the  appearances  of  comets  are  regulated  by 
the  same  laws  as  other  celestial  phenomena.  We  are  still,  however,  almost  entirely  igno- 
rant of  the  nature  of  these  bodies,  though  a  great  many  hypotheses  have  been  formed  con- 
cerning them.    They  were  considered  by  some  of  the  ancients,  and  particularly  by  Aristotle, 


Book  I. 


COMETS. 


liti 


M  nccidontnl  firrfl  or  motoora  (^^norotml  in  tlio  atmoaphoro  of  tlio  oarth ;  but  thii  opinion  \» 
ohvioiisly  frrouiuilesit.  If  tlioy  were  connucteii  with  tlio  oartli  or  ilH  ntino«plior(%  llioy  would 
piirtuko  i)r'  tlie  diurnal  motion  on  tiio  n.xi.i,  and  could  not  thorotbro  a|)|M!iir  to  liuvo  it  diurnni 
i)-voliitli)ii  in  tlii>  hRuvonx  ulonff  with  tho  other  colustial  bodit'g,  Ili.'HidcH,  ttii'ir  hnviiiK  no 
diiirniil  piirullnx  provR*  that  they  aro  at  a  i^rcat  diatanco  tVom  the  earth ;  while  the  fact  of 
tiii'ir  iippiirciit  motion  being  atTocted  by  tho  annual  motion  of  tho  earth  iliowa  that  they  aro 
litiiutod  in  tiio  planetary  re^iona.  OlMervation  has  demonstrated  that,  like  tho  pluniitu,  they 
uru  periiinncnt  bcMlieH,  and,  in  all  prolnbility,  derive  their  light  flroni  the  aun. 

From  the  small  portion  of  the  orbit  of  any  comet  which  wu  have  an  opportunity  of  observ- 
ing, we  cannot  ascertain  with  Bufllcicnt  accuracy  Uie  elements  necciwary  for  ifetermining 
tliR  period  of  itri  return ;  but  suppouing  that  their  orbits  are  not  diiiturbed  by  any  cuiisc  in 
thoiie  diKtiint  rcirioim  of  npacn  throiiirh  which  the  greater  portion  of  tho  puths  of  cometM  lie, 
it  is  evident  that  by  accurately  observing  all  tho  comets  that  come  witnin  view,  and  care- 
fully  recording  tho  reHults,  in  tlin  course  of  ages  tho  return  of  many  comets  may  bo  detected 
and  their  |ioriu<lic  times  ascerUiinod.  Ilcnco  the  greater  axis  of  tlie  orbit  of  each  may  be 
determined  by  Kepler's  third  law ;  and  tho  comet's  Toast  distance  from  the  sun  being  found 
by  observation,  tho  less  axis  will  also  become  known.  In  this  manner  the  periodic  time  of 
some  comets  has  been  found,  and  thoir  return  predicted. 

The  first  and  most  remarkable  instance  is  that  of  Dr.  Halley,  who,  by  comparing  his 
observations  on  the  comet  of  1082,  with  those  of  Kepler  on  the  comet  of  1607,  and  those  of 
Apian  on  tho  comet  of  1531,  found  reason  to  conclude,  fhim  tlie  agreement  of  the  circum- 
stances of  each,  that  what  had  been  considered  three  distinct  comets  were  only  ro-appear- 
anees  of  tho  same  comet  after  a  period  of  about  76  years.  In  all  the  three  cases  the  dis- 
'tanco  of  the  comet  from  the  sun  when  nearest  to  him  was  almost  the  same ;  the  position  of 
the  comet  in  tho  heavens  at  the  time  of  its  nearest  approach  to  the  sun  likewise  corre- 
sponded ;  as  did  also  the  inclination  of  the  orbit,  the  place  of  the  nodes,  and  the  variableness 
of  tho  motion,  as  being  direct  or  retrograde. 

These  coincidences  rendered  the  identity  of  the  comet  almost  absolutely  certain.  Hence 
Halley  predicted  its  return  in  the  end  of  1758  or  the  beginning  of  1759.  It  appeared  about 
the  end  of  December  1758,  and  made  its  noarest  approach  to  the  sun  on  tho  13th  of  March 
1759,  differing  not  many  days  from  the  time  expected.  Again  it  made  its  appearance,  as 
prediclrij,  at  the  completion  of  its  periwi,  toward  the  end  of  August,  18;).5. 

Though  there  con  be  no  doubt  of  the  identity  of  tho  comet  of  1531, 1(J<)7, 1082, 1759,  and 
1835,  tho  appearances  were  considerably  different.  In  1531  the  comet  was  of  a  bright 
gold  colour ;  in  16U7,  it  was  dark  and  livid ;  it  was  bright  again  in  1682 ;  and  obscure  in 
1759. 

The  mean  distance  of  this  comet  from  the  sun  is  about  eighteen  times  that  of  tho  earth ; 
but  in  consequence  of  the  great  eccentricity  of  its  orbit,  its  distance,  when  at  tlie  farther 
extremity  of  its  greater  axis,  is  nearly  double  that  of  Uranus,  the  most  distant  of  the  planets. 
When  nearest  to  tho  sun,  its  distance  from  him  ia  about  rgth  parts  of  the  earth  s  mean 
distance. 

A  very  remarkable  comet  was  seen  in  the  end  of  1680  and  beginning  of  1681.  Its  tail 
extended  70°,  and  was  very  brilliant.  This  comet,  of  all  those  which  h^ve  been  observed, 
I'pproacI '  s  nearest  to  the  sun.  Descending  with  immense  velocity  in  a  path  almost  per- 
pendicular to  his  surface,  it  proceeded  until  its  distance  from  his  centre  was  only  about 
540,000  inili'E.  Sir  Isaac  Newton  computed  that,  in  consequence  of  so  near  an  approach 
to  the  sun,  it  must  have  received  a  heat  2000  times  greater  than  that  of  iron  almost  going 
into  fusion ;  und  that  if  it  was  equal  in  magnitude  to  our  earth,  and  cooled  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  terrestrial  bodies,  its  heat  would  not  be  expended  in  less  than  50,000  years. 

Three  observations  on  comets  are  recorded  in  history,  agreeing  in  remarkable  circum- 
stances with  the  comet  of  1680 :— one  in  the  44th  year  before  Christ ;  another  in  the  con- 
sulate of  Lampadius  ond  Orestes,  about  the  year  of  Christ  531 ;  ond  the  third  in  the  reign 
of  Henry  I.  of^  England,  in  tho  year  1106.  These  dates  are  nearly  at  equal  distances  of 
time,  namely,  575  years ;  which  is  also  tlie  period  between  1106  and  1681.  Hence  Dr. 
Halley  conjectured  that  these  might  bo  successive  appearances  of  one  and  the  same  comet, 
revolving  about  the  sun  in  the  period  of  about  575  years.  If  this  conjecture  is  well 
founded,  tliis  comet  may  be  expected  again,  after  finishing  the  same  period,  about  the  year 
2255. 

A  comet  remarkable  for  its  beauty  appeared  in  1811.  The  tail  of  this  comet  was  com- 
|K>sed  of  two  diverging  streams  of  faint  light,  slightly  coloured,  which  mode  an  angle  of 
from  15°  to  20°,  ana  sometimes  much  more,  and  were  bent  outwards.  The  space  between 
was  comparatively  obscure.  When  at  its  greatest  length,  the  tail  subtended  an  angle  cf  at 
least  16° ;  and  was  then  computed  to  extend  about  23,000,000  miles  in  length. 

Besides  Dr.  Hal  ley's  comet  there  are  two  others  whose  returns  have  been  observed,  and 
tho  elements  of  their  orbits  determined,  with  such  certainty,  as  to  enable  astronomers  to 
predict  their  re-appearance.  One  of  these  was  recognised  for  the  first  time  in  1819  as  a 
Dcriodic  comet.    Encke,  a  Gerinun  astronomer,  has  determined  the  time  of  its  revolution 


1=1 

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PRINCIPLRS  OP  OKOORAPIIY, 


Paiit  II 


^r. 


''h 

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1 

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h, 

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11 

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LI 

tbniit  tlio  Kiiit  to  lii<  tliroo  ypiim  iind  thri^*  niniitliN  ii>'iirly.  TIik  ntlicr  wnx  lni<t  Hi>i<n  in  IH'hf, 
ItH  p<<rin(li(;  tinio  wiw  ilclcrininoU  by  Uiula,  u  UdIk-iiiiiiii  iiNlronoiMcr,  in  Im>  nix  yonrH  und 
tliriM!  qimrtcra,  Alto|;uthor,  then,  Uinro  ore  only  tlirco  comctji  ulitwu  iM'riixlH  ari<  I'lTbiiiily 
known. 

Dangtr  from  ecmtt:  Aa  tho  comsU  travemo  the  plancUry  rojfion*  in  nil  (Iirp^tir)|l^  it  in 
noturni  to  inquire  whether  thcrn  xn  not  a  poiwilillily  timt  miiiio  onn  of  tliitin  iiiiiy  ii|)|irfioi'li 
ho  near  to  thn  rnrth  m  ^cotly  to  diiturb  itji  motion,  or  by  »n  antiml  coiitiirt  to  |iro<lii('o  \\\o 
moHt  ilisnutroiiH  i<l1<>ctji.  Upon  this  Huliject  tlinro  in  no  ronHonnbIn  i^ronnd  lor  fear.  If  it  id 
not  ubdoluteiy  iinpoMiblo  that  n  comet  may  como  in  cont^ict  with  the  cnrth,  the  probnbililin* 
ai^ainnt  mich  nn  event  hiippeninf|[  ore  aH  millionii  to  one.  Amon|f  bcxIieH  wi  Hmull  in  com< 
pariwui  with  tho  imuienHe  Hpnce  m  whirh  they  move;  and  moving  with  nil  volocitieii,  nnd 
in  orbitH  that  are  inclined  in  all  dircctinnit,  and  are  of  nil  diinrniiionH,  how  Hiimll  miiit  be 
tho  probability  that  any  twoKhull  como  in  contact!  Hmull,  however,  an  thin  prolmbility  in 
tor  any  ono  ago,  if  wo  tako  into  account  a  long  aoricit  of  agOH,  thu  probability  may  be  greatly 
increaaod. 

If  wo  iuppom  tho  earth  actually  to  rcrcivo  inch  a  Hhock,  it  iaoaay  to  imagine  the  calami- 
toua  coniequencei  which  must  tblfow,  Tiio  axis  and  motion  of  rotation  being  changed,  tho 
watora  of  tho  ocean  would  leave  their  ancient  poaition,  and  wouhl  bo  precipitated  toward* 
the  new  equator.  A  great  part  of  tho  huiniin  raco,  and  of  tho  lower  animali),  would  be 
drowned  by  this  univeraal  deluge,  or  doHtmycd  bv  tho  violent  aliock  improHHed  on  the  ter- 
restrial globe.  Whole  apccica  of  animalii  might  bo  annihilated.  All  the  monumenta  of 
human  induNtry  and  invention  would  bo  overthrown.  In  hiicIi  a  catastrophe  we  fin<l,  too,  a 
cause  adequate  to  account  for  the  ocean  having  overflowed  lotly  mountains,  on  which  it  has 
left  incontestable  evidence  of  ita  presence  ;  and  to  explain  how  the  animals  and  plants  of 
tho  south  may  have  existed  in  tJio  clintatea  of  tlio  north,  where  we  find  tho  remains  and  im- 
preniona  of  them.  lastly,  such  an  event  accounts  for  tho  reccntneas  of  the  modem  world, 
tho  monuments  of  which  go  back  scarcely  30(MI  years.  The  human  race,  reduced  to  a  small 
number  of  individuals,  and  to  the  moat  miHorablo  condition,  would  for  a  long  time  be  mainly 
occupied  in  providing  for  their  preservation,  amidst  tho  wreck  which  surrounded  them,  and 
would  lose  all  remembrance  of  arta  and  sciences;  and  when,  by  the  progress  of  civilization, 
they  at  length  became  scnsiblo  of  the  want  of  these,  they  would  find  it  necessary  to  roccm- 
mence,  as  if  man  had  boon  newly  placed  upon  tlio  earth. 

It  seems  imjKwsible  to  contemplate  the  picture  of  calamity  hero  drawn,  without  being 
fbrcibly  utruck  with  this  singular  coincidence ; — that  if  wo  suppose  the  period  of  the  comet 
of  IfiW  (which  in  that  year  made  a  considerably  near  approach  to  the  earth's  orbit)  to  be 
575j  years;  and  count  back,  from  tho  year  1080,  sovon  revolutions,  or  a  jieriod  of  4028 
years,  we  reach  tho  year  2349  before  Christ, — tho  year  of  the  deluge,  as  fix(!d  by  chrono- 
logers. 

If  we  tako  into  consideration  tlie  great  velocity  with  which  the  comets  move  in  approach 
ing  to  and  receding  iVom  the  sun,  it  is  evident  that  the  mere  approximation  of  a  comet  to 
the  terrestrial  orbit,  tootdd  he  productive  of  little  or  no  effect.     Accordingty,  though  a 
comet  is  said  to  have  eclipsed  the  moon,  in  which  case  it  must  have  been  very  near  tlie 
earth,  no  sensible  effect  was  produced. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

LAW  OF  UNIVERSAL  QRAVITATION. 

Having  now  taken  a  brief  view  of  the  planetary  motions,  and  pointed  out  generally  thei 
laws,  we  may  next  inquire  whether  from  thepo  any  general  principle  can  be  deduced  to 
which  the  motions  regulated  by  them  may  be  referred  as  to  their  cause. 

The  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies  have  been  variously  accounted  for.  We  have  already 
adverted  to  the  rude  mechanism  of  deferent  and  epicyclic  spheres,  by  which  some  of  the 
ancient  philosophers  attempted  to  explain  tho  celestial  motions.  This  doctrine  originated 
with  Eudoxus  and  Callipus.  But  a  more  sensible  attempt  was  made  by  Cleanthcs,  another 
philosopher  of  Greece,  who,  from  observing  that  bodies  are  easily  carried  round  by  whirl- 
pools or  vortices  of  water,  imagined  that  tho  celestial  spaces  are  filled  with  an  ethereal 
fluid,  which  is  in  continual  motion  round  the  earth,  and  that  it  carried  the  sun  and  planets 
round  with  it.  Though  this  hypothesis  affords  no  real  explanation  of  the  phenomena,  it  was 
revived  in  modem  times,  and  maintained  by  two  of  the  most  eminent  mathematicians  and 
philosophers  in  Europe,  namely,  by  Des  Cartes  and  Ijoibnitz,  and  for  a  long  time  met  with 
general  acquiescence.     But  a  much  nearer  approximation  to  right  conceptions  on  this  sub- 

iect  was  made  by  many  philosophers,  both  of  ancient  and  modern  times,  who  supposed  thiil 
19  planets  were  deflected  from  uniform  rectilineal  motions,  by  forces  similar  to  what  wo 
Observe  in  the  motions  of  magnetical  and  electrical  IkkUoh,  or  in  the  motion  of  common  heavy 
bodies;  where  one  body  seems  to  influence  the  motion  of  another  at  a  distance  from  it,  with- 
-it any  intervening  impulsion.     Ferniut  was  tho  first  who  suggested  tliat  file  weight  of  a 


Ive  already 
Vne  of  the 
|originated 

8,  another 

by  whirl- 
ethereal 

lid  planets 
f  na,  it  waH 
licians  and 

[  met  with 
tiiia  siib- 

OHCd  till)  I 

what  w(! 
pion  heavy 

it,  witli- 
eiffht  of  a 


IIOM  I. 


I^W  OF  UNIVKUHAI,  GRAVITATION. 


117 


b«ly  in  the  mm  of  Iho  triidrnriea  of  enth  portido  .  •'  matter  in  the  body  to  every  pnrticli*  of 
the  I'lirtli.  Ki'pliT  niiidi'  iiniitlicr  ii|)pri>xiniikliiin  tn  i|i«  tin'h  when  he  ''nid,  that  it'  there  wem 
two  ImmIich  pliiL-i'd  out  lit'  III"'  ri'iich  nt'  all  exti'riial  ti>rcoH,  niul  Hi  p'-rlei  '  IiIktIv  I"  iimve,  they 
would  .iiiiiriNii'li  eiieh  other  witli  vi'lueitirn  iiivirMly  pf  ^portinnal  i,,  'li'  >>  <|uantitii'M  of  miiltrr  ■ 
when  hi!  iiHHrrti'il  that  the  eiirth  uiiil  the  iiio'ii  iiiiitiinlly  H'tnu-t  each  othef,  mH'I  are  prrveii'eti 
iVoin  iiiei'iiii);  hy  llieir  revolution  round  tli,  "  <''>ii)iiion  diiirr  'f  attniotion ,  xnil  when  he 
ntlrilxiteil  the  lideH  to  the  nttnictive  iiilhienci  ,.  'lie  imkhi  m  Ik  iipi/>g  up  the  watern  idiiiU!- 
iliately  under  her. 

Hut  Dr.  Ilooke  innile  the  miMt  preciite  Kiirmiiin  to  MlJa  purpose.  At  a  iiie*  (in?  of  the 
Itiyul  Society,  Ma^  SI,  KMW,  he  exprehwd  hiinnelf  in  (li.  tollowinif  nuinmr: — "Iv'iH 
e.xplain  a  Nyotcni  ot  the  world  very  illMerent  iVuiii  any  yet  reeeiveil,  and  it  in  tiiunded  on  the 
tlirou  tidlowing  proponilionn : 

"  1.  That  all  the  heavenly  boilie)i  have  not  only  ■  Kiravitation  of  their  ptirta  to  their  own 
proper  centred,  hut  that  they  aUo  mutually  attract  each  other  within  their  npheres  of  fiction. 

'*'i.  That  all  boilieH  haviu;;a  Himple  motion  will  continue  to  movo  inaiitraiuht  lino  unlew) 
continually  deflectetl  tVmn  it,  by  immo  extraneous  ibrcu  cauain((  thoni  to  duHcribo  a  circle,  an 
ollipao,  or  Home  other  curve, 

":i.  That  tliii  attraction  ia  ao  much  the  (greater  aa  the  iNxlica  are  nearer.  Am  to  the  pro- 
portion in  which  theKO  forcea  diminivli  hy  an  iiicreawe  of  dintanre,  I  own  I  have  not  yet  din- 
covered  it,  althou);!)  I  have  made  Hinie  experimenta  to  that  pur|KMiG.  I  leave  thia  to  othcra 
wh'>  have  time  and  knowledge  autlicient  tor  the  tank." 

Tlie  truly  philoNophical  viewa  ntated  in  tlieNo  proiKmiliona  relatively  to  the  celeatial  motiona 
wore  illu.--tmted  by  a  very  pretty  experiment,  which  llooko  had  nonie  time  before  exhibited 
to  tho  S<xMety.  A  ball,  auapended  by  a  loni;  thread  fVoiii  the  ceiling,  waa  made  to  awin^ 
round  another  liall  laid  on  a  table  inmieilintely  below  the  point  of  MnHpenaion.  When  the 
imnulao  );iven  to  tho  |R>uilulum  waa  very  nicely  adjuated  to  ita  deviation  iVniii  the  |M<rpendi- 
I'ular,  it  deHcrilied  a  |M'riect  circle  round  the  Imll  on  tho  table;  hut  when  the  impulco  was 
very  great  or  very  little,  it  ilenerilieil  an  elliiwe  bavin);  tho  other  ball  in  its  centre.  Tho 
force,  nmlcr  tho  influence  of  which  thia  circular  or  elliptic  motion  waa  prmlueeil,  Ilooko 
ahowed  to  ho  a  deflecting?  tiirce,  pro|iortioiial  to  tho  diatancc  t'rom  the  other  bull.  But  he 
added,  that  althi)u;;li  thia  illustrated  the  planetary  motiona  in  aome  dejrree,  yet  it  wnH  not 
(uitablo  to  their  cane ;  fertile  planeta  ileHcribc  ellipaeH,  having  tho  xiin  not  in  their  centre 
but  in  their  fiicua,  ao  that  they  are  not  retuim^d  in  their  orbita  by  a  force  pro|iortiiinal  to  tho 
distance  fVom  tho  aun. 

Thus  wo  aeo  that  certain  pointa  of  reaeniblance  between  the  motiona  of  the  planets  and 
tho  motiona  of  magni'ta  and  heavy  bixliea,  had  attracted  the  attention  of  miiny  philoHopherH; 
but  these  obacrvera  failed  to  deduce  from  the  principlea  which  they  ho  dimly  perceived  any 
satiefactory  concluaion. 

At  length  tho  jioworful  gcniua  of  Sir  laaoc  Newton  was  directed  to  the  aubject,  and  by 
Ilia  penetrating  sagacity  the  law  of  iMiiversal  gravitation  was  brought  fully  into  view,  ond 
Bucceaafully  applied  to  explain  the  celestial  phenomena.  He  hail  ^tired  from  Cambridge  to 
the  country  on  account  of  tho  plague,  ond  while  walking  in  his  garden  he  waa  led  to  meditate 
on  the  planetary  motions,  and  on  the  nature  of  that  central  force  which  retains  the  planets 
in  their  orbits.  The  thought  happily  occurred  to  him  that  the  aamc  force,  or  aome  modifica- 
tion of  tho  same  force,  which  caiiaca  a  heavy  Ixaly  to  descend  to  tho  earth,  might  extend  to 
tho  moon,  and  might  retain  that  body  in  ita  orbit  by  deflecting  it  from  the  rectilineal  path. 
However  plausible  thia  conjecture  might  appear,  the  mind  of  Newton  waa  too  deeply  imbued 
with  tho  true  spirit  of  philosophy  to  adopt  it  as  the  groundwork  of  h  theory,  unless  it  conld 
be  shown  by  calculation  to  Iw  coincident  with  fact.  But  before  it  could  be  brought  to  thi? 
test,  it  was  necessary  that  lie  should  fbrin  some  conditional  hypothesis  reapecting  the  modi- 
fication of  the  force  as  tho  distance  increased,  and  also  that  he  ahoiild  know  nearly  the 
magnitude  of  the  earth.  The  hypothesis  which  he  assumed  with  regard  to  the  modification 
of  the  force  according  to  the  increase  of  the  distance  was  correct ;  namely,  that  the  force 
decreases  as  the  square  of  the  distance  increusea.  But  ho  made  a  fiilse  cstimatinn  of  the  bulk 
of  the  earth ;  so  that  his  calculations  showed  that  his  conjecture  did  not  agree  with  the  phe- 
nomenon :  he  accordingly  abandoned  it.  A  few  years  afterwards  ho  was  induced,  however. 
to  renew  his  calculations,  having  in  tho  interval  obtained  more  correct  data,  in  consequence 
of  tho  measurement  of  a  degree  in  France  by  Picard.  The  attempt  now  succeeded  ;  and  it 
ia  said  that,  os  his  calculations  drew  to  a  close,  ho  became  so  agitated  that  he  was  obliged  to 
request  a  frionil  to  finish  them.  His  former  conjecture  waa  found  to  agree  with  the  pheno- 
mena with  tho  utmost  precision;  and  in  exploring  tho  grand  scene  which  was  now  laid  open 
before  him,  he  was  led  to  an  explanation  of  the  system  of  tho  world,  consisting  simply  in  an 
accurate  narration  of  facts,  and  such  an  arrangement  of  them  as  showed  their  mutual  depen- 
dence, and,  at  the  same  time,  their  reference  to  one  great  fact  of  which  they  were  all  neces- 
sary consequences. 

We  are  now  to  explain  briefly  tho  tlieory  of  gravitation ;  but  our  account  of  it  must  of 
course  be  very  limited. 


4  ! 


■■  '  f^ 


'I 


.•* 


ilA 


PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Paht  II. 


! 

m 

, 

if 

Hi  Ki 

Thf'f'.  In  nn  ptionomonon  in  nature  more  familiar  to  us  than  motion ;  and  although  it  be 

5r<'(itly  (Iiv('r=i(ic(l  according  to  the  causes  by  which  it  is  produced,  yet  all  motions  are  sub- 
wl  tn  till"  tliri'p  fl)llowiiiff  Taws: — 

Ixt  I.*w.  Mvrry  luxly  continues  in  a  state  of  rest,  or  of  uniform  rectilinear  motion,  unlesB 
lll)i'(^ti<d  l)y  fiiiiiin  iiirrhanicnl  tbrce. 

'Al  li*w.  Kvpry  change  of  motion  is  proportional  to  the  force  impressed,  and  is  made  in 
tlio  ilift'Clidll  III' that  force. 

'M  li*w,    Kvfry  action  is  accompanied  by  an  equal  and  contrary  re-action. 

It  In  a  I'liiiPwiiKMice  of  the  first  two  laws,  that  if  a  body  or  particle  of  matter  bo  subjected 
fit  tilt*  wiinc  titiio  to  the  action  of  two  moving  forces,  each  of  which  would  separately  cause 
it  U>  di^cfilip  Ihn  side  of  a  parallelogram  uniformly  in  a  given  time,  the  body  will  describe 
tlu'  illMifiiiinl  iinitorinly  in  the  same  time.  By  these  very  simple  laws,  the  result  of  e.\pc- 
rii'lM't',  ittiil  by  the  (irinciples  of  geometry,  Newton  established  the  sublime  doctrines  of  tlie 
|>l»ii(tti(fy  tiKitions, 

It  will  nut  be  expected  that  we  should  enter  at  any  considerable  length  into  the  recondite 
dwtriiM'N  (if  physical  astronomy.  This  subject  requires  for  its  full  discussion  ample  space, 
11(1(1  (ill  tho  fcpdiirct's  of  jie  higher  mathematics :  the  more  elements  of  geometry,  however, 
are  milllt'ieiit  to  indicate  generally  some  of  the  fundamentiil  principles.     Let  us  suppose  that 

S  (Jig.  34.)  is  a  fixed  point, 


---E, 


fiM 


and  that  a  iMxly  moves  in 
the  direction  A  B  witli  an 
uniform  velocity,  at  such  a 
rate,  that  if  not  disturbed 
by  any  external  cause,  it 
would  move  from  B  to  6  in 
.r^'b  a  second  of  time.  Let  us 
;  also  supiwse  that  when  the 
body'  arrives  at  B,  it  re- 
ceives an  impulse  in  the 
direction  B  S,  and  of  such 
intensity,  that,  if  acting 
alone,  it  would  cause  the 
body  to  move  uniformly 
from  B  to  H  in  a  second. 
Complete  the  parallelo- 
gram H  B  6  C,  and  draw 


the  (liitKOiml  11  C ;  the  impulse  at  B,  combined  with  the  tendency  to  continue  its  motion  in 
lll(}  11(11)  U  h,  will  cause  the  body  to  move  along  the  diagonal  B  C;  so  that  at  the  end  of  a 
»(*('(»nl  It  Will  nrtually  be  at  the  point  C ;  and  if  no  external  cause  acted  on  the  body,  by  the 
llN.  Iitw,  it  Would  continue  to  move  uniformly  ever  afler  in  the  direction  B  C  c ;  so  that  in 
llie  liuxt  H'Coild  it  would'doscribe  a  line  C  c,  equal  to  B  C.  But  now  suppose  that  the  body, 
wIlt'H  lit  0,  receives  a  second  impulse  in  the  direction  C  S,  by  which  it  would  be  carried 
lillitlifliily  iVniii  C  to  I  in  a  second:  then,  completing  the  parallelogram  D  I  C  c,  the  actual 
pidli  til' tilt!  ImkIv  will  be  the  diagonal  C  D,  which  will  be  uniformly  described  in  a  second; 
iMiil  H'lllltliBturbtMl,  tho  motion  would  be  continued  uniformly  in  the  straight  line  C  D  <t,  the 
(lifttndt'n  1)  (/  (lt!Bcribcd  in  the  ne.xt  second  being  equal  to  C  D.  A  third  impulse  at  D,  in  the 
ilir«utitiii  1)  N,  such  os  would  carry  the  body  unilbrmly  from  D  to  K  in  a  second  of  time, 
Wwiltl)  wlit'ii  combined  with  the  tendency  to  move  in  the  direction  D  d,  pnxluce  a  motion 
bIuiijI  I)  K,  the  diagonal  of  the  parallelogram  E  K  D  rf,  and  a  fourth  impulse  in  the  direction 
l'(  H,  Wiiiild,  when  combined  with  the  motion  in  the  direction  E  c,  produce  a  motion  along 
tllB  tliduoiml  E  P,  and  so  on.  In  this  way,  by  successive  instantaneous  impulses,  a  body  may 
bti  (iiiultt  to  depcribe  tho  path  A  B  C  D  E  F,  &c.,  which  will  bo  all  in  one  plane. 

HilH!it  the  linos  A  H,  B  b  are  equal,  the  triangles  A  S  B,  B  S  /<  are  equal ;  but  because 
< '  //  In  iMifiillfl  to  H  U,  the  triangle  B  S  6  is  equal  to  the  triangle  B  S  C ;  therefore  the  trian- 
1(1(1  II  H  (J  in  ofiual  to  A  S  B.  In  like  manner,  it  may  be  proved  that  C  S  D  is  equal  to  B 
H  (;,  (Kill  1)  H  H  to  C  H  D,  and  so  on :  thus  it  appears  tliat  the  triangles  A  S  B,  B  S  C,  C  S  D, 
I)  H  E,  iVc.  lire  nil  equal.  If  we  suppose  a  straight  line  to  be  drawn  from  the  moving  body  to 
tlitt  lUi'il  jKilnl  H,  niid  to  be  continually  carried  along  with  it,  it  is  evident  that  this  lino  will 
IKINN  over  or  gfiK'rato  the  equal  areas  A  S  B,  B  S  C,  C  S  D,  D  S  E,  &c.  in  equal  intervals 
of  tiliiM  1  il  in  also  evident  that  the  shorter  the  interval  between  the  impulses  communi- 
rnUnl  to  tilt!  inoving  body,  the  greater  will  be  the  number  of  sides  of  the  figure  formed  hy 
lilt*  tliiimnmlB  of  the  parallelograms,  and  the  nearer  will  the  line  composed  of  these 
(ll(t(((i(iiilN  itpptoiich  to  a  curve.  If  we  suppose,  therefore,  that  tho  body  is  urged  towards  P 
by  K  Ibfco  lu'tiiig,  not  at  intervals,  Init  incessantly,  the  body  will  move  in  that  curve  to 
wlihdi,  UN  its  limit,  the  line,  composed  of  the  diagonals  continually  approaches,  while  the 
litlti  (Iruwii  fhim  tho  movmg  body  A  S,  or  radius  vector,  will  continue  to  describe  areas  pro 
(idttitjiial  to  the  times. 


BookL 


♦» 


LAW  OP  UNIVERSAL  GRAVITATION. 


no 


The  force  which  urges  the  body  towards  S,  is  called  a  centripetal  force.  If  the  action 
of  that  force  were  to  cease,  tlie  body  would  proceed  in  a  straight  line, — a  tangent  to  its 
curvilinear  path.  The  tendency  of  the  body  to  proceed  in  the  direction  of  the  tangent,  is 
called  its  centrifvoal  force. 

Prom  the  important  conclusion  to  which  we  have  now  been  led,  wo  may  infer,  conversely 
that  if  a  bmly  revolve  in  a  curvilinear  path  about  a  point,  and  if  the  radius  vector  drawn 
from  that  point  describe  round  it  areas  proportional  to  the  times,  the  body  is  deflected  from 
the  rectilineal  path  by  a  force  directed  to  that  point  Now,  this  is  exactly  the  case  of  the 
planets,  both  primary  and  secondary.  The  former  describe  curvilinear  orbits  round  the  sun 
and,  according  to  the  second  of  Kepler's  laws,  the  nulius  vector  describes  areas  proportionul 
to  the  times.  Hence  we  may  infer,  that  each  is  retained  in  its  orbit  by  a  centripetal  force 
directed  towards  the  sun ;  and  that  this  force  is  counteracted  by  a  centrifxigal  force  genera- 
ted by  tlio  planet's  motion  in  its  orbit.  In  like  manner,  each  secondary  planet  revolves 
about  its  primary,  the  areas  described  by  the  radius  vector  following  the  same  law ;  so  that 
the  secondary  must  be  acted  upon  by  a  centripetal  force  directed  towards  tlie  primary 
planet. 

The  next  thing  to  be  determined  is  the  law  of  the  centripetal  force  when  a  body  moves 
in  an  elliptic  orbit,  the  force  being  directed  towards  one  of  the  foci.  First,  let  us  suppose  a 
body  to  revolve  in  the  circumference  of  a  circle  ADC  {fig.  35.),  about  any  point  S,  as  Uie 
centre  of  its  motion,  and  let  us  inquire  into  the  law  of  the  centripetal  force  in  that  case. 
^  35        Draw  the  chord  A  S  C,  and  let  A  D  be  so  small  an  arc,  that 

it  may  be  considered  coincident  with  its  chord.  Draw  D  E 
parallel  to  the  tangent  A  B,  and  join  C  D.  Then  A  D  will 
measure  the  velocity  of  the  body  m  its  orbit  at  the  point  A, 
and  A  E  the  space  over  which  the  centripetal  force  directed 
towards  S,  if  acting  alone,  would  cause  the  body  to  move  in 
the  time  in  which  it  moves  from  A  to  D.  Put  v  to  denote  the 
velocity,  and  /  the  centripetal  force.  Since  the  triangles  A 
DC,  A  E  D,  are  equiangular  and  similar,  we  have  A  C ; 
A  D=A  D  :  A  E ;  that  is, 

AC  ;  »  =  B  ;/:  therefbre/=^ 
Next,  let  A  P  B  (fig.  36.)  be  the  elliptic  orbit  of  a  planet> 
S  the  focus  in  which  the  sun  is  placed,  A  the  point  at  which 
the  planet  is  at  its  greatest  distance  from  the  sun,  and  P  any  other  point  in  its  orbit.  Join 
P  S ;  draw  the  tangent  P  D,  and  draw  S  D  perpendicular  to  P  D.  Let  v  and  v'  denote  the 
velocities  of  the  planet  at  A  and  P  respectively ;  and  c  and  c'  the  chords  of  the  equicurve 
circles  at  A  and  P  which  pass  through  the  point  S,  and  let  /be  the  deflecting  force  at  A, 
and  /'  the  deflecting  force  at  P.  Then  from  what  we  have  proved  respecting  a  baly 
moving  in  the  circumference  of  a  circle  round  any  point  F  as  the  centre  of  its  motion,  we 
have/;/'  =  ~  :  ^  =  d'c'  :  «''c.  But  since  the  small  arcs  which  represent  the  velocities 
at  A  and  P  must  be  supposed  to  be  described  in  equal  times,  the  corresponding  areas  described 

by  the  radius  vector  will  also  be  equal.  Hence  it  is  not 
difficult  to  see  that  t)XAS  =  r'XSD,  and  v  :  v'  = 
S  D  :  a  A.  We  obtain,  therefore,  /:  /'=  S  D'  X  r': 
S  A'  X  c.  Draw  P  E  perpendicular  to  the  tangent 
P  D,  meeting  the  axis  in  E,  and  draw  E  G  perpendicular 
to  P  E,  and  E  H  perpendicular  to  P  G.  From  the  pro- 
JA.  perties  of  the  ellipse,  P  H  is  equal  to  half  the  principal 
parameter,  and  consequently  to  half  of  c,  the  chord  of  the 
circle,  of  equal  curvature  at  A,  which  passes  through  S. 
Also  P  G  is  half  of  c',  the  chord  of  the  cciuicurve  circl(> 
at  P,  which  passes  through  S.    Therefore, 

/:/'=:2SD'' X  PG:2SA' X  PH.     - 

=  S  D'  X  P  G  :  S  A'  X  P  II. 
Now,  from  the  similar  triangles  G  P  E,  E  P  II,  we  have  GP:PE  =  PE:PH;  honce 
G  P  :  P  II  =  G  P' :  P  E'.     But  the  triangles  G  P  E,   PSD  being  also  simihir,  G  P' :  P  E" 
=  P  S' :  S  D';  therefore,  G  P  :  P  H  =  P  S' :  S  D';  and  P  S'XP  II  =  S  IVxG  P:  nnd 
since  it  was  shown  that/:/'=  S  D^'X  P  G  :  S  A'X  P II,  wherefore/: /'=P  S'x  P  H :  R  A' 
X  P  H ;  or  leaving  the  common  factor  P  H  out  of  the  two  consequents  we  have 
/:/'=PS'  :  SA^ 
Thus  we  have  arrived  at  this  important  conclusion ;  that  the  force  by  which  the  planets 
evolve  round  the  sun  in  elliptical  orbits,  the  sun  being  in  one  of  the  foci,  and  the  radius 
vector  describing  areas  proportional  to  the  times,  is  always  inversely  as  the  squares  of  the 
distances. 


l-'lj 

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1 

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1 

1  ■*' 

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it 

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f|l 

120 


PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  II. 


There  remains  yet  another  point  to  be  determined  rcspcctinjj  the  forces  which  retain  the 
different  planets  in  their  orbits;  namely,  whether  there  is  any  analogy  letween  them 
From  Kepler's  third  law,  we  know  that  the  squares  of  the  periodical  times  of  any  two 
of  the  planets  are  proportional  to  the  ctibcs  of  their  mean  distances  from  the  sun.  This  law 
is  independent  of  tlie  eccentricities  of  the  orbits ;  and  the  same  relation  would  subsist 
between  the  moon  distances  and  tlie  periodic  times,  though  the  eccentricities  were  to 
become  infinitely  small ;  or,  what  is  the  same  thing,  the  orbits  were  to  become  circles.  Let 
us  then  suppose  tlie  planets  to  move  with  uniform  velocities  in  circular  orbits,  having  the 
sun  in  the  centre.  This  supposition  differs  very  little  from  the  truth.  Put  v,  v'  to  denote 
the  velocities  of  two  of  the  planets,  r,  r'  the  radii  of  their  orbits,  /,  t'  their  periodic  times, 
and/,/'  tiie  forces  by  which  they  are  retained  in  their  orbits.  From  what  we  have  already 
shown  respecting  a  body  moving  in  a  circle  round  any  point  as  the  centre  of  its  motion,  we 
iiave/=  ^  and/'  =p,  therefore/:/'  =^  :  ^.  But  since  the  circumferences  of  circlee 
are  to  one  another  as  their  radii,  and  the  velocity  or  the  space  passed  over  by  the  planet  in 
the  unit  of  time  is  equal  to  the  circumference  of  its  orbit,  divided  by  the  periodic  time 
expressed  in  that  unit,  it  is  evident  that  v  :  v'=-y- :—  :  hence  —  :  ~=i-^  :  -jr, ;  or, 

ili      uB    ^  li'2   r    ^    r[ I      ,      I   ,< 


smcc  t'  :  <'-=r'  :  r'\  -  :  -:^=-r  :  -n=- 


^  _^j  .  ^,,_^  .  ^,— ,  .  r".  Wherefore  we  obtain/:/' 
=r" :  r". 

This  result  shows  that  the  forces  which,  acting  on  two  planets,  would  cause  them 
to  describe  circular  orbits,  agreeing  with  Kepler's  third  law,  are  inversely  as  the  squares 
of  the  distances.  Hence  we  may  infer  the  sameness  of  the  force  which  retains  the  planets 
in  their  respective  orbiU ;  since  it  varies  from  orbit  to  orbit,  according  to  the  very  same  law 
which  regulates  its  intensity  at  different  distances  in  the  same  orbit.  This  conclusion  is 
fully  cstablislicd  by  the  fact,  that  the  force  which  acts  upon  the  comets  during  their  descent 
to  the  sun,  varies  exactly  according  to  the  law  whicli  we  have  now  assigned  as  the  law  of 
the  planetary  force.  The  comet  of  1759,  which  was  predicted  by  Dr.  Halloy,  came  from 
regions  fjir  boycnd  the  most  distant  of  the  known  planets,  and  approached  nearer  to  the 
sun  than  Venus ;  and  when  it  arrived  at  the  same  distance  from  the  sun  as  any  of  the 
])lanets,  its  deflection  from  the  rectilineal  course  by  the  action  of  the  centripetal  force,  was 
tlie  very  same  as  that  of  the  planet.  We  may,  therefore,  conclude,  that  it  is  one  and  the 
same  force  which  deflects  all  the  planets  as  well  as  the  comets. 

From  what  has  now  been  shown,  it  is  evident  that  if  all  the  planets  were  placed  at 
the  same  distance  from  the  sun,  they  would  all  be  deflected  equally  by  the  centripetal  force 
independently  of  the  quantity  of  matter  in  each.  Hence  it  follows  that,  at  equal  distances, 
the  centripetal  force  must  act  equally  on  every  particle  of  matter  of  which  the  planets  arc 
composed ;  so  that  if  one  planet  contain  exactly  double  the  quantity  of  matter  that  another 
planet  contains,  and  if  both  are  placed  at  exactly  the  same  distance  from  the  sun,  the  former 
will  receive  a  double  impulse.  We  may  infer,  therefore,  that  another  lau  of  the  force 
which  retains  the  planets  in  their  orbits  is,  that,  at  equal  distances,  it  is  proportional  tc 
the  mass  on  which  it  acts ;  and  tliat  if  two  bodies  act  on  the  same  particle  of  matter,  the 
forces  which  they  exert  are  proportional  In  their  masses.  The  force  may  be  supposed  to 
be  produced  cither  by  a  cause  residing  in  tlie  hotly  which  is  placed  in  the  centre  of  motion, 
or  by  a  cause  residing  in  the  revolving  body.  In  the  former  point  of  view,  it  is  called  a 
force  of  ATTRACTION ;  in  the  latter,  a  force  of  gravitation.  The  truth  is,  however,  that  the 
cause  of  this  force  is  absolutely  unknown.  We  see  only  the  effects  produced,  and  from  these 
wo  investigate  t)ic  laws  which  connect  them  with  each  other,  and  the  general  principles  on 
which  they  depend. 

Thus,  from  the  facts  discovered  by  Kepler  respecting  the  planetary  motion,  we 
have  shown  tliat  each  planet  has  a  tendency  towards  the  sun,  in  consequence  of  which 
from  a  state  of  rest  it  would  move  towards  him,  acquir.ng  at  every  instant  an  increase  of 
velocity  according  to  a  fixed  and  determinate  ntlc  or  law  whicli  applies  alike  to  all  the 
plaiietw.  This  tendency,  if  not  counteracted,  would  bring  the  matter  of  tiie  sun  and  planets 
mfo  one  mass.  Tliis,  however,  is  prevented  from  taking  place,  in  consequence  of  an  impulse 
having  been  ori^nnally  communicated  to  each  planet,  giving  it  a  constant  tendency  to  move 
in  a  Btraight  line  with  on  uniform  velocity.  The  effecti  arising  from  these  two  tendencies 
are  so  odjustcd,  as  to  produce  elliptic  orbity.  But  the  law  whicli  regulates  the  effects  arising 
from  the  tendency  of  the  planets  towards  the  .snn  remaining  the  same,  such  a  velocity 
might  have  bci>n  Cdnimnnicatcd  to  each  planet,  by  the  original  impulse  wliirh  gave  it  its 
ti'iidi  ncy  to  move  uniformly  in  a  straight  line,  as  would  have  produced  piirabolic  or  liyper- 
liolic  orbits.  In  a  circular  orbit,  if  tlie  centre  of  motion  coincide  v.itli  the  centre  of  the 
orbit,  the  velocity  of  a  planet  is  uniform,  and  of  such  rapidity  as  at  every  point  to  produce  a 
tendency  to  move  in  a  tangent  to  the  orbit,  exactly  sufficient  to  coiinterbaliinci  the  tendency 
to  mov(!  towards  the  centre  of  the  orbit.  If  the  orbit  be  elliptical,  and  one  of  the  foci 
the  centre  of  motion,  the  motion  of  the  ))lanot  is  variable,  and  its  tendency  to  move  uni- 
formly in  a  tangent  to  the  orbit  sometimes  exceeds,  and  at  other  times  fa.ls  short  of,  that 


•-X 


UOOK  I. 


LAW  OP  UNIVERSAL  GRAVITATION. 


121 


cncies 
irising 
:>Iocity 

it  its 
hypor- 

"  the 
luce  a 
idency 
foci 


which  would  be  necessary  to  cause  it  to  revolve  in  a  circle  at  the  same  diBtonce  from  the 
centre  of  motion. 

Let  A  D  B  E  be  the  elliptic  orbit  of  a  planet  revolving  about  the  sun,  which  is  supposed 
to  be  placed  in  the  focus  S.  Suppose  the  planet  to  set  out  from  A  in  the  direction  A  P, 
A  being  the  |)oint  of  its  greatest  distance  from  the  sun.  At  A  tlie  direction  of  the  planet's 
motion  is  at  riglit  angles  to  the  radius  vector,  and  if  the  velocity  were  such  as  to  produce 
a  tendency  to  move  in  the  direction  of  tiie  tangent  A  G,  exactly  equivalent  to  the  tendency 
of  the  planet  to  move  towards  the  sun,  the  planet  would  revolve  in  a  circle  of  which  S  is 
the  centre,  and  S  A  the  radius.  But  tlie  velocity  being  supposed  less,  the  path  of  the 
planet  will  fall  within  the  circle,  and  the  angle  S  P  H  contained  between  tlie  radius  vector 
and  the  tangent  P  H,  which  shows  the  direction  of  the  planet's  motion,  changes  from  a  right 
angle  to  an  acute  angle.    The  tendency  of  the  planet  towards  the  sun  is  now  exerted  partly 

in  accelerating  its  velocity  in  its  orbit,  and  partly  in- 
curvating  its  path.  While  the  planet  describes  the 
quadrant  A  P  D,  its  velocity  is  always  less  than  that 
which  would  produce  a  circular  motion ;  until  it  is  at 
the  point  D,  and  then  the  velocity  is  precisely  what 
would  be  sufficient  for  a  circular  motion  about  S,  if  its 
A.  direction  were  perpendicular  to  the  radius  vector :  the 
direction,  however,  being  oblique,  the  planet  is  brought 
still  nearer  to  S.  The  tendency  towards  the  sun  is,  in 
a  great  measure,  still  exerted  in  accelerating  the  motion, 
and  as  soon  as  the  planet  passes  D,  its  velocity  becomes 
greater  than  what  might  produce  a  circular  motion 
about  S.  The  angle  S  D  K  is,  therefore,  the  least  angle 
which  the  ndius  vect«r  makes  with  the  direction  of  the  planet's  motion,  and  from  the  moment 
when  the  planet  passes  the  point  D,  that  angle  begins  to  increase ;  and  the  effect  of  this  is 
to  cause  the  tendency  of  the  planet  towards  the  sun  to  be  principally  exerted  in  incurvating 
the  orbit.  Its  influence  in  accelerating  the  planet's  motion,  though  it  still  exists,  is  gradually 
diminished,  until  the  planet  arrives  at  the  point  B,  where  it  ceases  altogether,  in  consequence 
of  the  radius  vector  being  at  right  angles  to  the  tangent  B  L. 

As  the  velocity  of  the  planet  at  B  is  greater  than  what  is  sufficient  to  produce  a  motion  in 
a  circle  of  which  the  radius  is  S  B,  the  path  of  the  planet  falls  wholly  without  that  circle; 
and  consequently,  it  is  now  receding  from  the  sun.  The  angle  which  the  radius  vector 
makes  with  the  direction  of  its  motion  becoming  obtuse,  the  tendency  of  the  planet  towards 
the  sun  is  now  partly  employed  in  retarding  its  motion,  so  that  its  velocity  is  diminished. 
The  angle  contained  between  the  radius  vector  and  the  direction  of  the  planet's  motion 
increases  while  the  planet  is  moving  from  B  to  E,  and  decreases  from  E  to  A,  when  it  be- 
comes a  right  angle,  as  it  had  formerly  decreased  from  A  to  D,  and  increased  from  D  to  B. 
The  velocity  of  tlie  planet  in  its  orbit  must,  therefore,  decrease  from  B  to  A,  as  it  had  for- 
merly increased  from  A  to  B ;  at  the  point  E  it  will  be  equal  to  what  it  was  at  D,  and  from 
E  to  A,  the  influence  of  the  planet's  tendency  towards  the  sun  to  diminish  its  velocity  will 
become  less  and  less,  until  when  the  planet  has  arrived  at  A,  it  will  cease  altogether.  The 
velocity  is  then  the  same  as  at  first,  and  the  motion  goes  on  in  this  way  for  ever. 

Whatever  has  now  been  deduced  from  Kepler's  Laws  respecting  the  orbits  of  the  pri- 
mary planets,  and  the  law  of  the  force  by  which  they  are  described,  will  apply  equally  to 
tlie  orbits  of  the  secondary  planets :  for  in  each  of  these  little  systems,  there  is  the  same 
analogy  between  the  periodic  times  and  the  distances,  which  takes  place  in  the  general 
system;  the  figure  of  the  orbits  is  also  elliptic,  and  the  areas  described  by  the  radius  vector 
is  proportional  to  the  times.  Wo  may  legitimately  conclude,  therefore,  that  the  satellites 
revolving  about  any  planrt,  are  retained  in  their  orbits  by  a  force  inversely  proportional  to 
the  sqnares  of  their  distances  from  their  primary  planet ;  so  that  all  the  celestial  motions 
are  produced  by  forces  regulated  by  this  general  law. 

The  force  that  keeps  the  Moon  in  her  orbit  is,  then,  the  attraction  of  the  earth,  or  her  gra- 
vitation towards  the  earth.  But  wo  find  that  the  earth  attracts  all  the  bodies  near  its  surftce 
by  a  force  wliich  is  proportional  to  tlie  mass  of  the  body  attracted.  Whatever  be  the  weight 
of  a  body,  it  falls  to  the  earth  from  the  same  height  in  the  same  time,  and  with  the  same 
velocity.  Thus,  if  the  resistance  of  the  atmosphere  be  removed,  it  is  found  by  experiment 
that  the  lightest  feather  falls  to  the  earth,  from  a  given  height,  in  the  very  same  time,  and 
with  the  very  same  velocity,  as  a  stone,  however  groat  its  weight.  Let  us  inquire  whether 
the  force  which  retains  the  moon  in  its  orbit  may  not  be  identified  with  this  attractive  force 
which  causes  the  descent  of  heavy  bodies  to  the  surface  of  the  earth. 

We  may  without  great  error  supiiose  the  lunar  orbit  to  be  circular,  and  its  scmidiameter 
to  be  equal  to  sixty  semidiameters  of  the  earth.     Let  it  be  represented  by  the  circle  C  M  A, 
the  earth  being  supposed  to  be  placed  at  the  centre  E ;  and  let  M  C  be  the  small  portioa 
VOL.L  11  Q 


129 


PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Past  Ii. 


of  the  orbit  which  the  moon  describes  in  a  second  of  time. 
Draw  M  B  a  tangent  to  tlie  orbit  at  M :  draw  also  C  D  paral- 
lel to  M  B,  and  C  B  parallel  to  MA,  the  diameter  of  the  orbit. 
The  arch  M  C  may  be  regarded  as  coincident  with  its  chord ; 
therefore,  joining  A  C,  it  is  evident  that  in  the  right  angled 
triangle  A  C  M  we  have  AM:  M  C=M  C  :  M  D.  Hence, 
since  A  M  and  M  C  are  known,  M  D  or  B  C,  the  deflection 
of  tlie  moon  from  the  tangent  in  a  second,  by  the  attraction  of 
the  earth,  may  be  found. 

The  moon  describes  her  orbit  round  the  earth  in  about  STj 
T"  43™  or  2,360,580  seconds ;  the  circumference  of  her  orbit  is 
about  60  times  the  circumference  of  the  enrth,  that  is,  if  we 
reckon  69j  English  miles  to  a  degree,  7,926,336,000  feet ; 
therefore  the  length  of  the  arc  M  C,  which  the  moon  describes 
in  a  second,  will  be  found  nearly  equal  to  33o8  feet.  Again,  A  M,  the  diameter  of  the 
nHMn's  orbit,  is  about  2,52i),031,140  feet.  Hence  we  obtain  M  D  equal  to  00447  feet  nearly. 
This  small  iVactional  part  of  a  foot  is  the  space  which  a  body,  placed  at  the  distance  of  the 
moon,  and  falling  from  a  state  of  rest  by  the  action  of  the  force  which  retains  the  raoon  in 
her  orbit,  would  pass  over  in  the  first  second  of  time.  Observing,  now,  that  this  force  increa«es 
na  the  squares  of  tlie  distances  decrease,  we  may  determine  the  space  which  a  body  at  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth  (or  at  the  distance  of  one  semidinnieter  from  the  earth's  centre),  and  felling 
from  a  state  of  rest,  would  pass  over  in  tlie  first  second  of  time,  if  urged  by  the  same  force. 
For,  since  the  moon's  distance  from  the  earth  is  equal  to  about  sixty  times  the  semidiameter 
of  the  earth,  we  have  1*:  60'=00447:  the  space  required,  which  is  found  to  be  16'09  feet. 
Now,  this  is  exactly  the  space  which  a  body,  falling  from  rest  by  its  own  weight,  is  found 
by  experiment  to  pass  over  in  the  first  second  of  time.  Hence  we  may  infer,  that  the  moon 
is  retained  in  its  orbit  by  the  very  same  force  which  produces  pressure  in  a  body  supported, 
or  causes  a  body  when  unsupported  to  fall  to  the  ground. 

Though  the  attraction  of  the  earth  on  bodies  near  its  surface  is  only  a  particular  case  of 
a  general  principle,  which  produces  all  the  planetary  motions,  the  eflbcts  are,  to  appearance, 
considerably  modified.  At  all  the  heights  to  wliich  wo  are  able  to  ascend  above  the  general 
surface  of  the  earth,  or  to  which  we  can  project  a  body,  the  force  of  gravity  acts,  as  to  sense, 
uniformly:  it  also  acts  in  the  direction  of  straight  lines,  perpendicular  to  the  horizon,  and 
tlierefore  parallel  to  one  another,  for  the  greatest  range  that  can  be  given  to  a  projectile. 
Hence  the  phenomena,  which  depend  on  the  force  diminishing  in  intensity,  as  the  S(iuare 
of  the  distance  increases,  and  on  its  emanating  in  the  direction  of  straight  lines  drawn  to 
the  centre  of  the  attracting  sphere,  become  imperceptible.  In  consequence  of  the  compa- 
ratively small  velocity  with  which  hr.man  power  can  project  a  body,  its  path  always  meets 
the  earth,  and  its  motion  terminates.  But  if  the  whole  matter  of  the  earth  were  collected 
into  a  point  at  the  centre,  a  liody  projected  from  a  point  4000  miles  distant  from  the  centre, 
and  with  such  a  velocity  as  human  power  can  communicate,  would  be  acted  upon  by  the 
same  forces,  with  a  bo<ly  similarly  projected  from  the  surface  of  the  narth.  But  on  the  sup- 
position now  miido,  the  body  would  meet  with  no  obsticle,  but  would  approach  within  a  cer- 
tain distance  of  the  centre,  and  would  then  recede  from  it  until  it  reached  another  limit, 
when  it  would  again  approach,  and  go  on  in  this  manner,  approaching  and  receding  alter- 
nately, for  ever.  The  path  of  the  body  would  be  an  el'ipse,  resembling  in  fig\ire  the  orbit 
3f  a  comet.  The  extreme  portions  of  the  path  would,  as  to  sense,  be  portions  of  a  parabola. 
Hence  it  is  usually  laid  down  as  a  law  regulating  the  motion  of  projectiles,  that  if  a  heavy 
body  be  projected  in  a  straiirhl  line,  not  perpendicular  to  the  lutriznn,  it  wilt  describe  a 
parabola  situated  in  the  vertical  plane  passing  through  that  straight  line,  and  having  its 
axis  perpendicular  to  the  horizon.     Tiiis  physical  truth  was  first  discovered  by  Galileo. 

The  force  of  gravity  near  the  surface  of  the  earth  being  uniform  in  its  action,  it  is  found 
that  the  motion  wiiich  it  produces  corresponds  in  all  its  circumstances  with  that  which 
matheriiatical  reasoning  shows  should  result  from  the  action  of  a  constant  force.  The  spaces 
through  which  the  body  falls  are  proportional  to  the  squares  nf  the  times,  and  the  velocity 
is  proportional  to  the  time  during  which  the  body  has  been  falling. 

From  tiio  third  law  of  Kepler,  it  is  not  difficult  to  sec  that  the  periodic  time  of  a  planet 
in  its  orbit  is  determined  entirely  by  the  mean  distance,  that  is,  half  the  transverse  axis; 
and  is  not  at  all  uflt'cteil  by  the  increase  or  do<Tensn  of  the  ciiiijiigntn  ax's.  By  supposing, 
then,  the  conjugate  axis  to  bo  continually  diminished,  wo  are  led  to  this  roiirlusion,  that  the 
time  in  whicii  a  Ixxly  would  descend  to  the  sun,  if  allowed  to  fall  from  a  state  of  rest  at  any 
distance  from  him,  is  e(iua.l  to  half  the  time  of  nvolutlon  in  an  ellijisc  the  semitransverse 
axis  of  wliich  is  half  of  that  distance.  I,rt  T  be  the  time  of  ri'volutioii  of  ii  planet  at  any 
distance,  and  t  the  time  of  revolution  at  half  that  distance;  then,  by  tiio  third  law  of  Kepler, 

T  T 

T*:  t':  2':  1';  hence  we  have  t  =  T/V  and  J<  =  ^/^.     But  It  is  the  time  in  which  a  body 
would  fall  from  the  distance  corresponding  to  T.     Hence  the  lime  in  which  a  planet  would 


mi 


m\ 


/ 


'\T^     ■• 


'P 


f 


Book  I. 


LAW  OP  UNIVERSAL  GRAVITATION. 


123 


planet 
axis: 
liposiiifr, 

lint  thn 
:t  at  any 
insvcrso 
t  at  any 

Kepler, 

1  a  body 
•t  would 


fall  to  the  sun  by  the  action  of  the  centripetal  force  m  equal  to  the  periodic  time  divided 
hy  y/'^^  ;  or  (what  amounts  to  thn  eamo  thing)  to  the  periodic  time  multiplied  by  0"176776, 
the  reciprocal  of  the  square  root  of  32.  By  this  general  rule,  the  times  in  which  tlie  dif- 
ferent planets  would  reach  tlie  sun,  if  the  action  of  their  centrifugal  force  entirely  ceased 
at  the  moment  when  they  are  at  their  mean  distances,  arc  as  follow : 

°5U' 


Dayp.  Hrs. 

Mercury  in 15  13 

VcnuH 3il  17 

The  Earth 04  13 

Mnrs 121  10 

Ceres 2!I7  0 

Pallaa 301  4 


Jiinn 

Veata aoj 

Jupiter 7CS 

Saturn inoi 

Genrfiium  Sidus 5425 

The  Moon  would  fill!  to  the  Earth  in..       4 


ttn. 
10 

0 
111 

0 

0 
20 


The  principle  in  tlie  Newtonian  philosophy,  that  the  effecta  produced  by  the  attraction 
of  a  body  depend  very  much  upon  the  quantity  of  matter  which  it  contains,  fiimishes  the 
means  of  resolving  a  problem  which  at  first  sight  may  appear  of  such  difficulty  as  to  tran- 
scend the  powers  of  the  human  mind ;  namely,  to  determine  the  quantity  of  matter  in  the 
sun  and  planets.  Let  f  and  f  denote  the  forces  by  which  two  bodies  revolve  in  circular 
orbits  round  two  central  bodies,  of  which  the  masses  are  denoted  by  m  and  m'.  Let  r  and 
r  be  the  radii  of  the  orbits,  and  t  and  t'  the  periodic  times.  From  what  we  have  already 
proved  with  regard  to  a  force  tliat  retains  a  body  in  a  circular  orbit,  we  have 

t         r'  mm'  m         m'         r  r 

f  .  fi  —  — . —    Bu^  yfiQ  },ave  al8o/:/'= —  :  — :  therefore, —  :  —  =  —  :  — :  and 

(2       ra  rJ        r-t  Tt        r*!         II         fl 

ra        r'  S 

consequently,  m  :  m'  =  —  :  — 

Thus  it  appears  tliat  the  masses  of  matter  in  the  bodies  which  compose  the  solar  system 
are  directly  as  the  cubes  of  the  mean  distances  of  any  bodies  which  revolve  round  them, 
and  inversely  as  the  squares  of  the  times  in  which  the  revolutions  are  performed.  By 
means  of  this  principle,  the  masses  of  the  sun  and  of  the  planets  which  have  satellites  may 
be  compared  with  one  another.  With  regard  to  the  planets  which  have  no  satellites,  the 
quantity  of  matter  contained  in  them  can  only  be  guessed  from  the  effects  they  produce  on 
the  motions  of  the  other  planets.  The  quantity  of  matter  in  the  moon  can,  however,  be 
determined  with  greater  certainty,  by  comparing  together  the  influence  of  the  sun  and  moon 
in  producing  the  tides  and  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes.  Hence  we  learn,  that  the  mat- 
ter in  the  moon  is  about  Vir  of  the  matter  in  the  earth. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  masses  of  the  planets,  that  of  the  sun  being  considered 
as  unity : 

TABLE. 


Mercury 
Venus 
The  Earth 
Mars 


292S5T(r 


Jupiter 
Saturn 
Uranus 


If  we  add  together  the  numbers  given  in  this  table,  it  will  be  found  that  the  whole  matter 
in  all  the  planets  is  not  one-six-hundredth  part  of  the  matter  in  the  sun. 

Knowing  the  masses  of  tlie  planets  and  their  diameters,  we  can  determine  the  force  of 
gravity  at  their  surfaces ;  for,  supposing  them  to  be  spherical  bodies,  and  to  have  no  rotation 
on  their  axes,  the  forces  with  which  a  hotly  placed  on  their  surfaces  gravitates  to  them  will 
be  proportional  to  their  masses,  divided  by  the  squares  of  their  diameters. 

From  the  masses  of  Jupiter  and  the  earth,  Ija  Place  calculates  that  if  we  suppose  them 
to  liave  no  rotation,  a  body  which  at  the  earth's  equator  weighs  one  pound  would,  if  carried 
to  the  equator  of  Jupiter,  weigh  2..'jn9  pounds,  supposing  the  weights  to  be  measured  by 
the  pressures  exerted  in  the  two  situations.  If  the  centrifiigal  force  produced  by  the  rota- 
tion of  the  planets  be  taken  into  account,  however,  this  weight  must  be  diminished  by  about 
one-ninth  part.  The  same  body  would  wei:rh  utout  27.6.')  pounds  at  tlie  surface  of  the  sun. 
Hence  it  follows  that  a  heavy  body  would  there  descend  about  425  feet  in  the  first  second 
of  time. 

We  have  hitherto  attended  chiefly  to  the  action  of  the  central  body  upon  that  which 
revolves  round  it;  but,  in  reality,  the  action  is  mutual.  The  planets  attract  the  sun  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  sun  attracts  tlie  planets ;  and  the  same  action  and  re-aotion  have  place 
among  the  primary  planets  and  their  satellites.  Indeed,  the  gravitation  of  all  the  great 
bodies  of  the  system  towards  one  another,  appears  only  to  bo  a  consequence  of  a  similar 
action  between  every  particle  of  matter  nnd  every  other  particle  of  matter.  This  great 
fao.t,  to  which  nil  the  celestial  phenomena  are  ultimately  to  be  referred — Ihtit  the  particles 
of  matter  mutually  attract  each  other  hy  a  force  varying  inversely  as  the  squares  of  the 
distances — is  commonly  called  the  principle  of  Universal  Gravitation. 

The  mutual  attraction  of  the  bodies  composing  the  planetary  system  gives  rise  to  a  train 
of  consequences  which  it  has  required  the  utmost  efforts  of  human  ingenuity  to  unfold. 
We  have  already  remarked  that  the  planetary  motions  are  liable  to  a  variety  of  irregula.i- 


1,    if!-«K 


i' 


Ssi'J' 


hlliilifi 


VH 


PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY 


Past  II 


ties  with  which  accurate  observation  has  made  us  acquainted.  Now,  here  we  see  tlie  cause 
to  which  all  these  irrefirularitics  are  to  be  referred.  If  the  sun  were  fi.xed  immovable  in  the 
centre,  and  only  one  planet  revolving  round  him,  then  the  path  of  that  planet  would  be  an 
ellipse,  from  which  there  would  not  be  tlie  least  deviation ;  and  that  focus  which  is  the 
centre  of  motion  would  coincide  with  the  centre  of  the  sim,  supposing  that  body  to  be 
spherical  and  composed  of  matter  of  uniform  density.  But  since  the  planet  attracts  the  siu< 
as  well  as  the  sun  attracts  tlie  planet,  with  a  force  directly  proportional  to  tlie  mass  and 
inversely  proportional  to  tlie  square  of  the  distance,  it  follows  that  the  sun  must  also  move 
in  an  elliptic  orbit  round  that  point  of  which  the  condition  is  in  no  way  disturbed  by  the 
mutual  action  of  the  revolving  bodies,  namely,  their  centre  of  gravity.  It  is  with  this 
point  that  tlie  focus  of  tlic  orbit  of  the  planet,  and  that  of  the  solar  orbit,  would  coincide, 
and  about  which  the  radius  vector  of  each  would  describe  areas  proportional  to  the  times. 
In  reference  to  this  point  also,  the  squares  of  the  periodic  times  would  be  proportional  to  the 
cubes  of  the  distances. 

If  we  suppose  two  or  more  planets  to  revolve  about  the  sun,  it  is  evident  that  the  motions 
of  all  would  be  disturbed  by  their  mutual  gravitation.  The  immense  magnitude  of  the 
sun  compared  with  that  of  any  of  the  planets,  or  of  all  the  planets  taken  together,  might, 
however,  give  to  his  attraction  such  a  preponderance  as  would  preserve  all  the  planetary 
orbits  nearly  elliptical ;  while  his  own  orbit  would  become  a  more  complicated  curve,  but 
auch  as  to  mmish  a  centrifugal  force  in  respect  of  each  planet,  just  able  to  counterbalance 
the  gravitation  towards  it.  The  centre  of  gravity  of  the  whole  system  would  be  a  point  to 
which  all  their  motions  are  to  be  referred.  Now  this  is  actually  the  case  of  the  planetary 
system.  Accurate  observation  proves  that  the  sun  is  not  at  rest  in  the  centre,  though  his 
motion  is  very  small.  His  centre  is  never  distant  from  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  system 
80  much  as  his  own  diameter ;  and  hence  tlio  orbit  which  he  describes  must  be  very  incon- 
siderable, when  compared  with  the  orbits  of  the  planets.  With  regard  to  those  planets 
which  are  accompanied  by  satellites,  it  is  not  the  centre  of  tlie  primary  which  traces  the 
elliptic  orbit  round  the  sun,  but  the  conimou  centre  of  gravity  of  the  primary  planet  and 
secondary  planets  which  revolve  round  it. 

Tlie  perturbations  which  the  mutual  attraction  of  the  planets  produce  in  each  other's  mo- 
tions are  divided  into  two  classes.  The  one  class  affect  the  figure  and  position  of  the  elliptic 
orbits,  and  increase  with  extreme  slowness :  these  are  called  secular  inequalities.  The 
other  class  depend  on  the  mutual  situation  of  tlie  different  planets,  and  acquire  the  same 
amount  whenever  the  same  relative  positions  occur :  these  are  called  periodic  inequalities. 
Both  these  classes  of  inequalities  have  been  demonstrated  to  be  periodical;  that  is,  they 
increase  only  to  a  certain  extent,  and  tlien  decrease.  Amidst  all  the  changes  which  arise 
from  the  mutual  actions  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  there  aie  two  things  which  remain  perpetu- 
ally tlie  same ;  namely,  the  greater  axis  of  the  orbit  wliich  the  planet  describes,  and  its 
periodic  time.     Thus  the  permanency  of  the  planetary  system  is  secured. 

To  subject  to  calculation  the  perturbations  of  the  system,  requires  the  solution  of  tlie 
following  problem :  three  bodies  of  given  magnitude.^,  as  the  sun,  the  earth,  and  the  moon, 
being  projected  into  space  witli  given  velocities,  and  in  given  directions,  and  attracting  each 
other  according  to  a  given  law,  namely,  inversely  as  the  s<iuares  of  their  distances  from  each 
ether,  and  directly  as  their  masses ;  it  is  required  to  determine  the  nature  of  the  curve,  tliat 
one  of  them,  as  the  moon,  describes  about  one  of  the  other  two,  ns  the  earth.  This  is  the 
celebrated  problem  of  the  three  bodies,  stated  in  all  its  generality,  but  under  this  af.pect 
its  solution  is  beyond  the  reach  of  the  most  refined  methods  of  analysis  wiiich  the  mathe- 
matical sciences  in  their  present  state  furnish.  In  its  application  to  the  purposes  of  physical 
astronomy,  there  are  certain  conditions  wliich  render  the  problem  less  difficult:  viz.  I. 
That  the  sun  greatly  exceeds  in  magnitude  tlie  other  two  Ixxlics,  and  is  nearly  at  rest.  2. 
Its  distance  from  the  earth  and  moon  is  so  great,  that  it  may  iie  considered  the  same  for  both. 
This  condition  duh,  however,  in  reference  to  tiio  action  of  the  primary  planets  on  one 
another,  a  circumstance  which  augments  tlie  difficulty  of  investigating  the  perturbations 
arising  from  their  mutual  gravitation.  3.  The  planetary  orbits  are  nearly  elliptical,  and 
the  aberrations  from  the  ellipses  in  reference  to  each,  are  all  that  is  required.  Even  with 
these  limitations  the  problem  is  sufficiently  difficult,  and  has  engaged  the  attention,  and 
exercised  the  skill  of  the  most  celebrated  mathematicians  of  modern  times. 

The  general  view  which  wo  have  now  given  of  the  planetary  disturbances  is  all  that  our 
present  object  requires.  We  shall  only,  therefore,  farther  advert  to  tlio  explanation  which 
the  theory  of  graviti.tion  affords  of  the  figure  of  the  eartli,  and  of  the  tides. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

FIGiniE  AND  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  EARTH  DEDUCED  FROM  THE  THEORY  OF  GRAVITATION 

In  the  beginning  (Chap.  III.)  wo  proved  that  the  earth  must  be  nearly  spherical,  in  ordei 
to  account  for  the  general  phenomena  which  we  constantly  observe.    As  soon,  however, 


If 


-K  T 


DOOK  I. 


HGURE  OF  THE  EARTH. 


IJfa. 


that  our 
on  which 


llTATION 

in  ordei 
■however, 


as  the  Koncral  lam  of  frravitation  was  discovered,  it  was  a  neccBsary  consequence  tliat  the 
cartli  cimld  nut  bo  a  purlcct  Bphere,  but  must  rnliier  be  an  oblate  spheroid  fattened  at  tlio 
polos,  ami  swoUod  out  at  the  tnpiator,  and  tliiti  intbrenco  is  independent  of  all  actual  rnrasuro 
nieiit,  but  niiiy  be  contirmed  by  obncrvulion,  and  in  fact  has  been  bo,  as  will  be  afterward!" 
fully  proved.  This  deviation  from  the  spiierical  figure  is  to  bo  attributed  to  the  influence 
of  till'  coutrifu;;al  force,  arisiu^r  from  the  earth's  diurnal  rotation,  in  diminishing  the  force  ot 
gravity  from  the  pole  towards  the  eciuator,  where  the  centrifujjal  force,  in  reference  to  the 
Burliice,  is  the  {,'reatest  possible.  This  tendency  which  every  particle  of  matter  in  the  earth 
liiis  to  Hy  ort'  in  the  direction  of  a  tanj^cnt  to  the  circle  in  which  the  particle  is  carried  (>y 
the  I'lirtli's  motion  of  rotation  would  bo  increased  if  that  motion  were  to  be  accelerated : 
and  may  be  conceived  to  be  increased  to  such  power  as  not  only  to  overcome  the  force  of 
gravity,  but  also  the  force  by  which  the  particles  adhere  to  one  another,  and  so  to  cause  Uie 
earth  to  separate  into  fragments.  Suppose  a  small  satellite  to  revolve  round  tlio  earth  close 
to  its  surface  at  the  equator ;  its  periodic  time  may  be  deduced  from  that  of  the  moon,  on 
the  principle  that  the  squares  of  their  periodic  times  would  be  to  one  anotlier  as  the  cubes 
of  their  distances.  For  we  have  (since  the  moon's  distance  is  alxjut  sixty  times  the  semi- 
diameter  of  the  earth,  and  the  time  of  her  periodic  revolution  80343  minutes), 

60':  l'=39343':  sq.  of  the  periodic  time  of  the  satellite. 
Hence  we  obtain  the  periodic  time  nearly  equal  to  84j  minutes.  If  the  earth  revolved 
about  its  axis  in  84.;  minutes  while  such  a  satellite  described  a  circular  orbit  close  to  its 
suitiice,  the  satellite  would  theretbrt:  appear  to  be  at  rest  on  the  surface,  but  would  not  in 
the  least  degree  press  upon  it,  because  the  force  of  gravity  would  be  exactly  counterbalanced 
by  the  centrifugal  force  produced  by  the  motion  of  the  satellite  in  its  orbit.  Now,  all  the 
objects  on  the  surface  at  the  equator  would  be  in  the  very  same  circumstances  with  the 
satellite;  for  they  actually  describe  circles  in  consequence  of  the  earth's  motion,  and  if  the 
earth  revolved  in  845  minutes,  their  centrifugal  force  would  become  exactly  equal  to  the 
force  of  gravity ;  so  tJiat  they  would  no  longer  have  weight.  If  the  earth's  motion  of  rota- 
tion became  still  more  rapid,  they  would  fly  off  from  the  surface. 

At  the  equator  a  body  describes  a  circle  of  which  the  circumference  is  about  132,105,(j0() 
feet  in  23''  56"'  nearly :  it  must  therefore  describe  an  arc  of  about  1528  feet  in  a  second 
of  time.  From  what  we  have  shown  already  respecting  central  forces,  it  is  evident  that,  by 
dividing  the  square  of  this  arc  by  the  diameter  of  the  earth,  we  shall  find  the  deflection 
from  the  tangent  in  a  second,  which  will  be  the  measure  of  the  centrifugal  force.  This 
deflection  amounts  to  about  {^f,  of  an  inch,  or  j%  of  16,3  feet,  the  space  tlirough  which  a 
body  would  liill  in  a  second  by  the  force  of  apparent  gravity.  The  centrifugal  force  at  the 
equator  is  therefore  the  5' j  part  of  the  sensible  weight  of  a  botly,  or  ^Ji,  pait  of  its  real 
weight.  SupiKise,  then,  a  body,  when  weighed  at  the  equator  by  a  spring-steel  yard,  to  be 
fbiind  capable  of  drawing  out  the  spring  to  the  division  288 :  if  that  body  were  weighed  at 
the  pole,  where  the  centrifugal  force  vanishes,  it  would  draw  out  the  spring  to  the 
division  289. 

It  admits  of  being  demonstrated  that,  proceeding  from  the  equator  where  the  centrifugal 
fi)ree  is  the  greatest  toward  either  pole,  where  it  vanishes,  the  increase  0/ gravity  in  different 
liititvdes  is  as  the  square  of  the  sine  of  the  latitude. 

Such  being  the  nature  of  the  forces  that  act  upon  every  particle  of  matter  of  which  the 
earth  is  com])Oped,  the  determination  of  its  figure  from  physical  principles  involves  tlie 
solution  of  the  two  following  problems : — 

1.  What  is  the  law  according  to  which  a  particle  will  gravitate  towards  a  solid  of  a 
given  form  and  constitution,  the  particle  being  supposed  situated  either  within  or  without 
the  solid! 

2.  What  figure  will  a  mass  of  matter,  either  wholly  or  partly  fluid,  assume  in  conse- 
quence of  the  joint  efl'ect  of  the  attraction  of  its  particles  (that  attraction  varying  inversely 
ns  the  squares  of  their  distances),  and  a  centrifugal  force  arising  from  the  rotation  of  the 
mass  about  an  axisi  Both  these  problems  involve  a  great  degree  of  difficulty;  and  the 
second  is  even  more  intricate  than  the  first,  in  consequence  of  the  reciprocal  relations 
subsisting  between  the  figure  of  the  attracting  Ixxly  and  the  law  of  gravitation  at  its  surfoce, 
whii'li  renders  a  knowledge  of  the  one  necessary  to  the  determination  of  the  other. 
Assiiniiiig  that  an  homogeneous  fluid  of  the  same  mean  density  with  the  earth  has  the 
figure  of  an  oblate  spheroid,  and  revolves  on  its  axis  in  23"  50"'  4"  of  solar  time,  it  would  be 
in  quilihrio,  if  the  axis  of  revolution  were  to  the  equatorial  diameter  in  the  projwrtion  of 
22!)  to  230.  This  is  the  figure  which  Newton  ascribed  to  the  earth;  and  tliough  the 
assumption  which  he  made  of  such  a  figure  was  certain'y  gratuitous,  the  result  of  his  inves- 
tigation is  almost  the  same  as  later  writers  have  obtained  by  a  more  rigorous  as  well  as 
direct  mode  of  reasoning  than  that  which  he  employed.  Again,  it  has  been  demonstrated  by 
La  IM.ici-',  liiiit  a  fluid  iind  homogeneous  mass,  of  the  moan  density  of  the  earth,  cannot 
remain  in  eiiiiilibrium  ami  jxjssess  at  the  same  time  an  elliptic  figure,  if  the  time  of  its 
rotiition  be  less  than  2''  2.")'"  17'.  If  the  time  of  revolution  exceed  this,  there  may  always  be 
two  elliptic  spheroids,  ami  not  more,  in  ^vhich  the  equilibrium  mav  be  maintained.     In  the 

11* 


'  h'vi. 


■:ill.| 


■^ 


186 


PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pa«t  n. 


■.•.'( 


case  of  the  moss  revolving  in  2!$''  !ytt'"  4',  tho  one  spheroid  is  tlmt  which  lias  already  been 
mentioned;  the  other  is  one  in  which  tiie  polar  diameter  in  to  the  equatorial  in  the  ratio  of 
I  to  6H1.  The  extreme  flatncfn  of  this  spheroid  must  render  the  force  of  {frivity  ot  thi; 
equator  almost  nothing ;  the  tluid,  tiicrcfore,  would  be  so  easily  dissi|)atcd  that  this  equilibrium 
can  scarcely  be  regarded  as  stable. 

Another  conclusion  on  this  subject,  dcducc<l  by  Clairault,  is,  that  if  the  fluid  mass  supposed 
to  revolve  on  its  axis,  instead  of  being  homogeneous,  be  composed  of  strata  which  increase 
in  density  towards  the  centre,  hi  order  to  remain  in  equilibrium,  it  must  still  possess  the  figure 
of  an  elliptic  spheroid,  but  tho  o')late"r?'«  will  bo  diminished. 

The  oblateness  of  the  earth  at  its  poles  ib  a  phenomenon  which  the  measurements  that 
have  been  made  of  arcs  of  the  meridian  have  (placed  beyond  all  doubt;  but  there  is  still  an 
uncertainty  as  to  the  exact  quantity  of  the  compression.  The  results  obtained,  however, 
render  it  highly  probable  that  it  is  less  than  ^^g,  which  Newton,  proceeding  on  the  supposition 
of  a  unifonn  density,  assigned  for  the  compression.  Hence  we  may  conclude,  that  if  the 
earth  is  a  spheroid  of  equilibrium,  it  is  denser  in  the  interior  than  at  its  surface.  This 
inference  has  been  verified  by  very  accurate  experiments  made  by  the  late  Dr.  Maskelyne 
on  the  sides  of  the  mountain  Schehallien,  in  Perthshire.  The  object  was  to  determine  the 
derangement  of  the  plummet  by  the  vicinity  of  this  loflyand  solid  mountain;  and  the  results, 
obtained  from  observation  made  at  two  stations  on  the  south  and  north  sides  of  it,  showed 
tliat  tlie  plummet  deviated  from  the  direction  of  gravity  towards  tho  mountain  more  than 
7' '.  The  quantity  of  this  change  of  direction  gives  tho  ratio  of  the  attraction  of  the  mountain 
to  tliat  of  die  whole  earth,  or  to  the  force  of  gravity,  equal  to  tlie  ratio  cf  1  to  17804.  But 
the  bulk  and  figure  of  the  mountain  being  also  obtained  by  a  trigonometrical  survey,  its  mean 
density  was  found  to  be  to  the  mean  density  of  the  earth  nearly  as  5  to  9.  Thus  it  appears 
that  the  mean  density  of  the  earth  is  not  much  less  than  double  the  density  of  the  rocks 
which  compose  tlie  mountain  Schehallien;  and  these,  again,  seem  considerably  more  dense 
than  the  mean  of  those  which  form  the  exterior  crust  of  the  earth. 

It  may  appear  an  objection  to  this  mode  of  reasoning  concerning  the  figure  of  the  earth, 
that  it  is  not  evident  how  a  centrifugal  force  should  produce  the  same  effect  on  a  solid  body, 
like  the  earth,  that  it  does  upon  a  fluid  mass.  But  the  fact  that  the  earth  has  made  an 
approximation  to  the  spheroid  of  equililrriiim,  is  an  indication  that  either  the  entire  mass 
wos  originally  fluid,  from  whatever  cause ;  or  tlie  repeated  waste  and  reconsolidation  of  the 
parts  near  the  surface  hos  gmdually  produced  the  spheroidal  figure.  In  either  of  these 
modes  the  power  of  cohesion,  which  in  the  solid  body  resists  the  effects  of  the  centrifugal 
force,  may  have  been  overcome.  However  irregular  a  body,  whose  surface  is  composed  of 
land  and  water,  may  be  in  its  primitive  form ;  by  the  process  of  constant  waste,  the  more 
prominent  parts  are  gradually  worn  down,  and  the  matter  which  composed  them  is  deposited 
in  the  lower  parts  which  are  occupied  by  the  water :  here  it  acquires  a  horizontal  stratifica- 
tion; and  having,  by  certain  mineral  operations,  under  the  transforming  hand  of  nature,  been 
consolidated  into  stone,  the  water  being  removed,  it  may  again  form  a  part  of  the  solid  crust 
of  the  earth.  In  this  manner  the  primitive  irregular  form  will  gradually  disappear,  and  the 
surface  in  the  course  of  ages  acquire  a  position  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  of  gravity; 
so  that,  by  the  action  of  the  centrifugal  force,  there  will  be  a  constant  approximation  made 
to  the  spheroid  of  equilibrium.  The  irregular  distribution  of  the  heterogeneous  materials 
which  compose  this  terraqueous  globe  may,  perhaps,  prevent  the  coincidence  from  ever 
being  complete. 

It  admits  of  being  demonstrated,  that  if  tiie  earth  were  a  perfect  sphere,  and  composed  of 
matter  of  uniibrm  density  at  equal  distances  from  its  centre,  the  action  of  the  solar  and 
lunar  attraction  upon  it  would  be  the  same  os  if  the  whole  terraqueous  mass  we'e  condensed 
into  a  point  at  the  centre.  Hence  the  position  of  its  axis  would  not,  in  that  case,  be  in  the 
least  degree  affected  by  its  gravitation  towards  the  sun  and  moon,  but  would  remain  parallel 
to  itself  while  the  earth  performed  its  annual  revolution.  In  consequence  of  the  spheroidal 
figure,  however,  the  earth  may  be  considered  as  composed  of  a  sphere  of  which  the  radius  is 
half  the  polar  axis,  and  of  a  quantity  of  redundant  matter,  which  is  distributed  over  it  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  swell  out  the  equatorial  regioas.  The  action  of  the  solar  and  lunar 
attraction  on  this  redundant  matter  produci.--  the  precession  of  tlie  equinoxes  and  the  nutation 
of  the  earth's  axis.  The  complete  explanation  of  these  phenomena  affords  one  of  the  linji- 
piest  illustrations  of  tlie  Newtonian  doctrine  of  attraction ;  but  requires  at  the  same  time 
'he  aid  of  some  of  the  most  abstruse  theories  both  in  pure  mathematics  and  mechanics. 


'i»;: 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

THE  TIDES. 


The  clternate  rise  and  fall  of  tho  surface  of  the  .sea,  or  it  flux  and  reflux,  known  by  the 
name  of  the  tides,  is  a  phenomnnon  which  hns  nttracted  the  attention  of  mankind  from  tho 
earliest  periodH.     Herodotu^i  and  Diodorus  Siculu.i  take  notice  of  the  daily  flux  and  reflux 


Book  I. 


•1 


THE  TIDES. 


m 


of  tho  waters  of  tijo  Rod  Sea  or  Arabian  Gulf,  tho  latter  historian  describing  it  as  a  great 
and  rapid  tide ;  but  neither  of  these  writers  forms  any  conjecture  respecting  its  cause.  Ob- 
servation must  soon  have  shown,  that  this  periodical  ebbinji;  and  flowing  of  the  waters  of  tho 
ocean  had  an  intimate  connexion  with  the  position  of  tho  sun  and  moon  in  tho  heavens ;  and, 
accordingly,  we  Und  that  Plinv  not  only  describes  the  phenomena  of  tides,  but  expressly 
attributes  them  to  the  action  oi^  these  luminaries, 

It  was  not,  however,  until  Newton  applied  the  principle  of  universal  gravitation  to  explain 
these  phenomena  that  tho  theory  of  the  tides  was  fully  understood.  The  weight  of  a  body 
on  the  surface  of  the  earth  arises  from  the  tendency  which  the  particles  composing  it  have 
to  the  centre  (or  to  a  point  near  the  centre),  in  obedience  to  the  law  of  gravity.  But  as 
every  object  on  the  earth's  surface  gravitates  towards  tho  sun  and  moon,  as  well  as  towards 
tho  earth,  it  follows  that  the  solar  and  lunar  attraction  must  affect  tlie  weight  of  terrestrial 
objects.  Upon  solid  bodies,  between  the  particles  of  which  adhesive  force  is  powerful,  no 
discernible  effects  are  produced  by  this  attraction.  But  the  case  is  altogether  different  with 
regard  to  the  waters  of  the  ocean,  the  component  particles  of  which  yield  to  the  slightest 
impulse ;  so  that  any  alteration  in  their  weight  that  does  not  equally  affect  the  whole  must 
be  followed  immediately  by  a  motion  of  the  parts  of  the  fluid  mass,  which  will  continue 
until,  by  a  new  arrangement  of  t^ie  particles,  the  equilibrium  is  restored. 

To  see  what  must  be  the  general  effect,  arising  from  the  action  of  the  sun,  if  tho  whole 
surface  of  the  globe  were  covered  with  water ;  let  A  C  B  O  (Jig.  39.)  be  the  watery  sphere,  S  the 

39 

41 


40        O. 


I  by  tho 

om  tho 

reflux 


sun,  and  E  the  centre  of  the  earth.  Let  the  gravitation  of  the  central  particle  E  to  the  sun 
be  represented  by  the  line  E  S,  and  the  gravitation  of  any  other  particle  M  by  the  line 
M  S  D.  Let  the  force  M  D  be  resolved  into  two  forces,  M  H  equal  and  parallel  to  E  S,  and 
M  G.  The  force  M  H  does  not  in  the  least  degree  affect  the  gravitation  of  the  particle  M 
towards  the  centre  E ;  and  M  G  is,  tiicrefore,  the  only  disturbing  force.  If  S  M  be  pro- 
duced to  moot  the  circle  A  C  B  O  in  the  point  m,  the  action  of  the  sun  on  a  particle  situated 
at  m  is  less  than  its  action  on  the  central  particle  E ;  so  that  if  m  d  represent  the  gravita- 
tion of  tho  particle  m  towards  the  sun,  the  point  il  will  fall  on  the  opposite  side  of  S  from 
the  point  D ;  and  the  force  m  d  being  resolved  into  two  forces,  m  h  equal  and  parallel  to  E  S, 
and  Jie  disturbing  force  m  ff,  it  is  evident  that  tiio  tendency  of  the  force  m  g'  is  to  diminish 
the  gravity  of  the  particle  jn,  in  like  manner  as  the  force  M  G  diminishes  the  gravity  of  the 
particle  M.  When  the  point  M  coincides  with  A,  the  angle  E  S  M  is  the  angle  under 
which  the  semidiameter  of  the  earth  is  soon  from  tlie  sun ;  therefore  E  S  M  can  never  ex- 
ceed 8j" :  whence,  in  determining  the  direction  and  quantity  of  the  disturbing  force  from 
the  geometrical  relations  of  the  linns,  we  may  consider  tlie  lines  D  G,  S  L,  and  D  M  as 
coincident,  and  M  L  may  be  taken  for  tlie  disturbing  force.    Again,  the  difference  between 


.  1 

■   i'' 

'  ( 

'  1 

f 

1 

!| 

*l:3i 


'A\ 


rh>^ 


i-> 


138 


PRINCIPLES  OF  GECHiKAl'IIY. 


PmtII. 


B  M  nnd  S  K  \n  (jrentP.-t  wlirn  tlio  (Kiiut  M  idincitlrn  with  C  Df  O.     But  if  wo  coiwider 

llmt  C  K,  tlic  (lifToronco  bctwomi  S  I]  itiiil  S  M  wliuii  (jfiitt'st,  is  (nily  hUjuI     , ,',  „  jxirt  of 

8  E,  it  ia  ovidi'iif.  tliiit  wo  roniiiiit  lint  ii  very  mnull  i-rror  in  mipiniMiii;,'  S  M,  S  iN,  and  t)  E 

in  cvory  position  piiiiiil.     Now,  Hinco  S  E  nnd  DTVI  roprt'sciit  tlio  f^mvitiition  of  tlio  piirti- 

cles  E  and  M  towards  tho  sun  rositcctivuly,  wu  liuvc  H  E  :  J)  M  —  S  M^  :  H  E';  tiion-lbrp, 

8N» 
•inco  a  E  and  S  N  may  bo  considered  wpmi,  I)  M  =  ^j^j^.    Dut  S  N  =  8  M  +  M  N,  there- 

fore  S  N'  -  S  M'  +  3  S  M'  X  M  N  +  «  S  M  X  M  N^  +  M  N\  Tlio  (juaiitity  M  N  in  so 
Dmall,  compared  witli  S  M,  tiiat  Uio  two  lust  ternw  of  tliia  cxprcHsion  lor  8  N'  may  bo  ne- 

HN' 
gloctcd :  we  have,  therefore,  S  N'  =  S  AP  +  3  S  M'  X  M  N,  and  y-^a  =  S  M  +  3  M  N . 

wherefore,  also,  D  M  =  S  M  +  3  M  N ;  nnd  taking  S  M  IVom  each,  wo  find  S  D  =  3  M  N. 
Now,  since  G  1)  may  be  considered  oeuul  to  L  S  +  S  I),  ami  E  S  ia  by  constrnction  equal 
to  G  D,  it  is  evident  that  ES=LS4-SD,  or  tukinjr  L  S  from  eacii,  E  L  =  8  1).  Hence 
E  L  =  3  M  N,  and  the  dittturbin^r  force  for  any  point  M  ia  determined  both  in  direction  and 
magnitude. 

Suppose  now  that  A  C  B  O  (fii^.  40.)  is  tho  terraqueous  glojc,  E  S  a  lino  directed  to  tho 
sun,  and  A  E  B  a  section  by  that  circle  which  sopanitos  tho  enlig'htcncd  from  the  dark 
hemisphere.  IjCt  M  bo  any  particle  on  or  within  tho  mass.  Throujfh  the  point  M  draw  a 
strniffht  lino  M  N  perpendicular  to  tho  piano  A  E  B,  nnd  in  E  S  tiiko  E  L,  rqunl  to  3  M  N : 
join  L  M;  then  L  M  represents  tho  direction  and  intensity  of  tho  diKtiirbin;,'  force  which 
tho  sun  exerts  on  tho  particle  M.  Let  tho  force  L  M  be  resolved  into  two  forces,  one,  M  E, 
directed  towards  thv'  centre  of  t!ic  earth,  nnd  tho  other,  M  R,  tending;  from  tho  plane  A  E  B 
towards  the  sun.  Suppose  the  same  construction  to  be  made  for  every  point  of  the  sphere, 
tho  whole  being  supposed  covered  with  water,  it  is  evident  that  the  forces  rnprosented  by 
M  E  will  balance  one  another,  nnd  therefore  need  not  bo  considered.  But  the  force  repre- 
sented by  M  R  will  diminish  tho  gravity  of  every  particle  M,  reckoned  in  tho  direction  of 
a  line  perpendicular  to  tho  plane  of  that  great  circle  of  tho  earth  which  separates  the  illi'- 
minatcd  from  the  dark  hemisphere.  Tho  force  thus  diminishing  tho  gravity  will  bo  propor- 
tional to  tJireo  times  tiio  distance  of  the  particle  from  the  same  piano ;  for  R  M  is  equal  to 
Ii  E  or  3  M  N.  Every  particle  in  any  column  M  N  being  thus  acted  on  by  a  force  whicii 
evidently  tends  to  destroy  the  e(iuilibrium  of  tlio  fluid  mass,  the  water  in  that  column  can- 
not remain  at  rest.  Its  equilibrium  may  bo  restored,  however,  by  tin;  addition  of  n  small 
[xwtion  M  m,  which,  by  restoring  the  weight  of  the  column,  enables  it  to  resist  tho  pressure 
(if  the  odjacent  columns.  A  similar  addition  may  be  made  to  cnch  column,  perpendicular 
to  the  plane  A  E  B:  and  the  result  will  be  that,  from  being  sphoricnl,  the  figure  of  the  globn 
will  be  changed  into  that  of  an  oblong  elliptical  spheroid,  having  its  axis  directed  towards 
the  sun,  and  its  poles  in  those  points  of  the  surface  which  have  the  sun  .>!  the  zenith  and 
nadir. 

Let  tho  figure  into  which  the  watery  sphere  would  be  transformed  by  the  solar  iiction  be 
represented  by  the  ellipse  acbo  {Jiff.  41.) :  the  points  o  nnd  c  are  the  polos  of  the  spheroid  ; 
nnd  at  these  points  the  waters  are  highest  above  the  sphere  A  C  B  O  of  equal  capacity,  while 
all  round  the  circumference  B  E  A  tne  waters  are  below  their  natural  level.  By  calculation 
it  is  found  that  the  differenco  between  E  c  and  E  n  is  about  twenty-four  and  a  half  inches ; 
80  that  the  deviation  from  the  spherical  figure  is  not  great. 

The  figure  which  the  watery  spheroid  assumes  must  be  in  a  slight  degree  influenced  by 
the  spheroidal  figure  of  the  earth ;  but  the  deviation  from  the  spherical  figure  is  so  small, 
that  its  effect  in  changing  the  spheroidal  figure  of  the  waters  on  the  surface  of  the  earth 
must  be  quite  inconsiderable.  If  the  earth  were  at  rest,  the  watery  spheroid  would  acquire 
that  form  which  would  produce  an  equilibrium  among  all  its  particles.  This,  however,  can 
never  happen  under  the  actual  circumstances  of  the  case,  because  some  time  must  elapse 
before  an  accelerating  force  can  produce  a  finite  change  in  the  disposition  of  tho  waters; 
but,  by  the  motion  of  the  earth  on  its  axis,  tiie  disturbing  force  is  every  instant  applied  to  a 
different  part  of  the  surface,  .so  that  the  jjosition  of  equilibrium  can  never  actually  be  attain- 
ed. Such,  then,  is  the  general  efl*ect  which  the  solar  action  would  produce  if  the  whole 
globe  were  fluid,  or  a  spherical  nucleus  covered  with  a  fluid  of  o«jual  density.  To  explain 
9io  phenomena  of  the  tides,  however,  it  is  indispensably  necessary  to  take  into  account  the 
action  of  the  moon. 

It  is  witli  the  moon  that  tho  tides  are  principally  connected  ;  ami  the  sun's  influence  is 
known  only  by  its  increasing  or  diminishing  the  effects  of  her  nicre  powerful  action.  This 
greater  influence  of  the  mcxm  in  producing  the  tides  arises  from  her  vicinity  to  the  earth, 
when  compared  with  tlie  sun,  her  distance  being  only  about  jiU  part  of  his.  It  must  be 
carefully  kept  in  view,  that  it  is  not  tho  more  action  of  the  sun  and  moon  that  produces  the 
tides  in  the  ocean,  but  the  iiirqiialiticii  in  the  action  of  each :  and  the  gravitation  of  tho 
waters  of  the  ocean  to  the  moon  is  much  more  uno(|ual  than  their  gravitation  to  the  sim. 
Whatnvpr  has  been  proved  with  regard  to  tho  influence  of  the  sun  in  producing  tides  in  the 


•^hi 


Book  I. 


THE  TIDES. 


lonced  by 

Iso  small, 

khe  earth 

1(1  ocquire 

Icvnr,  can 

|st  elapse 

waters ; 

plied  to  u 

be  attuin- 

lie  \s'liole 

explain 

count  the 

lucncc  is 
Iji.  This 
bic  earth, 
Imust  be 
luces  the 
In  of  the 
1  tlie  sun. 
es  in  tlio 


130 


nr.ean  \*  cqimlly  npplical)lo  to  the  rnnon.  The  water*  will  Ihj  acciimulnted  iinmudiatoly 
under  her,  and  cm  the  opposite  nido  of  the  (jlolie,  pruducin;^  a  Hpheroid  (rf'tho  anmo  kind  with 
Ih'it  wliii^h  we  have  nhown  mUHt  bo  produced  by  tiie  luieipial  action  of  the  Hun,  but  more 
elon;X'i'"'' ■>  "'"'  t'li^  spiieroid,  directed  toward  the  moon,  will  follow  her  in  her  apparent 
daily  r(!VohiUon  nlnHit  tiio  earth.  In  consoiiuence  of  thin  siniultaneoutf  jfravitation  towards 
iKith  huuiivirie.'',  the  ocean  iiuist  aMsuino  a  tljiurn  diti'eront  from  Intth  of  theno  spheroids; 
which  will  i)econio  blended  and  undiBtinj{uiHliabli>,  The  reHultin(»  fi;,'uro  rcsemljles  each  of 
the  spheroids  in  bein^f  ulonjfateil,  and  its  moat  chn'ated  [Mirts  nro  tbimd  to  follow  the  more 
powerful  of  the  distnrbinjrlKxlies,  namely,  the  inoim,  in  her  apparent  diurnal  revolution  about 
lilt!  earth,  \V(>  may,  without  sonsiblo  error,  suppose  that  the  chango  produced  in  any  part 
of  the  ocean  by  tlio  combined  actien  of  the  sun  and  moon,  is  the  sum  or  the  difference  of  the 
clianRca  which  they  would  have  pro<luced  if  actin;;  separately. 

Wo  have  already  remarked  that  the  rapid  motion  of  the  waters,  in  conacquenco  of  the 
diurnal  motion,  prevents  them  from  ever  assuminj;  the  figure  which  would  bo  rcnuisito  for 
the  equilibrium  of  the  tbrces  actinir  on  thcni;  so  that  tln'y  ascillate  continually,  alternately 
approachinij  to  that  figure  and  receding  from  it.  The  motion  thus  communicated  to  thorn 
is  one  not  of  transfenmce,  but  of  undulation,  one  part  rising  and  another  sinking,  unless 
when  from  want  of  depth  of  water  the  balance  between  the  adjacent  columns  is  destroyed. 
We  may,  therefore,  regard  the  two  elevations  prcxluccsd  in  the  ocean  by  the  inequalities  in 
the  solar  and  lunar  actions  as  two  vast  waves  which  follow  the  moon  in  her  apparent  diurnal 
motion.  The  lino  joining  the  tops  of  these  two  waves  is  not  directed  to  the  moon,  as  would 
bo  the  case  if  the  earth  and  moon  were  at  rest,  but  is  directed  to  a  point  about  30°  to  the 
eastward  of  the  moon.  This  arises  from  the  inirlia  of  the  water,  wliich  causes  it,  when 
oncn  put  in  motion,  to  continue  to  rise  for  a  time  after  the  impulse  communicated  has  ceased. 
If  we  consider  the  tides  relatively  to  the  whole  surfiico  of  the  globe,  tliere  is  a  meridian,  there- 
fore, about  ;M)°  eastward  of  the  moon  whore  it  is  always  man  wateu,  both  in  the  hemisphere 
where  the  moon  is,  and  the  opposite  hemisphere.  On  the  west  side  of  the  meridian  the  tide 
'^ftowinir,  and  on  the  east  side  of  it  the  tide  is  ehhinn.  On  the  meridian  which  is  at  right 
iinglos  to  the  former,  it  is  everywhere  low  water.  If  wo  suppose,  tlion,  the  sun  and  moon 
to  bo  in  the  equator,  and  an  observer  to  be  situated  on  the  surface  of  the  water  under  the 
equator;  when  the  moon  has  risen  30°  above  his  horizon,  the  state  of  the  tide  to  that  observer 
will  be  low  water.  As  the  mocm  advances  towards  his  zenith,  the  tide  will  flow ;  ami  when 
she  has  reached  a  point  about  30^  to  the  westward  of  his  zenith,  the  summit  of  the  wave  will 
roach  him,  and  then  the  state  of  the  tide  will  bo  high  water.  As  the  moon  approaches  the 
western  horizon,  tli3  observer  will  see  the  water  gradually  subside  as  it  hod  formerly  risen; 
and  when  she  has  descended  WP  below  the  horizon,  it  is  again  low  water.  As  the  moon 
eoniiniies  her  course  below  the  horizon,  the  waters  again  gradually  rise  by  the  approach  of 
the  other  wave  until  its  simimit  arrives  at  tlie  observer,  and  again  produces  high  water; 
when  tlie  moon  has  passed  the  opposite  meridian,  and  reached  a  [loint  30"  beyond  it,  tho  tide 
again  begins  to  ebb  as  tho  wave  rolls  on,  and  the  same  phenomena  are  repeated  in  the  same 
order.  Thuji,  in  tho  space  of  time  in  which  the  moon  performs  her  diurnal  revolution,  which 
may  be  called  a  liuiar  day,  and  consi.«ts  of  nearly  24''  .50",  there  occur  two  tides  of  flood  and 
two  of  ebb.  The  time  between  one  higli  water  to  tho  next  is  alwut  12''  25"",  and  the  instant 
of  low  water  is  nearly  but  not  e.\actly  the  middle  of  this  interval,  the  tide  in  general  taking 
about  nine  or  ten  minutes  more  in  ebbing  than  in  flowing. 

Sprinif  anil  neap  Hilen.  As  the  magnitude  of  tlie  two  waves  wliich  produce  the  rise  and 
tall  of  the  tide  depends  on  the  action  of  the  sim  as  well  as  on  tliat  of  the  moon,  it  is  evident 
that  tho  height  to  which  the  water  rises  and  tails  must  be  affected  by  the  relative  position 
of  the  two  luminaries.  At  new  moon  and  full  moon  the  actions  of  the  sun  and  moon  arc 
combined,  but  at  tlio  quadratures  they  counteract  each  other.  In  tho  foiTner  case,  the  two 
spheroids  produced  by  the  solar  and  lunar  actions  have  their  axes  coincident  or  nearly  so ; 
in  the  latter,  their  axes  are  at  right  anghis  to  each  other.  Ilcnco,  at  new  and  full  moon  the 
(l(X)d  tide  will  rise  higher,  and  tho  ebb  tide  will  sink  lower,  than  usual.  The  reverse  of  this 
will  happen  when  the  moon  is  in  either  of  her  quadratures:  the  flood  tide  will  not  rise  so 
high  as  usual,  nor  will  the  ebb  tide  sink  so  low.  This  is  exactly  coincident  witli  experience ; 
and  we  hero  perceive  tho  cause  of  what  are  called  spring  tides  and  neap  tides.  About 
flio  time  of  full  moon  and  change  the  tides  rise  higher  than  when  the  moon  presents  any 
other  phasi.J.  The  liighest  tide  does  not  happen,  howevor,  tho  first  after  tiie  opposition  or 
conjunction,  though  tlio  disturbing  force.?  are  then  united,  but  some  time  after;  and  the 
cause  of  this  is  the  same  which  prevents  tho  time  of  high  water  of  any  one  tide  coinciding 
with  the  time  of  the  moon  being  on  that  meridian  under  which  tho  tide  happens ;  namely, 
the  inertia  of  the  water,  or  that  tendency  which  all  matter  has  to  retain  its  state  whether 
of  rest  or  motion.  At  Brest,  whore  an  accurate  register  was  kept  of  the  phenomena  of  tho 
tides  about  the  beginning  of  the  last  century,  it  was  found  that  tiie  highest  tide  happened 
about  a  day  and  a  half  after  the  new  and  full  moon.  If  tho  time  of  high  water  coincide  with 
the  very  time  of  conjunction  or  opposition,  the  third  high  water  after  that  is  the  highest  of  all. 
This  is  called    le  spri.no  tide.     From  this  period  the  tides  gradually  decrease,  until  the  third 

Vol.  I.  a 


;:■  \\  I 


U    -^ 


lao 


PRINCIPLES  OP  OF.OORAPHY. 


Part  II. 


'    If 


I  .!i 


hijrli  wiitrr  (iftf'f  llio  miii>ir«  (|iiii(lnitiirr,  wliicli  Iri  tlic  IowphI  of  nil,  mid  in  riillcd  tlii'  nv,\r 
Tim;.  Hut  liiiviiid  riMrlii-cl  tlwir  iitrmwt  ilHpri'HMidfi,  tin-  tiilrn  iijriiin  iiicri'iim'  until  llw  orniN 
roiK'i'  (if  tin'  next  Hpriii);  tiili';  nml  ko  tin  ci>ntiiiiiiilly,  Tlii'  liijflior  the  lidn  (irtlooil  rini'ti,  tlio 
lower  III"  cbl)  ti<l(<  utMiiTiilly  HJiiki*  on  timt  ihiy.  Tlic  total  mnjftiitiKlci'ifthit  tide  m  (>Htiiiintnd 
by  tim  dilli'D'tifp  lii'iwfi'ii  h'ufh  nnd  low  wntcr.  At  UrcHt  tliu  nii'daitn  HpriiiK  lido  in  about 
1!)  li'i't,  mid  tlio  iiii'diiiiii  iii'iip  lido  ulioiit  II  tret, 

lltf'irt  iiiiliffimil  himinphvrin.  I.of  hh  iioxt  Kiippocn  tlio  min  nnil  moon  to  lio  Nitiintod  in 
fjni'  of  tlio  tropirit;  tlio  two  wuvoh  riiinod  in  llio  iK-ciin  by  llioir  itrtionH  on  oitixwito  mIiIo!*  of 
llio  (fliilio  will  now  roll  iilonjj  nndor  llin  IropicH.  If  nii  ofiwrvor  \w  pinrcd  on  tlio  Kiirliiru  of 
tlio  uiilor,  nnd  iindrr  tlio  Hnrni<  tropic  in  which  tlin  Knn  nnd  mkhhi  uro  xiliiiilcd,  ho  will  Htill 
SCO  two  tidoM  of  Hood  iinil  twoofolih;  liiittlioy  will  not  corn'H|)ond  in  nil  tlioir  cirnnnHttinrof, 
OH  they  did  on  tho  forinor  Hiipixwilion.  Tlio  dopth  of  tlio  hi|;li  water  prcMliirod  by  tlio  wavo 
Kituntod  in  thn  winio  lioinLsphoro  with  tho  iiuxwi,  will  ovidontly  bo  ffronfor  tliiiii  lliiit  of  the 
high  wator  prodiirod  by  the  wiivo  which  roIlM  nionj;  iindrr  tho  otlii-r  tropic  in  llu!  uppoxitc 
hemisphoro  from  tho  nuKin ;  fiir  tho  olmorvcr  will  hoc  tho  vory  Honiinit  of  tho  ono  wavo,  and 
only  tho  Nlopinff  Hide  of  llio  ollior.  To  nn  olworvor  Hitiialod  under  tho  tropic  on  llie  opiMwito 
Hide  of  tho  cqimtor  from  tho  .sun  nnd  mcKin,  tlio  cnHo  would  bo  revorscd;  nnd  if  ho  were  bo 
fnr  removed  from  tho  oqiintor  ns  to  be  «ituntod  under  tho  (xilnr  circle,  no  port  of  tho  wavo 
accumulntod  in  tho  snmo  hcmiitphoro  with  tho  moon  would  reach  him;  ho  tliiit  hn  would 
SCO  only  ono  tide  of  fl(wd  nnd  ono  tide  of  ebb  daily  pnjduced  by  tho  motion  of  tho  other 
wnve. 

This  also  is  conNixtcnt  with  what  we  know  reH|M'ctinn'  tho  t'uhn  from  olwervntion,  All  the 
phcnomeim  iiro  found  to  ho  modified  by  tho  liitiludo  of  the  place  of  obgervatioii;  nnd  some 
phenomena  iiro  found  to  occur  in  hijjh  latitudoH,  whirh  .ire  not  nt  nil  Been  when  the  place 
of  observation  in  under  tho  efpintur.  In  particiilnr  when  tho  mcnm  nnd  the  obeervcr  nro  on 
the  snmo  side  of  thn  equator,  that  fide  in  which  tho  moon  is  nliovo  tho  horizon  is  (frcater 
than  the  other  tido  of  tho  mime  dny  which  hnppons  when  tho  moon  is  below  thn  horizon. 
Tho  contrary  takes  place  when  the  moon  nnd  Ihc  obnerver  nro  on  oppoHito  sides  of  tho 
nqnntor:  in  this  latter  ruse,  if  tho  iwliir  diKlnnco  of  tlio  observer  bo  erpial  to  llio  moon's 
doclinntion,  ho  will  see  but  ono  tidi!  m  the  diiy,  conliimin;;  to  flow  for  twelve  hours  and  to 
ebb  for  twelve  hours.  Wo  hnvc  supposed  tor  siiiiplirily  the  f^nn  nnd  moon  lo  he  in  the  equa- 
tor, or  in  one  of  tho  tropics;  but  it  is  evident  thiit  this  can  seldom  be  tho  case.  Tho  two 
luminaries  nro  cnimble  of  an  intinito  viirinly  of  positions  in  Tn'renco  to  eiich  oilier,  iis  well 
as  in  reference  to  nny  piirticiihir  point  of  tho  e:irth's  siirfhce.  The  phenomena  with  regard 
to  particular  places  must,  therelore,  hr>  endh'ssly  diversified ;  but  by  trariii!.''  the  gonoral 
features,  tho  priiicij)leH  become  apparent  upon  which  all  the  phenomena  deiiend. 

The  inthienco  of  the  sun  and  moon  in  priHlncin<j  tides  in  tlio  ocean  will  eviilenlly  be  aug- 
mented when  these  bfvlios  are  nearer  to  tho  e;irt!i,  and  diminished  when  their  <listunccs  are 
increiisod.  from  Ibis  ciimo  it  nrisp.j,  that  wlieii  tho  nuion  is  in  that  part  of  her  orbit  where 
she  approaches  nearest  to  the  earth,  tho  siirin.?  tido  which  happens  at  that  time  is  the  highest, 
and  the  next  spring  tide  is  Hie  smallest;  because  the  moon  is  then  nearly  at  her  greatest 
distance  from  the  earth.  This  makes  a  ditrcrence  of  2,'  feet  from  the  mean  height  of  the 
spring  tido  at  IJrest;  and  consequently  of  double  that  quantity,  or  5J  feet,  between  the 
greatest  spring  tide  and  the  least.  The  neap  tide  which  happens  between  these  two  very 
unc(pial  spring  tides  is  regular,  because  tho  tnonu  is  then  nearly  at  her  mean  distance,  Tho 
reverse  of  this  takes  place  when  the  mo<in  is  at  her  mean  distance  nt  tho  time  of  Ihc  change: 
the  spring  tide  is  regular,  but  the  two  neap  tides  difTi-r  considerably  in  height.  Tho  incrcnsod 
distance  of  the  sun  is  tho  reason  why  the  si>riiig  fides  in  our  summer  arc  not  so  great  as  in 
our  winter.  At  the  menu  intensitii^s  of  the  disturbing  forces,  tho  sun  tends  to  raise  tho 
WBters  about  '2-1\  inches,  nnd  the  moon  nlxiut  5S.  Ili-nco  tho  spring  tido  should  be  about 
.')8  f  21i=H'2i  inches,  nnd  the  neap  tide  about  r)8—24^—\Y.ii  inches. 

Varintionx  ruiisid  by  ronlimiit.i,  isliniih,  tfr.  \V(!  have  hitherto  supposed  the  two 
wnt'os  which  produce  the  phenomena  of  the  tides  to  meet  with  no  interruption  in  their  pro- 
gress round  the  worlil.  This  is,  however,  t'lr  from  being  the  case  ;  they  are  interrupted  by 
(•(inlinenfs  nnd  islands,  and  mny  be  propidleil  or  retarded  by  the  action  of  the  wind;  their 
velocHv  and  direction  mny  also  be  changed  by  irregularities  in  tlie  bed  of  the  ocean:  so  that, 
to  explain  nil  tlie  phenomena  nt  any  particular  place,  tho  etfect  of  local  circumstances, 
which  is  often  great,  must  be  taken  into  the  account.  Tho  great  Pacific  Ocean  is,  perliaps, 
the  only  part  of  the  torrnfiueoiis  globe  in  which  all  the  fi)rces  liav(;  rooiri  to  operate.  But 
the  wavt^  which  they  f<>rm  must,  in  ndling  westward,  encounter  the  coasts  of  Asia  and  New 
Holland,  with  the  interjacent  islands ;  and  amidst  these  olistncles  it  imist  force  its  way  to  the 
Indian  Ocean.  Its  figure  will  thus  tir'  changed,  and  the  phenomena  of  the  tides,  which  it 
produces,  yiowerfully  modified.  «  On  its  eastern  sido  the  I'acific  is  Iwunded  by  a  vast  stretch 
of  coast,  extending  without  interruption  from  Cape  Horn  to  Bohring's  Straits.  This  barrier 
prevents  all  supply  from  the  eastward  fiir  making  up  the  watery  spheroid,  nnd  must  be 
equally  effectual  in  arresting  f!ie  progress  of  the  wafers  nccumulnted  to  the  eastward  of  the 
American  continent.     So  far  as  wo  have  information  respecting  the  tides  in  the  Pacific 


Book!. 


THE  TIDES. 


181 


(IciMiii,  Ihoy  nppoar  t(>  \m  vnrjr  unliki;  tlm  Furopt'sn  Men,  until  wo  rcnch  about  40°  or  AO" 
vvi'Ht  iVoin  till!  coniit  of  AiiiPncu.  In  the  nci((lilHHirli(i<)(l  <it'  tlint  coiinl,  wnriMtlv  any  tidn 
iH'cnrM  wlit'ii  till)  niiHin  Ih  beluw  tlio  horizon.  F.vimi  hi  tlni  iniiliili!  of  llio  i'acitic  Ocean  tliP 
tidc'M  urn  very  kmiiiII,  liiit  at  tint  Miiiin  tinio  very  rii|{ulitr. 

Ah  a  ({ri'iit  extent  of  i-urfico  jh  ni-ci>Hwry  in  nriii'r  timt  tlio  una  uliouiil  l)0  ncnHibiy  atfcctnU 
liy  till'  iiii'i|iiiililii>H  in  tlii'  nctii.nMof  tin'  nun  unil  nKx)n,  thn  liilm  wIik-Ii  urn  exixiricncrd  in 
niirriiw  hi'iih,  unci  on  ><liiiri>s  t?  reniovi'd  tVoni  tlm  main  InNly  of  tlio  dceuiii  urn  nut  priNlui.'iid 
in  tliiMn  NcuH,  liiit  arc  \vitv'~  ru|iu);utnd  tVoin  llin  f;ri'»t  diurnal  iindulntiiini  and  tnovin((  with 
niiii'h  li'NH  vi'lcK'ity,  'I'lii'  u<  h  wliioh  vixit  tlin  roiiNtM  of  Kn^liind,  iniiHt,  in  a  grnnt  incniiiiro, 
lit'  Hiipiilinil  tViini  the  iicruiiiulution  of  wntor  in  tlio  Indinn  uiid  Ktliiopin  Ocean,  fVoni  tlio  eant- 
wiird,  iind  liy  wlint  is  tirmiprlit  or  kept  hack  IVoin  the  Hniitli  Sen.  The  undiilntinnH  will  lio 
ililUisi'd  IIS  prix^eudin^r  iVnin  u  cullectinii  coiniiitf  round  tlio('n|H'  of  (iinnI  Hope,  nnd  round 
Ciipe  lliirii.  ('onniHtently  with  tlii.s  Niip|Nmitioii,  it  in  found  tImt  hixh  wutor,  which  (x:ciirii  at 
the  Cuiie  of  (iood  Hope  nt  new  and  nil!  moon  alniut  tliroo  o'olrM^k,  In  later  and  Inter  a<  wo 
priH'eed  northward  iiloiijf  tlio  conxt  of  AtVicu;  later  and  Inter  Htill  oh  wo  follow  it  alonj;  tho 
wenteni  countH  of  Hpuin  uiul  Fraiic)',  until  we  reach  the  mouth  of  tho  KnitliMli  Channel.  The 
wiive  now  dividi'M  itself  into  three  lirunclu'H;  one  part  naimin;;  up  Nt.  (Icorjjo'H  Channel, 
iiiiother  iiroceediii)f  northwurd  aloni;  tho  wuHtern  coawt  ot  Irelnnd,  and  tho  third  piuisin);  up 
the  Kii(jlinh  Clmniicl,  between  the  Uritiiih  nnd  French  ciwBtd.  Tho  two  branchcH  that  pro. 
I'oed  uhrng  tho  euHt  mid  vvoNt  Hiiieii  of  Ireland  unite  and  form  one  tii\go  or  wave,  which  con 
tiniies  iiN  prof^reHH  alonf;  tho  woHtern  coastM  nnd  iilandN  of  Hcoflund,  and  tlicn  diffliiOM  itaelt' 
PiiHtwnrd  townrdH  Norway  nnd  Denmark,  nnd  circlin)''  round  the  ontitcni  eooals  of  Britain, 
I'oiiieH  Kouthvvnrd  through  tho  German  Ocean,  until  it  renchcs  Dover,  where  it  meofs  tho 
linincli  which  puhnoh  up  tho  EngliHli  Channel.  It  Ih  to  be  remarked,  however,  that  this  tido 
which  comcH  up  the  channel  in  not  tho  Humo  with  that  which  meets  it  from  tho  north,  but  ia 
a  whole  tide  curlier  if  not  two,  um  appears  from  tho  diet  of  the  spring;  tido  at  Ryo  being  a 
tide  eiirlier  thiin  tho  spring  tido  at  the  Noro;  it  even  seeniN  two  tides  eorlior,  for  it  nppenm 
tho  gno  as  otleii  as  tho  other.  By  trnciiig  the  hour  of  high  water  fVom  the  Lizard  up  St 
fieorge's  Channel,  nnd  along  the  west  coofts  of  Scotland,  it  nppoars  that  tho  two  tides  which 
[).uM  along  tlio  east  and  west  sides  of  Ireland  nnd  unite  into  oik;  wave  to  tho  north  of  it, 
travel  round  Brit^iin  in  iilwut  tweiify-eiglit  hours,  in  which  time  the  primitive  tide  hns  gone 
round  tho  whole  circumference  of  the  earth,  nnd  nenrly  VS  degrees  more.  By  nttending 
also  to  the  successive  hours  of  high  water  ulong  the  western  consts  of  Africa  and  Europe, 
it  appears  that  the  wave,  which  divides  into  flireo  branches  nt  the  mouth  of  tho  English 
Chufincl,  takes  up  nearly  two  days,  or  between  four  and  five  tides,  in  travelling  thither  tVom 
tho  Capo  of  Good  Hope.  A  si4iiilar  progretis  of  tho  some  high  water  tVon  '.he  southward  is 
observed  nlong  the  cnstern  shores  of  South  America ;  but  beyond  Brazil  .:nd  Surinam  tho 
Atlantic  Ocean  is  sufficiently  extensive  to  contribute  greatly  to  fho  formation  of  tho  regular 
spheroid ;  so  that  tho  effect  of  this  high  wutor  from  tho  soiithword,  being  blended  with  tho 
tide  raised  in  the  Atlantic  itself,  beconu.'s  insensible.  In  nn  ocenn  of  such  a  breadth  from 
east  to  west  ns  the  Atlantic,  tho  water  can  rise  on  the  one  shore  only  by  descending  on  the 
other.  In  the  middle,  therefore,  it  will  ret^iin  nearly  the  nieiin  height  between  its  elevations 
on  tho  two  op|)osito  coasts ;  this  appears  to  he  the  reason  why  the  tides  nro  small  in  islands 
that  are  very  far  distant  from  the  shores. 

Tho  reflection  of  the  tido  from  shore  to  shore  is  a  great  cause  of  irregularity  in  the  tides. 
The  coasts  may  be  so  situated  that  tho  time  in  which  the  undulation  thut  constitutes  the 
tide  would  of  itself  vibrate  backward  and  forward  fVom  shore  to  shore,  may  bo  so  exactly 
uccommodnted  to  the  recurring  action  of  tho  moon  thnt  tho  succeeding  impulses,  being 
always  added  to  tho  natural  undulation,  iniiy  raise  it  to  a  height  altogether  disproixirtioncd 
to  what  tho  action  of  the  moon  can  produce  in  the  open  sen,  where  the  undulation  ditFuses 
itself  to  a  vast  distance. 

The  inequalities  which  umloubfedly  obtain  in  the  bottom  of  the  ocean  afTect  the  tides,  by 
changing  the  direction  of  the  waters;  nlso  their  velocity  either  absolutely  or  in  respect  of 
particular  places.  They  may  also  influence  the  height  by  causing  the  tido  to  rush  with 
increasing  velocity  towards  a  particular  [Xjiiit,  where  tho  wuters  iiiiust  at  Icu^'th  bo  suddenly 
cliecked,  nnd  therefore  be  iiccuiimlated  in  an  extrnordinnry  degree:  this  npiteiirs  to  bo  the 
cause  of  the  astonishingly  high  tides  which  occur  in  the  Bay  of  Fiindy.  Tiie  hi!;h  wiitcirof 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  at  St,  Helena  does  not  exceed  four  or  five  feet;  but,  setting  in  nbliquelv 
on  the  coast  of  North  America,  it  seems  to  range  along  that  coast  in  a  channel  or  bed, 
gradually  narrowing  till  it  is  stopped  in  tho  Bay  of  Fiindy,  where  the  accumulation  of  tho 
waters  becomes  treiiiondous.  The  tide  approaches  with  a  prodigious  noise  in  ono  vast  wave, 
that  is  seen  many  niilos  off",  and  the  waters  rise  to  tlio  height  of  more  than  seventy  feet  in 
the  gulf  of  Cumberland  basin;  the  rapidity  of  tho  waters  is  so  great  as  to  overUiko  animals 
feeding  on  the  shores. 

In  consccpiencc  of  the  lonnfth  of  time  required  for  a  tide  to  propagate  itself  up  a  great 
river,  one  or  two  succeeding  tides  may  reach  tho  mouth  of  the  river  before  tho  first  tide  has 
anived  at  the  highest  point  to  which  it  ranges  up  the  stream.    The  second  tide  will  also 


.-C-'l. 


<:;i 


liU 


PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOC^RAPHY. 


Part  II. 


:?i ;. 


hlivo  nrnpngatcd  itself  bo  far  up  the  river,  by  tiie  time  tliat  the  tliinl  tide  reaches  tlio  moiitli ; 
iilitl  tfius  lliore  may  be  three  coexistent  high  waterw  in  the  river.  The  two  iiiturveninff  low 
Wfttt'fs  in  the  ocean  will  also  produce  two  corresponding  low  waters  in  tiie  river:  these 
uhniifi'iH  ill  tlio  deptii  of  the  gtreani  arc  produced  by  tiio  high  waters  which  arrive  at  its 
tnitlitii  checking  its  velocity,  and  the  low  waters  accelerating  it.  To  cause  high  water  at 
iiliv  particular  point,  it  is  by  no  means  necessary  tiiat  the  water  should  be  raised  to  tiiat  level 
Itirtlio  way  from  that  jwint  to  the  mouth  of  the  river.  Before  sucii  an  accumulation  could 
Inko  place,  in  many  instances,  places  fartlier  down  tiie  stream  would  be  inundated.  At  many 
plavc'g  tliiit  uro  far  from  the  sea,  the  stream  at  the  moment  of  high  water  is  down  the  river, 
and  MtuietimoB  it  is  considerable.  At  Quebec,  the  current  in  the  St.  Lawrence  runs  at  the 
rntti  of  not  less  than  three  miles  per  hour :  this  is  a  clear  proof  that  the  water  is  not  heaped 
up,  for  there  can  be  no  stream  without  a  declivity.  The  phenomenon  termed  the  bobe  of  a 
fivor,  which  occurs  chiefly  in  large  rivers  that  have  a  wide  outlet,  and  where  the  greatest 
tide*  ttfo  experienced,  arises  from  the  waters  accumulated  in  the  gulf  or  outlet  by  one  tide 
liot  being,  in  such  circumstances,  discharged  before  the  approach  of  the  ensuing  tide. 
TliOBO  accumulated  waters  encounter,  therefore,  the  waters  of  the  ocean  flowing  in  an  op- 
p«Mito  direction;  so  that  the  re-action  of  the  conflicting  waves  produces  an  elevation  of  the 
Wtttof  Ihr  above  tlio  natural  level.  The  surge  formed  in  this  manner  rolls  up  the  river  with 
IrreHistiblo  force,  overwhelming  every  thing  which  it  encounters ;  until,  exhausted  by  the 
fdoiitanco  which  it  has  to  overcome,  it  at  length  sinks  into  a  feeble  undulation.  The  vio- 
lonoe  and  elevation  with  which  tiie  boie  nirfies  along  in  some  rivers  is  almost  incredible :  at 
Ihct  mouth  of  the  Severn  the  flood  comes  up  in  one  head  about  ten  feet  in  height ;  but  in  the 
grcttt  riverB  of  America,  and  particularly  in  the  Amazon,  it  becomes  a  rolling  mountain  of 
wtttor,  which  is  said  to  attain  the  height  of  180  feet. 

tit  confined  seas  of  small  extent,  such  as  the  Caspian,  the  Euxine,  the  Baltic,  and  the 
Iffont  lakes  of  North  America,  the  tides  must  necessarily  be  almost  insensible ;  the  dis- 
tlirbing  forces  in  such  situations  have  not  room  to  act  to  any  extent :  the  greatest  height  to 
wlllcli  the  waters  of  the  Caspian  can  rise  above  their  level  on  the  shore,  in  consequence  of 
It  Hphoroidal  shape  being  given  to  them  by  the  lunar  action,  does  not  exceed  seven  inches ; 
mi  nccumulation  which  a  slight  breeze  of  wind  is  sufficient  to  counteract.  Even  in  cases 
whore  a  confined  sea  is  connected  with  the  ocean  by  a  narrow  channel,  no  sensible  tide  can 
Iwppen  J  for  the  tide  in  the  ocean  cannot  diffiise  itself  through  the  contracted  inlet  during 
tlio  ppricnl  tliat  elapses  between  two  consecutive  tides. 

Tlio  Mediterranean  is  a  confined  sea  of  consideriible  extent;  and  the  tides  there  might  be 
VOry  nensible  if  the  effects  of  the  solar  and  lunar  actions  were  not  diminished  by  its  distance 
frirtil  the  equator.  As  the  moon  approaches  the  meridian  of  the  eastern  part  of  the  Medi- 
turrnnean,  there  is  a  considerable  elevation  of  the  waters  on  the  Syrian  coast,  and  a  con- 
«lilnfHlilo  depression  at  Gib  altar.  In  the  middle  of  the  length  the  water  is  at  the  mean 
liolfflit ;  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  an  open  and  extensive  surface  of  water,  the  regular  spheroid- 
nl  form  is  nearly  attained,  and  the  water  stands  considerably  higher  on  the  outside  of  the 
fitfrtlfj*  than  on  the  inside  ;  it  is  nearly  low  water  within,  while  it  is  about  one  third  or  one 
liulf  flood  without.  Notwithstanding  this  accumulation,  the  communication  is  too  narrow 
l4i  (illow  the  tide  of  the  ocean  to  diffiise  itself  in  a  regular  manner  into  the  basin  of  the 
Mediterranean.  As  the  moon  moves  westwardj  toward  Gibraltar,  the  water  will  begin  to 
riw),  but  slowly,  within  the  straits,  while  without  it  is  flowing  very  rapidly.  The  accu- 
mulntioii  within  increases  with  the  progress  of  tlio  moon  westward,  until  it  reaches  high 
Wntiir ;  but  by  this  time  the  tide  has  been  ebbing  for  some  hours  without  the  straits.  It  will 
now  be  Iriw  water  on  the  coast  of  Syria;  and  during  all  this  time  the  water  at  the  middle 
llOtWfen  the  eastern  and  western  extremities  will  "ot  have  sensibly  altered  its  depth. 

The  tiingular  currents  which  prevail  in  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar  appear  in  a  great  measure 
cxiilnincd  by  these  peculiarities  with  regard  to  the  tidc.f  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea  and 
Atliitltic  Ocean.  Changes  of  tide,  always  diflbront  and  frequently  quite  opposite,  are 
oliwirvod  on  the  east  and  west  sides  of  the  narrow  neck  which  connects  the  rock  wivh  Spain ; 
ftlld  the  genenil  tenor  of  those  clinnges  has  a  very  groat  analogy  witli  wliat  has  now  been 
di^irfibeil. 

It  in  a  fact  which  strikes  the  attention,  upon  the  most  cursory  observation  of  the  pheno- 
tiU'tift  of  the  tides,  that  they  fall  later  every  day.  This  variation  in  the  interval  of  the  tides 
in  called  the  pniMiNo  or  largino  of  the  tides,  acconliug  as  we  refer  them  to  lunar  or  sfdar 
timi',  If  we  suppose  the  sun  and  moon  to  be  in  the  equator,  and  the  watery  spheroid  to 
ntfaili  hiflrintnnrmir'if  the  form  suited  to  its  equilibrium,  then  the  lino  joining  the  summits 
of  the  two  waves  produced  in  the  ocean  by  tlieir  combined  actions  will  always  be  directed  to 
i  |Wlnt  pitiuitnd  between  their  centres;  except  in  the  case  of  the  sun  and  moon  being  in  con- 
jlini^tion  or  opposition,  when  it  will  he  directed  towards  their  centres.  The  following  table, 
PHJCiiliilc'd  on  the  above  supposition,  and  for  the  mean  distances  of  the  sun  and  moon  from 
tho  piirtli,  exhibits  the  minutes  of  solar  time  that  tlie  moment  of  high  water  precedes  or  fol- 
lows llif  moon's  southing,  corresjxinding  to  every  tenth  degree  of  the  moon's  elongation  (east 
ward)  from  tho  sun  or  from  the  point  opposite  to'  the  sun.     It  shows  also  the  hour  and  minutt- 


>■ 


Book  I. 


THE  TIDES. 


1S3 


of  the  day,  nearly,  when  it  is  high  water ;  and  the  height  of  the  tide,  supposuig  the  height 
of  a  spriiij;  tide  to  be  1000: — 


S    Moon's  Elongation 
S           at  southing. 

Tinio  of  High  Water. 

HL'ijiht 

of 
Tide. 

Time  of  High  Water. 

Q 
O 

S| 
«  S 

r 

Befnro 
Miion's 
southing. 

Ant'rnonn 
or  Midnight, 

Ancriioon 
or  Midnight. 

After 
Moon's 
soutliing. 

Min. 

Ho.  Min. 

1000 

087 
040 
887 
80(1 
715 
tilO 
518 
453 
429 

Ho.  Min. 

Min. 

Deg. 

0 
10 
SO 
30 
40 
50 
60 
70 

eo 

00 

0 

lU 
22 
3U 
40 
45 

Jilt 
35 
0 

0     0 

0    21:1^ 

0  5H 

1  28^ 
3      0 
8    35 
3    13i 

3  snj 

4  Ji 

C      0 

13     0 
11    31 
11      2 
10    31 
10      0 
U    25 
H    4Ci 
R      01 
7     5 
U      0 

0 

Hi 

22 

3U 

40 

45 

40i 

.  m 

25 
0 

160 
170 
160 
150 
140 
130 
120 
110 
100 
90 

If  we  note  the  exact  time  of  high  water  of  spring  tide  for  any  harbour,  and  the  exact 
position  of  the  sun  and  moon  at  that  time,  we  can  easily  make  a  table  of  the  monthly  scries 
for  tliat  port,  by  noticing  the  difference  of  that  time  from  tlie  table,  and  making  the  some 
(liflbrence  for  every  succeeding  phasis  of  the  tide. 


night  be 
distance 

0  Medi- 

1  a  con- 
le  moan 
iphcroid- 
|e  of  the 

or  one 
nanow 
of  the 
!gin  to 
10  accu- 
les  high 
It  will 
middle 

li. 

incasnre 
Sea  and 
lite,  ore 
h  Spain ; 
)W  been 

pheno- 
Iho  tides 
I  or  sf)liiv 
Icroid  tvi 
Umnnits 
Irctcd  to 
r  in  con- 
Jg  table, 
on  from 
Is  or  fol- 
In  (east 
I  minuti- 


CHAPTER  XVni. 

t 

GENERAL  VIEW  OP  THE  SOLAR  SYSTEM. 

Ten  stars,  among  the  countless  number  with  which,  in  a  clear  night,  the  heavens  appeal 
so  resplendent,  have  been  proved,  by  the  observations  and  reasonings  of  which  we  have  now 
given  a  brief  outline,  to  oe  planets  revolving  about  the  sun,  and  deriving  their  light  from 
him.  Tlie  earth  which  wo  inhabit  has  been  proved  to  have  a  similar  motion,  and  to  belong 
to  the  siime  class  of  IxMlies.  Several  of  these  primary  planets  are  accompanied  by  sateiiitcs; 
and  the  whole  are  preserved  in  theii'  respective  orbits  by  a  centripetal  combined  with  a 
centrifugal  force.  Thus  there  subsist  among  tliese  bodies  relations  which  are  regarded  as 
uniting  them  in  one  system,  having  the  sun  in  the  centre;  and  which  is  tlierefore  called  the 

80LAlt  SYSTEM. 

In  regard  to  the  other  planets,  as  we  have  employed  the  obvious  analogy  subsisting 
between  them  and  our  earth,  in  proving  its  annual  and  diurnal  motion ;  so,  on  the  other 
hand,  I'rom  the  same  grounds,  it  seems  reasonable  to  conclude  that,  like  the  earth,  they  arc 
designed  and  fitted  by  Infinite  Wisdom  fur  the  accommo<lation  of  inhabitants,  and  that  in 
all  probability  millions  of  beings  are  placed  u[)on  tiieni.  Thougli  our  observations  in  relation 
to  the  subserviency  of  the  arrangements  of  nature  to  the  enjoyment  of  sentient  beings  is 
confined  to  this  narrow  scene ;  yet,  seeing  this  small  portion  of  the  universe  crowded  witli 
e.vamples  of  utility,  why  sliould  we  imagine  that  Divine  Goodness  has  not  tliroughout  the 
system  in  like  manner  diffused  its  bounty  1  As  our  knowledge  of  the  celestial  phenomena 
is  extended,  the  probability  becomes  proportionably  stronger  that  the  other  planets  are  stored 
with  inhabitants  who  share  in  the  blessings  of  rntional  and  sentient  existence.  Their  rota 
tion,  tlicir  atmospheres,  of  which  the  telescope  lias  enabled  us  to  detect  the  existence,  and 
the  changes  which  we  see  going  on  in  tliese  atmospheres,  so  mucii  resemble  what  we  expe- 
rience on  the  earth,  that  no  man  who  clearly  conceives  them  can  divest  his  mind  of  the 
thought  that  this  is  not  tiio  only  part  of  the  system  where  the  Creator  lias  displayed  his 
bounty  by  giving  existence  to  sentient  beings.  There  is  nothing  that  forbids  us  to  suppose 
that  in  each  of  the  other  planets  there  is  the  same  inexhaustible  store  of  sulwrdinate 
contrivances  that  we  see  here  for  living  creatures  in  every  situation,  possessing  appropriate 
forms,  desires,  and  abilities.  Before  abandoning  such  an  opinion,  there  may  surely  V 
expected,  from  those  wlio  require  us  to  do  so,  some  goo<l  reason  for  its  rejection. 

In  regard  to  the  fi.ved  stars,  as  the  sun,  if  viewed  from  a  sufficient  distance,  would  be 
diminished  into  a  linniiious  point,  v.'hile  the  planets  that  revolve  round  him  would  become 
invisible;  so,  on  the  cither  hnnd,  it  is  highly  probable  that  each  fixed  star  is  itself  a  sun,  and 
the  centre  of  a  partieuiiir  system,  being  surrounded  witli  a  certain  number  of  planets  and 
comets,  wliicli,  at  ditli'rent  distances  and  in  different  periods,  perform  their  revolutions 
around  it. 

There  npperirs  .■stroiiir  reason  to  suppose  tlmt  the  sun,  with  hin  accompanying  planets,  hall 
a  mntioti  amnvfr  /.'.'•  find  .•■liirs,  round  a  centre.    From  a  comparison  of  ancient  and  modern 

Vor,.  [.  '  !'>' 


:■:'  itt 


.:  l! 


1 

:i: 

1 

1 

Hii 

1 

134 


PRINCIPIJIS  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pabt  II. 


observations,  it  appears  tlmt  while  tlie  stars  in  one  quarter  of  the  heavens  are  receding  from 
each  otiier,  those  in  the  opposite  region  are  griulually  approaching.  Dr.  Herschel  has 
found  that  these  motions  of  tlie  star.-*  are  nearly  in  the  direction  that  would  result  from  a 
motion  of  the  sun  towards  the  constellation  of  Hercules.  It  is  the  opinion  of  Lalandc  that 
there  is  a  kind  of  equilibrium  among  all  the  systems  of  the  universe,  and  that  they  liave  a 
periodic  circulation  about  their  common  centre  of  gravity. 

TABULAR  VIEW  OF  THE  SOLAR  SYSTEM. 

I.    SECONDARY  PLANETS. 

1.    The  Moom. 


Revolutiona. 


r                                        n.  H.  M.  a. 

;  Synodical 29  12  44  2.9 

'  AiinmnlUtic 27  13  IH  37.4 

!  Biilereal 27  7  43  11.5 

I  Trniiical 27  7  43  4.7 

I  Nodical 27  5  S  30.0 


Inclination  nf  Orbit  to  (     ..  a,  ahi  a 
planeof  Ecliptic...  i     ^    °  *'    " 
Oreatpr  svini-axis  of  Orbit  —  1.0000(10 
Eccentricity  =  .054844 


Seinidiamcler  nf  Terrettrial  Equator 
Moon'a  mean  distance  =>  59.96435. 

in  milci  ~  237000. 
Moon's  mean  diameter  —  21G0  miles. 
Her  volume  —  ^  of  volume  of  the  Earth 


1. 


Her  ninas  = 


'  of  mass  of  the  Earth. 


Hur  density  »  j-^  —  .615  of  density  of  the  Earth. 
Her  light  is  ^^th  of  the  light  of  the  Sun. 


2.  Satellites  of  Jupiter. 


3.  Satellites  or  Saturn. 


4.  Satellites  uf  Uranus. 


Is 

Sidereal 
Revolution. 

Mean  distance 

in  sainidiame- 

ter>*()fjupiter*8 

Equator. 

1 

3 
3 
4 

D.    n.    M. 
1    18    28 
3    13    14 
7      8    43 
IS    IG    32 

6.049 

9.623 

15.350 

26.098 

1 

•£ 

Mean  distance 

^ 

Sidereal 

in  scmidiame- 

V 

Revolution. 

tcrs  of  Saturn's 

■2 

Equator. 

D.      H.      M. 

1 

0    22    38 

.3.351 

2 

1      6    .53 

4.300 

3 

1    21    18 

5.284 

4 

2    17    45 

6.81!l 

5 

4    12    45 

9..'(24 

fi 

15    22    41 

22.081 

7 

79      7    55 

64.359 

t 

■    ■■■-! 

Mean  distance 

Sidcical 

in  seniidiamt- 

&) 

Rcvokition. 

lers    of    I'ra- 

»1 

nus's  Equator. 

D.      H.      M. 

1 

5    21    25 

13.120 

2 

8    16    m 

17.028 

3 

10    23      4 

19.845 

4 

13    10    SO 

22.753 

5 

38      1    48 

45.507 

6 

107    16    40 

91.008 

n.    PRIMARY  PLANETS  AND  SUN. 


FUiuKi. 

SUetal  Period. 

Mran 
Disunce. 

Ecwntricily. 

MeaDl.Dn{itude. 
Jan  1,  IWI. 

IjoTX.  I'erhclioii. 
Jan.!,  1K)I. 

Inclio.urOrbil. 
Jan.  1,  irei. 

Lone.  Nodea. 
Jan.  1,1801. 

Mein  DaUr 
MoUon  in  Orbit. 

D. 

0    /      II 

0    *       II 

o   1     II 

0    '      II 

O  /     " 

87.9«)2.iH) 

0.3fi70!'RI 

.205'iUM 

166    0  48.6 

74  21  46.9 

7    0    9.1 

45  67  30.9 

4    5  32.6 

Venus     .    .    . 

?i4.1007«i9 

0.72W1I6 

.ooei«o:4 

II  31    3  0 

12!)  43  53.1 

3  23  28.3 

74  54  129 

1  36    7.8 

Earth     .    .    . 

36>.lf>Klel2 

1.0000000 

.01679357 

100  3!l  10.J 

99  30    60 

0  69    8.3 

Mm.    .    .    . 

69«.97Pli43« 

l.r,236iS3 

.ora307no 

64  22  55..i 

332  23  56  6 

1  51    6.2 

48    0    3.5 

0  31  86.7 

Vnia      .    .    . 

1325.7431 

2.387*700 

.OH913000 

■27«  30    0.4 

r219  23  44.4 

r  7    S   90 

riio  13  l«.2 

0  16  17.9 

i,sw.6eon 

a.OfiSOODO 

.25781*0 

§1200  16  19.1 
»Sl23  16  11.9 

S      53  33  46.0 
2il47    7  3I..T 

S     13    4    9.7 
S  1  10  37  26.2 

ia  J  171     7  40.4 
g  1    fO  41  24.0 

0  13  32.9 

rem     .    .    . 

1681.3931 

2.76724-.0 

.07843900 

>  12  60.9 

Pal  1.11     .    .    . 

I6W53S8 

2.7:2|i8«0 

.24I64I<00 

.  108  24  57.9 

.121    7    4.3 

.34  34  5i.O 

(.172  30  26.8 

0  12  48.4 

43.1-2.'.»tai2 

5.2027760 

.04X16210 

112  l.'>23.0 

13    P  3<.6 

1  IS  51.3 

98  26  18.9 

0    4  69.3 

.^(urn    .    .    . 

I07.W.JI9SI74 

9..'^:W7f«l 

.056l«»0 

135  20    6.5 

89    9  20.8 

2  29  35.7 

111  56  37.4 

0    1    0.« 

Crauut  .    .    . 

30686. 8120829« 

10.1H-23ilOO 

.Moergss 

177  48  23.0 

167  31  16.1 

0  4C28.4 

72  59  36.3 

0    0  42.4 

Planets 
nnd 
Sun. 

1 

True 
Diameter. 

Volume. 

Mass. 

Density. 

(Irnvi. 

Sidcrcnl  Ro- 
tation. 

Tnclinption  of  Axis 
to  Ajifl  of  Ecliptic. 

LiRht 

and 

Heat. 

1 

h.    m.  s. 

o           '          " 

Mercury 

0.398 

0.398 

L'lj-imriT 

■     • 

1.0324    5  28 

not  known 

6.680 

Venus 

0.975 

0.927 

IffSSTT 

-     . 

0.9823  21    7 

not  exactly  known 

1.911 

Earth 

1.000 

1.000 

35T5T? 

3.9320 

1.00 

24    0    0 

23  '  27    50.5 

1.000 

Mars 

OMl 

0.139 

23t:«32ff 

.    . 

.33 

24  39  21 

30    19    10.8 

0.431 ' 

Jupiter 

10.860 

1280.900 

Til'^ff-7 

.9924 

2.72 

9  55  .50 

3      5    30.0 

0.037 

Saturn 

9.982 

•     995.0(M) 

flJ|l5 

.mw 

1.01 

10  29  17 

31     19      0 

0.011 

Uranus 

4..T:}2 

80.490 

T?5rB 

LIOOO 

.    . 

unknown 

not  known 

0.0031 

Sun 

111.4.>t 

1384472.0(M) 

1 

l.(MMH) 

27.{)025  12    0 

7    30      0 

iMoon 

.0275 

.000  0^,00 f nil '2.41  W"^ 

0.1027    7  43 

1    30    10.8 

1.000 

1' 


^^. 


4    S  92.8 

1  36  7.ti 
0  59  8J 
0  31  36.T 
0  16  n.9 

0  13  31.9 
,  12  60.9 
0  12  48.4 
0  4  69.3 
0  2  0.6 
0    0  42.4 


UgM 
lllltl 

Iliat. 


6.680 

1.911 

1.000 

0.431 

0.0371 

0.011 

0.003 

1 1.000 


Book  L  FIGURE  AND  MAGNITUDE  OP  THE  EARTH.  18B 

CIIAl'TER  XIX. 

FIGURE  AND  M.^GNITUDE  OF  THE  EARTH. 

VVb  have  sufficiently  establisheil  the  impuitant  proposition  that  the  earth  is  a  round  body ; 
and  liave  inferred  from  the  figure  of  its  simdow,  as  seen  on  the  moon's  disc  in  lunar  eclipses, 
that  it  must  be  a  sphere,  or  at  least  that  it  approaches  to  that  figure.  The  hypothesis  of  ita 
being  exactly  spherical  is  sufficient  to  explain,  in  a  satisfactory  manner,  the  general  appear- 
ance of  the  heavens,  a.<!  seen  from  difTerent  points  of  its  surface;  and  before  the  true  doctrine 
of  motion  and  the  law  of  gravitation,  which  connects  the  most  remote  bodies  in  tlic  universe, 
were  discovered,  a  sphere  was  considered  to  be  an  exact  representation  of  ita  shape,  and  the 
ingenuity  of  mathematicians  was  exerted  to  discover  its  magnitude. 

The  determination  of  the  magnitude  of  the  earth  might  appear,  to  one  altogether  ignorant 
of  mathematical  science,  as  a  problem  of  insuperable  difficulty,  and,  indeed,  as  too  sublime  to 
be  resolved  by  a  human  being.  If,  however,  we  suppose  the  earth  an  exact  sphere,  the 
theory  of  the  solution  is  by  no  means  difficult ;  it  is  within  the  bounds  of  elementary  geome- 
try, and  has  been  known  from  the  earliest  ages :  but  the  case  is  very  difTerent  with  the 
practice.     In  the  actual  resolution,  instruments  of  the  greatest  nicety  are  required ;  and  to 

ftroduco  these,  the  ingenuity  of  man  has  been  tasked  to  the  utmost  during  the  last  two 
lundred  years ;  besides,  the  application  of  them  demands,  in  addition  to  liie  principles  of 
geometry,  some  of  the  most  refined  tiieories  in  physics :  so  that,  on  the  whole,  lew  problems 
present  a  more  ample  field  for  the  exertion  of  the  mind  of  man,  or  have  more  extensively 
called  fortii  the  assistance  of  arts  and  sciences. 
It  is  now  about  two  thousand  years  since  Eratosthenes  attempted  to  resolve  this  important 
problem.  He  knew  that  on  the  day  of  the  summer  solstice 
the  sun  illuminated  the  bottom  of  a  well  at  Syene.  At  the 
same  instant  he  observed  at  Alexandria  that  the  sun  was  7° 
12'  from  the  zenith :  and  it  was  supposed  that  Syene  was  due 
south  from  that  place,  and  therefore  tliat  both  were  under  the 
same  meridian.  Let  C  (Jig.  42.)  be  the  earth's  centre,  A 
Alexandria,  Z  its  zenith  in  tlie  heavens,  B  Syene,  and  S  the 
sun  at  the  instant  when  it  illuminated  tiie  bottom  of  tlie  well, 
and  consequently  was  in  tlie  zenith  of  that  place.  The  angu- 
lar measure  of  the  celestial  arc  Z  S,  or  the  corresponding  ter- 
restrial arc  A  B,  is  the  angle  Z  C  S  at  tiie  earth's  centre. 
Eratostlienes  observed  the  angle  Z  A  S,  which  by  the  element* 
of  geometry,  is  less  than  tiie  former  by  the  angle  A  S  C. 
However,  tnis  difference  is  so  small,  that  it  may  be  altogether 
neglected  in  the  present  case ;  and  thus  the  angle  A  C  B  will 
bo  nearly  7°  12',  that  is,  one  fiftieth  part  of  360° ;  and  conse- 
quently the  arc  A  B  of  the  terrestrial  meridian  one  fiftieth  of 
ttie  earth's  circumference.  The  distance  between  Alexandria  and  Syene  had  been  deter- 
mined to  be  5000  stadia.  Hence  it  immediately  followed  that  the  earth's  circumference  was 
2r)0,000  stadia.  As  it  could  not  be  supposed  that  this  result  was  very  accurate,  Eratos- 
thenes reckoned  the  circumference  to  be  252,000  stadia,  which  give  in  round  numbers  700 
stadia  to  the  length  of  a  degree. 

The  geometrical  principle  here  employed  was  quite  correct,  and  indeed  was  the  same 
which  is  used  at  this  time ;  but  the  data  were  very  inaccurate  and  uncertain,  for  Syene, 
instead  of  being  exactly  south  from  Alexandria,  lies  considerably  to  the  east;  and  it  may 
well  be  supposed  that  the  assigned  distance  between  Alexandria  and  Syene  was  not  an 
accurate  measurement,  but  merely  a  rude  approximation.  It  is  impossible,  however,  now  to 
determine  how  near  Eratostlienes  came  to  the  truth,  for  want  of  a  knowledge  of  the  exact 
length  of  the  stadium  by  which  the  distance  was  reckoned. 

The  principles  by  which  Eratosthenes  was  directed  in  his  measurement  of  the  earth 
appear  to  have  been  afterwards  employed  by  Posidonius.  This  astronomer  had  remarked, 
that  at  RIkxIos  the  stiir  Canopus  was  just  visible  in  the  horizon,  but  never  rose  alwve  it ; 
while  at  Alexandria  it  attii  inod  an  altitude  of  7-J°,  or  j  jth  part  of  the  circumference  of  a  great 
circle.  The  direct  distance  between  tiioso  two  places,  wliich  were  supposed  to  be  on  the 
same  meridian,  was  iifcoiiiited  to  he  .')000  stadia;  and  therefore,  according  to  this  observa- 
tion, the  circumferciici-  should  have  been  240,000:  but  here  the  uncertainty  of  a  distance 
reckoned  by  a  sea-voyage,  not  to  speak  of  other  causes  of  error,  renders  the  conclusion  of 
no  value. 

About  tlio  ynar  800  of  the  Christian  era,  the  caliph  Almaman  directed  that  his  astro- 
iioinors  should  inc:i.'<uro  a  degree  of  the  innridiau  in  the  plains  of  Meso|)otamifi.  The  method 
which  tlii'y  oiiiployod  was  suscoptiblf  of  greater  accuracy  than  that  of  the  Greeks.  They 
divided  tliernselvcs  into  two  parties:  aftrr  oljscrviiig  the  altitude  of  the  polo,  one  went 
directly  north  and  the  other  south,  measuring  as  they  proceeded,  and  taking  from  time  to 


'.;;':? 

> 

■  •  ii  * 

*     l! 


[<•' 


i 

■ 

-  u 

111 

^^ 

1 

186 


PRmCII'IJIS  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  II 


time  the  altitude  of  tlio  polo,  until  ciicli  jwrty  Imd  chiinijro:!  its  latitude  by  a  dcffreo.  Thus 
the  nioasurc  of  two  dotfrccs  was  olitainod ;  but,  at  tin;  present  tiiiif,  our  iirnorunci!  of  tlio 
fixact  loufjth  of  tiic  unit  of  inoasure  rcndci-s  nil  their  labour  useless  to  us,  even  if  (what  is 
very  unlikely)  its  accuracy  niifjht  iiavo  been  relied  on.     It  ajipcnrs,  however,  that  their 


litude 


Ics 


than  that  of  the   astronomer  of 


estimation  of  the  earth' 
Alexandria. 

The  method  of  Eratosthenes  was  practised  in  modern  limes,  first  by  Fernel,  a  Flemish 
physician.  He  travelled  from  Paris  towards  Amiens,  whidi  places  arc  nearly  under  the 
same  meridian,  until  he  had  passed  over  a  defjree  of  latitude ;  and,  by  a  contrivance  attached 
to  the  wheel  of  his  carriaffo,  he  ascertained  the  muid)er  of  revolutions  it  made  in  that  dis- 
tance.    In  this  way  he  found  the  lenrrth  of  the  defrroc-  to  Ik;  57,070  Frencli  toises. 

The  same  dnirrce  was  afterwards  measured  by  La  faille,  and  found  to  be  .57,074  toises. 
The  near  nnrreement  of  Pernors  result  with  this  last,  obtained  by  a  more  accurate  and 
scientific  process,  is  very  remarkable. 

The  Dutch  astronomer  Snellius  was  the  first  who  attempted  to  resolve  this  most  inter- 
esting and  difficult  problem  in  practical  jjeometry  with  those  scientific  aids  which  its  import- 
ance required.  In  the  year  1(!17  he  published  his  Eniloslhenes  Batuvus,  in  which  ho  ha» 
detailed  the  whole  process.  The  extreme  points  of  his  meridional  arc  are  terminated  in  the 
parallels  of  Alcmaor,  in  lat.  ry2°  40J',  and  Bergen-op-Zoom,  lat.  51°  29',  the  arc  between 
them  beinjj  1°  11  J'.  He  fonned  a  series  of  triangles  between  these  places  alonfj  the  earth'n 
surface,  and  determined  (as  well  as  the  imperfect  instruments  of  the  time  enabled  him  to 
determine)  their  angles;  and  by  several  ba.se  lines,  actually  measured,  he  found  their  sides. 
He  reduced  the  (xwitions  of  his  stations  to  the  meridian ;  and  he  concluded  that  a  degree  of 
the  meridian  was  28,500  perches,  which  were  equivalent  to  55,1(K)  toises  of  that  period  ; 
which,  however,  were  rather  longer  than  the  toise  as  it  is  now  estimated.  The  error  of 
Snellius  appears  to  have  been  about  2000  toises  on  the  length  of  a  degree,  of  which  19(M) 
may  have  arisen  from  the  error  in  measuring  the  celestial  arc,  and  the  rest  from  the  imper- 
fection of  his  geodetical  measurements.  Snellius  measured  his  original  base  over  again, 
and  corrected  his  concluaioii :  he  died,  however,  before  he  could  publi.sh  the  result.  Cassini 
made  certain  correction.s  in  his  calculations,  by  which  the  length  of  the  degree  came  out 
56,075  toi.-es;  and  Muschenbroek,  by  an  e.vamination  of  Snellius's  jiapers,  found  that  the 
degree  ought  to  have  been  reckoned  57,033  toises. 

Richard  Norwood  made  a  remarkable  approximation  to  the  true  length  of  a  degree  in 
1635,  by  apparently  inadeciuato  moans.  He  measured  the  distance  between  London  and 
York,  observing  the  bearings  as  he  proceeded,  and  reducing  all  to  the  direction  of  the 
meridian  and  the  horizontal  plane.  He  determined  the  difference  of  latitude  to  be  2°  28' ;  and 
from  the  whole  distance  he  determined  the  degree  to  be  367,17()  feet  English,  or  57,800  toises. 

As  far  as  pure  mathematical  theory  was  contorned,  the  metiiod  of  Snellius  was  excellent; 
the  chief  imperfection  was  in  his  instruments:  but  an  immens(!  improvement  was  made  by 
Picard,  in  the  application  of  the  telescope  and  the  micrometer  to  the  measurement  of 
angles;  and,  with  the  assistance  of  instruuients  constructed  on  tlie  new  principle,  this  astro- 
nomer, by  tlie  direction  of  the  French  Academy,  began  tiio  measurement  of  an  arc  of  the 
meridian,  taking  for  its  extremities  the  parallels  of  Sourdon  near  Amiens,  and  Malvoisine. 
His  general  manner  of  conducting  the  proce.ss  was  the  same  as  that  of  Snellius.  He  con- 
nected the  extreme  parallels  by  a  series  of  triangles,  the  sides  of  which  were  determined 
from  a  base  of  5003  toises,  measured  twice  with  great  care  at  one  extremity  of  the  series. 
There  was  a  base  of  verilication  of  3002  toi.ses  measured  at  the  other  extremity.  The 
horizontal  angles  were  measured  by  a  quadrant  of  thirty-eight  inches'  radius;  and  the 
celestial  arc,  which  was  about  V  12',  by  a  sector  ten  feet  in  radius.  He  concluded  the 
length  of  a  degree  to  h(>  57,060  toises. 

This  was  the  first  measurement  in  which  confldeneo  could  be  placed.  It  is  true  there 
wore  several  elements  wanting  in  the  determination  of  the  celestial  arc,  owing  to  the  imper- 
fect state  of  astronomicnl  seienre  nt  that  time;  but,  by  a  fortunate  compensation,  the  errors 
thence  arising  corrected  each  otlier.  Tliismeasuroment  of  Picard  wasof  sor.'ice  to  Newton, 
in  verifying  his  happy  thought  of  the  law  of  universal  gravitation. 

The  measurement  begun  by  Picard  was  continued  northward  to  Dunkirk  by  La  Hire , 
and  in  the  opposite  direction,  as  ftr  as  Pcrpignan,  by  the  second  Cassini,  who  published  the 
whole  in  1718,  in  a  work  on  the  magnitude  and  figure  of  tiio  earth. 

The  labour  of  the  French  astrr)nomer3  determined  the  magnitude  of  the  earth  with  a 
degree  of  accuracy  sufl^cient  for  the  general  purposes  of  geography;  but  science  was  now 
proceeding  with  rapid  strides,  and  a  new  question  was  agitated, — Is  the  earth  an  o.vact 
sphere,  as  had  been  hitherto  supjio.sod  !  or,  if  it  bo  not  a  sphere,  what  is  its  true  figure? 

Huygens  and  Newton  had  establisheil  the  doctrine  of  the  centrifiigal  force  of  biMlies 
revolving  in  circles  ;  and  from  this  it  was  justly  inferred  that  the  earth,  in  c/)nsequence  of 
its  rotation  on  an  axis,  ine.-t  necessarily  deviate  from  a  spherical  figure,  and  assume  tiiat  of 
an  oblate  s|)lieroid;  tint  is,  n  sulid  geueriti^d  l)y  the  revolution  of  an  ellipse  on  its 'esser 
axis,  the  extremities  of  whi'  'i  in  this  case  were  the  polo.s. 


•  11 


no  there 
It'  impor- 
l^c  errors- 

iNowton, 

1, a  Hire, 
Ishod  thi; 

li  with  a 
Ivvas  now 
Ln  exact 
111  re ! 
Tit'  bodies 
licnee  ot" 
that  of 
Its  'esser 


Book  I. 


FIGURE  AND  MAGNITUDE  OP  THE  EARTH. 


137 


Tliis  opinion  received  support  from  some  astronomical  observations  made  by  Riciier,  who 
was  sent  l)y  tiic  Academy  of  ycionces,  in  1672,  to  Cayenne.  He  tiierc  found  that  his  clock, 
whicii  liad  been  regulated  to  nuian  time  at  I'aris,  went  slower  by  a  sensible  quantity.  This 
interesting  observation  showed  that  the  weight  of  the  pendulum  was  less  at  the  ei^uatorthan 
it  had  been  at  Furis;  and  hence  the  increase  of  the  force  of  gravity  in  proceeding  from  tlie 
o(iiiator  towards  the  iwle,  as  shown  theoretically  by  Newton,  was  completely  established ; 
and  consequently  also  the  oblatenesa  of  the  earth  at  the  poles,  and  its  elevation  at  the  equator, 
which  arc  tiic  confjequence  of  this  diminution. 

If  the  earth  were  a  perfect  sphere,  then  all  the  degrees 
of  the  terrestrial  meridian  from  the  equator  to  the  pole 
would  be  c(\ua.\  in  length.  But  this  will  by  no  means  be 
the  case  if  tiie  eartli  be  a  spheroid.  For,  supiwsiug  the 
earth  to  be  an  oblate  spheroid  {Jig.  43.),  of  which  the 
lesser  axis  is  P  P',  that  diameter  of  tlie  earth  which 
passes  through  P  P'  the  poles.  Let  E  Q.  be  any  equa- 
torial diameter,  and  E  P  Q  P'  a  section  of  the  earth, 
through  tlie  axis  P  P',  which  will  therefore  be  a  terres- 
trial meridian.  Because  the  direction  of  gravity  is  always 
in  a  line  perpendicular  to  the  eartli's  surface ;  at  tlie 
poles  and  equator,  the  direction  of  gravity  will  pass 
through  the  centre.  It  will  be  otherwise,  however,  at  any  jwint,  D,  between  the  equator 
mid  jxiles;  fur,  by  the  nature  of  the  ellipse,  a  line,  1)  F,  drawn  perpendicular  to  the  curve 
iit  D  will  pass  on  one  side  of  the  centre.  Now  let  us  suppose  that  li  F,  H  F,  are  two  straight 
linos  perpendicular  to  the  earth's,  surface  at  D  arJ  H,  which  meet  in  P,  and  contain  an 
angle  D  F  H,  of  one  degree;  also  let  G  K,  L  K,  be  other  two  lines  perpendicular  to  the 
earth's  surface  at  points  nearer  the  jiole ;  and  suppose  these  also  to  contoin  an  angle  G  K  L, 
of  one  degree.  The  elliptic  arc  D  H,  because  of  its  smollness,  may  lie  considered  as  an  arc 
of  a  circle  of  which  D  P  or  H  F  is  the  radius ;  and  similarly  the  elliptic  arc  G  L  may  be 
considered  as  an  arc  of  a  circle  whose  radius  is  G  K  or  L  K.  The  curvature  of  tlie  ellipse 
is  greatest  at  E,  the  extremity  of  the  greater  axis,  and  gradually  decreases  to  P,  the 
extremity  of  the  lesser  axis,  where  it  is  least  Hence  the  arc  D  H  will  be  more  incurvated 
than  G  F ;  and  since  the  angles  at  F  and  K  are  equal,  eacii  being  one  degree,  the  almost 
equal  lines  G  K,  L  K,  will  be  greater  than  tlie  almost  equal  lines  D  H,  H  F ;  and  the  arc 
G  L  must  tlioreibrc  be  greater  than  tlie  arc  D  H.  Thus,  if  the  earth  is  an  oblate  spheroid, 
a  degree  of  the  terrestrial  meridian  will,  by  actual  measurement,  be  found  to  be  least  at  tlie 
equator;  and  the  degrees  will  gradually  increase  as  we  proceed  towards  either  pole. 

It  is  manifest  tliat  the  case  would  be  just  the  reverse  if  the  earth  were  an  oblong  .spheroid, 
generated  by  the  rotation  of  an  ellipse  on  its  greater  axis  E  Q.  Hence  the  important  question, 
What  is  the  figure  of  the  terrestrial  meridian  ]  may  be  resolved  by  measuring  arcs  of  the 
meridian  in  diHcrcnt  latitudes. 

None  of  Uie  measurements  before  that  begun  by  Picard  were  made  with  such  accuracy 
as  to  enable  inatliematicians  to  resolve  the  ([ucstion.  But  it  was  then  supjxjsed  that  this 
had  been  performed  with  such  care  as  to  afford  the  necessary  datii.  Sucii,  however,  appears 
not  to  iiave  been  the  case.  The  degrees  actually  measured  were  found  to  be  unequal; 
but,  instead  of  increasing  in  going  from  south  to  north,  the  reverse  was  supposed  to  be  the 
tact ;  and  had  this  been  really  true,  the  polar  axis  would  have  been  greater  than  the  equa- 
torial,— a  conclusion  quite  in  opposition  to  that  derivable  from  the  doctrine  of  centrifugal 
force. 

To  determine  this  most  important  question,  the  Academy  of  Sciences  resolved  that  degrees 
of  the  meridian  should  be  ineaf>ured  in  various  latitudes  which  niiglit  diflcr  as  much  im 
possible ;  and  it  was  determined  that  one  party  should  be  sent  to  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
equator,  and  another  to  tlie  polar  circle.  Two  scientific  expeditions  were  accordingly 
undertaken.  Maiipertuis,  Clairaut,  Coiniis,  Lenionnier,  and  Outhier,  went  to  Lapland,  where 
the  Swedish  astronomer  Celsius  joined  them ;  and  there  they  measured  an  arc  of  hfly-seven 
minutes  of  a  degree,  from  which  I  hoy  concluded  that  a  degree  under  the  polar  circle,  viz.  in 
lat.  66°  20',  was  57,419  toisos,  that  is,  about  349  toises  greater  than  that  of  Paris.  This 
degree  has  been  since  remoasurcd  with  great  care  by  Svanberg  and  other  Swedish  mathe- 
maticians, who  found  it  to  be  .'}7,1!)6  toises.  This  is  223  toises  less  tlian  the  determination 
of  the  French  academicans ;  but  it  is  certainly  more  correct 

The  other  party,  composed  of  (lodiii,  Bouguijr,  and  La  Condamine,  performed  a  similar 
but  more  extensive  operation  in  Peru.  After  ten  years'  labour,  they,  with  the  assistance  of 
two  Spanish  officers,  Don  Jorge  Juan  and  Antonio  de  Ulloa,  accomplished  the  measuremeni 
of  an  arc  of  about  3°  7'.  From  this  they  concluded  that  the  length  of  a  degree  was  r)6,758 
toises,  which  was  shorter  than  the  French  degree  by  302  toisos.  Those  measuronients  set 
the  question  completely  at  rest.  There  could  no  longer  be  any  doubt  that  tlio  polar  diame- 
ter of  tlie  earth  was  shorter  than  the  equatorial. 
The  measurement  of  different  degrees  has  been  since  performed  many  times  in  dilforent 
Vol.  I.  12*  S 


«Y 


138 


PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  II, 


H 

^1 


H 


I 


Wmi 


»i    ..  I 


ii   li    ''.  ' 


countries ;  as  apain  in  Franco,  and  also  at  the  Cupe  of  Good  Hopn,  by  T,a  Ctiillo ;  in  Italy,  by 
Mairo,  UohcovIcIi,  and  Beccaria;  in  Pennsylvania,  by  Mason  ana  Dixon;  in  Hini;,mry,  by 
Lifsjriini^;  in  India,  by  Lanibton. 

Tlicro  linve  lieen,  in  ad<lition  to  these,  two  admeasurements  of  arcs  of  the  meridian  which 
deserve  piirticidur  notice,  on  account  of  their  e-dent,  the  excellence  of  the  instruments 
omploycil,  and  the  skill  with  which  the  operations  iiave  been  conducted.  We  nro  indebted 
to  the  spirit  of  refortn  and  improvement  which  spruni;  out  of  the  French  revolution  t()r  one 
of  these,  and  to  the  liberal  and  enlifjhtened  views  of  the  Enjj^lish  government  lor  the  other. 

The  {Treat  diversity  in  the  units  of  a  measure  is  an  evil  which  lias  been  lonji;  felt  and  com- 
plained of  in  every  commeicial  cotnitry.  The  French  Constitutional  Assembly  took  up  this 
most  important  subject  in  the  year  1790 ;  and,  at  the  suffgestion  of  Talleyrand,  it  was  decreed, 
tliat  the  king'  should  request  his  Britannic  majesty  to  engoge  the  parliament  of  England  to 
concur  with  the  National  Assembly  in  fixing  a  natural  unit  of  weights  and  measures;  that, 
under  the  auspicos  of  the  two  nations,  commissioners  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  an 
equal  nund)cr  of  member?  of  the  Royal  Society  of  liondon,  should  determine  the  length  of 
the  pendulum  in  i:  e  latitude  of  45°,  or  other  preferable  latitude,  and  from  this  deduce  an 
invariable  standard  for  all  weights  and  measures. 

The  Academy  named  a  commission,  composed  of  Borda,  Lagrange,  Laplace,  Monge,  and 
Condoroi.'t,  who  gave  a  rcjwrt,  which  is  printed  in  the  Memoirs  of  the  Academy  for  1788. 
Three  difl'ercnt  fundamental  units  were  suggested  in  their  report  The  first  is  the  pendulum 
which  beats  seconds  in  u  given  parallel.  That  of  45°  was  thought  preferable  to  any  other, 
because  there  the  pendulum  is  a  mean  among  all  those  which  beat  seconds  in  the  dillerent 
latitudes  between  the  equator  and  the  pole.  They  observed,  however,  that  the  pendulum 
contains  a  heterogeneous  element,  namely,  time ;  and  an  arbitrary  element,  viz.  the  division 
of  the  day  into  86,400  seconds.  They,  therefore,  considered  it  to  be  less  proper  as  a  standard 
unit  of  lineal  measure,  than  another  which  they  regarded  as  unexcepi ionable.  This  is  the 
length  of  a  quadrant  of  the  meridian,  a  linear  magnitude  of  the  saii  kind  as  the  thing  to 
be  determined,  and  therefore  more  natural  than  tiie  pendulum,  whicii  avolved  the  considera- 
tion of  time.  There  is  yet  another  linear  unit,  namely,  the  circumference  of  the  earth's 
equator.  But  this  is  not  better  known  than  the  elliptic  meridian ;  nor  does  it  admit  of  being 
determined  with  so  much  precision.  On  the  whole,  therefore,  it  wos  recommcnd(>d  that  the 
quadrant  of  the  meridian  should  be  taken  as  the  primary  unit,  and  that  its  ten-millionth  part 
(a  lineal  space  about  SOVi  Engli.«h  inches)  should  be  the  ordinary  unit  for  the  measurements 
which  occur  in  the  affairs  of  life.     This  was  named  a  metre. 

Although  in  the  beginning  it  had  been  proposec'  to  invite  the  English  philosophers  to  assist 
in  establishing  a  standard  unit,  yet,  as  the  object  to  be  attained  could  be  accomplished  per- 
fectly by  the  French  mathematicians,  without  any  foreign  aid,  it  was  reconinnmded  to 
commence  immediately  the  measurement  of  the  arc  of  the  meridian  between  Dunkirk  and 
Barcelona,  an  extent  of  nearly  9J  degrees.  The  operations  necessary  for  this  labour  were, 
1.  To  determine  the  difTerenco  of  latitude  between  Dunkirk  and  Barcelona;  and,  in  general, 
to  make  such  astronomical  observations  on  the  whole  line  as  might  be  thought  useful.  2.  To 
measure  again  the  bases  which  had  served  for  the  measurement  of  the  degree  made  at  Paris, 
and  the  construction  of  the  map  of  France.  3.  To  verify  by  new  observations  the  series  of 
triangles  which  had  formerly  been  employed  for  the  measurement  of  the  meridian,  and  to 
prolong  them  to  Barcelona.  4.  To  make,  at  the  45th  degree,  such  observations  as  might 
determine  the  number  of  vibrations  which  a  pendulum  equal  in  length  to  one  ten-millionth 
part  of  tlie  meridian  would  make  in  a  day,  in  a  vacnttm  at  the  level  of  the  son,  nnd  at  the 
temperature  of  molting  ice,  in  order  that,  this  number  being  once  known,  the  tm'Ire  might  be 
determined  at  any  time  by  the  length  of  the  pendulum.  In  this  way  the  advantages  of  the 
two  methods  of  forming  a  standard  would  be  united.  5.  To  verify  by  new  experiments  the 
specific  gravity  of  pure  water  in  a  vacuum,  and  at  the  temperature  of  water  just  beginning 
to  freeze.  6.  And  lastly.  To  reduce  all  tlic  old  mea.«ures  of  every  kind  employed  in  com- 
merce to  the  new  standards. 

To  accomplish  these  object.s,  it  was  recommended  that  six  distinct  comniissini.nrs  should 
bo  appointed.  This  was  done  by  a  decree  of  the  National  Assembly,  dated  2fith  March, 
1791 ;  only  it  was  thought  to  be  bettor  to  commit  the  astronomical  and  geodetical  observa- 
tions to  a  single  commission.  Immediately  directions  were  given  for  the  construction  of  the 
necessary  instruments.  Lenoir,  a  celebrated  French  artist,  was  em])loyed  to  make  repeating 
circles,  long  rules  of  platina  (or  the  measurement  of  the  bases,  and  a  shorter  rule ;  also,  balls 
of  ])latina  and  gold  for  the  pendulum  observations. 

.About  the  middle  of  the  year  1792,  Cassini  and  Borda  began  a  series  of  experiments  on 
the  pendulum;  and,  in  the  following  year,  Ijavoisier  was  engaged  in  experiments  on  the 
expansion  of  metals.  And  alxiut  the  same  time  Merliain  began  his  operations  i;)r  tiic  deter- 
miuation  of  the  portion  of  the  meridian  between  Rodez  and  Barcelona,  an  extent  of  170,000 
tnises.  Delaiiibre  liad  undertaken  the  portion  of  the  arc  between  Dunkirk  and  Rodez, 
;W,fl(H)  toiscs  in  extent.  Thin,  however,  had  been  twice  measured  before;  and  for  this 
rea.son  the  labour  was  expect;  1  to  bo  less  than  was  requisite  for  the  other  portion,  which 


r 


AHT  II. 

tiily.hy 
rury,  by 

n  which 
ruments 
indebted 

tor  one 

other, 
md  coin- 
;  up  this 
decreed, 
ijjliind  to 
cs;  that, 
^,  and  tin 
length  of 
educe  un 

ongc,  and 

for  1788. 
pendulum 
any  other, 
a  dilTerent 
peniUilum 
le  division 
a  standard 
^his  is  the 
le  tiling  to 

considera- 
thc  earth's 
lit  of  being 
c<(l  that  the 
Uionth  part 
asurements 

■rs  to  assist 
..ishcd  per- 
dniended  to 
.inkirk  and 
.hour  were, 
in  general, 
fill.    2.  To 
le  at  Paris, 
„  series  of 
ian,  and  to 
aa  might 
n-millionth 
and  at  the 
■c  iniglit  be 
[res  of  the 
mcnts  the 
beginning 
cd  in  com- 

lers  should 

ith  March, 

lal  observa- 

Ition  of  the 

repeating 

also,  balls 

Iriments  on 
nts  on  the 
i  the  deter- 
|(.f  170.000 
Ind  Roilcz, 
la  for  this 
lion,  which 


Book  T. 


FIGURE  AND  MAGNITUDE  OF  THE  EARTH. 


ISO 


was  entirely  new.  Besides  the  privations  and  liardships,  the  ordinary  accompaniments,  of  a 
•iervico  wliich  requires  those  who  iKjrforin  it  to  live  in  elevated  situations,  with  little  siulter, 
witli  few  of  the  comforts  to  whicli  tiiey  have  been  accustomed,  and  exjMwod  to  tiio  vicissi- 
tudes of  iieat  and  cold,  and  tiic  influence  of  the  nocturnal  dews,  they  had  to  encounter  iiie 
perils  arising  from  a  disorganized  state  of  society.  Mechain  was  stopped  in  the  iielghbour- 
liood  of  Paris;  but  wlien  he  pursued  his  labours  at  u  distance  Irom  the  capital,  lie  met 
with  no  tiirtiier  interruption ;  while  Delambre,  in  the  north  of  France,  was  otlen  exposed 
to  tiie  most  imminent  danger.  In  the  heat  of  the  French  revolution,  the  people  were 
jealous  of  what  they  did  not  understand ;  and  the  astronomers  were  at  once  exiKjsed  to  the 
machinations  of  their  enemies  at  Paris,  and  to  the  brutality  of  the  ignorant  jicasants  in  the 
provinces. 

In  the  course  of  their  operations  they  measured  two  bases,  on  the  accurate  determination 
of  which  the  utility  of  all  their  labours  was  to  depend.  One  base,  of  607.5.9  toises,  was 
measured  by  Delambre  at  Molun ;  and  the  other,  of  6006.2478  toises,  at  Perpignan.  The 
distance  between  them  was  860,330  toises,  nlwut  436  English  miles.  They  were  connected 
by  a  chain  of  triangles,  the  sides  and  angles  of  which  were  all  known ;  so  tliat  the  length 
of  one  base  being  known,  that  of  the  other  might  be  found  by  computation.  It  is  a  remark- 
able fact,  that  when  the  base  of  Perpignan  was  interred  by  calculation  irom  that  of  Mclun, 
tlie  result  was  found  to  be  only  ten  or  eleven  inches  less  than  that  obtained  by  actual  mea- 
surement. This  striking  agreement  afibrds  a  strong  presumptive  proof  of  the  accuracy  with 
which  the  operations  had  been  conducted. 

The  determination  of  the  latitudes  of  the  two  extremities  of  the  arc  was  also  a  matter 
of  the  utmost  importance.  The  pains  wliich  the  astronomers  took  to  arrive  at  true  results 
are  almost  incredible.  Delambre  made  800  observations  to  ascertain  the  true  latitude  of  the 
Dunkirk  extremity ;  and  a  corresponding  degree  of  attention  was  bestowed  on  different 
intermediate  points. 

This  most  imjiortant  undertaking  vms  at  last,  oftcr  seven  years'  labour,  brought  to  a  con- 
clusion in  the  year  1799.  Although  the  result  was,  in  its  first  application,  to  be  directed  to 
the  establishment  of  a  standard  unit  of  lineal  measure  for  the  French  nation,  yet  the  advan- 
tages which  may  be  deduced  from  it  extended  mucli  farther,  and  were  available  to  every 
nation  enlightened  by  science.  For  this  rca.son,  the  states  living  in  peace  with  France  had 
been  invited  to  send  eminent  mathematicians  and  astronomers  to  assist  in  a  rigorous  exami- 
nation of  every  step  of  the  operation.  The  astronomical  and  geodetical  observations,  in 
particular,  were  subjected  to  the  examination  of  Tralles,  the  deputy  of  the  Helvetian  republic; 
Van  Swindell,  tiie  Batavian  deputy ;  and  the  two  French  philosophers  Laplace  and  Lcgendre. 
They  entered  into  all  the  details  of  the  measurement  of  the  bases ;  and  they  examined  the 
three  angles  of  every  triangle,  and  determined  their  values.  The  calculations  were  then 
separately  performed  by  four  different  persons — Tralles,  Van  Swinden,  Legendre,  and  De- 
lambre ;  and  this  last  astronomer  calculated  the  length  of  the  meridian  by  mur  different  and 
independent  methotls ;  and  a  report  was  made  to  the  National  Institute  at  Paris,  in  June 
1799,  in  the  name  of  the  Class  of  Physical  and  Mathematical  Sciences,  on  the  Measure  of 
the  Meridian  of  France,  and  its  Results. 

The  general  fact,  that  the  degrees  of  the  meridian  increase  as  we  recede  from  the  equator 
towards  the  pole,  was  again  fully  confirmed ;  so  that  the  oblateness  of  the  earth  in  the 
direction  of  the  polar  axis  is  a  truth  now  placed  beyond  all  controversy.  Notwithstanding, 
however,  the  almost  incredible  care  with  which  the  operations  were  conducted,  the  exact 
quantity  of  this  compression  was  still  letl  in  some  uncertainty.  The  limits  between  which 
the  true  measure  of  the  oblateness  is  contained  are,  however,  narrower ;  and  it  is  likely 
that  the  problem.  What  is  flic  exact  proportion  of  the  polar  to  the  equatorial  axis  1  does 
not,  from  its  nature,  admit  of  a  nearer  approximation  to  the  truth  than  has  been  already 
obtained. 

If  we  could  suppose  the  measurements  of  lines  and  angles  to  bo  perfectly  correct,  it 
would  follow,  that  although  on  the  whole,  taking  considerable  intervals,  the  length  of  arcs 
of  the  meridian  corresponding  to  equal  celestial  arcs  go  on  increasing  from  south  to  north, 
yet  the  law  of  the  increase  is  irregular,  and  not  that  which  ought  to  result  from  an  exact 
elliptic  meridian.    The  result  of  the  measurement  will  be  seen  in  the  following  table ; — 


1     Latitudes. 

Intervals. 

Intervals  in 
Toises. 

Length  of  a 
Degree. 

Mean 
Latitude. 

Arc  of  one 
Second. 

.    o      '         " 
Dunkirk           .  51      S     9.20 
r.in(lii.'oa            4S    50    49  :j7 
Kvnin              '  4ti    10    42.54 
c;nrrnssono      ^  43    12    54 ;)() 
Montjoiiy           41    21    44.'.H5 

0  f           " 

2    11    lO.m 
2    40     0.83 
2    57    48.24 

1  51      0.34 

124944.8 
15'.K9.3.1 
ltiCH4ti.7 
105199.0 

Toises. 
S-OPn.liS 
570ti9.31 
5(1977.80 
5G94G.B8 

O       '           " 

49    .W    29.30 
47    30    45.91 
44    41     4H.37 
42    17     19.00 

Toises 
1.1.8,59283 
15.M2588 
1.V827107 
15.H18508 

!;■•!. 


•ill 


r^:^ 


.•ifii 


t-i ! 


IMI 


^n  I 


140 


PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pabt  II. 


From  this  table  \vc  see  that  tlie  Icnijlli  of  a  dogrco  in  tlio  four  iiioiin  latitudes  goes  on  in- 
creasing. Also,  from  tiia  column  of  moan  littituilos,  iiiul  Hint  of  tlin  length  of  a  dogrne,  it 
appears  that  n  diminution  of  '2°  25'  4!}".39  in  the  first  mean  latitude  corresponds  to  u 
diminution  of  13.13  toises  in  the  tcrrowtrinl  meridian:  this  givM  5.5  toises  to  a  degree. 
Again,  that  a  farther  diminution  of  2°  -IS'  ■')7  ".5t  prorhice.s  a  diinimition  of  01.51  toises, 
which  is  at  the  rate  of  32.4  toises  to  a  degree.  Ijistly,  that  a  third  diminution  of  2°  84' 
28".T7  gives  a  diminution  of  31.17  toises,  which  is  at  tlio  rate  of  alKiut  12.9  toises  to  n 
degree.  These  changes  of  5.5,  32.4,  and  31.17  toises  in  the  length  of  a  degree  in  going 
southward  evidently  do  not  follow  a  regular  law,  siieli  as  should  result  from  a  continuous 
increase  of  curvature.  Wo  may,  therefore,  reasonably  suppose  that  all  the  observations 
have  not  been  equally  perfect,  or  tliat,  in  addition  to  unavoidable  errors  in  tiio  estimation  of 
lines  and  angles,  some  disturbing  cause  must  have  operated :  probably,  an  inequality  of 
density,  in  the  density  of  the  strata  over  whicli  the  measurement  was  performed,  may  have 
had  great  influence  in  producing  the  irregularity. 

The  small  discrepancies  in  the  results  of  the  observations  must  produce  corresponding 
uncertainty  in  the  determination  of  the  great  objects  to  be  attained.  On  the  whole,  how- 
ever, it  was  concluded  that  the  length  of  the  terrestrial  meridian  between  the  pole  and  the 
equator  was  5,130,740  toises ;  and  hence  the  metre,  or  ten-millionth  part  of  the  meridian, 
was  .513074  of  a  toise,  wliich  is  443.29598<i  lines. 

Another  most  important  result,  deduciblc  from  these  observations,  was  the  ratio  of  the 
polar  axis  of  the  earth  to  the  equatorial  axis.  This  must  partake  of  the  uncertainty  of  the 
data  by  which  it  is  to  be  determined.  We  may,  however,  assume,  without  sensible  error, 
that  tlie  equatorial  axis  is  to  the  polar  as  334  to  333.  The  difference,  therefore,  of  the 
semi-axes,  compared  w'ith  the  equatorial  radius,  will  be  one  part  in  334.  The  fractionjij — 
that  is,  the  difference  of  the  semi-axes  divided  by  the  equatorial  radius, — is  called  the  com' 
pression  of  the  earth  at  the  ])oles. 

The  astronomer  Mechain  hod  contemplated  the  extension  of  the  measurement  of  the 
meridian  beyond  the  limit  at  first  proposed ;  but  he  did  not  live  to  carry  his  views  into  execu- 
tion. However,  the  undertaking  was  resumed,  after  a  cessation  of  three  years,  by  Biot  and 
Arago,  French  astronomers,  with  whom  were  associated  MM.  Chaix  and  Rodriguez,  Span- 
iards, all  eminently  distinguished  for  their  talent  and  devotedness  to  the  object  to  be  ac- 
complished. By  their  exertions,  a  train  of  triangles  was  carried  southward  from  the  jwint 
where  Mechain  and  Delambre  hod  stopped,  to  Formcntera,  a  small  island  near  Ivica,  in  the 
Mediterranean.  This  is  the  southern  limit  of  a  most  interesting  labour:  but,  if  ever 
European  civilization  extends  into  Africa,  the  measurement  may  be  extended  to  Cape  de 
Gata,  and  thence  across  the  Mediterranean  to  the  coast  of  Africa,  and  continued  to  the  city 
of  Algiers,  which  is  nearly  in  the  meridian  of  Paris;  so  tliat  in  time  the  .southern  extremity 
may  be  actually  carried  to  the  summit  of  Mount  Atlas. 

The  other  measurement  of  a  considerable  portion  of  the  earth,  to  which  we  have  alluded, 
was  begun  under  the  auspices  aiid  at  the  expense  of  the  British  government  as  long  ago  as 
the  year  1784.  At  that  time  a  memoir,  drawn  up  by  Cassini  de  Thary,  was  presented  to 
the  minister  (Mr.  Fox)  by  tlie  French  ambassador.  It  stated  the  advantages  which  would 
accrue  to  geography  and  astronomy  by  determining  tlie  difference  of  longitude  between  the 
observatories  of  Greenwich  and  Paris,  by  means  of  a  series  of  triangles  from  the  former  to 
Dunkirk,  to  which  place  the  meridian  of  Paris  had  previously  been  extended.  The  proposal 
was  communicated  to  the  Royal  Society ;  and  having  been  approved  of,  tlie  execution  was 
Committed  to  general  Roy.  The  first  step  was  to  measure  a  base,  from  the  length  of  wliich 
the  sides  of  all  the  triangles  might  be  inferred ;  and  a  line  rather  more  than  five  miles  in 
length  was  traced  out  on  Hounslow  Heath,  and  measured  with  the  most  scrupulous  care. 
It  may  at  first  sight  appear  a  very  simple  matter  to  measure  a  straight  line  on  the  ground ; 
but  if  the  utmost  exactness  is  required,  the  operation  must  be  performed  with  instruments 
constructed  with  the  greatest  ingenuity,  and  the  application  of  much  physical  knowledge, 
(lenerally  all  solid  bodies  expand  by  heat,  and  contract  by  cold ;  and,  moreover,  some  change 
their  dimensions  by  moisture  and  dryness.  To  counteract  or  to  estimate  precisely  these 
changes,  so  as  to  allow  for  them  in  the  final  result,  is  a  matter  of  great  difficulty,  and  only 
to  be  accomplished  by  infinite  care  and  perseverance. 

The  measurement  of  the  base  was  first  undertaken  with  deal  rods,  twenty  feet  in  length. 
These,  however,  were  found  to  be  much  affected  by  the  changes  in  the  atmosphere  from 
moisture  to  dryness :  they  were  therefore  laid  aside ;  and  instead  of  them  glass  rods,  of  th"" 
bame  length  in  frameS;  were  employed.  This  substance  was  chosen,  from  a  belief  that  it 
was  less  affected  by  changes  of  temperature  than  the  metals.  The  measurement,  which 
had  been  begu  i  about  the  middle  of  Juno,  was  completed  in  the  end  of  October;  and  it  was 
ibiind  that  the  base  measured  exactly  27404.08  feet,  or  5.19  miles. 

The  work  in  the  field  was  not  carried  f irthor  at  that  time :  it  was,  liowover,  resumed  m 
1787.  A  theodolite  of  greater  dimensions  than  had  ever  been  employei'  in  geodetical  opera- 
tions was  constructed  by  the  celebrated  artist  Rarnsden.  Tlio  series  of  observations  was 
lie^n  at  the  base  in  the  beginning  of  August,  by  General  Roy,  assisted  by  Isaac  Dalby,  an 


]4« 


Ill  length. 

here  from 
:l9,  of  th- 
ef  that  it 

•nt,  which 
nd  itwius 

•sumeil  m 

ical  operii- 

^Ttions  WHS 

JDalby,  an 


Rook  I. 


FIGURE  AND  MAGNITUDE  OP  THE  EARTH 


J41 


pxooUcnt  matlicmatician,  and  most  vonicioiis  nstronuniiciil  observer.  After  mntinuinfj  to  a 
ccrtJiin  lonjjtii,  it  wns  jiiilj;ed  to  be  e.\|)i;dieiit  to  breuk  otV,  iiiiii  proceed  with  tlie  instriunoiits 
to  Dover.  A  series  of  obsurvulionti  wub  tiiero  nmdo,  in  coiijunclion  witii  the  I'Vench  nciidc- 
iniciiins  Cnssini,  Mecliuin,  und  lieffoiidro,  by  wlucli  tin!  triiin},'ulati<in  between  I'aris  and 
DiMil<irk  lniji;iit  bo  coniii;cted  with  tiiat  between  Dover  and  Greenwich.  As  a  check  on  the 
oporutions,  u  l>aso  of  veriticalion  \vun  al.so  measured  on  llonniey  .Marsh;  and  in  this,  instead 
of  the  (flass  rods,  ii  steel  chain,  con.structed  Ibr  the  purpose  by  Ranisdoii,  was  ein|)h)yc(l ;  it 
having  been  found  by  o.vpurienco  that  tliere  was  no  sen.siHo  ditrcrence  in  iM)int  of  accuracy 
between  tiiis  and  the  ffhiss  rods,  while  the  chain  manifestly  was  more  convenient.  Allor- 
wurds,  when  the  two  basea  wore  coimocted  by  calculating  the  sides  of  the  trianirh^s,  it  waa 
found  that  Uie  measured  base  diflered  from  its  computed  value  by  only  twenty-eight  inches, 
although  Romney  Marsh  is  more  than  si.xty  miles  from  Ilounslow  Heatli.  'J  ho  junction  of 
the  observatories  of  (Jreenwich  and  Paris,  by  a  series  of  triangles,  waH  completed  in  1788, 
and  an  account  of  the  oi>»!rations  conmmnicated  to  the  Royal  Society ;  but  the  death  of  Gene- 
ral Roy  again  suspended  the  survey  until  the  year  1701. 

At  this  time,  by  the  exertions  of  the  Duke  of  Richmond,  ftlastor-general  of  the  Ordnance, 
the  survey  was  resumed  with  great  vigour.  A  now  theodolite,  and  various  other  instrument!?, 
in  addition  to  those  formerly  employed,  were  liberally  supplied,  and  placed  under  the 
direction  of  Captain  (afterwards  Colonel)  Mudgc  of  the  Royal  Artillery,  ond  Mr.  Dalby. 
Ueginning  their  labours  by  a  re-measurement  of  the  base  on  Ilounslow  Heath  with  steel 
chains,  they  found  the  difference  between  this  and  the  former,  in  which  gloss  rods  were 
employed,  to  be  no  more  than  two  inches  and  three  quarters.  They  also  meosurod  another 
base  of  verification,  3G574.4  feet  in  length,  on  Salisbury  Plain.  When  tliis  was  connected 
by  a  chaui  of  triangle.s  with  the  base  on  Ilounslow  Heath,  and  its  length  computed,  the 
result  did  not  differ  more  than  an  inch  from  the  actual  measurement ;  a  convincing  proof  of 
the  accuracy  with  which  all  the  operations  had  been  conducted. 

Although  an  accurate  survey  of  the  island  was  the  main  object  for  which  all  this  labour 
was  undertaken,  yet,  as  its  complete  accomplishment  rciiuires  a  knowledge  of  ttie  figure  and 
dimensions  of  the  earth,  no  opportunity  of  solving  this  grand  problem  is  to  ho  neglected.  The 
44  t^vo  stations  of  Boachy  Head  in  Sussex,  and  Dunnose  in  the  Isle  of 
Wight,  are  visible  from  each  other,  and  nwrc  tlian  sixly-tbur  miles 
asimder,  nearly  in  a  direction  from  east  to  west:  their  exact  distance 
was  found  by  the  geodetical  operations  to  be  339397  tbot.  The  azi- 
muth, or  bearing  of  the  line  between  them  with  respect  to  the  meri- 
dian, also  the  latitude  of  Beachy  Head,  were  determined  by  astro- 
nomical observations.  From  these  data  tlio  length  of  a  degree  per- 
pendicular to  the  meridian  was  computed ;  and  this,  compared  with 
the  length  of  a  meridional  degree  in  the  sumo  latitude,  gave  the  pro- 
portion of  the  ijolar  to  the  equatorial  axis. 

The  result  tlius  obtained,  however,  differed  consideriibly  from  that 
obtained  by  meridional  degrees.  It  has  been  found  impossible  to  ex- 
plain the  wantof  ogroement  in  a  satisfactory  way ;  and,  for  this  reason. 
It  has  been  thought  better  to  rest  the  solution  of  the  problem  entirely 
on  the  measurement  of  degrees  of  the  meridian  in  different  lati- 
tudes, which,  on  the  whole,  give  results  more  consistent  with  one 
another. 

Without  noticing  in  detail  all  the  steps  by  which  the  survey  has 
advanced,  we  shall  next  advert  to  the  measurement  of  on  arc  of  the 
meridian  between  Dunnose,  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  and  Cliflon,  near 
Doncaster ;  the  f«)rmer  in  lat.  50°  37'  5",  and  the  latter  in  53°  27'  30". 
To  accomidish  this,  the  ingenuity  of  the  artist  Ramsden  was  again 
exercised  in  the  construction  of  an  instrument,  a  zenith  sector,  for 
finding  the  latitude  of  the  difl'erent  points  of  the  arc :  this  was  almost 
the  last  work  of  a  man  to  whose  genius  astronomy  and  geography  are 
highly  ind(.'bted ;  and  it  was  superior  to  any  thing  of  the  kind  ever 
before  constructed. 
To  give  the  reader  a  distinct  notion  of  this  most  important  operation,  we  here  present  a 
sketch  (Jig.  44.)  of  the  series  of  triangles,  twenty-two  in  number,  which  connect  the  extreme 
points  together  with  the  angles  contained  by  "the  straight  lines  which  join  the  difterent 
stations,  and  the  length  of  their  sides.  The  numbers  marked  on  the  diagram  indicate  the 
names  of  the  stations,  by  referring  to  the  following  table.  The  northern  extremity  of  tlie 
base,  Beacon  Hill,  or  Clifton,  is  marked  No.  3. ;  and  the  southern  extremity,  Dunnose,  is  23 
The  names  of  the  intermediate  points  may  be  seen  in  the  tabic. 


il 


:&t 


K     a  ( 


I  3 


119 


I 


I 


lliH: 


r; 


'li 


ii 


M 


!ii 


PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOORAPIIV. 


Part  0 


Nil.  of 
TriuiiKli't. 

Nnmoaof  gtntiona. 

Anitli'n  riirrcrlcil 
fur  Cnlculiitiiiii. 

Oinlnnce. 

Fuul. 

1 

niiiMT  Mill (W 

Di'iiii  Hill I UI\ 

'       6     '     " 

in  u  'H.n 

4H    4  :i  1.7.1 
M  4:i    <.7S 

From  DiinnoM  tn 

lllltMiir    llill      

140580.4 

IKMWi.a 

HiiiiiioM' (ii;i) 

oDtMiii  Hitl 

s 

Di'iiii  Mill H) 

lliit'ir  Mill <») 

Jlilllicliro IW) 

tW  W  47 
4H  '*<  40 

00  ti  ;i3 

Ocnii  (lil)  from 

IliitNnr  II iM         

isniss.! 

1350H4.0 

IHlllirlnrn 

3. 

lliitii'r  Mill ......tei) 

lliiiil  llunil 'JK) 

HI  :ii  \\.!i 
m  irt  34.'ri 

80  IS  SI.'W 

lliitacr  Hill  froin 

Hiiiil  Ik.nil 

7Bfl05.7 
14H03I.0 

Hiiihclt'rii 10) 

Hinhi-liTO 

4. 

HlKholiTii (Ill) 

Miiiil  Hi'ttil i'mS 

:m  4U  15 

Kl  30  14 

III  5:i  31 

Hilthrlcrp  friiiii 

llni/Mlirit  llpntli 

143il52.tl 
lti(KI732 

nnii«Jint  lli.nih jlH) 

Hind  fiend 

S. 

lliiL'»liiit  Moalh (IH) 

Mi.'lirli'in Ill) 

Niirtlclil (Hi) 

.Vi  32  'i.y-a 

411  10  17.75 
1/^  17  17 

NiifHt'ld  iVorii 

10.53SI.9 
130374. 

Hidliclpro 

0. 

Wiiitii  lli>r.(ul|i'l (17) 

MichrliTu HI) 

IViifflHd (Ifi) 

(13    7  53.5 
Ii3  IH  17 
S3  33  40.5 

VVIiili!  Ilurnu  Hill  tymii 
IViiHii.ld 

130557.7 
10HSII3.I 

HIgliclnrc 

7. 

Wliiii'  Morse  Hill (17) 

;iH  4H  13.J 
Hi    4  15 
K    7  .T-2.5 

Mrill  frnin 

Wliilt!  Hurae  Hill 

140603.3 

U2805.3 

Hrill 1.5) 

Niilficid 

N. 

Itrill 15) 

VVhilu  IIiirsG  Hill 17) 

Stniv  on  Ihi-  Wi.'IJ U) 

SO  14  45 
M  45  43.5 
fi4  50  33.5 

Stnw  ftiim 

Whito  ilnrae  Hill 

1343i;5.6 
140.^(1.3 

Ilrill 

9. 

lltill  0.1' 

Hinwnn  Iho  Weld (M) 

KiMVPlI (1.1) 

33  34  43.35 
00  .50    5  5 
m  20  12.85 

Epwoll  friiiii 

gtow 

7M138.8 
12H140 

Drill 

10. 

llriii    1  151 

34  23  57  5 
PS    0  17.5 
«0  33  45 

Arbiiry  Kill  from 

p:io!ia4 

1465;)0 

Kpwcll 13) 

ArhiiryHill (13) 

nrlll 

11. 

Arlmrv  Mill (Vl) 

Hit  57    5.5 
54  4.5  lri.35 
35  17  3ti.3.5 

Corloy  frnin 

117403 

MlltW.S 

Kpwcll i;i) 

C'l.rliy 11) 

Epwi'll 

The  distanco  of  Biitser  Hill  (22.)  from  Dunnosc,  140580.4  fret,  had  been  previously  found, 
by  a  series  of  triangles  connectinjj  these  stations  with  the  bases  measured  on  Hounslow 
Heath  and  Salisbury  Plain ;  but,  for  i^rcatcr  security  against  error,  a  new  ba.'ie  of  26342.7 
feet  was  measured  on  Mistcrton  Carr,  in  the  northern  part  of  Lincolnshire.  From  this  the 
sides  of  the  triangles  proceeding  from  the  north  to  the  south  were  computed,  as  exhibited 
in  the  remainder  of  the  table. 


No.  nf 
Triangleii. 

Nnm(>s  n(  Statinna. 

Angles  corrected 
for  Cnlculnlion. 

Diatancc. 

Feet. 

IS. 

BiMirnn  Mill /3 

0      1      1' 

20  47  30 
(iO  17  13 
flP  .55  27 

Beacon  Hill  f^nm 

fi4  401.7 
73321.0 

NorilicMil  of  Itnac jl' 

Smith  nnd  of  Dnso (S 

South  end  of  Bniie 

13. 

Bcncoii  Hill (3) 

34  44  43 
74  40  .5(1 
70  38  22 

Gringley  from 

North  cud  of  Base 

Beacon  Hill 

443,18.2 
75008.0 

North  end  of  Base (l) 

Grincley (4) 

14. 

Di'ncmi  Hill (3) 

Orimlpy (4) 

South  end  of  Bane (3) 

13  57  33 
51  11    5 
114  51  S3 

Grindley  from 

Beacon  Hill 

75008.2 

03327.2 
1.50384.8 

15. 

1  '■allicrai^ilxc 5) 

Bnriron  Hill 3l 

18  40  :<8 
13^    !•  1« 
23  10    B 

HeatherHeilKo  from 

Beacon  Hill 

OrinRley 

Grinelpy 1) 

16. 

flnttnn  Aflhllpld i  A 

78  47    1 
54  52  35 

46  20  24 

Siitlcn  Ashtield  from 

Oringley 

ffenthprsedffe 

130399.7 
115339.9 

Heathcrsodgo 5) 

Grincley (4 

17. 

Orpit (7 

Henthcrnciige (5 

Sutton  Ashflcld (fi) 

80  28  57 
39    8  38 
00  33  25 

Orpit  from 

HenthersedfTR 

Hiitton  Ashfteld 

101fi(!0  3 
7;i«!0.0 

18. 

Ifollan  Hill (8^ 

44  43  31 

113  40    7 
21  37  23 

llollna  Hill  from 

38375.3 
95075 1 

Sutton  Ashflcid fl) 

Orpit 7) 

Orpit 

1        19. 

1 

Pardon  Hill (10) 

HollnnHill (8) 

Orpit (7) 

42  58  5ft 
74  53  37 

fi2    H  24 

Bardon  Mill  from 

llollan  Hill 

134454.7 

13.5«I5.3 

Orpit 

SO. 

Cnstlo  Bin? (0) 

BnrilonHill '10) 

Orpit (7) 

,M  32  43 
08  24    3 
56    3  14 

CastJo  Rintf  from 

1.53335.2 
130717.8 

Bardon  ilill 

21. 

Corlcy (11) 

("nslln  Rin? (») 

Bnrdnn  Hill (10) 

ArhuryHill flS) 

Corley (11) 

Bnrdoii  Hill (10) 

72  33  40 
47  M  42 
.59  32  32 

Corloy  from 

Hnrrton  Hill 

10(13,57.3 
133530.7 

Castle  Ring 

SS. 

34  14  33 
107  20  14 
38  25  13 

Arhiiry  Hill  from 

Bardon  Hill 

180420.0 
117457.1 

Corley 

DookI. 


FIGURE  AND  \fAGNITUDE  OP  THE  EARTH. 


149 


iini'i 


H43.%.2 
pSOfiS.O 


b50ti8.2 


ir.n;Ki.9 


Plfiti0  3 

;:i>^.u 

P5fl7».3 


b44547 

llU7RH_ 
lira57.3 

i43r>.n 

117457.1 


Prom  the  Inst  trinni^lu  tho  diNtiincc  between  Corlcy  aii<l  Arliury  Hill  ooineB  i 
foot.     Tlii.H  result  Ims  been  tbiiml  from  tho  biwo  on  Mitilertoii  Ciirr:  but  tho  sii 


lout  117457.1 

Biinii'  ilJMtance, 

deilucod  from  tho  ba§cH  on  Hounxlow  Hcuth  and  HuliHbury  IMuin,  cither  of  which  ih  more  than 
inOmileadixtiint  from  Miiitcrt(m  (3arr,  was  found  to  bo  117,403  feet,  only  wix  teet  dilfereut.  Here 
wo  have  a  rcmiirkablo  proof  of  tho  e.xtremo  accuracy  with  which  the  operatioiiH  havo  been 
condiu'tcd;  no  that,  from  whatever  cause  any  uncertainty  in  the  condusiou  H()uy;lit  may 
proceed,  it  can  hardly  bo  found  cither  in  tho  want  of  perfection  in  the  instruments,  or  ot 
eare  in  those  who  used  them. 

Ty  olMorvationii  on  tho  polo  star,  tho  exact  bearing  of  Butser  Hill  from  Dunnoso  (that  is, 
tho  uziruuth  or  angle  which  tho  lino  joining  them  makes  with  the  meridian,)  was  tinind  : 


>y 

Hy  these  data,  and  by  tho  known  lengths  of  tho  siuca  of  tho  trianjries,  tlie  ])ortions 
of  tho  meridian  intercepted  by  perpendiculars  on  it  tVom  the  stations  was  obtained. 


ed 


Their 


and  by  like  observations  Uio  bearing  of  tho  station  at  Gringloy  from  Clitlon  was  determin- 

I'y  P  . 
sum  gave  1,0!M},337  feet  for  tho  meridional  distance  en  tho  surface  of  tho  earth,  between 
Dunnoso  and  Clitlon.  Moreover,  by  tho  zenith  sector,  t)ie  arc  of  tho  celestial  meridian 
between  them  was  found  to  be  2'  50'  23"  .38,  or  2.«mS  of  difference  of  latitude.  Tho 
length  of  the  measured  arc  of  the  meridian,  viz.  1,030,3^7  feet,  divided  by  this  number, 
gives  304,933  feet,  or  fl()82  fathoms  for  the  length  of  a  degree  ir,  iho  iwrallel  midway 
between  Dunnoso  and  Cliflon,  which  is  50°  2'  20". 

In  tho  same  way  that  the  length  of  a  degree,  at  tho  miSdlo  point  between  Cliflon  and 
Dunnoso,  was  determined,  the  length  of  degrees  at  other  intermcdioto  points  was  finmd.  Tho 
latitude  of  the  station  at  Arbury  Hill  was  carcfliUy  observed  with  tho  sector.  Tho  latitude 
of  Greenwich  was  well  known;  and  that  of  Blenheim,  an  observatory  belonging  to  the 
Duke  of  Marlborough,  had  been  determined  from  five  years'  observations.  Tho  two  observa- 
tories were  assumed  as  stations,  in  addition  to  those  in  tho  meridional  chain  of  triangles, 
and  their  position  in  respect  of  the  others  was  found. 

By  comparing  the  celestial  with  the  terrestrial  arcs,  tho  lengtli  of  degrees  in  various 
parallels  was  determined,  as  in  the  following  table : — 


Arl)iiry  Hill  and  Clifton.... 

nienlieim  and  Clifton 

Rrcunwich  and  Clifton.    ... 

Diinnosn  and  Clifton 

Arbury  Hill  and  Greenwi'  h 
Diinnnsa  and  Arbury  Hill.. 

niiMihciin  and  Oiinnoie 

Dunnoao  and  Greenwich  .. 


Latitiido  (if  Middle 
Point. 

5.7 
19.8 

4.1 
1H.2 

18.  a 

54.3 


SUP  50' 

52  38 

!H  28 

52  2 


51 
51 
51 
51 


Fatlioms. 


Ii0,7n9 
00,794 
liO.WO 
(ifl.SI9 
l'l).H(!4 
1.0,890 
119,884 


Tills  table  presents  a  singular  deviation  from  the  common  rule ;  for,  in.stoad  of  the  degrees 
increasing  as  we  proceed  from  north  to  south,  they  appear  to  decrease,  as  if  the  earth  were 
an  oblong  instead  of  an  oblato  spheroid.  Tho  oblatenoss  of  tho  earth  at  tho  poles  Is,  how- 
ever, a  fact  so  well  established  by  more  extensive  measurements,  that  wo  inu.-'t  suppose 
either  that  some  error  has  been  committed  in  the  observations, — a  thing,  however,  not 
probable;  or  else,  what  is  more  probable,  that  by  inequality  in  the  density  of  the  strata, 
producing  a  local  attraction,  the  plumb-line  of  the  sector  has  suffered  a  deflection  at  some 
of  the  stations. 

Notwithstanding  the  discrepancy  of  tho  results  of  the  measurements  in  this  particular 
arc,  the  length  of  a  degree  at  the  middle  station  (viz.  lat.  52°  2'  20")  agrees  very  well  with 
the  measurements  of  the  meridian  in  Franco  and  other  places.  ln(lcod,  tlie  mcasuremenbi 
of  the  small  arcs  of  the  meridian  in  other  countries  nave  presented  similar  anomalies, 
although  in  general  not  so  remarkable.  It  is,  therefore,  only  by  comparison  of  the  measures 
of  e.xtensive  arcs  at  considerable  intervals  that  we  can  arrive  at  certain  conclusions.  The 
British  survey  has  now  been  extended  from  the  southern  parts  of  tho  island  to  Unst,  the 
northernmost  of  the  Shetland  Islands.  At  present  the  engineer  officers  who  carried  it  on 
are  employed  in  the  survey  of  Ireland;  but  wo  may  expect  that  at  no  remote  period  they 
will  resume  the  British  survey,  and  supply  the  observations  still  wanting.  Wlion  this  is 
done,  and  the  complete  triangulation  is  published,  it  will  then  appear  how  far  local  attrac- 
tion may  have  disturbed  the  plummet  in  pa.ssing  over  the  variety  of  rocks  throughout  thi; 
island. 

Although  the  compression  of  tho  earth  bo  small,  yet  an  exact  knowledge  of  its  quantity 
is  of  great  importance,  because  of  the  deductions  which  are  to  be  made  from  it.  It  has 
been  explained,  that  the  direction  of  a  plumb-line  is  always  perpemliciilar  to  the  enrth' 
surface ;  therefore,  and  because  of  the  continual  change  of  curvature  of  tlie  meridian  in 
going  fVom  north  to  south,  the  direction  of  gravity  can  only  pass  through  the  earth's  centre 
at  the  poles  and  equator.  Thus  it  appears  that  there  is  a  necessary  connexion  between  the 
form  of  the  earth  and  terrestrial  gravity ;  so  that  the  small  variations  in  the  latter,  which 
are  owing  to  the  deviations  from  the  exact  spherical  figure,  being  known,  that  deviation 
itself  may  be  determined. 


■ '  i  1 


m 


I'RINCIl'I.IiS  OF  UE(XJUAl'liY. 


PaatU. 


i;<   S  i 


If  llii>  (Mirtli  wcrii  uplicrioal  ami  Iuuiiokimioub,  Hip  iiitriicticm  of  its  mw*  11(101)  iliflbront 
jKiiiitM  iif  it.-i  t-iirtlici',  or  till'  liiri'i!  wliirli  MilicitN  ovi'ry  |Hirticli<  iif  mutter  at  tin  ■iiirliica 
ttiwanlH  till'  ci'iitrf,  woiilil  In;  fvorywlicri)  tlm  Hiimo.  liiit  tliu  ulliptii;  Icirm  priKliii'im  a  Hiimll 
ili'viiiliiiii  from  tliiK  (Miimlity,  wliicli  iiuTi'uwfH  in  jrninj,'  Iroiii  tlio  (M|iiiitiir  towunlH  the  piiloH, 
;m  till'  !<i|iiiiri'  of  tlic  KJiii!  cif  tilt!  latilmlu;  iiiul  tliw  wtiuhi  lin  triin  i^vi'ii  if  tlio  fiirtli  wuri^  ill 
rest:  tiiil,  bv  ItH  rinoliition  iiIhiiiI  its  xiiurtiT  axi.s  tlii>rii  in  priMluci'il  11  i'('iitriliii;ul  force, 
wliicli  ticlH  III  II  ilirLTtiiiii  |H?r|M>iiiliciilar  to  thai  axiii,  and  tlifrctiiro  (liiiiiniHiu'H  tlm  t'orco  of 
;|ravity  mu.-t  of  all  ut  tlio  tMjiiator,  JM-caiiHo  llii>ro  tlm  two  lori'iix  net  in  coiilriiry  tliri'ctionM. 
At  till!  |Hili'  ilM  direction  iM  puriiondiciilur  to  tlm  diruction  of  jjriivity,  and  prixliicc*  no  elU'ct. 

Ily  the  iiiiilc'd  opi!ration  of  tlioHU  two  ciiuhuh,  in  H"Wi(  '^'""  •■''"  •''I""'"'"  ti>warili(  tlio  ix)1(!h, 
Ih  prodiiceil  a  variation  in  thu  do^ruo  of  ipiickiH'rin  of  do^cent  of  u  heavy  iKidy,  which  incruuMOH 
an  tlm  square  of  the  nine  of  the  latitude. 

'I'he  o:-cillatioiiH  of  a  (ivnduliiiii  iifliird  a  niinplo  nieanM  of  veriiyin((  this  llict,  The  incroano 
of  wcii,'lit  ill  II  heavy  body, — that  i;^,  the  force  of  gravity  in  procnedinjy  from  l\v  eipmtor  to 
till!  jNiles, — will  be  indicated  by  n  diiiiiniitioii  of  the  tiiiiu  in  which  un  invariable  pemluliini 
perforiiiH  II  \  ibriition.  Accordiiijfly  the  [xiMdiiluin  Iiuh  been  enijiloyed  to  deterniinu  the  liguro 
of  the  eiirtli ;  and  the  reHiiIlii  obtained  have  been  found  to  accord  |)crfcctly  with  the  gco- 
deticul  nieasiiroiiientij  which  we  Iwvu  duHcribt'd, 

The  Hritiuli  and  French  poverninontH  Imvc  both  intitituted  obnervations  on  tho  pendulum. 
The  latter,  on  tho  recomniendution  of  the  Academy  of  Scieucee,  directed  that  the  intenHity 
of  the  firee  of  (gravity  nIioiiIiI  bo  determined  at  dinbreiit  pointH  of  the  arc  of  tha  meridian 
between  Dunkirk  and  Formenteni;  and  committed  tho  labour  to  MM.  Diot,  Ara^o,  Muthieu, 
lioiivard,  and  ('iiaix  :  Kubseciiiently,  liiot  extended  bin  obHerviitionti  to  tho  northern  nxtromity 
of  the  Uriti.sh  islands.  Tlicse  operations  were  be{(mi  in  the  year  ltt07.  At  a  somcwhul 
Inter  period  the  British  govorninent,  with  tho  aHHistanco  of  tlie  Royal  Society,  employed 
Captain  Knter,  nn  eminent  observer  and  rix|H>rimenter,  in  tho  same  labour;  and  a!so  KonI 
Captain  Sabine,  a  Dritish  artillery  otHcer,  with  invariablu  pendulums,  to  tho  eniiator  on  tho 
one  liaiiil,  and  the  hi;;liest  ncces.^ible  latitudes  of  the  north(!rn  hemisphcro  on  tlie  other.  It 
was  expected  that,  by  thus  mulUplyinjf  tho  pliices  of  oliHorvution,  ♦he  combination  of  results 
would  de.stroy  the  irregular  intliiencos  of  local  <lensity,  and  j;ive  tlm  true  variations  of  the 
tl)rce  of  gravity,  which  are  owini;  to  the  earth's  ellipticity.  From  1,  mean  of  all  the  obser- 
vaf 'oiia  made  by  the  British  und  French  txpcrinicnters,  it  was  lound  'hut  tho  compression  or 
ell.ulicily  of  tho  earth  was  about  jj'j  1  of  jai-iis  Laplace  had  previously  concluded,  frwn 
the  combined  meusurementii  of  terrestrial  degrees  and  pendulum  experiments,  and  the  lunar 
ineipialities  dependent  on  tho  fiirure  of  the  earth,  that  the  sumo  ini|)ortant  element  was 
,„«'.,  J.  There  is  a  ditl'ercnco  between  the  two  conclusions ;  but,  on  tlie  whole,  all  tho  results 
which  have  been  obtained  are  comprehended  within  limits  which  may  bo  deemed  moderate, 
considering  the  dilliculty  of  tho  inquiry. 

The  following  tables  exhibit  numorical  values  of  tlio  magnitudes  of  tho  degrees  of  lutitudo 
and  longitude,  and  their  proportioi\  to  each  other. 

The  first  is  from  a  valuable  collection  of  lUMtronomical  tables  and  formula!  by  F.  Daii.v, 
Ksq.,  President  of  tho  Astronomical  Hocicty  of  I»ndon.  It  shows  tho  length  of  a  degree 
of  latitude  and  longitude  on  tho  earth's  surfkce,  assuming  the  compression  to  bo  .,,',„,  toge- 
ther with  the  length  of  the  pendulum  beating  seconds  there,  supposing  tho  compression  to 
bu  ;|'.,  the  measures  at  the  equator  being  considered  ns  unity;  also  the  increa.se  in  tlio 
number  of  vibrations  of  an  invariable  pendulum  beating  seconds  at  the  equator  on  procooeling 
towards  the  pole.     This  merely  shows  the  relative  values  of  tho  (piantities  thercrti  stated. 

'J'lio  second  and  third  tables  are  from  Mendoza'h  Tables  for  Navigation  and  Nautical 
Astronomy.  And  the  fourth  is  from  tlio  very  valuable  Introduction  to  Practical  Astronomy 
by  Dr.  Pearson,  where  it  is  statcl  to  be  computed  from  a  Formula  given  by  Licut.-Col. 
I«imbton  ill  tho  Asiatic  Researches,  vol.  xii. 

The  tables  arc  constructed  from  dillbrcnt  values  of  the  earth's  compression  nt  the  poles. 
'I'lie  uncort;iinty  of  this  important  element,  in  all  questions  of  geography  and  astronomy,  is 
un  inconvenience  which  cannot  yet  be  got  rid  of. 

In  Tables  II.  and  III.,  the  dimensions  of  tlie  degrees  of  latitude  and  longitude  arc  given 
ill  minutes  of  tho  equator.  To  change  these  into  feet  or  fathoms,  we  must  know  tho  number 
of  Ihem  ill  11  degree  of  the  equator. 

.\ecording  to  I'iii.s.saiit  and  Svanberg,  the  equatorial  degree,  or  60  geographical  miles,  is 
ii0,^17  fathoms. 

(Jagiioli  has  a-ssumcd  =  00,893  fatlioms. 

liiuut.-Col.  Liimbton  reckoned  it  to  bo  00,8.57  fathoms, 

(jeneral  Miidgc  concluded  it  to  be  00,81.5  fathoms. 

.Mr.  lliiily,  a.-'  an  »r,  'im|)animuMt  to  his  table  ('I'liblo  I.),  assumes  the  eijuaforial  diameter 
of  the  eiirth  to  bo  71)"i-I  iiiile.s,  and  the  (xjlar  ~  7910  miles.  A  degree  of  longitude  at  the 
c<iuutor  will,  on  this  sup|)osilion,  be  09.1.'>  miles,  =  00,Hj2  lallioms,  =  36.5,110  feet:  so  one 
second  of  time,  or  fiilecii  seconds  of  a  degree  of  longitude,  will  bo  1521  feet. 

Tabic  IV.  gives  the  measure  of  each  degri!!;  of  hititinle  anil  longitude  in  futlioms. 


OOOK  I. 


Ficriir.  AND  MA(JMri:i)K  of  THK  KAKTIl. 
T*II.R  I. 


14ft 


no  poles, 
inoray,  is 

Ire  given 
1  number 

Imiles,  is 


tiumcter 
at  the 
BO  one 


Cuinpruwion 

—  :l(l«i 

Cumproiwion  =  ;,,',,. 

Ul. 

Dufri  0  iir 

llt'fri r 

i.riii[tii  (if  iiiii 

InrrinM  iif 

l^iiniiliiclH. 

l.*lltll<)ll. 

I'ltllllllllMII. 

VHirmliiiia, 

o 
0 

1  01)1)0(1 

1.000000 

I.OOOOO 

II 
0.0 

& 

0.!)!)l>;ia 

1.000070 

l.oooot 

1.77 

10 

,!)H|!)0 

LOOO-lOl 

1.00010 

7.09 

t:s 

.!lli(il4 

l.OOOliO!) 

1.00030 

15.00 

>M 

.IIIDIXi 

1.001108 

i.oooi;;) 

97J94 

95 

.!)()(iHj 

1.001  7m;j 

l.OOODO 

41,59 

:i(i 

.8fi(i75 

l.l)():j|!lO 

1.00135 

58,91 

35 

.H!>()05 

l.oo:<-jH4 

1.00177 

70,60 

40 

.70710 

l.()()41U5 

1.00993 

!)G,91 

45 

.7089H 

1.004<)!)9 

1.0090!) 

110.49 

50 

.01104 

1.0().W,8 

1.00310 

130.64 

55 

..'>7Ih:. 

l.OOfiK!)!) 

1.00309 

156.95 

CO 

,M)IUU 

1.007487 

1.00404 

174.03 

(a 

.4'.>:n7 

1.008'JOO 

1.00443 

191.90 

70 

.34;)0'J 

1.008815 

1,00470 

90.5.61 

75 

jasiitio 

1.001)315 

1.00503 

917Ji5 

80 

.17121 

l.OO'JKH'J 

1.00593 

995.89 

85 

.08704 

l.on!)ll07 

1.00535 

931,08 

90 

.ooooo 

1.00<J!)83 

1,00539 

939.85 

Taili  II. 

The  Mcusure  of  a  Degree  of  Ix)ngituilc,  on  each  Parallel  of  Latitude  in  Minutes  of  tli"  ' 

Pur, 

of 

Equator,  on  the  Sphere  and  Spheroid.    Compression  =  j^). 

Di^iirmi  (in  lli« 

Di'liroo  iin  Ihit 

Par, 

•if 

Di'Kri'non  tin- 

Drorep  on  tho 
njilitirold. 

Pnr 

of 

Dl'LTIMOIltllO 

Di'uree  on  tho 

Lnt. 

HplllTO 

Bjilii'riild. 

1.III. 

Hphiri'. 

Lnt. 

Hplicru. 

Hpheruid, 

0 

0 

/ 
60,000 

/ 
60,000 

0 

30 

51,969 

.59.009 

0 

60 

1 
30.000 

30.070 

1 

.'i9,991 

.59.991 

31 

51,430 

51.473 

61 

29.089 

99.1.58 

3 

59.963 

59,964 

39 

50.883 

50,927 

62 

98.168 

38JJ37 

3 

59.918 

59,918 

33 

50.320 

50,367 

63 

97.939 

37.307 

4 

59,8;i4 

.59,855 

34 

49.742 

49.791 

64 

96.309 

26.369 

5 

59,773 

59.773 

35 

49,149 

49,199 

65 

25,357 

95.422 

6 

59,671 

59.673 

36 

48..541 

48,593 

66 

34,404 

24.468 

7 

59.553 

59.556 

37 

47.918 

47.972 

67 

93.444 

23.506 

8 

59.416 

59.420 

38 

47,281 

47.336 

68 

22.476 

22.537 

9 

59.961 

59JJ66 

39 

46.029 

46.686 

69 

91.503 

31J62 

10 

59,088 

59,094 

40 

45.903 

46,092 

70 

20,521 

20.578 

11 

5S.898 

59.904 

41 

45.283 

43.343 

71 

19..534 

19.589 

19 

58.689 

58.697 

42 

44„'->89 

44.651 

72 

18,541 

18.593 

13 

58.463 

58,471 

43 

43,881 

43.945 

73 

17.542 

17.592 

14 

58.218 

58,228 

44 

43.160 

43.225 

74 

16.538 

16,586 

15 

57.956 

57.963 

45 

42,426 

42.493 

75 

15.529 

15,574 

16 

57.676 

57,689 

46 

41.680 

41.747 

76 

14.515 

14,558 

17 

57,378 

57.394 

47 

40.920 

40,988 

77 

13.497 

13,.537 

18 

57,063 

57080 

48 

40.148 

40,217 

78 

re.475 

12,512 

19 

56,731 

56.750 

49 

39,364 

39,434 

7!» 

11.449 

11,483 

90 

56.382 

56,402 

50 

38,567 

38,638 

80 

10.419 

10,450 

91 

50.015 

56.037 

51 

37,759 

37,831 

81 

9.386 

9,414 

29 

55.631 

55.665 

53 

36.940 

37,011 

82 

8.350 

8,376 

93 

55,230 

55.257 

53 

36.109 

36.181 

83 

7,312 

7,335 

94 

.').1,H!3 

54,841 

54 

35,267 

35,3.39 

84 

6.272 

6.292 

25 

51.378 

54,409 

55 

34,415 

34.487 

85 

5,229 

5,246 

26 

53,928 

53.960 

56 

33,5.52 

33,634 

86 

4,185 

4,193 

27 

5,3.460 

53.4!)5 

57 

32,678 

32.750 

87 

3,140 

3,149 

38 

53,997 

5.3.013 

58 

31,795 

31.866 

88 

2,094 

2,100 

39 

5:i,477 

52,002 

59 

30.902 

30.973 

89 

1.047 

1.050 

30 

51,963 

52,002 

60 

30.000 

30.070 

90 

0.000 

0.000 

Vol.  I. 


13 


"I 


i>|i 


li  ;> 


'!;( 


■  III 


146 


PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Table  III. 


Part  11 


Tllf  Measures  of  diflcront  Arcs  of  tlio  Meridian  in  tlic  Spliuroid  from  tlic  Equator  to  tlie  Pole; 
mill  ulflo  the  resiicctivo  Degrees  of  Latitude  in  Minutes   of   the    Equator.      C'oni|irc8- 


■  :13T- 


<3 

II 

n.iioo 

1 

SIMWrt 

'J 

I  lii.asT 

;i 

llH.t*? 

4 

umsiH 

A 

aiiH.iJO 

11 

:«7.7H4 

7 

4l7.4ai 

f 

477.0SB 

» 

5:Hi.l'illll 

III 

61ir..343 

II 

(iss.tnw) 

ISl 

71S.«41 

III 

77.'i.!Klt) 

M 

KM.II.'io 

M 

I<!I4,II1H 

III 

ll,'-.4.SHfl 

17 

lOKI.IIiW 

IH 

107;i.tKW 

lU 

II33.:R.'I 

1H 

1  Mil  014 

Ul 

IV.W,711 

<li 

i;ii'j.4i4 

«;i 

lArivii 

•li 

u:iiH4i 

lli 

)4»I.5U3 

«rt 

IS5I.S07 

«r 

10)1.030 

w 

II17(I.7K) 

«t 

17:10.838 

;hi 

I71KI.;MH 

50.028 
5!).(a!l 

5U.(i:io 

.5!l.«31 
.■ill.tiS-J 
5!).(i34 
S'.l(i;)(i 

S9.(i:w 

S'.I.IMI 
5D.r><i4 
59.047 

sn.CiSi 

5U.I>55 
5!l.li.1<J 
59.1)03 
50.068 
50.073 
50.079 
59.085 

59.001 

50.007 
50.703 
5!I.7I0 
59.717 
S9.?i4 
5».7;K 
50.7:w 
30.747 
50.755 
59.704 


40 
41 
42 
43 
44 
45 
40 
47 
48 
49 


50 
51 
52 
5:( 
54 


58 
50 
00 


1700.302 
1H5U.074 
1!K)9.M5 
1<M>9.044 
2029.442 
20rt».249 
3140.005 
2208.KI1 
2ao:).72<J 
3328.570 


3388.424 
3448.287 
25CK100 
2508.043 
2027.0.30 
2687.K)8 
2747.750 
2807.672 
2867.0a3 
2927.W4 


3987.405 
3047  45.5 
310;  i25 
3107.4(M 
3227.:t03 
3287.301 
.■«47.:t08 
;M07.414 
3407.4:10 

:«27.47:t 

3587.515 


59.772 
59.781 
59.789 
50.798 
59.807 
50.810 
50.820 
50.835 
S0.844 

59.854 

59.803 
59..='73 
59.883 
50.893 
.VJ.90a 
59.012 
59.022 
.'•0.931 
50.941 

50.051 

59.000 
59  070 
59.97'.t 
50.08!! 
50.008 
00.007 

00.010 

(lO.IW.'i 
CO  034 
10.042 


«0 
01 
03 
63 
04 
05 
00 
07 
08 
09 


3587.515 
;i647.S(i*i 
3707.025 
3707.0!W 
:1827.707 
3887.849 
3047.0:iO 
4UU8.030 
40(J8.140 
4128.251 


70 
71 
72 
73 
74 
75 
70 
77 
78 
79 


80 

81 
82 
K) 
84 
85 
80 
87 

89 
•10 


4188.3<'>8 
4348.402 
4:108.022 
4:108.757 
442H.808 
4489.044 
454!l.  105 
40O'.l.:i5O 
4liOO.S10 
4720.074 


4780.841 
48iiO.OI3 
4010.180 
4970.:)(i2 
50:)0.541 
5000722 
5150.'.I04 
.Kl  1.088 
5271.273 
5;i:l  1.458 
5:101.044 


00.051 
0O.0.VJ 
00.007 
00.075 
00.082 
00.090 
00.097 
00.104 
00.111 

00.117 

00.124 
00130 
00.135 
00.141 
00.140 
00.151 
00.155 
00.100 
00.164 

00.107 

00.171 
00.174 
00.170 
00.179 
t».181 
00.182 
60.184 
00.183 
00185 
00.180 


Table  IV. 


Tllo  Measure  of  eacli  ncfrroc 

of  Latitude  and  of  a  Degree  of  Longitude  in  each  Parallel  of 

Latitude  from  the  Equator  to  eitlier  Pole.    Comprtssio.i  -r^l^. 

I'nf. 

tlrgien  nf 

DPEfcp  of 

Par. 

Decree  of 

Degree  of 

Par. 

Decree  of 

Depree  of 

iif 

l.ntiliidp  in 

L(int(itu(ln  iti 

nf 

I.ntittiile  ill 

LoiiBiiiiile  in 

of 

Latitutle  in 

Lnncitiiile  in 

Ml. 

Fnlliipiiiii. 

rallKims. 

Lat. 

Fathiiiiis. 

Fat  hums. 

Lat. 

0 
00 

Fallinms. 

FalhiiniB. 
30503.5 

n 

004.18.0 

C0R'i7.1 

o 

:m 

60007.4 

5274(i.9 

00906.6 

1 

Ii04.'>».8 

(•.fl,■^7.a 

31 

00010.5 

.5-2210.0 

01 

00915.7 

211378.2 

<t 

(m459.8 

00820.2 

:k 

00025.8 

51ii,57.2 

02 

C(HI24.5 

2804:1.8 

II 

00400.3 

007T4.2 

33 

0003.5.2 

51088.0 

(i3 

0003:1.1 

27700.0 

4 

(,0101.5 

00700.8 

34 

00r>44.8 

50,504.5 

(.4 

(;fl!.'41.4 

20748.8 

n 

r,(Mo:i2 

O0<i27.0 

33 

006.54.5 

4y!H)4.0 

03 

0(K'40.0 

25788.7 

« 

00405.1 

(iO,W..8 

:io 

00f>04.4 

4021HI.2 

(ifl 

00057.5 

24820.7 

7 

004075 

ooiiri.4 

37 

00074.3 

4H(Mi0.3 

07 

00!h:5.3 

23845.0 

H 

00170  1 

00208.0 

:i8 

riOO.«4.4 

48015.0 

08 

f,0072.7 

22801.0 

II 

00173  2 

00112.0 

:t9 

00004.0 

47:13.5  2 

00 

60070.8 

21871.7 

10 

00471!  5 

KtO.V.l 

40 

00704.8 

40082.4 

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Book  I.  LATITUDE  AND  LONGITUDE.  W 

(ja^       V  CHAPTER  XX.      . 

DETERMINATION  OF  LATITUDE  AND  LONGITUDE. 

There  are  throe  important  problems  in  geof^pliy  which  require  ibr  their  Bolution  the 
doctrines  of  astronomy.  The  first  requires  to  find  the  direction  of  the  meridian  at  any  point 
of  tiic  eiirtira  surface ;  the  second,  to  find  tlie  latitude  of  an>  place ;  and  the  third,  to  find 
the  longitude. 

Problem  I. — To  determine  the  Meridian,  or  to  draw  a  Meridian  Liiir. 

This  problem,  like  many  others  in  practical  astronomy,  admits  of  a  comparatively  easy 
solution,  if  no  great  degree  of  accuracy  is  required ;  but  to  obtain  a  very  accurate  result, 
much  care,  and  instruments  of  the  most  perfect  construction,  are  indispensable. 

The  general  principle  of  the  solution  is  tiie  fact,  that  the  celestial  bodies  which  do  not 
sensibly  change  their  declination  in  the  course  of  a  day,  have  the  same  apparent  altitude  at 
equal  mtervals  of  time  before  and  afler  passing  the  meridian :  also,  that  their  altitude  is 
greatest  or  least  when  in  the  plane  of  the  meridian ;  that  is,  when  t.''ey  are  due  south  or  due 
north. 

About  the  time  of  the  summer  and  winter  solstice,  the  sun  changes  his  declination  very 
little  in  the  course  of  a  day :  and  hence  it  happens  that  the  shadow  of  an  upright  rod  or 
gnomon  is  almost  exactly  of  the  same  length  when  the  sun  is  at  equal  distances  from  the 
meridian.  To  determine  the  position  of  the  meridian,  then,  let  a  number  of  coi'centric 
circles  be  described  on  a  horizontal  plane,  and  let  a  wire  or  rod  be  placed  dire*  tly  over 
tlieir  common  centre,  and  perpendicular  to  the  plane;  and,  the  sun  shining  on  the  plane,  let 
the  two  points  in  which  the  extremity  of  the  shadow  of  the  wire  crosses  each  circle  be 
exactly  noted.  Then,  through  any  point  of  the  plane  which  is  at  equal  distances,  from  each 
pair of"^ intersections  draw  a  straight  lino  through  the  centre  of  the  circle;  and  this  will  be 
in  the  plane  of  the  meridian,  or  will  be  a  meridian  line.  It  is  easy  to  see  that  one  circle, 
and  one  pair  of  intersections  of  the  path  of  the  extremity  of  the  shadow  and  the  circle, 
would  be  sufficient ;  but  several  circles  will  fulfil  the  object  with  greater  accuracy  and 
more  certainty  ;  because  a  mean  position  of  the  meridian  line  may  be  (bund  among  all  the 
results ;  and  beeides,  one  of  a  pair,  or  both,  may  be  lost  by  clouds  intercepting  the  light  of 
the  sun. 

The  imperfection  of  this  method  of  finding  the  meridian  arises  from  the  indistinctness  of 
the  termination  of  the  shadow  of  the  upright  wire,  and  from  the  change  of  the  sun's  decli- 
nation between  the  observations.  There  is,  however,  another  as  simple  and  exact  as  can 
be  expected,  without  the  assistance  of  a  telescope.  It  is  known  tiiat  the  pole  star  and  the 
star  Alioth,  or  e  of  the  Great  Bear,  pass  the  meridian  within  about  nine  minutes  of  each 
other.  If,  therefore,  ve  suspend  two  plummets  by  threads  to  the  ends  of  a  rod  whicii  turns 
horizontally  on  a  pivot,  and  by  muving  the  rod,  keep  the  two  plumb-lines  exactly  between 
the  eye  and  Alioth  when  near  the  meridian,  then,  at  the  moment  when  the  pole  star  i.s  also 
seen  along  the  two  plumb-lines,  the  two  stars  and  the  plumb-lines  will  be  all  nearly  in  the 
plane  of  the  meridian.  To  keep  the  plumb-lines  steady  in  the  vertical  plane,  the  plummets 
mny  hang  in  vessels  filled  with  water. 

If  we  could  determine  the  position  of  a  star  when  its  altitude  is  greatest  or  least,  we 
would  then  have  a  point  of  the  heavens  in  the  plane  of  the  meridian :  but  that  position  cannot 
be  found  with  certainty,  because  the  change  of  altitude  is  imperceptible  to  a  sensible  distance 
on  each  side  of  tiie  meridian. 

The  exact  determination  of  the  meridian  requires  the  aid  of  the  telescope,  a  well-regulated 
clock,  and  an  instrument  for  determining  the  altitude  of  the  sun  or  a  star:  lladley's  sextant, 
or  a  reflecting  Circle,  are  the  proper  instruments  for  this  purpose.  By  the  sextant  we  can 
determine  two  instants  of  time  when  the  star  has  the  same  altitude ;  the  clock  will  give  the 
interval  of  time  between  them:  and  half  this  interval  will  be  tiie  time  lietween  each  obser- 
vation and  the  passage  of  the  star  over  the  meridian.  If  we  next  day  note  the  time  I)y  the 
clock  when  the  star  again  attains  that  altitude,  and  add  to  that  time  the  above-mentioned 
half  interval,  we  fliall  have  the  time  by  the  clock  when  the  star  will  be  on  the  meridian. 
If  at  tliat  instiint  a  telescope,  moveable  in  a  vertical  plane,  be  directed  to  the  star,  so  that  in 
passing  the  meridian  the  star  may  be  in  the  axis  of  the  telescope,  tiie  position  of  the  plane 
of  tlie  meridian  will  lie  obtained :  and  if  the  telescope  lie  fixed  to  a  horizontal  axis  which  is 
perpendicular  to  that  plane,  it  will  liavo  a  vertical  motion  in  the  plane  of  the  meridian,  and 
will  be  what  is  ciilled  a  transit  instrument.  By  this  instrument  the  exact  instant  when 
any  celestial  phcnonionon  is  on  the  meridian  is  known.  It  is,  therefore,  one  of  the  most 
essential  instruments  in  an  observatory. 

In  a  variable  climate,  it  may  happen  tliat  the  obscri'ations  necessary  to  determine  the 
meridian  may  be  interrupted  by  cloudy  weather.  This,  however,  is  on  inconvenience  to 
whicii  all  astronomical  observations  arc  liable.  It  must  also  be  observed,  that  a  single  set 
of  observations  will  not  give  so  perfect  a  result  as  a  considerable  number  of  sets,  from 
which  a  mean  may  be  deduced. 


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148  PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Past  U. 

If  the  celestial  object  change  its  position  otlierwise  than  by  the  diurnal  motions  of  the 
earth,  as  liappens  whcii  it  is  tlie  sun,  still  tlie  problem  may  bo  resolved,  as  has  been  explained, 
by  making  allowance  for  the  change  of  position,  by  applying  the  principles  of  spherical  trigo- 
nometry to  the  laws  of  the  motion. 

Pboblem  n. — To  determine  the  Latitude. 

In  treating  of  the  doctrine  of  the  sphere,  it  has  been  already  shown  that  the  distance  of 
the  pole  of  the  world  (that  is,  tlie  point  of  the  heavens  about  which  all  the  stars  turn)  from 
the  horizon  of  any  place  is  equal  to  its  latitude.  Now,  in  the  course  of  twenty-four  hours, 
every  star  passes  the  meridian  twice,  at  equal  distances  from  the  pole,  and  on  opposite  sides 
of  it  When  the  star  passes  the  meridian  below  the  pole, — that  is,  between  tlie  pole  and 
the  horizon, — its  altitude  is  the  least  possible ;  and  when  it  crosses  the  meridian  above  the 
pole,  or  between  the  pole  and  the  south  part  of  the  horizon,  its  distance  from  the  north  point 
of  the  horizon  will  be  the  greatest  possible.  If,  therefore,  with  a  suitable  instrument,  (a 
quadrant  for  instance,)  we  take  the  star's  altitude  when  it  is  least,  and  also  when  it  is  greatest, 
and  correct  these  for  refraction,  it  is  manifest  that  half  their  sum  will  be  the  latitude  of  the 
place  where  the  observations  were  made. 

We  have  supposed  the  star  to  pass  the  meridian  between  the  pole  and  the  zenith,  and  then 
its  greatest  altitude  will  be  its  distance  from  the  north  point  of  the  horizon :  but  it  may  pass 
to  we  south  of  the  zenith,  and  then  its  altitude,  reckoned  from  the  south,  must  be  subtracted 
from  180°  to  get  its  distance  from  the  north  pouit  of  the  horizon ;  and  half  the  sum  of  the 
two  distances,  as  before,  will  be  the  latitude. 

Any  one  star  that  never  sets,  the  pole  star  for  instance,  will  serve  to  determine  the  latitude : 
but  it  will  be  proper,  if  circumstances  allow,  to  observe  various  stars,  and  the  mean  of  all 
the  observations  may  be  expected  to  be  more  correct  than  a  single  pair. 

If,  instead  of  the  greatest  and  least  altitudes  of  a  star,  its  greatest  and  least  distances  from 
the  zenith  be  found,  then  half  their  sum  will  be  the  complemenl  of  the  latitude ;  that  is,  the 
difference  between  the  latitude  and  ninety  degrees. 

For  example,  by  observations  made  on  the  pole  star  at  the  Dublin  Observatory,  found 

that 

Its  greatest  zenitli  distance,  corrected  for  refraction,  was  -    •    •    38°  19    .»  .11 

Least 34    53  49.55 

The  sum 73    13   32.66 

Half  the  sum,  or  co-latitude  of  the  observatory 36    36  46 .  33 

The  latitude 53    23   13.67 

When  the  latitude  of  one  place  is  known,  the  latitude  of  another  place  may  be  found  by 
observing  with  a  quadrant,  or  other  suitable  instrument,  the  zenith  distances  of  any  star  at 
both  places.  The  difference  of  these  zenith  distances,  when  corrected  for  refraction,  will  bo 
the  difference  of  latitude  of  the  two  places. 

Thus,  for  example,  to  determine  the  difference  between  the  latitudes  of  Greenwich  Ob- 
servatory and  Dunnose  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  it  was  found  that 

At  Dunnose  the  z.  d.  of  |J  Draconis  was   ..-...-..l°50'  5".24 
And  at  Greenwich 0    58   33.13 

Difference  of  latitude 0    51   32.11 

The  latitude  of  Greenwich  was  known  to  be 51    28  30.05 

The  latitude  of  Dunnose  is 50    37     8^39 

The  navigator  has  daily  occasion  to  determine  his  latitude  at  sea.  For  this  purpose,  he 
finds  the  sun's  zenith  distance,  or  its  altitude  at  noon,  by  Iladley's  sextant.  The  Nautical 
Almanac  gives  him  the  sun's  declination,  or  distance  from  the  equator  at  the  time  he  makes 
his  observation:  the  sum  or  difference  of  these  is  his  latitude,  according  as  the  ship  and  the 
sun  are  on  the  same  or  opposite  sides  of  the  equator. 

Ex.  On  July  24,  1783,  at  a  place  in  lonj^itude  54°  (3'  SB")  west  of  Greenwich,  the  alti- 
tude of  the  sun's  lower  limb,  when  cleared  from  refraction  and  parallax,  was  observed  by  a 
sextant  to  be  59°  15'  30".  By  the  Nautical  Almanac,  the  sun's  semidiameter  wns  15'  48", 
and  his  declination  at  the  time  of  noon  in  that  longitude  19°  51'  N.  The  calculation  for 
the  latitude  will  stand  thus  :— 

Altitude  of  the  sun's  lower  limb 59°  l.'j'  30" 

Add  sun's  semidiameter     --..         .........  15   48 

Subtract  altitude  of  sun's  centre      ...........    59    31    ig 

From - 90     0     0 

To  sun's  zenith  distance    -------•■--.-.    .30    28   42 

Add  sun's  declination    -..••.-.•.....    -1951      q 

The  latitude  of  the  place  is-...-. 50    19  42 


found 


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Book  I. 


LATITUDE  AND  LONGITUDE. 


U? 


The  navigator  cannot  always  obtain  an  observation  of  the  sun  or  a  star  when  on  the  me- 
ridian, lie  may,  however,  be  able  to  observe  two  latitudes  out  of  tlie  meridian,  and  the 
interval  of  time  between  tiiem.  V'ith  these  data,  and  the  aid  of  spherical  trigonometry  and 
tlio  Nautical  Almanac,  he  may  find  hi,,  latitude  by  rules  given  by  writers  on  navigation  and 
atitrnnoiiiy.  It  is,  in  general,  by  one  or  otiier  of  these  methods  that  the  roconlod  latitudes 
of  all  pliices  have  been  obtained,  and  arranged  in  a  table  for  the  use  of  tlie  geographer  and 
navigator. 

PaoBLEH  III. — To  determine  the  Long-itude. 

The  interval  of  time  between  two  successive  passages  of  the  sun  over  the  meridian  of  any 
place  is  twenty-four  hours.  If,  therefore,  we  suppose  a  number  of  meridians  to  be  drawn 
ut  eipial  intervals, — that  is,  to  form  successively  with  eacli  other  equal  angles  at  the  poles, — 
then,  in  the  course  of  twenty-four  hours,  each  of  these  meridians  (supposing  their  planes 
produced)  will  pass  through  the  sun.  Therefore  twenty-four  hours  of  mean  solar  time  will 
correspond  to  36()  degrees  of  longitude ;  for  the  whole  scale  of  longitude  must  be  containe<l 
between  the  eastern  and  western  sides  of  the  meridian  at  the  same  place.  At  places  situated 
on  the  meridian  opposite  that  on  which  the  sun  was  at  0'',  or,  in  civil  reckoning,  at  12  at 
noon,  the  time  would  be  12\  or  12  at  night ;  and  12'  would  correspond  to  180  degrees  of 
longitude.  At  places  situated  on  the  meridian  at  right  angles  to  the  former,  tlie  time  would 
be  6''  or  IS"",  or,  in  civil  reckoning,  six  in  the  mornmg  or  six  in  the  evening ;  and,  accord- 
ingly, six  hours  and  eighteen  hours  of  mean  solar  time  will  correspond  to  90°  or  270°  of 
longitude ;  and  so  on  for  intermediate  meridians. 

The  selection  of  a  meridian,  from  which  the  longitude  is  to  be  reckoned,  is  entirely  arbi- 
trary. The  English  take  the  meridian  passing  through  Greenwich  Observatory  for  the  Jirst 
meridian,  and  reckon  its  longitude  to  be  0°  or  0".  The  first  meridian  of  the  PVencli  is  that 
which  passes  through  the  observatory  of  Paris.  An  interval  of  O™  21'  elapses  between  the 
passages  of  the  sun  over  the  meridians  of  Paris  and  Greenwich :  the  longitude  of  Paris 
Observatory  =■  therefore,  by  English  geographers,  accounted  to  be  9°  21' east  in  time;  or 
in  degrees,  2°  :    '  ?.^". 

Since  it  ir  v  ir  ill  places  on  the  meridian  of  Greenwich  from  pole  to  pole  at  tlie  same 
instant,  it  '■  i  n     hour  past  noon,  or  l',  at  all  places  on  the  meridian  15°  to  the  east  of 

that  of  Gree.-  ■■ .  '  ,  and  two  liours  past  noon,  or  2*,  at  all  places  on  the  meridian  S0°  enst 
from  that  of  Greenwich;  and  so  on.  On  the  other  hand,  it  will  want  an  hour  to  noon,  or 
will  he  11',  at  all  places  on  the  meridian  15°  west  from  that  of  Greenwich;  and  it  will  be 
two  hours  before  noon,  or  lO"*,  at  places  on  the  meridian  30°  west  from  that  of  Greenwich ; 
and  so  on,  reckoning  an  hour,  or  sixty  minutes  of  time,  to  correspond  to  fifteen  degrees,  and 
four  minutes  of  time  to  one  (legree. 

Since  it  appears  that  all  places  on  the  same  meridian  have  noon,  or  any  assumed  hour, 
at  the  same  instant,  and  that  the  instiint  of  noon  is  different  at  places  on  different  meridians, — 
being  earlier  or  later  on  meridians  having  west  longitude,  according  as  they  are  nearer  tc 
or  farther  from  the  first  meridian,  and  the  reverse  on  meridians  having  cast  longitude ;  aiid 
moreover,  that  the  difference  between  the  time  of  noon  on  two  meridians  is  proportional  to 
the  diffbroricc  of  their  longitude,  and  therefore  a  measure  of  that  difference;  it  follows  that 
if,  knowing  the  hour  of  the  day  iit  any  ))lace,  wo  can  at  the  same  instant  by  any  means  know 
the  hour  at  a  place  on  any  other  meridian,  then  we  can  determine  the  difference  of  longitude 
between  the  meridians :  for  it  will  be  the  difference  between  the  times  of  the  day,  as  esti- 
mated on  the  two  meridians,  reckoned  in  hours,  minutes,  &c. ;  and  this  may  be  converted 
into  degrees,  minutes,  and  seconds,  by  reckoning  fifteen  degrees  to  an  hour,  and  proportionally 
for  minutes  and  seconds  of  time. 

The  practical  methods  of  determining  the  longitude  are  the  following : — 

1.  By  a  Chronometer  or  Time-keeper. 

Let  tis  suppose  ♦hat  a  traveller  departs  from  any  place,  (St.  Paul's,  London,  for  example,) 
and  carries  with  him  a  watch  regulated  to  mean  solar  time,  and  which  indicates  12''  at  the 
instant  of  mean  noon  at  Ixindon  :  then,  supposing  the  watch  to  go  with  perfect  regularity, 
if  ho  go  to  I'Miiiburnfli,  and  compare  the  estimated  solar  time  there  witli  that  sliown  by  his 
watch,  ho  will  find  that  they  differ  by  twelves  minutes  twenty-one  seconds ;  so  that  when  it  is 
12''  lit  I'/linhurgh  Oliservatory,  it  will  be  12''  12''  21'  by  his  watch.  He  may  therefiire  con- 
clude, tli:it  the  difference  of  longitude  between  liondon  and  Edinburgh  is  12"  21"  west; 
nud  since  St.  Paul's  is  twenty-three  seconds  of  time  west  from  Greenwich,  the  longitude  of 
L'.diiihurtrli  01),serviitory  is  12'"  44"  west,  which  corresponds  to  3°  11'.  If,  leaving  London,  he 
luid  gone  to  Piiris,  he  would  there  have  found  the  rstimated  time  to  be  9'"  44"  earlier  tlian 
that  sliowii  liy  his  wiitrh:  iience  the  difference  between  the  meridians  of  Ixjndon  and  Paris 
is  9  "  44 ,  .'ind  the  longitude  of  Paris  (from  Gr'enwioh)  9"'  21"  east. 

In  the  siiiiic  w.iy  the  nnviiiiitur  at  se.i  niiiy  determine  his  Inniritude  bj'  n  gno<l  chronometer. 
He  ciiii  ill  IvrMiiie  tlie  Imur  cf  tiie  (l;iv  hv  the  sun's  altitude,  and  the  principles  of  fpherical 

13  * 


i|^ 


"',f, 


150 


PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  II. 


trigonometry.  Or  ho  may  take  equal  altitudes,  noting  the  times;  the  middle  point  of  time 
between  tlieiu  will  be  the  instiint  of  noon,  as  shown  hy  the  watch:  he  must,  however,  make 
a  correction  tor  tlic  change  of  the  sun'w  declination,  and  the  distance  run  by  the  ship  in  the 
interval.  Sup|X)8ing  now  the  chronometer  to  have  been  set  to  the  true  time  at  the  port  from 
whence  he  sailed,  and  to  have  gone  uniformly  with  a  small  known  daily  acceleration  oi 
retardation,  called  its  rate ;  this  correction  being  applied,  he  will  have  the  time  at  the  jwrt 
corre.sponding  to  his  observed  time  of  noon,  and  their  difference  will  be  the  longitude  of  the 
ship  eastwanl  or  westward  from  the  meridian  whence  she  sailed. 

The  longitude  of  any  point  on  the  earth,  either  at  sea  or  on  land,  may  be  determined  by 
a  good  chronometer;  in  the  latter  case,  however,  the  jolting  it  must  suffer  by  carriage  will 
disturb  its  motion,  and  render  the  result  sought  uncertain.  At  sea,  the  mode  of  transport  is 
not  so  liable  to  sudden  jerks ;  and,  therefore,  the  chronometer  may  be  expected  to  go  with 
more  regularity.  If  several  be  employed,  considerable  accuracy  may  be  obtained.  The 
Board  of  Admiralty  sent  ten  or  twelve  chronometers  from  Greenwich  to  Falmouth,  and 
thence  in  a  vessel  to  Madeira,  and  in  this  way  determined  the  longitude  of  Funchal  from  a 
mean  of  their  results. 

The  &cility  of  this  mode  of  determining  the  longitude  makes  perfection  in  the  construc- 
tion of  chronometers  an  object  of  high  importance  in  a  maritime  nation  like  Britain.  It  was, 
therefore,  for  many  years  encouraged  by  acts  of  parliament  offering  high  rewards  for  pre- 
scribed degrees  of  excellence.  These,  however,  are  now  repealed ;  but  the  government  has 
not  lost  sight  of  this  important  subject. 

2.     The  Longitude  by  Eclipses  of  Jupiter's  Satellites. 

If  a  celestial  phenomenon  can  be  seen  at  the  same  absolute  instant  of  time  in  two  dif- 
ferent places  of  tlie  earth,  this  appearance  gives  the  means  of  determining  the  difference  of 
their  longitudes ;  for  if  the  phenomenon  be  seen  at  both  places,  and  the  times,  according  to 
their  reckoning,  be  noted,  it  is  manifest  that  their  difference  will  be  the  difference  of  longi- 
tude, in  time,  of  the  two  places. 

Now  the  eclipses  of  Jupiter's  moons  are  phenomena  of  this  kind.  They  may  be  seen, 
almost  at  the  same  instant,  everywhere  in  the  hemisphere  in  which  Jupiter  is  visible:  and 
such  is  the  perfection  of  astronomy,  that  the  times  at  whicli  they  will  happen  can  be  pre- 
dicted with  considerable  accuracy.  These  are  computed  according  to  Greenwich  time,  and 
published,  olong  with  variouy  other  matters,  in  the  Nautical  Almanac,  several  years  before 
they  happen,  for  the  benefit  of  travellers.  This  method  of  finding  the  longitude  can,  how- 
ever, only  be  applied  on  land ;  for  at  sea  the  rolling  of  the  ship  makes  it  next  to  impossible 
to  direct  a  telescope  so  steadily  to  Jupiter  as  to  view  the  eclipse  of  a  satellite. 

Example. — Suppose  an  immersion  of  the  first  satellite  should  be  observed  at  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  April  16,  1805,  at  18"  25""  35'  mean  time ;  the  predicted  time  given  by  the 
Ephemeris  being  12''  12'"  2'  at  Greenwich.  Here  the  difference  is  P  13"°  33";  whence  the 
longitude  of  the  Cape  should  be  18°  23'  15"  east  of  Greenwich. 

In  this  example,  the  observed  time  at  the  Cape  is  compared  with  the  computed  time  of 
the  eclipse  at  Greenwich.  If,  instead  of  this,  the  observed  time  ot  Greenwich  had  been 
used,  greater  accuracy  might  have  been  expected. 

This  method  is  easy,  and  therefore  much  practised ;  but  it  is  liable  to  unccrtointy :  for 
two  observers  in  the  same  room,  but  using  different  telescopes,  will  sometimes  differ  in  noting 
the  time  of  an  eclipse  of  the  first  satellite  by  as  much  as  fifteen  or  twenty  seconds.  Delam- 
bre  thinks  that  the  time  of  an  eclipse  of  the  fourth  satellite  may  be  doubtful  to  the  amount 
of  four  minutes. 

3.    Longitude  by  an  Eclipse  of  the  Moon. 

An  eclipse  of  the  motjn  has  exactly  the  same  appearance,  at  the  same  instant,  wherever 
seen ;  but  it  is  impossible  to  bo  quite  sure,  by  observation,  of  the  exact  time  of  their  begin- 
ning or  end,  because  of  the  penumbra  whicli  bounds  the  earth's  shadow.  The  results  to  be 
obtained  from  them  are  therefore  uncertain,  to  perhaps  two  minutes  of  time ;  and  therefore 
only  to  be  regarded  as  approximations  to  the  truth. 

Exumptf:.     An  eclipse  of  the  moon  was  observed  Aug.  28.  1729,  by  the  astronomer  Cas- 
sini  at  Paris,  and  by  Mr.  Stephenson  at  Barbad(x>s. 
At  Paris,  Imm.  )        -    12''    19"'  13* 
At  Barbadoes,  Imm.  >       8     11      0 


Emer. 
Emer. 


13" 
9 


.59"' 
51 


4      8    13 


4      8 


By  the  mean  of  f lie  two,  the  difference  of  longitude  is  4"  8"'  6'"5 ;  that  is,  Barbadoes  is 
62"  r30"  west  of  Paris. 


linty:  for 

r  in  noting 

Dekm- 

ke  amount 


I  wherever 
Icir  bcgin- 
lults  to  be 
1  there  forft 

bmer  Cas- 


tbadocs  is 


Book  I. 


LATITUDE  AND  LONGITUDE. 


m 


4.  Longitude  by  Lunar  Distances,  or  by  Occultations  of  Stars  by  the  Moon, 

The  moon  is,  of  all  the  celestial  bodies,  the  most  convenient  fur  determining  the  longi> 
tudo,  because  of  the  greater  qu.ckness  of  her  apparent  motion  among  the  stars.  She  makes 
the  complete  circuit  of  the  heavens  in  27''  7''  43'"  4'.7  (this  is  her  mean  sidereal  revolu- 
tion) :  therefore  she  changes  her  place  among  the  stars  more  than  half  a  degree,  or  her  own 
apparent  diameter,  in  an  hour ;  so  that  in  two  minutes  of  time  she  passes  over  one  minute 
of  a  degree.     This,  or  even  its  half,  is  quite  a  measurable  quantity  by  a  good  sextant 

By  the  tiieory  of  the  moon's  motion,  her  place  among  the  stars  is  known  at  any  time 
that  is,  knowing  the  time  of  the  day  at  Greenwich,  the  place  of  the  moon  is  known ;  and, 
on  the  other  hand,  kn  ving  the  place  of  the  moon,  the  time  at  Greenwich  is  known.  The 
Nautical  Almanac  giv  the  distance  of  the  moon's  centre  from  the  sun,  and  some  of  the 
brighter  stars,  os  it  would  be  seen  from  the  earth's  centre,  for  every  third  hour  of  the  doy, 
Greenwich  time.  If,  therefore,  the  Almanoe  show  that  the  moon,  considered  as  seen  from 
the  earth's  centre,  will  be  10°  from  a  certain  fixed  star  at  six  o'clock  in  the  evening  at 
Greenwich ;  and  we  make  an  observation  at  a  distant  place,  and  find  tliat  the  moon's  dis- 
tance from  the  same  star,  reduced  by  computation  to  what  it  would  be  if  seen  at  tlie  earth's 
centre,  is  10°,  we  immediately  conclude  that  at  tliat  instant  it  is  six  o'clock  at  Greenwich. 
Thus  the  moon,  with  the  brighter  fixed  stars  near  her  path,  serve  the  purpose  of  a  chroncw 
meter. 

To  determine  the  longitude  in  this  way,  one  observer  measures  the  moon's  distance  from 
the  sun  or  a  bright  star  (one  of  those  in  the  Ephemeris) ;  another  observer  ot  the  same  time 
finds  the  altitudes  of  the  moon  and  star ;  and  a  third  should  observe  the  exact  time  by  a 
chronometer  or  good  watch  at  which  the  observations  were  made.  These  observations, 
corrected  for  refraction,  give  data  for  finding  what  would  be  the  apparent  place  of  the  moon 
in  the  heavens,  if  it  could  be  seen  fixim  the  centre  of  the  earth  at  that  time.  The  Nautical 
Almanac  enables  the  observer  to  find  the  hour  at  Greenwich,  when  the  position  of  the  moon 
in  the  heavens  was  such  as  he  observed  it,  and  the  interval  between  the  Greenwich  time 
and  his  own  gives  him  his  longitude. 

This  method  of  finding  the  longitude  is  commonly  practised  in  the  service  of  the  East 
India  Company,  and  in  the  navy.  By  it  the  longitude  may  be  generally  known  to  within 
twenty  miles,  and  very  often  much  nearer.  This,  although  less  accurate  (hun  the  latitude, 
is  yet  an  invaluable  acquisition  to  the  navigator.  A  striking  proof  how  much  it  may  be 
depended  on  has  been  given  by  a  distinguished  navigator  (Capt.  Basil  Hall,  R.  N.).  After 
a  voyage  of  8000  miles,  occupying  eighty-nine  days,  he  arrived  olf  Rio  de  Janeiro,  having 
passed  through  the  Pacific  Ocean,  rounded  Cape  Horn,  and  crossed  the  South  Atlantic, 
without  making  any  land.  When  within  a  week's  sail  of  Rio,  he  set  about  determining, 
by  lunar  observations,  the  ship's  course  and  place  at  a  determinate  moment ;  and  having 
found  this,  within  from  five  to  ten  miles,  he  trusted  to  the  ordinary  and  more  compendious 
way  of  finding  his  position,  such  as  is  used  in  short  trips,  for  the  remainder  of  his  voyage. 
When  he  arrived  within  fifteen  or  twenty  miles  of  the  coast  (according  to  his  estimation), 
he  hove  to  at  four  in  the  morning,  waiting  for  day-break.  He  then  proceeded,  altho'igh  the 
weather  was  hazy ;  but  about  eight  it  become  so  foggy  that  he  did  not  like  to  stand  in 
farther.  The  tog  sudden'y  cleared  ofl^,  and  then  he  had  tlie  satisfaction  to  see  the  Great 
Sugar-loaf  Rock,  which  stands  on  one  side  of  the  harbour,  so  nearly  right  a-head,  that  he 
liad  not  to  alter  his  course  above  a  jwint  in  order  to  hit  the  entrance  of  Rio. 

Occultations  of  stars  by  the  moon  serve  exactly  the  same  purpose  as  a  distance  of  the 
moon  from  a  star :  these,  however,  are  not  so  generally  observed  at  sea  as  on  hind.  They 
^ive  llie  distance  of  the  moon  from  the  star  with  almost  perfect  accuracy,  and  therefore  are 
an  excellent  method  of  determining  the  longitude.  When  an  occultation  has  been  observed, 
wo  can,  by  the  lunar  tables  or  the  Nautical  Almanac,  which  is  a  species  of  lunar  and  solar 
tables,  compute  the  distance  between  the  centre  of  the  moon  and  star  as  it  would  appear  at 
the  cartii's  centre  at  the  moment  the  occultation  was  observed,  provided  we  know  the  lon- 
gitude of  tiio  place  where  the  observation  was  made :  but  tjiis  longitude  is  the  very  thing 
\vc  want;  theretbre  we  Ciinnot  proceed  by  a  direct  process.  However,  we  may  know  the 
longitude  nearly  by  some  oilier  means ;  an  eclipse  of  one  of  Jupiter's  satellites,  for  exam- 
ple. Willi  this,  as  if  it  were  the  true  longitude,  we  may  calculate  the  apparent  distance 
between  the  star  and  centre  of  the  moon  reduced  to  the  earth's  centre  at  tlie  time  the  occul- 
tation was  seer  If  the  longitude  had  lieen  correctly  assumed,  tliis  would  have  been  exactly 
tlie  moon's  .scniidiameter;  but  it  will  difl'er  more  or  less,  according  to  the  magnitude  of  the 
error  wo  have  made  in  the  lussuined  longitude.  There  will,  however,  be  such  a  determi- 
nate connexion  between  the  error  of  the  longitude  and  the  difli'erence  between  the  moon's 
semidiuineter  mid  computed  distance  of  the  star  and  moon's  centre,  that  the  one  will  be  dedu- 
cible  from  tlie  otlior  by  calculation.  In  this  way,  then,  the  error  may  be  estimated,  and  a 
nearer  apiiroxiiuation  to  the  longitude  obtained;  and  a  repetition  of  the  proces.::  will  give  a 
still  more  correct  result. 


Iti 


IS! 
'J 


t 


i|)i 


■;!  kii 


il.  ^ 


i 


n 


Uft 


PRINCIPLES  t)F  GEOGRAPHY. 


.;t!fe 


Pabt  XL 


5.  Longitude  hy  the  Transit  of  the  Moon  over  the  Meridian. 


Let  T  be  the  time  by  the  clock  when  tlio  mfioii  i«  obsorvod  on  the  meridian  of  nny  place, 
t  the  time  of  transit  of  a  known  fixed  star,  24  +  x  tlio  interval  brtwoon  two  Hiiccessivo 
transits  of  the  same  star:  then  24  +  x  iT  -  t ::  3fl()°  :  difference  of  right  ascension  of  the 
moon  and  star  at  the  instant  the  moon  was  on  the  meridian ;  to  which  adding  the  known 
right  ascension  of  the  star,  the  right  ascension  (A)  of  tiic  moon  when  on  tiio  meridian  is 
detennine<l.  Now  the  moon's  right  ascension  when  on  the  meridian  of  Greenwich  is  given 
m  the  Nantical  Almanac  for  every  day  of  the  year,  from  whence  the  daily  increment  of  licr 
right  ascension  may  be  determined :  let,  therefore,  a  be  the  moon's  right  ascension  when  on 
the  meridian  of  Greenwich,  E  the  increment  of  right  ascension  in  the  time  between  two 
successive  transits  over  the  same  meridian;  then,  considering  the  change  of  right  ascension 
as  uniform, 

E  :  o  -  A  : :  360°  :  the  required  longitude. 

■  .        -  •  ,* 

6.  Longitude  hy  Siffnah. 

The  most  accurate  way  of  determining  "small  diifcrences  of  longitude  is  by  signals  made 
on  the  earth's  surface.  A  rocket  fired  from  an  elevated  spot  on  a  clear  ni^ht  may  be  seen 
distinctly  with  a  telescope  at  the  distance  of  twenty  or  thirty  miles:  therefore,  by  observing 
the  times  at  which  the  same  explosion  is  seen  at  two  places,  the  difference  of  longitudT  of 
the  places  may  be  found. 

The  same  method  will  apply  to  places  at  any  distance,  if  they  be  connected  by  a  chain 
of  stations  sufficiently  near  to  each  other  to  admit  of  a  rocket  to  be  seen  from  every  two 
adjoining  stations.  The  difference  of  longituds  between  Greenwich  and  Paris  was  deter- 
mmed  iu  1825  in  this  wny.  Rockets  were  exploded  at  Wrotlmm,  ond  seen  simultaneously 
at  Greenwich  and  Fairlight  Down:  also  at  Iji  Canche  on  the  French  coast,  which  were 
seen  at  Fairlight  and  Lignicrs ;  and  at  Mont  Javoult,  which  were  observed  at  Ligniera  and 
Paris. 

In  the  same  way  the  difference  of  longitude  between  Geneva  and  Milan  has  been  deter- 
mined by  signals  made  by  illumination  on  the  t.ops  of  intermediate  mountains. 

The  mtensely  brilliant  light  which  Licutonant  Urummond,  of  the  Royal  Engineers,  has 
proposed  for  light-houses,  and  which  is  produced  by  placing  a  ball  of  lime,  about  the  size  of 
a  pea,  in  a  flame  supported  by  oxygen  gas,  may  be  emidoyed  in  determining  differences  of 
longitude.  We  believe  that,  in  favourable  weather,  this  light  exhibited  on  the  top  of  Ben 
Lomond  may  be  seen  at  the  sjime  time  at  Edinburgh  and  in  Ireland :  indeed,  we  know  that 
it  has  actually  been  seen  in  the  north  of  Ireland.  Here,  then,  we  have  the  means  of  deter 
mining  with  great  exactness  tlie  diflerence  between  the  longitude  of  Uublin  and  Edinburgh. 

7.  Longitude  by  Triangulation. 
The  trigonometrical  survey  of  Britain  has  determined  the  longitude  of  all  the  principal 
points  on  the  coast,  as  well  as  the  mountains  and  cities  in  the  interior,  particularly  in  Eng- 
land. At  present  the  survey  is  suspended  in  Britain,  but  is  going  on  in  Ireland.  When 
this  is  completed,  the  British  survey  will  doubtless  be  restmied,  and  the  geography  of  the 
northern  part  of  the  island  made  as  perfect  in  its  minute  details  as  the  southern,  which, 
from  its  proximity  to  the  continent,  is  more  necessary  to  be  known  in  preparing  plans  of 
national  defence. 


CHAPTER  XXI. 


nKPRESEXTATION  OP  THE  EARTH. 


The  most  natural  and  correct  representation  which  can  be  given  of  the  geographical  divi- 
sions of  the  earth's  surface  is  that  which  is  made  on  a  sphere  or  globe.  In  this  way  the 
different  countries  may  bo  truly  delineated,  so  as  to  exhibit  jierfoctly  to  the  eye  their  relative 
position,  their  magnitude,  and  boundaries;  and  hy  such  a  representation  of  the  earth,  all  the 
problems  in  geography  may  bo  resolved  with  elegance  and  fiicility. 

But  although  the  surti'.ce  of  a  solid  having  the  exact  figure  of  the  earth,  or  differing  but 
little  fi-oiri  it,  affords  in  theory  the  most  complete  and  the  only  perfect  representation  of  any 
considerable  tract  of  country,  yet  there  is  a  limit  in  practice  to  this  precious  advantage.  A 
globe  of  a  moderate  size  serves  very  well  to  give  a  distinct  notion  of  tiie  figure,  the  magni- 
tude, the  position,  and  general  features  of  the  great  continents  and  islands:  but  tlic  largest 
globe  flint  can  conveniently  be  constructed  is  insufficient  for  minute  details;  and  then  We 
must  have  rncoiirse  to  the  more  simple,  although  less  perfect,  representations  of  ^^APS. 

It  is  imix)ssililo  to  represent  on  a  plane  a  large  extent  of  the  earti.'s  surface,  so  that  the 
distances  of  places  in  the  plane  map  shall  have  to  each  otliei"  precisely  the  same  proportion 
as  their  distances  on  the  gloljc.  To  obviate  this  (lilliciilty,  gengmphers  have  had  rocoursf 
to  different  methods  of  representing  portions  of  the  globe  on  a  plane. 


■Ji'- 1 


hRT 


n. 


y  place, 
icessivo 
1  of  the 
I  known 
ridian  is 
is  given 
It  of  her 
tvhen  on 
ccn  two 
scenBion 


als  made 
be  seen    ' 
)bserving 
xitud''  of 

y  a  chain 
ivcry  two 
:aG  deter- 
taneously 
lich  were 
rnier3  and 

een  deter- 

ncers,  has 
he  size  of 
■fences  of 
top  of  Ben 
know  that 
I  of  deter 
Winburgh. 


principal 

in  Eng- 

When 

>hy  of  the 

rn,  which, 

plans  of 


lical  divi- 
s  way  the 
ir  relative 
Lh,  all  the 

ering  but 
m  of  any 
tta^e.  A 
|io  magni- 
!■  largest 
then  we 

lAPS. 

that  the 

|)roportion 

rocoursf 


TT 


^' 


f^' 


Book  L 


REPRESENTATION  OP  THE  EARTlt        K,« 


153 


By  one  method  the  countries  are  represented  by  tlio  rules  of  perspective,  as  they  wonid 
appear  to  an  eye  tiiat  should  view  them  on  the  surface  of  a  sphere  from  a  given  point  The 
ditibreiit  positions  which  may  bo  aiisuiiiod  for  tlie  point  from  whicii  the  sphere  is  viewed  give 
rise  to  (liflercnt  projections,  whicii  all  answer  very  well  when  the  surface  to  be  represented 
is  of  small  extent,  and  the  point  of  view,  or  projecting  point,  is  nearly  over  its  centre. 
However,  when  the  surface  is  of  great  extent,  a  whole  hemisphere  for  instance,  those  places 
which  1  ie  near  the  border  of  the  projection  are  in  them  all  much  distorted. 

According  to  another  method,  the  spiierical  surface  to  be  represented  is  supposed  to  be  a 
cone  whose  vertex  is  somewhere  in  the  polar  axis  produced,  and  its  curved  surfaco  either 
touches  tlie  sphere  at  tiie  middle  parallel  of  the  map,  or  falls  within  the  sphere  at  tlio  mid- 
dle parallel,  and  without  it  at  tiie  extreme  parallels.  The  surface  of  the  cone  is  then  sup- 
posed to  be  extended  into  a  plane.  This  way  of  constructing  maps  is  called  tlie  method  of 
development. 

There  are  other  mathematical  hypotheses  according  to  which  maps  are  delineated,  and 
one  in  particular  by  which  marine  charts  are  constructed.  In  this,  tlie  parallels  of  latitude 
and  circles  of  longitude  are  all  represented  by  straight  lines  (that  is,  a  line  making  always 
the  same  angle  with  the  meridian),  and  the  course  of  a  ship  sailing  always  on  the  same 
rhomb  is  also  a  straight  line.  A  representation  of  the  earth  in  this  way  is  commonly 
called  Mercator's  chart,  although  the  invention  is  due  to  an  English  mathematician,  Edward 
Wright.    Charts  of  this  construction  are  of  great  importance  in  navigation. 

I.   CONSTRUCTION  OF  MAPS  DY  PROJECTION. 

There  are  two  projections  of  the  sphere  by  which  portions  of  its  surface  may  be  truly 
delineated  by  the  rules  of  perspective :  the  c  iooraphic  and  the  stergooraphio.  In  each, 
the  plane  on  which  the  projection  is  made  is  called  the  plane  of  projection. 

1.  orthographic  PROJECTION. 

To  project  any  point  in  space  orthograpb'r.ally  on  a  plane,  a  perpendicular  is  to  be  drawn 
from  the  point  on  the  plane  and  the  bottom  of  the  perpendicular ;  that  is,  the  point  in  which 
it  meets  the  plane  is  the  orthographic  projection  of  the  point. 

The  orthographic  projection  of  a  line  of  anv  kind  on  a  plane  is  found  by  supposing  per- 
pendiculars to  be  drawn  from  every  point  in  the  line,  and  that  line  on  the  plane  wliich  passes 
through  the  bottom  of  all  the  perpendiculars  in  the  orthographic  projection  of  tlie  proposed 
line. 

It  is  easy  to  see  that  the  orthographic  projection  of  a  straight  line  must  be  a  straight  line, 
because  the  perpendiculars  drawn  from  every  point  in  it  to  the  plane  of  projection  will  all 
lie  in  a  plane,  and  the  common  section  of  two  planes  is  a  straight  line.  It  is  also  apparent 
that  the  projection  of  a  rectilineal  figure  will  be  a  rectilineal  figure. 

If  a  circle  be  parallel  to  the  plane  of  projection,  its  orthographic  projection  or  representa- 
tion will  be  a  circle:  for  the  perpendiculars  supposed  to  be  drawn  from  every  point  in  the 
circle  to  the  plane  of  projection  will  all  be  on  the  curve  surface  of  a  cylinder,  and  they  may 
be  considered  as  constituting  tliat  surfiice.  The  circle  and  its  projection  will  be  tlie  top  and 
Iwttom  of  the  cylinder ;  and  since  they  are  parallel,  they  will  be  alike  and  equal. 

If  the  plane  in  which  a  circle  lies  be  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  projection,  its  projec- 
tion will  manifestly  be  a  straight  line,  which  will  be  equal  in  length  to  the  diameter;  and 
the  projection  of  any  arc  reckoned  from  the  extremities  of  the  diameter  will  be  projected 
into  its  versed  sine ;  also  the  complement  of  the  arc,  or  what  it  wonts  of  ninety  degrees,  will 
bo  projected  into  its  sine. 

But  if  a  circle  be  in  a  plane  which  is  neither  parallel  nor  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of 
projection,  then  its  projection  will  neither  be  a  circle  nor  a  straight  line ;  it  will  be  an  oval 
figure.  The  boimding  line  will  be  in  ellipse,  a  curve  formed  by  cutting  a  cylinder  by  a 
plane  oblique  to  its  axis ;  and  it  is  al^o  one  of  the  conic  sections. 

An  exact  notion  may  lie  formpd  c''  the  orthographic  projection  of  any  line  or  figure  by 
holding  it  in  the  light  of  tlie  suti,  and  observing  its  shadow  formed  on  a  plane  which  is  per- 
jinndicular  to  the  directiuu  r:  the  solar  rays.  The  rays  which  pass  close  to  the  figure  are 
the  perpendiculars  to  the  plane,  and  the  shadow  is  the  projection  of  the  figure. 

The  plans  and  sections  by  whicii  artificers  execute  different  constructions  are  no  other 
than  orthographic  projections  of  the  things  to  be  constructed ;  with  these  all  workmen  are 
familiar. 

The  orthographic  projection  of  any  object, — tlie  terrestrial  glebe,  for  example, — with  nil 
its  circles,  and  the  continents  and  islands  on  its  surface,  is  nearly  the  representation  or  pic- 
ture which  an  artist  would  delineate  on  a  plane  surface,  if  he  meant  to  represent  the  globe 
at  a  great  distance  from  the  eye ;  and  it  is  exactly  the  appearance  which  tlie  globe  would 
have,  supposing  an  eye  could  view  it  at  an  infinite  distance. 

From  the  nature  of  tliis  projection,  it  appears  that  the  orthographic  representation  of  half 
the  surfiice  of  tiie  globe  will  show  nearly  the  true  figure  and  proportions  of  rnuntrics  about 
the  middle ;  that  is,  directly  opiiosito  to  the  supposed  position  of  the  eve :  but,  tow  ards  the 

Vol.  I.  U 


I  m 


i'iv 


S   I 


■ 

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, 

m 

■1  j 

.'    i 

■i   ■ 

i 

\d 


154 


PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  II. 


Hi'it 


ilJ! 


pxtremitics  of  the  map,  tho  frrapliic  representations  of  places  will  imperfectly  exhibit  their 
true  figure  and  position.  For  thin  reason  it  is  seldom  employed  in  geography,  although  its 
use  ia  tTO(|Ucnt  in  astronomy. 

(A.)     To  project  the  Sphere  orthographically  on  the  PlaM  of  the  Eipiator. 

About  any  point,  C,  as  a  centre  (_Jig.  45),  with  any  radius,  C  A,  describe  a  circle  B  A  00 

to  represent  the  equator.     Draw  two  diameters, 
45  AC  180,  B  C  00,  perpendicular  to  each  other : 

these  will  be  the  projections  of  meridians  distant 
90°  from  each  other,  and  C  will  be  the  projection 
of  the  pole. 

Divide  each  quadrant  mto  six  equal  parts,  and 
let  A  15,  15  30  be  two  of  these ;  draw  diameters 
through  15  and  30,  and  these  will  be  the  projec- 
tions of  meridians  15°  ond  30°  from  A  C  180;  and, 
'  in  this  way,  meridians  dividing  the  ecjuator  into 
twenty-four  equal  parts  may  be  represented.  Of 
these,  any  one,  C  A,  may  be  assumed  as  the  first 
meridian. 

To  project  the  parallels  of  latitude:  divide  A  B, 
one  of  the  quadrants,  into  nine  e(|ual  parts ;  let  80, 
70,  60  be  the  throe  of  these  points  of  division  ad- 
joining to  B:  draw  perpendiculnrs  thim  these,  and 
all  the  other  points  on  the  radius  A  C  meeting  it 
in  80,  70,  60,  &c.  About  C  as  a  centre  at  tlie  distances  C  80,  C  70,  C  CO,  &c.  describe 
circles,  and  these  will  be  the  projections  of  parallels  of  latitude  at  the  distance  of  ten 
degrees. 

The  polar  circles  and  tropics  may  be  tbund  by  laying  off  an  arc  of  23^°  from  A  towards 
B,  and  from  B  towards  A,  and  drawing  perpendiculars  from  the  points  thus  dcfemiined  on 
C  A,  circles  described  alwut  C,  through  the  bottoms  of  the  perpendiculars,  will  be  the  pro- 
jections of  the  polar  circle  and  tro|)i(:.     In  this  way,  the  projection  may  bo  completed. 

It  is  easy  to  see  that  the  regions  within  the  polur  circle  may  be  roproscnted  by  this  pro- 
jection so  as  to  give  a  tolerable  notion  of  tlioir  position  and  magnitude,  judging  by  the  eye; 
but  that  the  appearance  of  the  cciuatorial  regions  will  be  altogether  distorted. 

(B.)  To  project  the  Sphere  orthographically  on  the  Plane  of  the  Meridian. 
Describe  any  circle,  N  E  S  Q  (Jig.  46.),  to  represent  tho  meridian,  and  draw  two  diame- 
ters, E  C  Q,  N  C  S,  perpendicular  to  each  other; 
the  former  may  be  taken  as  the  projection  of  the 
equator,  and  then  the  latter  will  represent  a  meri- 
dian 90°  from  tho  meridian  N  E  S. 

To  represent  other  meridians :  divide  a  quadrant 

S  E  into  six  ('([ual  parts,  ns  at  15,  30,  &c. ;  from 

^^  these  points  of  division  draw  perpendiculars  15  «, 

10  30  6,  &c.  on  E  a     DescrilK?  ellipses  N  «  S,  N  6  S, 


-iy  having  a  common  transverse  axis  N  S,  and  the  lines 
C  a,  C  6,  &c.  t()r  their  semiconjugate  axes;  and 
these  will  be  tho  projections  of  meridians  which  pass 
through  every  fitlecnth  degree  of  the  e(iUtttor.  Or, 
by  dividing  E  S  into  nine  equal  parts,  tliey  may  be 
made  to  pass  tlirougli  every  tenth  degree. 

For  the  parallels  of  latitude :  divide  the  quadrants 
E  N,  N  Q  each  into  nine  equal  [wrts  at  10,  20,  30, 
&c. ;  join  tho  corresponding  numbers  by  straight 
lines,  and  these  will  be  the  projections  of  porallels  of  latitude  at  distances  of  10°,  20°,  30°, 
&c.  from  the  eiiuator.  The  tropics  and  polar  circles  are  to  bo  drawn  in  the  same  way  ;  the 
former  at  23i°  on  each  side  of  the  equator,  and  the  latter  2J}i°  from  the  jxiles. 

In  this  projection,  the  polar  regions,  and  all  places  near  the  meridian  N  E  S  Q,  are  very 
much  distorted  in  appearance  to  the  eye  :  it  is  only  towards  the  centre  that  there  is  any  con- 
siderable resemblance  of  a  projected  portion  of  the  earth's  surface  to  its  appearance  on  a 
globe. 

2.    BTEREOGRAPHIC    PROJECTION. 

In  the  stereographic  projection,  the  eye  is  sujiposed  to  be  situated  at  a  point  in  the  surface 
of  the  sphere,  and  the  plane  on  which  the  projection  is  to  be  made  is  the  plane  of  that  great 
circle,  which  is  everywhere  90°  distant  from  the  position  of  the  eye :  hence  it  nuist  be  evi- 


Ei  '^ii 


^m 


M'' 


Paut  II.        M 


quadrant 

c. ;  from 

liars  15  «, 

S,  N  6  S, 

the  lines 

lixes;   untl 

[vhich  p;is8 

itor.     Or, 

jy  may  be 

I  quadrants 

^0, 20,  ao, 

straiffht 

'  20°,  ao°, 

|\vay ;  the 

are  very 
any  con- 
lance  on  a 


lie  surface 
Ithat  great 
Ist  be  evi- 


f- 


Book  I. 


rei»i.EkSentatu)n  of  the  earth. 


155 


dent  that  tlio  eye  can  sec  only  llie  innidc  or  concave  Kurlitce;  howcvrr,  wo  niny  sup|>nse  the 
sphere  to  iio  traimpureiit,  and  its  various  circles,  and  the  isluniis,  coiitiiicntH,  iSLc.  drlineated 
on  its  siu'tiice  to  ho  seen  through  it.  If  we  now  conccive'a  line  to  be  drawn  IVuim  the  eye 
to  any  jjoint  on  the  concave  siirliice,  the  point  in  which  that  line  cuts  the  plane  of  projection 
will  be  the  projection  of  the  point  on  the  spherical  surfiice. 

To  illustrate  wimt  has  been  said,  let  E  A  (>  B  CA/j-.  47.)  bo  a  great  circle  of  the  sphere 

p  If  r  s  a  plane  passing  through  its  centre,  and  perpen- 
dicular to  the  plane  of  the  great  circle;  let  C  E  bo  a 
diameter  of  the  sphere  perpendicular  to  the  plane;  then 
assuming  p  q  r  s  as  the  plane  of  projection,  E,  one  end 
of  that  diameter,  may  bo  taken  as  the  place  of  the  eye 
or  projecting  point.  If,  now,  straight  lines  E  A,  E  B, 
EC,  ED,  &.C.  bo  drawn  to  A,  B,  C,  I),  any  points  on 
the  Burfiice  of  the  sphere,  the  points  a,  b,  c,  </,  &c.  in 
which  tlie.se  lines  meet  the  plane  p  r,  will  be  the  pro- 
jections of  the  corresponding  points  on  the  surface  of 
the  sphere.  Let  A  1)  B  be  any  circle  of  the  sphere : 
conceive  a  straight  line  to  be  drawn  from  E,  the  place 
of  the  eye,  to  D,  any  point  in  tiie  circundcrence.  If  D, 
the  end  of  this  line,  be  now  carried  round  llie  circle, 
supposing  it  always  to  pass  through  the  fixed  point  E,  the  line  will  generate  the  surface  of 
a  cone  whose  base  is  the  circle,  and  vertex  the  place  of  the  eye;  and  t'.e  curve  line  adb, 
which  is  tiie  coirimon  section  of  the  plane  p  r,  and  the  surface  of  the  oone  will  be  the  pro- 
jection of  the  circle. 
It  will  now  be  sufficiently  obvious, 

1.  TluU  every  circle  which  pusses  throuffh  the  eye  will  he  projected  into  or  repreit,  ''d 
by  a  straiffht  line  on  the  plane  of  projection. 

2.  That  every  circle  whose  plane  is  parallel  to  the  plane  of  the  circle  will  b';  projected 
into  a  circle. 

These  two  properties  hold  true  wherever  the  eye  be  situated.  The  assumptioi..  however, 
that  it  is  in  the  surliice  of  the  sphere  gives  rise  to  geometrical  properties  which  are  peculiar 
to  this  proj(!ction,  and  which  by  their  simplicity  and  elegance  give  it  great  value. 

One  geometrical  property  is  this:  whatever  be  the  position  of  tlie  circle  ADB  (or  base 
of  the  cone)  on  the  surface  of  tlie  sphere,  the  portion  of  the  cone  between  the  projecting 
point  E  and  the  plane  of  projection  p  r  is  always  similar  to  the  whole  cone.  If  the  plane 
of  the  base  be  parallel  to  the  plane  of  projection,  the  truth  of  this  proposition  is  obviout ; 
but  writers  on  geometry  prove,  tiuit  when  it  is  oblique,  still  the  cones  whose  bases  are  ADB 
and  adb,  and  common  vertex  E,  are  similar ;  only  tiioy  have  contrary  positions.  From  the 
similarity  of  the  whole  cone  to  the  part  cut  off,  it  follows  that, 

3.  In  the  atereoirraphical  projection  of  the  sphere,  the  representation  of  any  circle  that 
does  not  pass  through  the  eye  will  always  be  a  circle. 

There  is  another  proposition  demonstrated  by  writers  on  spherical  geometry  which  is  of 
groat  imiwrtaiice  in  tliis  projection ;  viz.  if  two  straight  linos  be  drawn  from  any  point  on 
the  surface  of  the  sphere  to  touch  it  in  that  point,  their  representation  on  the  plane  of  pro- 
jection will  contain  an  angle  exactly  equal  to  the  angle  contained  by  the  lines  themselves. 
Since  straight  lines  touching  the  surface  of  a  sphere  at  any  point  may  be  regarded  as  tan- 
gents to  any  circles  of  the  sphere  passing  tlirough  that  point,  we  have  this  otiier  remarkable 
property : — 

4.  The  angle  made  on  the  surface  of  the  sphere  by  two  circles  which  cut  each  other,  and 
the  angle  made  by  circles  which  are  their  representations,  are  in  all  cases  equal. 

This  projection  is  extremely  convenient  in  practice,  because  a  circle  may  be  easily  de- 
scribed when  three  points  in  its  circumference  are  given,  or  when  two  points  and  its  radius 
are  known ;  also,  the  projierty  of  lines  making  angles  at  their  intersection  on  the  surface  of 
the  sphere  etpinl  to  tliose  formed  by  their  projections,  is  of  great  value  in  tlie  representation 
of  the  surface  of  tiio  sphere  of  a  plane,  jloreover,  the  contraction  of  the  map  towards  the 
extremities  of  an  liemisphere  is  not  so  great  as  in  tlie  orthographical  projection ;  on  all  these 
accounts,  the  stereographical  projection  deserves  a  preference. 

Supposing  K  to  be  the  projecting  point,  or  place  of  the  eye,  and  pr  the  plane  of  projection, 
lot  C  bo  the  point  of  the  sphere  opposite  to  E,  and  therefore  90°  everywhere  from  the  circle, 
which  is  tlie  common  section  of  the  sphere  and  plane  of  projection ;  it  is  evident  that  any 
arc,  A  C,  of  a  great  circle  passing  through  C  and  E  will  be  projected  into  a  straight  line  a  c; 
now  this  line  is  manifestly  the  tangent  of  the  angle  A  E  C  to  the  radius  E  c,  and  the  measure 
of  this  angle  is  half  the  arc  A  C. 

5.  Hence  it  follows,  that  if  a  great  circle  pass  through  the  projecting  point,  any  arc  of 
that  circle,  reckoned  from  the  opposite  point  of  the  sphere,  is  projected  into  a  straight  line 
nassi'ng  through  the  centre,  and  equal  to  the  tangent  of  that  arc. 


if 


fe. 


I*  ■'! 


S    p. ' 


166 


PRINCIPLES  OF  GKOGRAPIIY. 


Part  II. 


(A)  To  projvct  the  Sphere  ttereoffruphiiiilly  on  Ihv  Plum  of  the  Ei/tuilor. 

Deicribe  a  circio,  A  1)  |)  (Jiff,  48.),  to  rcpreHoiit  tlu-  equator,  and  ilriiw  iiiiy  ilminetpr 

A  C  D  mill  a  riuliua  C  1)  m'r|H.'iiiliculitr  to  A  I>. 
Hiip|X)Min^r  now  timttlic  iMirnllolsoflatitmlo  tocvery 
tfiitii  (Icffrco  are  to  lie  roprcscntcd  in  the  inuj), 
divide  A  i),  a  quadnint  of  the  circle,  li.iu  iiineeqiiiil 
imrts,  nH  at  the  (luiiits  10,  '^0,  'M,  &c.  and  dniw 
Htruight  lineH  from  the  points  of  diviHion  to  U,  the 
extremity  of  the  diameter  A  C  I),  nieetiii);  the 
riidiug  n  C  in  tlin  iioints  10,  30,  IJO,  «Stc.  Then, 
nliout  the  centre  C  describe  circles  to  pits!i  throu^jfli 
the  points  10,  20, 130,  &.c.,  and  tliese  will  rcprofHnit 
the  parallels  of  10,  20,  30,  Sic.  dc);recs  of  lati- 
tude. In  this  way,  all  the  parallels  of  latitude  nmy 
be  found,  as  also  the  tropic  and  polar  circio,  hy  lay- 
ing off  arcs  of  83,}°  and  665°  from  H  towards  A. 

Next  divide  the  circumference  of  the  circio  into 
into  2i  eipinl  parts,  and  draw  radii  from  tlio  centre 


.o  the  points  of  division, 
one  hour. 


These  will  represent  the  incridians  which  differ  in  longitude  by 


quadrantal  arcs,  N  Q,  into  nine  equal  parts,  an  at  10,  20,  30,  &c.,  and  di 
lines  from  S  to  the  points  of  division,  meeting  C  Q  in  1,  2,  3,  &c.    Then,  a  i 


(B)  To  project  the  Sphere  itrreographically  on  the  Plane  of  a  Meridian. 
Describe  any  circle  N  Q  S  E  (Jig.  49.),  to  represent  the  meridian  on  which  the  projection 

is  to  be  made ;  which  should  be  so  chosen  as  to  include 
nearly  one  of  the  continents, — the  eastern,  for  in- 
stance :  this  will  be  accomplished  if  N  E  S  be  the 
meridian  20°  west  from  London.  Draw  the  diameter 
N  C  S,  which  will  represent  the  meridian  tiiat 
passes  through  the  projecting  point,  and  therefore  is 
perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  projection.  Then  N 
will  represent  the  north,  and  S  the  south  pole ;  draw 
jQ  another  diameter,  E  C  Q,  which  will  represent  the 
equator. 

Since,  by  the  nature  of  the  projection,  all  the 
meridians  will  be  represented  by  circles  which  pass 
through  the  poles  N,  S,  it  will  be  sufficient  if  we 
determine  the  points  in  which  they  cut  the  equator : 
we  shall  suppose  the  meridians  to  pass  through  every 
tenth  degree  of  longitude :  tiic  points  v.'horo  tlioy  cut 
the  equator  will  be  found  by  dividing  one  ot  the 

drawing  straight 
.  circle  described 
through  the  points  N  1  S  will  represent  the  meridian  which  cuts  the  equator  10°  from  Q, 
and  a  circle  through  N  2  S  will  be  the  meridian  that  cuts  the  equator  20°  from  Q.  The 
remaining  meridians  N  3  S,  &c.  will  be  determined  exactly  in  the  same  way ;  and  it  appears 
firom  the  construction,  that  the  centres  of  the  circles  will  be  in  the  diameter  E  tj  and  its 
prolongation,  and  their  distances  from  the  centre  will  be  the  tangents  of  10°,  20°,  &c. :  viz. 
the  inclination  of  the  circles  to  the  plane  of  the  primitive ;  also,  that  their  radii  will  be  the 
secants  of  the  same  inclinations. 

To  describe  the  parallels  of  latitude,  divide  the  four  quadrants  each  into  nine  etpial  parts, 
as  at  80,  70,  60,  &c.,  and  draw  straight  lines  from  E,  one  end  of  the  diameter  E  Q,  to  the 
points  of  division,  meeting  N  S  in  8,  7,  6,  &c.  Then  circles  described  through  80,  8,  80 ; 
70,  7,  70,  &c.,  will  represent  the  parallels  of  80°,  70°,  &c.  The  centres  of  all  the  circles 
will  be  in  the  line  N  S,  and  distant  from  it  by  the  secants  of  the  distances  of  the  parallels 
from  the  pole :  also,  the  radii  will  bo  the  tangents  of  the  same  distances.  The  polar  circles 
and  tropics  being  described  by  the  same  rules  at  the  distances  23^°  and  661°  from  the  poles, 
the  projection  will  be  completed. 

(C.)  To  project  the  Sphere  stereographically  on  the  Plane  of  the  Horizon  for  a  given 

Latitude. 

In  this  projection,  the  eye  is  supposed  to  be  in  the  nadir  of  the  place  for  which  the  pro- 
jection is  made. 

On  C  (Jig.  50.)  and  C  (Jig.  HI.)  as  centres  with  any  radius,  describe  circles  \V  .\  E  S, 
W'N'E'S',  of  which//?-.  .50.  is  to  be  the  primitive  or  horizon ;  the  oihcr,, fig.  51.,  is  to  serve 
for  determining  the  position  of  the  circles  to  be  described  on  _fig.  50.  Draw  the  diameters 
N  S,  W  E,  N'S',  W'H'  in  both  circles  [icrpcndicular  to  one  another ;  then  N  S  in  Jig.  .')0.  wil: 
be  tlie  projection  of  the  meridian,  and  W  E  tlic  projection  of  the  circle  passing  through 


af 


mil  parts, 
Q,  to  the 

80,  8,  80 ; 

the  circles 
parallels 

)lar  circles 
the  poles, 

•  a  given 
;h  the  pro- 


through 


i 


DOOK  I. 


REPRESENTATION  OF  THE  KARTII. 


\57 


the  caHt  and  west  poiiitH  of  the  horizon  and  the  /.cnitli, — that  is,  tho  prime  vertical  j  N  will 
ho  the  north  |X)iiit  of  tho  horizon,  H  tho  oouth,  and  E  urul  W  the  caut  and  west  points. 


6- 


81 3 

jL_40 

^ 

T^x^v^o 

/^ 

'in       X'-Vv 

/    \     ''' 

•"'''       \^' 

/  yc.'''' 

/  ^.v'--;'-^^' 

y^    V.-Y" 

IV  41';':^^'-"- C 

"y^                            \      x^ 

X" ^4(1 

\         y^^' 

\              / 

\X           Q 

"■'--    \      / 

.'t\. 

'~^,\    / 

.'^....™::-^ 

^Zd 

S' 


Make  tho  arc  NT',  or  tho  angle  N'  C  P',  fig.  51.,  equal  to  the  latitude  of  the  place;  joiri 
W'P'  cutting  C  N'  in  P;  make  C  P  in  *^.  50.  equal  to  C  P  mfig.  51.,  and  P,/^'.  50.,  will 
ho  the  projection  of  the  north  pole.  Draw  the  diameter  E  Q,  fig.  51.,  perpendicular  to 
P'  C;(' ;  jom  W'Q' meeting  C  S'  in  Q'.  Take  C  Q,  fig.  50.,  equal  to  C  U',  fig.  51. ;  de- 
Hcribe  a  circle  through  tho  points  W,  Q,  E,  and  the  arc  W  Q  E  will  represent  the  equator. 
Next,  to  project  the  parallels  of  latitude, — for  example,  those  which  are  4(P  and  20°  from 
the  polo, — from  P',  fig.  51.,  take  P'  40  and  P'  40,  each  arcs  of  40'  on  opposite  sides  of  P' ; 
also,  P'  20,  P'  20,  arcs  of  20°.  Join  W  40,  W'40,  meeting  C  N'  in  m  and  n ;  also  W  20, 
W  20,  meeting  C  N'  in  r  and  ».  In  N  C  S,  fig.  50.,  take  C  m,  C  ?i,  0  r,  C  if,  equal  to  C  w, 
C  n,  C  r,  C  lyfig.  51. ;  describe  circles  on  mn,r  s  as  diameters,  and  these  will  be  projections 
of  parallels  of  latitude  at  the  distances  of  40°  and  20°  from  the  pole.  In  this  way  may  all 
tiie  parallels,  also  the  tropics  and  jwlar  circle,  be  projected. 

To  project  the  meridian :  in  fig.  51.  draw  S'  B  perpendicular  to  N'  S',  meeting  P'  p 
produced  in  B;  take  C  A,  fig.  50.,  equal  to  S'  B,  fig.  51.,  and  through  A  draw  a  perpen- 
dicular to  C  A.  Let  us  suppose  that  the  meridians  are  to  mako  with  each  other  angles  of 
15° :  at  P,  in  the  lino  P  A,  draw  P  15  and  P  15  on  each  side  of  P  A,  making  angles  with 
it  of  1.5° ;  and,  in  like  manner,  P  30,  P  30,  making  angles  of  30°,  and  so  on  to  angles  of 
75°.  On  A,  as  a  centre,  describe  a  circle  to  pass  through  P ;  this  will  pass  througii  W  and 
E,  and  will  be  the  projection  of  the  six  o'clock  hour  circle  in  the  heavens,  or  that  meridian 
on  the  globe  that  is  perpendicular  to  the  meridian  of  the  place  for  which  the  projection  is 
made.  On  the  points  15, 15  describe  ores  a  P  o',  a  P  a'  to  pass  through  P,  and  meet  the 
|)rojection  of  the  horizon  in  a,  a' ;  a,  a' ;  and  in  like  manner  on  30,  30  os  centres  describe 
the  arcs  h  V  h',  b  P  b\  &c,  all  passing  througii  P :  these  will  be  the  projections  of  meridians 
on  the  terrestrial  sphere,  or  of  hour  circles  on  tlie  celestial  sphere.  In  this  way,  the  pro- 
jection may  be  completed. 

3.    GLOBULAR  PROJECTION. 

In  the  orthographic  projection,  equal  portions  of  the  earth's  spherical  surface  are  repre- 
sented by  unequal  plane  surfaces;  and  the  deviation  from  equality  in  the  surface  to  be 
represented,  and  its  plane  representation,  increases  from  the  centre  to  the  circumference  of 
the  projection. 

The  same  is  tnio  of  the  stereographic  projection,  but  with  this  difference,  that  the  dis- 
tortion in  the  representation  of  the  figure  of  any  portion  of  the  spherical  siirfiices  proceeds 
in  a  contrary  direction :  in  the  former  case,  the  degrees  of  longitude  and  latitude  are  gra- 
dually contracted  from  the  centre  to  the  circumference ;  but  in  the  latter,  they  are  enlarged. 

In  the  stereographic  projection,  tlie  projecting  ptiint,  or  point  of  view,  is  the  pole  of  the 
circle  on  which  the  projection  is  made ;  and  in  tho  orthographic,  it  may  be  supposed  in  the 
axis,  and  at  a  very  great,  or  rathe,  indefinitely  great,  distance.  It  is  this  change  of  position 
of  the  point  of  view  that  protluces  the  change  in  the  direction  in  wiiich  the  degrees  of  lati- 
tude or  longitude  are  contracted.  Hence  it  maybe  supixisod,  that,  by  taking  a  point  of  view 
at  some  finite  distance  greater  than  the  radius  of  the  spliere,  a  perspective  representition  will 
be  obtained,  in  which  the  degrees  in  the  representation  will  be  nearly  ciiual,  and  the  deviation 
from  equality  in  the  representation  of  equal  portions  of  the  spherical  surface  in  some  mea- 
sure corrected. 

Vol.  I.  14 


■:  M 


>^ 


;'M 


yL^_  i  ' 


£ 


■"    li 


jj   '-^f^^-H 


\l» 


PRINCIPLES  or  (JKOfJRAPIIY. 


Part  I) 


Ix't  A  I)  H  (^fif(.  .V2.)  Ih"  ti  wH-tion  of  tho  iplierc 
by  a  pliinn  (mHHinn;  tliroii);)!  K,  tlin  |xiirit  of  virvv, 
nntl  ('  tliii  ci'iilns  'Iruw  tlio  (Imiiii'tnr  /  I)  to  |Nii<k 
tliriiiiiih  K,  mill  ilruw  A  ('  It  |i)'r|H>iiili(:ular  to  1>  K. 
Hiiioi  tlin  wliiilo  i|im(lriiMt  A  F  Im  to  bo  prfijcrtcd 
into  Ihi*  rHiliiiri  A  (',  if  it  lio  jKiMMiblit  to  inako  bn 
rcproHi'iitiitionNoriHiiml  ixirtionit  of  it  mmrly  (iipml, 
itM  biiivi'N  A  K  iiiiil  K  V  limy  Im!  h.-'kiiiiiciI  iix  r<'pr>>- 
Ht'iitiMl  by  A  II  mill  il  C,  ImlvuH  of  llii;  rniliUH: 
tlicrutiirc,  II  lino  ilrnwn  from  K  to  K  niimt  liiiu'ct 
tbc  riuiiim  in  II.  'I'Iiih  ilutormincK  I)  b],  the  iHm- 
tana'  nf  Ihc  projnHiiiff  poini,  tn  he  viiuul  li>  K  G, 
a  ptrpvnilicvlar  from  tin:  miildli;  nf  tlir  nuudrant. 
To  provn  tbis  (jCDinctrical  pro|)otiitinii,  draw  A  V 
nmi  K  C  iiitnrHcctintf  in  I,  and  join  II  I.  Tbcn  A 
1=1  F  nnd  A  1  :  I  F  : :  A  II :  11  C ;  tbfiroforo  II  I 
IM  iNiriiilol  to  C  F :  ln-ncn,  K  I :  I  C  : :  K  II :  II E : : 
G  C :  C  E.  Now,  K  l=F  (}  mid  I  C=(J  C ;  tborr- 
foro  F  G :  G  C : :  G  C :  C  E :  bunco  F  (JC  E=:(i 
C«==K  G'=F  G-G  D;  tbiroforu  0  E=G  I),  iinil, 
tnkiiif;  iiwiiy  tliR  liiiit  C  I)  commoii  to  butli,  D  E  ia 
oqiml  tn  C  G  or  U)  K  G. 
linnet!  it  npponrs  tlint  Ibo  diBtanco  D  E  in  tbti  Bine  of  45'';  and  thorcforo  noiiriv  71  of 
"iicb  jiarts  us  llif  nuliiw  C  A  contains  KH).  Tbin  projection  wiw  first  snjofeHtod  by  Al.  DoIh- 
liiri<,  mill  is  now  cotniiiiiiily  callod  tlio  Globubir  projection.  If  we  8up[H)so  tbo  (lundrant  A 
F  divided  into  ton  equal  purts,  tben  tbe  projections  of  tbe  arcs  of  0°,  reckoning  from  F  to  A, 
will  be  as  in  tbia  table,  in  wbicli  tbc  radius  C  A  is  supposed  to  be  10. 


Arc. 

Kt'prciienmtiiin. 

Arc. 

Ri'prcaciilntlnn. 

(K>.. 

110 

.Wl 

413.. 

.MO 

1.017 

tf  .. 

IS 

.9H 

M  .. 

(Kl 

1.0'JO 

JH  .. 

B? 

sm 

K\  .. 

7'J 

1.013 

S7  .. 

% 

1.004 

M  .. 

«1 

.11117 

3B  ... 

45 

1.013 

fl  .. 

no 

.UM 

N  80 


,     1   I 


Prom  tliis  t<iblo  it  appears,  that  the  appro.xiinntion  to  equality  in  the  projection  of  equal  arc8 
of  a  circle  perpendicular  to  tbe  plane  of  i)rojnetion  is  considerable. 

According  to  tbe  principles  of  perspectivis  in  tbis  projection  the  circles  of  tbo  sphere  will 
lie  represented  by  ellipses;  and  they  navo  been  so  dolincatcd  in  two  hemispheres,  projected, 
drawn,  and  beautifully  engraved  by  Mr.  Joseph  Lowry,  of  liondon.  He  has  placed  London 
at  the  centre  of  tbe  northern  hemisphere,  and  instead  of  .707,  Dolahire's  distance  of  tho 
projecting  point,  be  has  made  it  .88  of  the  radius. 

In  general,  however,  tbe  projection  is  made  on  a  meridian,  and  the  circleB  of  tbo  sphero 
are  represented  by  circles,  and  without  any  regard  to  the  distance  of  a  point  of  view.  .\lst), 
the  dfgroes  of  longitude  on  tbe  equator,  and  of  latitude  on  a  meridian,  are  made  all  equal. 
With  tiiese  simplijications,  the  meridians  and  parallels  on  a  hemisphere  of  the  earth's  sur- 
face may  be  represented  by  the  following  construction  : — 

Let  us  suppose  the  parallels  of  latitude  to  be  traced  through  every  tenth  degree,  and  that 
tlie  meridians  are  to  be  an  hour  from  each  otiier. 

Describe  a  circle,  E  N  Q  S  (Jg.  T^\\  for  the 
representation  of  the  meridian.  Draw  the  diame- 
ters E  Q,  N  S  perpendicular  to  each  other ;  one,  E 
Q,  to  represent  the  oquntor,  and  the  other,  N  S,  the 
meridian,  which  is  00°  from  that  on  which  the  pro- 
jection is  mode ;  N  being  the  north,  and  S  the  south 
pole. 
Divide  the  quadrants  E  N,  Q  N,  and  the  radius 
iQ  C  N,  each  into  nine  equal  parts ;  let  N  80,  80  70, 
&c.  be  the  etjual  divisions  of  the  quadrants,  and  N  c, 
c  rf,  &c.  the  equal  divisions  of  the  radius :  describe 
a  circle  through  the  three  points  80,  c,  80,  and  it 
will  be  the  representation  of  tbe  parallel  of  80°  of 
latitude ;  in  like  manner  a  circle  described  tlirougli 
the  points  70,  d,  70  will  represent  tbe  pariillel  of 
70° ;  the  remaining  parallels,  tbe  tropics  and  polur 
circles,  on  Ix)tb  sides  of  E  Q,  the  equator,  are  to  be 
found  in  the  same  manner. 


,  and  that 

for  the 
|c  diame- 

one,  E 
|NS,  the 

the  pro- 
Ithc  south 

Ihe  radius 

)0,  80  70, 

i  and  N  c, 

describe 

lO,  and  it 

y  80=  fif 

tliroufrli 

linillel  of 

iind  poluf 

lare  to  be 


Book  1. 


REI'RKHRNTATION  OP  TlIK  KARTIl. 


ItiO 


Next  for  thn  mpridlann:  divide  the  rndii  C  K,  C  Q  eiirh  into  n\x  cnnnl  pnrtu  nt  the  point* 
a,  A,  6ir„  :  di<i«'rilM>  (.■iri-li'M  thniu^li  the  |K>inlN  N  ri  S,  N  h  H,  Hic.  nnd  tliexe  will  lie  the  repre- 
NrntutioiiM  ot'  tlif  iiieridinMN,  luiy  one  of  whicli,  in  luvinif  down  the  |Mwiitioni<  ot'  placid  hy 
their  Istitudu  and  hingitiide,  iiiity  Iw  amiunied  nil  tho  flrMt  meridinn. 

II.    I'ONarilllCJTIUIil  OV  mam  DV  nRVRM)PBMItNT, 

Tho  throe  tnethodn  ot"  pnijectinn  whicli  have  lM>en  oxplnined  lire  nwinlly  employed  in 
the  repreHentiilion  of  a  lieniiMpnere,  hut  are  wldoin  u«ed  in  delinentiiiK  Ihe  );i'o|friipliicitl 
t'enturi'N  of  ii  ninjflu  country.  For  thoM!,  tho  method  of  drvrUtprmint  iH  roininonly  eni- 
ploved. 

A  iM'rfect  ifeotfraphical  repro^entntion  of  a  country  Bhonld  tepre»ent  nil  ItM  imrta  in  jiint 
proportion,  nnd  uTiould  exhihit  itn  true  tiKure,  ThiH  \n  e.xactly  done  on  the  npliere;  but  it 
can  only  bo  nearly  nccoin|>liiihed  on  a  piano  nurtkco. 

The  puriKweH  of  civil  government  reiiuire  ninpH  that  (fivo  tho  true  figure  and  dinienNionfl 
of  territory.  Military  aHiiirit  reipiiro  mucIi  iih  frjvo  correct  diHtnncex;  nnd  nnvl);iition  deinnmlR 
tlie  exact  oearinff  ot  one  place  from  another.  Ordinary  innjw  t\ilHI  npproxiiimti'ly  the  two 
tirst  purpose*.  Tho  laiit  ih  completely  wtixtied  by  a  niup  of  a  peculiar  contitructlon,  called 
MerentDr'N  chart;  but  thJH  in  not  iimnediately  iippficnble  to  tlio  other  purpiweH. 

It  i*  a  known  property  of  u  cone  tliiit  it*  curve  siirfnco  can  be  expnnded  in*'  <  .i  plane ; 
honco  any  tijfuro  delineated  on  it  can  always  bo  exhibited  cxnctly  in  all  its  diincDf*  onn  on  a 

filane  Murface.  Now,  a  part  of  tho  iiurtkco  of  a  gpliere  contained  between  two  pninllclN  of 
atitude,  not  very  remote,  will  not  differ  much  tVoni  tho  Hurikce  of  a  tVuKtum  of  a  cone  thn^ 
touches  the  Hphere  in  tho  parallel  midway  between  them ;  and  thJH  will  nUo  he  true  if  it 
{Wtia  aloni;^  the  chord,  or  if  it  \\asa  partly  within  und  partly  without  tho  Hphere,  cutting,'  it  be- 
tween the  middle  nnd  extreme  parallelR:  in  each  caso  the  lenf^th  of  tlie  Mniit  Hide  of  tho 
frustunt  must  be  supposed  cipial  to  the  lenf^th  of  tho  meridian  between  the  extreme  paral- 
lels. On  this  principle,  diflbrcnt  constructiona  havo  been  givon  for  representing  the  surfhcc 
of  a  sphere  on  a  plane. 

1.  Conical  Devflnpemenl, 

Let  P  A  Q  (Jig.  54.)  bo  a  section  of  tlio  meridian,  P  Q  tho  axis,  C  thn  centre,  E  C  the 
radius  of  the  oipiator,  B  D  any  arc  of  tho  meridian,  and  A  tho  middle  point  between  D  ani' 
D:  draw  tho  tangent  A  O,  meeting  the  axis  in  O.  Suppose  now  the  plane  fiifuie  O  A  E 
to  rovolvo  about  tho  axis  P  Q ;  tho  semicircle  P  A  Q  will  generate  a  sphere,  nnd  tlus  taniGfcnt 
O  A  will  generato  tho  surface  of  a  cone  which  touches  tho  sphere  in  A.  Tho  points  I),  A,  D 
will  generate  tho  parallels  of  latitude  B  6,  A  II  a,  D  </,  of  which  tho  middle  parallel  A II  a 
will  be  a  section  of^tho  cone  perpendicular  to  its  axis. 
Take  H  any  point  in  tho  parallel  A  H  a;  draw  P  II  to  its  centre,  and  join  II  O.    Con- 

,  coivc  now  the  cone  to  be  expnnded  into  n 

©  Ri  O  plane,  and  tlmf  tho  surfiire  ()  A  II  be- 

comes, by  develnpement,  O'  A'  IT.  The 
expansion  of  A  II,  the  arc  of  the  parallel 
of  latitude  on  the  sphere,  whoso  radius  is 
P  II,  the  cosine  of  the  hititiido,  will  now 
become  A'  H',  on  are  of  a  circle  whose 
radius  is  A'  O'  =  A  O,  the  cotangent  of 
the  latitude  of  the  parallel. 
In  0'  A'  take  A'  B'  nm;  v  P',  each 
L^  equal  to  A  B  or  A  D,  and  '  '  '.tic  radii 
C  B',  C  D'  describe  arcs  B  m,  D'  n. 
II '  The  plane  figure  B'  m  n  D'  may  now  be 
taken  as  nearly  equal  to  tlif  spliericol  sur- 
II  face  bounded  by  meridif-  p.is'i'jntT  through 
A  and  H,  and  the  pr.Aions  of  the  paral- 
lels B  6,  A  a  inter  ..'Cil  between  them: 
and  any  tract  Pi'  country  delineated  on  the 
sphere  may  be  nearly  shown  by  a  delinea- 
tion on  the  plane ;  the  approximation  be- 
ing 'i.o  more  accurate  as  the  breadth  of 
tho  spherical  zone  is  less. 
Let  the  middle  latitude  E  A  and  tho  angle  A  P  H,  or  brendth  in  longitude  of  tho  sphori- 
cnl  surface,  be  supposed  given,  to  determine  the  radius  C  A'  and  the  nngle  C  A'  H 
Because  the  middle  latitude  is  known,  its  cotangent  O  H  is  given  in  parts  of  the  radius  by 
the  trigonometrical  tables,  or  it  may  be  expressed  in  minutes  of  latitude,  by  considering  that 
tialf  the  circumference  (to  radius  =  1)  is  3.1416;  therefore,  the  radius  in  minutes  will  be 
expressed.  eOXim 

-3-1416  =  3437.r. 


64 


/     /£ \ 

Ai         /        —  Iff 

^Vn 1^ —  P        "^^'v 

mi     \T^ Vt 

K" ""c        "A 


U 


M, 


:>   ii 


w 


m 


PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  II 


Hence  O'  A',  llic  nulius  of  the  middle  parallel  in  the  developeraent,  will  be  expressed  in 
minutes  of  latitude  by 

3437.7'  X  cot.  middle  lat. 

Next,  tn  find  the  angle  A'  O'  H'.  The  arc  A  H  on  the  sphere  and  the  arc  A'  H'  on  the 
piano  boiiig  equal ;  by  the  principles  of  geometry,  the  angle  A  F  H  will  be  to  the  angle 
A'  O'  II'  08  A'  O'  to  A  F:  now,  A'  O'  =  A  O  is  the  cotangent  of  the  middle  latitude,  and 
A  V  ia  its  cosine,  and  the  cotangent  is  to  the  cosine  as  radius  to  the  sine ;  therefore,  putting 
L  to  denote  the  degrees  of  longitude  between  two  meridians  on  the  spiiere,  the  angle  A'  O'  H , 
contained  by  the  straight  lines  which  represent  them  in  the  developement,  will  ba  in  degrees 

L  X  Sine  middle  lat. 
The  angle  O',  and  the  lines  O'  A',  A'  B',  A'  D',  in  the  developement,  are  now  known ;  it 
rornains  only  to  divide  B'  D',  the  representation  of  the  arc  of  the  meridian,  and  B'  m,  D'  n, 
llio  parallels  of  latitude,  into  equal  parts  to  form  scales  of  latitude  and  longitude :  then, 
circles  described  about  O'  as  a  centre,  through  the  proper  divisions  of  B'  D',  will  form  the 
parallels  of  latitude ;  and  straight  lines  drawn  joining  corresponding  degrees  on  the  extreme 
parallels  D'  w,  D'  n,  will  represent  the  meridians  on  the  map ;  which  is  now  ready  for  the 
delineation  of  tiie  geographical  features  of  the  tract  it  is  to  represent  This  is  the  way  in 
which  the  common  maps  are  constructed. 

Example.  Let  it  be  required  to  construct  a  map  to  comprehend  the  British  islands, 
which  extend  from  50°  to  about  61°  of  north  latitude,  and  from  2°  east  toll°west,  about  13° 
of  longitude.  Tiie  middle  latitude  is  55°  30',  of  which  the  cotangent  in  the  tables  is  .68728 
ond  sme  =  .82413.  From  these  data,  O'  A',  the  radius  of  the  middle  parallel,  is 
3487.7  X  .08728  =  2362'  .7 :  the  length  of  the  arc  B  D  ia  11°  =  660' ;  therefore.  A'  B'  = 
A'  D',  its  half,  is  330,  and  hence 

O  B  =  2362.7  X  330  =  2692'.7 
O  A  =  2362.7  —  330  =  2032.7. 

The  number  of  degrees  of  longitude  (L)  in  this  case  is  13° ;  therefore,  angle  A'  O'  H' 
=  13='  X  .82413  =  10°  42. 

Knowing  now  the  radii  O'  B',  O'  D',  and  the  angle  O',  we  can  find  the  arcs  B'  m,J)'n; 
or  wo  can  find  tiieir  chords. 

Thus  we  have, 

chord  of  arc  B'  m  =  2  O  B  Sin.  *  O'  =  375'  .6. 
chord  of  arc  D'  n  =  2  O  D  Sin.  I  O'  =  502'  .1. 

We  have  now  obtained  the  chords  of  13°  of  longitude  on  the  extreme  parallels,  and  the 
ninridians  which  form  their  extremities  in  minutes  of  a  degree  of  the  meridian;  also  the 
rndii  of  the  parallels  of  latitude:  with  these,  the  intelligent  student  of  geography  will  find 
iio  difficulty  in  constructing  a  map  of  Britain. 

2.  Murdoch's  Conical  Developement, 

There  have  been  various  modifications  of  the  conical  developement :  of  these,  one  was 
ffivcn  by  tlio  Rev.  Patrick  Murdoch,  in  the  Lond.  Phil.  Trans.  1758.  Let  M  denote  the  are 
of  the  meridian  which  is  to  be  represented  in  a  map:  he  proposed  to  make  O'  A',  the  radius 
of  the  middle  parallel,  equal  to 

chord  of  arc  M 

i;^M —  ^  ^°*-  "''^-  '"*• 

the  cotangent  being  supposed  expressed  by  the  radius  of  the  sphere.    The  remainder  of  the 
piiiistrncfion  is  the  same  as  the  ordinary  conical  projection. 

By  Murdoch's  method,  the  surface  of  the  developement  is  exactly  equal  to  the  spherical 
piirtnco  which  it  represents,  and  the  cone  passes  through  pwints  of  the  meridian  between  the 
middle  latitudes  and  the  extremities  of  the  projected  arc,  its  side  being  parallel  to  the  tangent 
at  the  middle  latitude. 

3.  De  Lisle't  Conical  Developement. 

The  astronomer  Do  Lisle  employed  the  conical  projection  in  constructing  a  general  chart 
of  the  Rtission  empire,  which  extended  from  40°  to  70°  of  north  latitude.  lie,  however, 
fiipposcd  tlio  cone  to  enter  the  sphere  fo  as  to  cut  it  in  two  parallels  midway  between  the 
tuean  and  nxlrpiue  parallels:  these,  in  the  developement,  had  the  same  dimensions  as  the 
cnrrespondiiitf  circles  of  the  sphere,  and  its  whole  extent  differed  but  little  from  that  of  the 
tract  it  was  meant  to  represent;  because  the  excess  at  the  two  extremities  of  the  chart  was 
compi/nsoted,  at  lea.st  in  part,  by  the  opposite  error  in  the  middle. 

4.  Euler's  Method. 
Euler  wn?  also  occupied  with  this  projection:  but  he  sulisiituted  for  the  determination  of 

riirallels  which  should  be  common  with  the  sphere,  that  of  the  point  of  concourse  of  straight 
ineR  .vliicli  roprpsent  the  meridians,  and  of  the  angle  which  they  make  when  tney  contain 
one  (iPLTci'  iif  lomritiule.  Ilin  calculations  rest  on  the  following  conditions : — 1.  That  the 
errors  an-  cqinl  at  the  northern  and  southern  extremities  of  the  inao.    2.  That  tliey  are 


Booi 

also  ( 

of  CO 

of  lat 


t;, 

parall 
which 
dicnla 
the  di 
the  c( 
just  at 
spondi 


by  mixi 
project! 
particul 
instancf 

Ther( 
5( 


extend  fr 
Let  us 
from  wlii 
the  spher 
minutes, 
Let  O 
AD,  BE 
and  C  tJie 
centre  of 
By  the 
this,  to  ra( 

Having 
be  found  I 
parallel. 


350 
40 

50 


:i(i 

27 


parallel  on 

degrees  of 

Vot.L 


Ition  of 
Jtraight 
nontaiii 
|l\at  the 
liey  are 


Book  I. 


'«!}' 


REPRESENTATION  OF  THE  EARTH. 


161 


also  equal  to  the  greatest  of  those  towards  ita  middle.  Hence  he  concluded  that  the  point 
of  concourse  of  the  meridians  should  be  situated  beyond  tlie  polo  by  a  quantity  equal  to  5P 
of  latitude,  and  tliat  the  angle  of  two  consecutive  meridians  should  be  48°  44'. 

5.  Flamsteed's  Projection. 

TI  0  Enjrlish  astronomer  Flamstoed,  in  constructing  his  celestial  atlas,  developed  all  the 
parallciH  of  latitude  on  the  sphere  into  straight  lines,  and  also  one  of  the  meridians;  viz.  that 
which  passes  through  the  middle  of  the  chart :  then  the  parallels,  which  are  all  perpen- 
dicular to  that  meridian,  are  exactly  of  the  same  length  as  on  the  glohe,  and  consequently 
the  degrees  of  longitude  on  the  parallels  will  be  shown  in  their  just  proportion,  that  is,  as 
the  cosines  of  the  latitude.  If,  now,  the  parallels  on  the  map  be  divided  into  equal  parts, 
just  as  the  parallels  on  the  globe  are,  by  the  meridians,  curve  lines  traced  through  corre- 
sponding points  of  division  will  represent  tiie  meridians. 

The  adjoining  figure  (Jig.  55.)  exhibits  a  sketch  of  a  map  of 
this  construction. 

According  to  Flamsteed's  method,  any  distance  on  the  map  in 
the  direction  of  the  parallels  is  everywhere  equal  to  the  corre- 
sponding distance  on  the  globe ;  but  the  configuration  of  places 
near  the  extremities  is  considerably  distorted  by  the  obliquity  of 
the  meridians  to  the  parallels,  so  that  tlie  spherical  quadrilaterals, 
the  sides  of  which  cross  at  right  angles,  are  in  the  map  represented 
by  raixtilineal  trapeziums,  of  which  the  angles  are  very  unequal.  Flamsteed  employed  this 
projection  in  representing  the  positions  of  the  stari. ;  but  it  is  also  employed  in  geography, 
particularly  in  delineating  countries  which  extend  on  both  sides  of  tlie  equator :  Africa,  tor 
instance. 

6.  Modification  of  Flamsteed's  Projection. 
There  is  a  modification  of  Flamsteed's  projection  {fig.  56.),  which  has  been  extensively 


North. 


/// 

TY^^ 

//n 

1  \\\ 

aJJ  L 

\  \\\ 

m 

,  \  I  >_ '' 

South. 


56 


employed,  and  which  deserves  particular  attention,  bec.use  it 
correcti,  in  part,  the  defect  of  tlie  obliquity  of  the  meridians. 
This  substitutes  arcs  of  concentric  circles  for  the  straight  lines, 
which  he  proposed  to  represent  the  parallels  of  latitude.  The 
common  centre  of  the  circles  is  in  a  straight  line  drawn 
through  the  middle  of  the  map  as  an  axis,  and  which  repre- 
sents a  meridian ;  ond  its  position  in  the  axis  ought  to  be  such, 
that  the  obliquity  of  the  angles  made  at  the  intersection  of  the 
curves  which  represent  the  meridians,  and  the  circles  which 
represent  tlie  parallels,  should  be  as  little  as  possible. 

The  position  of  the  centre  is  so  assumed,  that  the  radius  of 
the  middle  parallel  of  latitude  is  equal  to  its  cotangent ;  and 
in  this  the  modified  projection  of  Flamsteed  agrees  witli  the 
g  ordinary  conical  projection. 

To  exemplify  this'constniction,  let  it  be  proposed  to  describe 
the  parallels  and  meridians  for  a  map  of  Europe,  which  shall 
extend  from  35°  north  latitude  to  70°. 

Let  us,  as  before,  assume  a  minute  of  a  degree  of  latitude  for  the  unit  of  the  scale 
from  which  the  measures  of  tlie  lines  are  to  be  taken.  Therefore,  as  before,  the  radius  of 
the  sphere,  of  which  a  portion  of  the  spherical  surface  is  to  be  represented,  will  be  3437.7 
minutes. 

Let  O  A  C  B  (fig.  56.)  be  assumed  as  the  axis  or  middle  meridian  of  the  map ;  and  let 
A  D,  B  E  be  tiie  lialves  of  the  part  of  the  extreme  parallels  of  latitude  to  be  represented, 
anu  C  the  point  in  which  the  middle  parallel  (52°  30')  cuts  the  axis ;  also,  let  O  be  the 
centre  of  the  circles,  arcs  of  which  are  to  represent  the  parallels. 

By  the  nature  of  the  projection,  O  C  must  be  taken  equal  to  the  cotangent  of  52°  30' ; 
this,  to  radius  =  1,  is  .76733,  and  to  a  radius  expressed  by  minutes,  we  have 

O  C  =  .76733  X  3437.7  =  2637'.8. 
Having  found  OC,  the  radius  of  the  middle  parallel,  the  radius  of  any  other  parallel  may 
be  found  by  adding  or  subtracting  its  distance  in  minutes  of  the  nioridian  from  the  middle 
parallel.     Thus  we  find  the  radii  of  parallels  differing  by  5°,  as  in  the  annexed  table : — 

Next,  we  must  find  the  points  in  which  some  one  meri- 
dian cuts  all  the  parallels.  We  shall  suppose  it  to  be  30° 
of  longitude  from  O  C,  the  axis  of  the  map. 

From  the  nature  of  tlie  developement,  the  arc  of  longi- 
tude on  any  parallel  in  the  map  is  equal  to  the  arc  of  the 
parallel  on  the  sjihere  which  it  represents.     'This  has  to  an  arc  of  the  same  number  of 
degrees  of  the  meridian  the  proportion  oi  the  cosine  of  tlie  latitude  of  the  parallel  to  th« 
VouL  14*  V 


I-.in.llel. 

R>ii:u>. 

Panllsl. 

R.i.iiui. 

350 

;lli^7.'^ 

M 

24f<7.H 

40 

:i:k^7.h 

iiO 

iW.f 

4.'i 

mir-T.H 

(i5 

1HH7.K 

an 

STrt.S 

70 

lSfl7.« 

1,   I 


!'. 


•I 


H 


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h 


J\  ' 


b'i! 


■■'■il 


m' 


162 


PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


PartII. 


radius.    Therefore,  an  arc  of  30°  =  1800'  on  a  parallel  whose  latitude  is  L  will  be  in 
minutes, 

1800  X  cosine  L. 
By  this  formula,  the  lengths  of  the  arcs  may  be  easily  computed  by  a  table  of  logarithmic 
sines;  but,  for  a  practical  construction,  it  will  be  more  convenient  to  ha!,e  the  chords  of  the 
arcs.  Now,  in  arcs  not  exceeding  30°,  the  arc  diminished  by  a  fraction  whose  numerator  ia 
the  cube  of  the  arc,  and  denominator  24  times  the  square  of  the  radius,  is  very  near  equal 
to  the  chord ;  that  is,  a  being  put  for  any  arc,  and  r  its  radius, 

chord  o=fl —  22~  nearly. 

From  this  formula,  the  chords  may  easily  be  deduced  from  the  arcs. 
As  an  example,  let  the  arc  of  30°  of  longitude,  and  its,  chord  on  the  parallel  35°,  be 
required.    For  facility  of  calculation,  we  shall  use  logarithms. 


Calculation  of  Arc. 

Calculation  of  Log.  of  iMr«. 

Lomrilhmi- 

Log&rithmi. 
Radius  of  arc  087.8 3.50077 

CoBine  350 9.913;W 

2 

Arc  a=>i1474' 5. 3  IfiWil 

Log.  of  square  of  radius 7.13354 

Si 1.38021 

3 

From  loff  of  riibo  of  arc 9  5(1589 

Logarithm    34rS 8.51375 

Subtract  Log.  24ra 8,51375 

Differ,  of  arc  and  chord  9' .8 099214 

ftr.  o(  Ul. 

Am. 

Chonl  of  Arc. 

35 

1474.5 

1404.7 

40 

1378.9 

1.3lin.4 

45 

1272.8 

12«3.8 

50 

1157.0 

1148.7 

55 

1032.4 

lOiM.O 

00 

900.0 

893.0 

65 

700.7 

755.5 

70 

015.0 

011.8 

Thus,  by  an  easy  logarithmic  calculation,  we  have  found  the  arc 
to  be  1474'.5,  and  its  excess  above  the  chord  to  be  9'.8.  There- 
fore, the  chord  is  14G4'.7  of  the  meridian.  By  a  like  process, 
we  have  found  the  arcs  of  30°  of  longitude,  and  their  chords 
on  the  parallels  to  every  fifth  degree,  as  in  this  table. 

Having  now  found  the  chord  of  30°  of  longitude  on  the  paral- 
lel of  35°  to  be  1404'.7  of  the  meridian,  we  must,  with  com- 
passes, place  that  distance  taken  from  a  scale  of  minutes  from 
B  to  E,  and  to  e;  and  the  points  E,  e  will  be  in  the  representations  of  meridians  30°  of  lon- 
gitude from  the  axis  on  each  side.  In  tiie  same  way,  the  intersections  of  these  meridians 
with  the  other  parallels  arc  found.  Curve  lines  E  D,  e  fZ  must  now  be  traced  through  all 
the  intersections,  and  these  will  be  the  meridians  on  the  map. 

The  intersections  of  the  intermediate  meridians  with  the  parallels  may  be  found  by  divid- 
ing each  parallel  into  thirty  equal  parts,  from  the  axis  botii  ways ;  and  as  many  meridian 
lines  may  bo  exhibited  as  may  be  tlioug.:t,  necessary.  In  tlio  figure  here  given,  they  are 
traced  to  every  tenth  degree. 

If  the  map  is  to  extend  furtlier  than  30°  on  each  side  of  its  middle  meridian,  the  divisions 
of  the  parallels  may  bo  repeated  on  each,  and  meridians  drawn. 

This  construction  of  a  map  is  memorable,  because  it  was  adopted  by  the  general  depdt  of 
war  of  France,  alwut  the  year  1803,  as  the  groundwork  of  a  system  of  geographical  charts 
which  should  exhibit  tlie  French  original  territory,  as  well  as  the  additions  which  had  been 
made,  and  were  expected  to  be  made,  by  conquest  or  negotiation. 

Devdopement  of  the  Curve  Surface  nfa  Cyliiidcr. 

The  mariner,  in  navigating  a  ship  between  remote  noints  on  the  globe,  directs  his  course 
by  the  compass  ;  steering  as  nearly  as  possible  always  m  tiie  same  direction,  supposing  there 
are  no  obsticles  to  prevent  him.  If  tlie  place  from  which  lie  sets  out,  and  that  of  his  des- 
tination, be  due  north  and  south  from  each  other,  the  ship's  patii  will  evidently  be  a  great 
circle,  viz.  the  meridian  piit^slng  through  tlicm.  If,  iigain,  tliey  iiave  the  same  latitude,  he 
must  sail  on  a  parallel  of  hv  iide ;  that  i.s,  his  course  must  be  due  oast  or  west.  But  if  the 
places  differ  both  in  latitude  and  longitu-!i',  llion  it  becomes  a  rpiestion,  what  is  the  nature 
of  the  line  on  tlic  globe  along  which  a  sliip  must  sail,  with  her  head  always  in  the  same 
direction,  as  indicated  by  the  compass,  so  as  to  pass  from  one  to  the  other? 

The  lino  in  (piostion,  wlucli  is  called  a  rhumb  line  or  loxmlromir,  linr,  has  manifestly  this 
property, — it  cuts  all  llir  meridians  on  the  fflohi:  at  the  same  aniilc.  By  this  property,  a 
ship  sailing  alone  it  will  move  always  in  tlio  same  direction,  ns  shown  by  a  compa.»s:  but  it 
will  not  be  a  great  circle ;  for  the  oijuator  is  tlin  only  great  cirrle  that  cuts  all  the  meridians 
at  the  .same  angle;  and  hence  it  appears  that  the  lino  on  tlie  globe  by  which  a  ship  passes 
from  one  ]dace  to  another  is  never  the  shortest  [wssible,  except  when  they  arc  on  the  same 
meridian,  or  on  the  equator. 

Supposing  a  navigatnr  had  a  perfect  delineation  of  the  earth  on  a  sphere,  it  is  by  no  means 
evident  how  he  should  (ind  the  course  he  ought  to  steer  to  reach  ii  remote  port.  By  due  con- 
Bidcration,  however,  he  would  sec  that  the  i)ath  must  be  a  spiral.     It  would  also  be  repre- 


iU'  Ii! 


Ifcstly  this 
Iropwrty,  a 
but.  it 
InxTulians 
Blip  passes 
the  same 

I  nn  moan* 
■  (iue  con- 
I  be  repre- 


BookII. 


REPRESENTATION  OF  THE  EARTH. 


16.3 


sented  by  a  spiral  curve  on  a  map,  formed  by  tl""  developement  of  a  cone ;  but  navigators 
required  charts  before  the  theory  of  such  curve-,  was  inderstood ;  therefore  at  that  period  his 
art  must  have  been  imperfect. 

Tlie  wants  of  the  niivigator,  accordinfjly,  gave  rise  to  the  construction  of  n  chart,  in  which 
the  meridians  and  parallels  were  straight  lines ;  and  in  this  the  developement  of  the  curve 
surface  of  a  cylinder  was  employed.  Let  us  conceive  that  a  zone  of  tiie  earth's  surface,  of 
no  great  extent  in  latitude,  is  inscribed  in  or  circumscribed  about  a  right  cylinder,  whose 
axis  coincides  with  that  of  the  globe:  the  planes  of  the  meridians  will  cut  the  curve  surface 
of  the  cylinder  in  straight  lines,  parallel  to  the  axis;  and  the  planes  of  the  parallels  will  cut 
it  in  sections  perpendicular  to  the  axis,  wiiich  will  be  circles  equal  to  the  base  of  the  cylin- 
der. But  in  supposing  the  surface  of  the  cylinder  developed  into  a  plane,  these  circles  will 
oecome  straight  lines,  perpendicular  to  the  meridians.  This  developement  has  received  the 
name  of  the  plane  chart :  its  invention  is  attributed  to  Henry,  son  of  John,  king  of  Por- 
tugal. This  kind  of  chart  has  nothing  but  its  simplicity  to  recommend  it ;  for  the  degrees 
of  longitude  have,  indeed,  their  just  proportion  to  the  degrees  of  latitude  in  the  parallel  com- 
mon to  the  cylinder  and  sphere,  but  in  no  other  parallel. 

In  the  developement  of  a  cylinder  circumscribing  the  whole  sphere,  the  area  of  any  zone 
in  the  sphere  is  exactly  equal  to  that  of  its  representation  in  the  chart ;  and  indeed  the  same 
equality  may  be  observed  in  all  cases,  by  a  proper  assumption  of  a  parallel  of  latitude  as  the 
base  of  the  cylinder.  The  developement,  however,  has  this  great  fault, — the  degrees  of 
longitude  always  err  in  excess  towards  the  north  and  in  defect  towards  the  south  of  the  mean 
parallel,  which  is  assumed  as  the  base  of  the  cylinder. 

There  is  a  construction,  described  in  books  of  navigation  under  the  name  of  a  plane  chart, 
the  principle  of  which  is  somewhat  diflerent  from  that  just  described.  In  the  seaman's  plane 
chart  the  meridians  are  parallel  straight  lines,  and  so  also  are  the  parallels  of  latitude ;  and 
both  are  so  laid  down  that  a  degree  of  latitude  and  a  degree  of  longitude  are  equal  in  all 
latitudes.  It  may  easily  be  conceived  how  incompetent  such  a  representation  must  be  to  the 
purposes  of  navigation  or  geography. 

Mercator''s  Chart, 

The  utter  inadequacy  of  the  old  plane  charts  to  the  wants  of  geography  and  navigation 
induced  ingenious  men  to  consider  whether  a  chart  might  not  be  so  constructed  as  to  repre- 
sent the  meridians  and  parallels  by  straight  lines,  and  at  tlie  same  time  readily  show  the  true 
bearings  of  places  from  one  another.  The  first  that  gave  a  true  solution — at  least  an 
approximate  one — of  this  important  problem  was  Gerard  Mercator,  who  was  born  at 
Ruremond,  in  Upper  Guelderland,  in  the  year  1512,  and  published  a  chart  in  1556,  wherein 
the  rhumbs,  which  on  the  globe  are  spirals,  were  represented  by  straight  lines,  as  in  tlie 
plane  chart;  and  so  aliso  were  the  meridians  and  parallels.  It  is  not  known  by  what  prin- 
ciple Mercator  constructed  his  chart ;  it  has  been  supposed  that  he  observed  on  a  globe  fur- 
nished with  rhumbs  what  meridians  the  rhumbs  passed  in  each  degree  of  latitude :  it  is  cer- 
tain ho  did  not  know  the  true  principles  of  tlie  construction ;  for  these  were  first  found  by 
Edward  Wright,  of  Cains  College,  in  Cambridge,  who  communicated  his  discovery  to  his 
friend  Tliomas  Blundeville,  with  a  short  tabic,  showing  the  correct  distances  of  the  parallels 
of  latitude  from  the  equator,  which  was  published  in  1594  by  Blundeville,  among  his  Exer- 
ciser. The  truth  of  the  divisions  of  Mercator's  chart  was  then  tried  by  the  numbers  given 
by  Wright,  and  they  were  found  to  be  inaccurate ;  hence  it  appears  that  Mercator  did  not 
understand  the  principles  of  the  map  bearing  his  name,  and  that  this  important  invention  is 
due  to  Wright,  who  explained  it  himself,  in  his  treatise  entitled  The  Correction  of  certain 
Errors  in  Navigation,  published  1599,  but  written  many  years  before. 

Although  Wright's  numbers  were  sufficiently  correct  for  all  nautical  purposes,  and  might 
be  carried  to  any  degree  of  accuracy,  yet,  in  the  progress  of  mathematical  science,  an  im- 
provement Was  made  in  his  theory.  Napier's  invention  of  logaritiims  had  proved  an  inesti- 
mable advantage  to  navigation  and  geography,  by  shortening  calculations :  this,  howovpr, 
was  not  the  only  advantage  that  the  navigator  derived  from  the  invention ;  for,  about  tlie  year 
1645,  Henry  Bond  showed  that  the  division  of  the  meridian  in  Wright's  chart  was  altogether 
analogous  to  the  logarithmic  tangents  of  lialf  the  complements  of  tlio  latitudes,  and  might 
be  expressed  by  them.  He  seems  to  have  fiiund  this  by  chance :  such  accidental  discoveries 
are,  iiowevcr,  never  made  but  by  men  of  genius.  He  could  not  demonstrate  his  important 
theorem.  At  last  .Tame.*  Gregory  proved  its  trutii  in  his  Exercitationes  Geomclric<B,  pub- 
lished in  IflfiR.     The  con-struction  of  tiie  clinrt  was  now  made  perfect. 

The  invention  of  Mercator's  chart,,  one  of  tiie  most  important  in  the  16th  century,  affords 
a  notable  instance  of  the  slowness  witli  which  men  adopt  improvements  in  science.  Although 
designed  for  tiie  use  of  sailors,  it  was  at  first  by  no  means  generally  used  by  them.  William 
Biirrough,  a  celebrated  navigator,  who  had  entered  ( n  his  profession  at  the  age  of  fifteen, 
and  risen  by  his  merit  to  the  rank  of  controller  of  Queen  Elizabeth's  navy,  objected  to  its 
isefiihicss.  He  said — "  By  Mercator's  augmenting  his  degrees  of  latitude  towards  the  poles, 
the  samo  is  more  fit  for  such  to  behold  as  study  in  cosmograuhv,  bv  reading  authors  upon  the 


I 


m^^'i 

tj 

am 

^hI  I 

^4  mm 

lli'  :     ' 

li; 

iBSSl 

■ll'J  '.'  ' 

9' 

Wi 

m 

§ 

H 

m 

^B 

lu-fl 


hi- 1 

m 


m 


^li 


If 


ill 


Is**' 


184 


MERCATOR'S  CHART. 


Book  I. 


REPRESENTATION  OF  THE  EARTH. 


165 


land,  than  to  be  used  in  navifration  at  tlie  sea."  It  is  curious  to  observe  that  logarithms,  the 
other  grand  auxiliary  of  nttvigation,  met  with  a  like  reception  from  the  German  mathema- 
ticians that  were  somewhat  advanced  in  years. 

Mercator's  chnrt  may  be  produced  hy  dcvelopcmcnt,  as  follows: — Conceive  that  a  sphere 
with  the  meridians  and  parallels  and  countries  delineated  on  it,  is  inclosed  in  a  hollow  cyl- 
inder, and  that  the  axis  of  the  sphere  coincides  with  that  of  the  cylinder.  Imagine  now  that 
tlin  sphere  i.s  expanded  in  its  dimensions,  just  as  a  soap-bubble  is  produced  by  blowing  air  into 
it,  or  as  a  bladder  would  swell  in  all  directions  by  inflation,  the  parts  always  stretching  uni- 
formly;  the  meridians  will  lengtlien  in  the  same  proportion  as  the  parallels,  till  every  point 
of  tin  expanding  spherical  surface  comns  into  contact  with  the  concave  surface  of  the  cyl- 
inder :  the  meridians  will  at  last  become  straight  lines,  and  the  parallels,  circles  on  that 
surface ;  the  former  in  the  direction  of  its  length,  and  the  latter  parallel  to  its  base,  which 
is  the  equator.  Suppose  now  the  surface  of  the  cylinder  to  be  cut  open  along  one  of  the 
meridians,  and  spread  into  a  plane ;  the  surface  thus  produced  will  be  Mercator's  chart. 

Mercator's  chart  is  constructed,  then,  on  the  following  geometrical  principles : — 1.  The 
meridians  are  parallel  straight  lines  at  equal  distances,  for  equal  differences  of  longitude; 
and  the  parallels  of  latitude  are  also  straight  lines,  perpendicular  to  the  meridians.  2.  Sup- 
posing a  meridian  on  the  globe  be  divided  into  minutes  of  a  degree;  one  of  these,  at  any 
parallel  of  latitude,  will  be  to  a  minute  of  longitude  taken  on  that  parallel  in  the  proportion 
of  the  radius  of  the  cq— iVir  to  the  radius  of  the  parallel,  which  is  the  cosine  of  the  latitude ; 
that  is,  as  the  secant  ol  ..he  latitude  to  radius.  Now  the  same  holds  true  in  the  chart;  that 
is,  a  minute  of  the  meridian,  at  any  parallel,  has  to  a  minute  of  longi'  jde  in  that  parallel  the 
proportion  of  the  secant  of  the  latitude  of  the  parallel  to  radius. 

By  the  first  of  these  properties  a  minute  of  longitude  in  the  map  it,  represented  by  a  line 
of  the  same  length  in  every  parallel ;  therefore,  by  the  second  the  minutes  of  the  meridian 
will  be  represented  by  lines  which  ^  on  increasing  from  the  equator  towards  the  poles. 
From  this  it  follows  that,  if  a  minute  on  the  equator  be  taken  as  the  unit  of  a  scale,  and  that 
unit  be  considered  as  the  radius  of  a  circle,  then  the  representation  of  a  minute  of  the 
meridian,  at  any  latitude,  will  be  expressed  by  the  number  in  the  trigonometrical  tables 
which  is  the  secant  of  that  latitude.  Thus  it  appears  that,  while  the  degrees  of  longitude 
on  the  equator  form  a  scale  of  which  the  divisions  are  all  equal  in  the  map,  the  degrees  of 
latitude  marked  on  a  meridian  form  a  scale  of  which  the  divisions  go  on  increasing  from  the 
equator  towards  both  jwles,  each  being  the  sum  of  the  secants  of  all  the  minutes  in  the 
degree. 

The  numbers  which  result  from  the  addition  of  the  secants  of  1  minute,  2  minutes,  and  so 
on  to  the  last  minute  of  any  arc  of  the  meridian,  reckoned  from  the  equator,  arc  given  in 
books  on  navigation.  They  form  the  table  of  meridional  parts,  and  serve  tor  laying  down 
the  position  of  any  place  in  the  chart.  The  addition  of  the  secants  is,  however,  only  an 
approximation  to  the  true  length  of  the  enlarged  meridian  in  the  chart;  but  it  is  sufficiently 
near  the  truth  for  nautical  or  geographical  purposes.  In  strictness,  also,  it  must  be  considered 
that  the  earth  is  not  a  sphere,  hut  a  spheroid,  and  on  that  account  allowance  ought  to  be 
made  for  its  compression  at  the  jwles.  The  following  short  table  shows  the  length  of  the 
enlarged  meridian,  both  on  the  sphere  and  the  spheroid,  to  every  fifth  degree  of  latitude. 
The  compression  is  assumed  to  be  '^j. 


Lat. 

OO 

S 
1U 
15 
20 
25 
30 
Xi 
40 
45 

Mnridinnal  PnrtB. 

Lat. 

Meriilional  Parts. 

Splicre. 

Splicrdid. 

Sphere. 

Spheroid. 

0.00 

300.38 

00307 

flIfl.-tIi 

1225.14 

1540.00 

lHH8,:t8 

•2244.20 

2li22.(iU 

3020.04 

fl.OO 

208.37 
5!«l.fll 

flo.'i.as 

1217.110 
I.'ill.l7      i 

1H77.!KI 
22:12.00 

3ii08.:t5     1 

:WI4.41 

503 
55 

eo 

05 
70 
75 
80 
85 
90 

3474.47 

30ti7  07 
4527..37 
5178.81 
S005.03 
0970.34 
8375.29 
10704.02 
Infinite. 

3457.39 
30.50.57 
4500.41 
5159.03 
5045.S1 
6951.07 
83.'i2.24 
10741.75 
Infinite.    ' 

To  construct  Mercator's  chart  (Jis!:  57.),  draw  two  straight  lines  W  E,  N  S  at  right 
angles  to  each  other,  intersecting  in  C ;  of  these  W  E  is  to  represent  the  equator,  and  N  S 
a  nipriiliiin,  in  the  middle  of  the  chart:  from  any  convenient  scale  lay  nff  equal  parts  along 
the  equator,  from  C  both  wayj^,  to  represent  degrees  of  longitude,  and  each  of  which  should, 
if  thorp  ho  room,  contain  60  subdivisions  for  minutes. 

.Assuming  the  equator  ns  a  scale  of  minutps,  lay  off  from  C,  north  and  south  on  the  middle 
inpridi'iM,  the  nnmbor  of  minutes  in  the  Piilanred  meridian,  corresponding  to  each  degree  of 
hititiidp  as  shown  hy  a  table  of  nieridioniil  parts,  of  which  that  just  given  is  an  abridgement 

Driiw  straiclit  lines  tiirough  every  titlh  or  every  tenth  degree  of  the  equator  and  divided 
meridian,  nml  pprppndiciilar  to  them.  The  pprppndiculars  to  the  equator  will  be  meridiatu, 
and  till!  linos  parallpl  to  it  jmrallds  ofhililude. 


'  \:\ 


ii^  >  I 


vy\ 


1^. 


J* 


'W 


4 


166 


PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 
Fio.  57. 


PartIT. 


N 

80 

1 

/\ 

L 

60 

M 

1 

40 

40 

20 

20 
C 

20 

40 

60 

80 

100 

120 

140 

160 

W 

L 

16U 

140 

120 

100 

80 

GU 

20 

40 

S 

60 

80 

» 

To  put  any  place  in  its  proper  position  on  the  chart,  assume  some  one  meridian  for  the 
first,  and  lay  off  from  its  intersection  with  the  equator,  and  along  it  in  the  proper  direction, 
tlie  longitude  of  the  place  in  minutes;  draw  a  line  through  the  point  thus  found  perpen- 
dicular to  tiie  equator:  this  will  be  the  meridian  of  the  place. 

On  this  meridian  lay  off  the  latitude,  as  shown  by  the  table  of  meridional  parts;  and  the 
point  thus  determined  will  be  the  true  position  of  the  place  in  the  chart. 

To  find  the  bearing  of  one  point  from  another,  or  course  in  which  a  ship  tught  to  sail  in 
passing  from  one  to  the  other,  draw  a  straight  lino  joining  the  two  points,  and  the  angle 
which  that  line  makes  with  the  meridians  is  the  course  or  bearing. 

Thus,  if  L  bo  the  Lizard  Point  on  the  chart,  and  M  the  east  end  of  the  Island  of  Madeira, 
draw  L  I  parallel  to  the  meridian  N  S,  and  the  angle  I  L  M  will  be  the  course  on  v/hich  a 
ship  ought  to  steer  from  the  Lizard  to  reach  Madeira. 

The  course  may  be  found  by  a  trigonometrical  calculation,  by  considering  that  the  meri- 
dional difference  of  latitude  of  the  two  places  (as  given  by  the  table  of  meridional  parts), 
and  the  difference  of  longitude  in  minutes,  are  the  sides  of  a  right-angled  triangle,  of  which 
the  line  joining  the  places  is  the  hypotenuse,  and  the  course  one  of  the  acute  angles,  viz. 
that  made  by  the  meridian  and  line  joining  the  places. 

Again,  tiie  distance  of  the  places,  measured  on  the  rliumb  line  passing  through  them, 
may  also  be  found  by  trigonometry.  It  is  the  hyiwtenuso  of  a  right-angled  triangle,  of 
which  the  proper  difference  of  latitude  (not  the  meridional  difference)  is  one  side,  and  the 
course  the  adjacent  angle. 

These  properties  of  the  ciiart  apply  alike  to  the  bearings  and  distances  of  all  places  on 
the  globe  measured  on  rhumb  lines.  The  bearing  and  distances  of  Ijondon,  Edinburgh,  and 
Dublin,  for  instance,  fi-om  each,  may  bo  found  in  this  way  from  a  table  of  meridional  part.** 
and  their  known  latitudes  and  longitudes. 

It  is  evident  that  Mercator's  cliart  does  not  serve  well  to  show  the  figure  of  the  countries 
on  the  globe,  nor  their  relative  magnitudes.  These  are  purposes,  however,  which  it  is  not 
intended  to  serve ;  but  it  does  serve  perfectly  the  purposes  for  which  it  was  first  constructed, 
and  which,  before  its  invention,  were  a  desideratum  in  geography. 


PahtH. 


dian  for  the 
:r  direction, 
und  perpen- 

ts ;  and  the 

ht  to  sail  in 
d  the  angle 

of  Madeira, 
Ion  which  a 

It  the  meri- 
|onal  parts), 
le,  of  which 
|angles,  viz. 

DUgrh  them, 
trianjile,  of 
tide,  and  the 

ll  places  on 
liburgh,  and 
((lioniil  parts 

lie  countries 
Ich  it  is  not 
Constructed, 


THE  HEMISPHERES. 


16 


MM 


ti 


^if    : 


■'    'Wl 


it 


m 


■■* 


I' 


fiV -ii. 


.i)il  i 


SCIENCE  OF  GLOCillAl'HY.  Pabt  II. 


BOOK    II 

GEOLOGICAL    PUINCIPLES. 

Geuiaksv  is  thnt  brancli  of  iiiitiirnl  liititury  wiiicli  trciits  of  tlie  tttinosplicir,  the  watcro  of 
tlio  iijlolio,  find  of  the  inoiiiitain-rockH  of  wliicli  tin-  earth  is  cuiii|x>8L'(1.  No  (lo|MrtiiirMt  of 
natural  history  nlKmri'x  tti„h.  in  iin|H)rtant  futlB  and  iiitorestinff  eonchiHions;  and  tiicri^tbro 
wo  nhall  hiy  before  our  rendois  a  short  view,  Int,  Of  tlio  natural  hititory  of  the  atnionpherc, 
or  mrlrornlnffy ;  2illy,  Of  the  natural  history  of  the  waters  of  the  globe,  or  hyilrulngy ;  nnd, 
!3<lly,  Of  tlio  solid  matcriald  of  which  liie  cu'rth  is  coui)H)6cd,  or  geognosy. 


CHAPTER  I. 

METEOROLOOV. 

This  beautiful  dnpiirtmcnt  of  science  mukc^a  us  ac(|uaintcd  with  all  the  properties  and 
relations  of  the  atmosphre  which  surrounds  our  planet.  Althougli  in  general  but  littlo 
studied  by  {feolojjists,  a  knowled);o  of  it  is,  novcrtheloss,  most  useful  in  a  geological  point  of 
view,  of  which  the  details  wo  shall  now  lay  before  our  readers  will  atford  ani|)lc  proof. 

Sect.  I. — Pressure,  Height,  Form,  and  Trmperature  of  the  Atmosphere. 

The  air  in  which  wo  breathe,  with  tlie  clouds  and  vapours  floating  in  it,  surroiindstho 
earth  on  all  sides  to  nn  unknown  height,  and  forms  a  moveable  envelope  denominated  the 
atmosphere.  The  human  species,  and  other  land  animals,  being  thus  entirely  immersed  in 
this  fluid,  may  with  some  propriety  bo  said  to  inhabit  an  ocean  as  really  as  the  fishes  which 
live  in  the  great  deep.  But  the  latter  have  tlio  advantage  in  being  able  to  mount  up, 
remain,  or  descend  at  pleasure  in  ihoir  element:  whereas,  without  some  additional  aid,  we 
must  content  ourselves  with  the  more  humble  allotment  of  remaining  on  the  bottom  of  our 
ocean.  The  winged  tribes,  doubtles.s,  have  the  power  of  ascending  to  great  heights ;  still 
they  can  never  roach  the  summit.  There  is  nothing  more  essential  to  the  existence  or 
health  of  man  himself,  or  of  the  various  inl'erior  animals  and  vegetables  which  live  on  our 
globe,  than  the  air  or  atmosphere ;  nor  ha.s  any  agent  a  greater  share  in  the  innumerable 
changes  wliicli  are  daily  tjikiiig  place  in  tho  inanimate  materials  cominising  our  planet.  It 
is  not  wonderful,  then,  that  the  composition  and  properties  of  the  atmosphere  should  have 
so  otlcn  excited  inquiry.  To  give  an  account  of  these,  and  of  their  relations  to  other 
bodies,  particularly  to  the  various  substjincos  which  arc  difl'used  in  the  atmi  Milierc,  and 
really  or  apparently  deposited  from  it,  constitutes  the;  science  of  meteorology.  Whilst 
engaging  in  this  task,  so  fur  as  our  limits  permit,  it  will  be  fully  as  instructive,  and  scarcely 
more  tedious,  occasionally  to  introduce  a  very  lirief  sketch  of  the  mode  in  which  some  of  tlie 
leading  facts  were  first  discovered  •  but  there  is  reason  to  think  that  a  few  of  the  more  obvi- 
ous properties  of  air  have  been  known,  as  it  were  instinctively,  from  the  remotest  antiijuity. 

That  air  is  a  body  or  substance  possessing  the  essential  properties  of  matter,  appears 
from  the  resistance  which  it  offers  to  the  occujKition  of  its  place  by  other  bodies.  Thus,  if 
an  apparently  empty  glass  jar  be  first  inverted,  and  then  immersed  in  a  vessel  of  water,  that 
liquid  will  only  enter  a  very  little  way  into  the  jar,  the  rest  being  occupied  by  the  air.  This 
fumijiar  experiment  shows  that  air  is  a  Ixxly,  by  its  resisting  the  entry  of  the  water.  At  the 
same  time  it  shows  the  air  to  be  an  elasti ,  or  compressible  substance,  otherwise  it  should 
have  completely  excluded  the  water.  Thai  it  is  a  fluid  is  evident  from  the  ease  with  which 
bodies  move  in  it,  from  its  pressing  e(|ually  in  every  direction,  and  passing  with  great  fiicility 
through  extremely  minute  openings. 

The  ancients  mutt  have  been  aware  of  these  properties,  or  at  least  of  some  of  their 
practical  applications,  otherwise  they  could  not  ha\e  constructed  their  powerful  air-guns, 
nor  availed  themselves  of  the  principle  of  tlie  diving-b(!ll :  for,  in  those  early  nges,  the 
adventurers  who  dived  in  search  of  pearls,  &c.  were  accustomed  to  hold  large  p<its  or  kettles 
inverted  on  their  heads.  The  air  which  these  open  vessels  contained  both  excluded  the 
water,  and  for  a  short  time  supported  respiration ;  thus  forming  diving-bells  in  a  portable 
shape.  The  ancients  likewise,  in  some  of  their  meclianical  contrivances,  availed  theuisolves 
of  that  property  of  air  by  which  it  expands  with  lie:it  nnd  conlrncts  with  cold.  It  was  on 
this  principle  tliat,  in  more  modem  tim(>s,  Sancforio  ((Ptistructed  the  air  thermometer. 

Weight  and  pressure  are  properties  of  the  air  lis  of  nil  other  baiies:  it  presses  on  the 
earth's  surliice,  and  on  every  other  bfKly  with  which  it  roiiies  into  contact.  This  was  con- 
jectured even  by  the  ancients.  But  the  en'fCtH  wliii  ii  are  now  known  to  result  tVoin  tne 
weight  nnd  elasticity  of  the  air  were  (()r  a  Imiir  time  iiscrihed  to  a  ]»rineiple  culled  nature's 
horror  of  a  vacniiin.  Sci  latr'  as  the  beginning  of  the  sin'cnteenth  century,  it  was  generally 
believed,  that  tlie  ascent  of  water  in  pumps  was  owing  to  this  principle,  and  tiiat  by  means 


of  their 
liir-i:mis 
Icrop,  the 
Irkcttlrs 
Idod  the 
Iportablc 

>lTlpelvCK 

1  was  on 

on  the 
Las  con- 
toin  tne 
Iniiture't? 
I'ncriilh' 
L-  means 


Book  II. 


METEOROLOGY. 


IGO 


of  miction  fliiiiia  might  bo  miscd  to  any  iieidit  whiitcver.  But  Galileo,  tlioufrh  still  inclinin}; 
to  the  old  opinion,  remarked  that  water  diclnot  rise  in  a  common  pump  nnleiis  the  sucker  oi 
bucket  reached  within  34  feet  of  it«  hurliice  in  the  well.  Hence  ho  was  forced  to  conjec- 
ture, that  not  the  [wwer  of  Muction,  but  the  prcsHure  of  the  atmosphere  on  the  Burfiico  of  tho 
well,  was  the  cause  of  the  water's  ascent;  that  acolunm  of  water  34  feet  high  was  acoun- 
teriK)iso  to  one  of  air  on  an  ecpial  base,  but  reaching;  to  the  top  of  the  atmosphere ;  and  that, 
for  this  reason,  water  could  not  follow  the  sucker  any  farther, 

Torricelli,  n  disciple  of  Galileo,  profited  by  this  hint.  It  occurred  to  him  that  the  sanio 
tbrcc  which  supported  water  to  the  boijjht  of  34  feet  would  sustain  a  column  of  any  other 
(luid  which  weijfhed  as  much  on  an  equal  base;  and  thcretbro  mercury,  lieing  13.0  tunes  as 
heavy  as  water,  should  only  bo  suspended  to  the  heijrjit  of  20  or  30  inches.  Accordingly, 
he  took  a  glass  tube  from  three  to  lour  feet  long,  and  closed  at  one  end  ;  this  he  filled  with 
mercury ;  then,  stopping  its  mouth  with  his  finger,  he  inverted  the  tube,  and  on  re-opening 
its  mouth  in  a  vessel  of  quicksilver  the  result  verified  his  expectation.  The  mercury, 
obeying  the  laws  of  hydrostatics,  descended  in  the  tube  till  the  vertical  column  was  about 
30  inciies  above  the  level  of  the  cistern,  leaving  the  remaining  space  at  the  top  empty  or 
nearly  a  vacuum.  Hence  he  inferred  that  it  was  only  the  weight  or  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere  on  the  mercury  in  the  cistern,  which  balancetl  the  column  in  the  tube.  This 
is  usually  called  the  Toricellian  experiment,  and  is  tiio  foundation  of  tlie  barometer. 

The  mean  pressure  is  everywhere  the  same  at  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  p(iu;il  to  about 
14j  lbs.  on  the  sciuare  inch.  It  becomes  less  as  the  place  is  elevated  alxive  the  sea,  and 
greater  if  below  its  level.  The  pressure  of  the  atniospherc,  as  measured  by  the  mercurial 
column,  varies  somewhat  at  every  place  on  the  earth  s  surface.  Generally  speaking,  its 
variations  are  greatest  in  the  temperate  zones,  decreasing  towards  the  equator  and  poles. 
The  annual  range  rarely  exceeds  half  an  inch  in  the  torrid  zone.  It  is  olwut  two  inches  at 
London,  and  the  same  at  St.  Petersburg,  but  rather  less  at  Melville  Island.  It  nowliere 
exceeds  3^  inches.  The  annual  range  is  more  considerable  at  the  level  of  the  sea  than  on 
mountain? ;  and  under  the  same  latitude  it  is  less,  as  the  height  of  the  place  above  the  sea 
is  greater.  The  barometer  has  a  tendency  to  rise  from  4  P.  M.  to  10  P.  M. ;  to  fall  from 
10  P.  M.  to  4  A.  M. ;  to  rise  from  4  A.  M.  to  10  A.  M. ;  and  again  to  fall  from  10  A.  M.  to 
4  P.  M.  Different  authors,  however,  dift'er  a  little  both  as  to  the  hours  and  the  nniouiit  of 
the  diurnal  variation,  which  appears  to  be  greater  i  s  the  latitude  is  lower.  The  barometer 
is  likewise  elevated  a  little  at  the  quarters  of  the  niTon,  and  depressed  at  the  new  and  fbll. 
The  range  of  this  instrument  is  greater  in  winter  than  in  summer. 

The  barometer  ranges  higher  in  proportion  as  tiio  weather  is  more  serene  and  settled ; 
calm  weather,  with  a  tendency  to  rain,  depresses  it ;  high  winds  have  a  similar  effect.  In 
extra-tropical  climates,  a  fall  in  the  barometer,  with  a  change  or  rise  of  wind,  is  usually 
followed  by  rain. 

The  law  which  regulates  the  elasticity  of  the  air  formed  the  next  important  stc^p,  after  the 
discovery  of  the  pressure.  Boyle  in  England,  and  Mariottc  in  France,  discovered,  much 
about  the  same  time,  that  the  temperature  being  the  same,  the  pressure  or  elastic  force  of 
air  is  directly  as  its  density,  or  inversely  as  the  space  it  occupies.  This  law,  though  received 
as  correct  at  the  time  of  its  discovery,  continued  to  be  suspected  till  within  those  few  years. 
Rut  Dulong  and  Petit  have  recently  examined  it  through  a  wide  range  of  temperature ; 
Professor  Oersted  has  tried  it  under  a  great  variety  of  pressures ;  and  within  the  limits  of 
their  experiments  it  was  found  to  hold  good. 

The  variable  capacity  for  heat  forms  another  property  of  air  of  no  less  importance,  but 
which  seems  to  have  been  little  known  or  attended  to  till  towards  the  end  of  the  last  cen- 
tury. VVhen  air  undergoes  a  change  of  volume,  it  at  the  same  time  changes  its  capacity  for 
heat ;  becoming  hotter  by  compression,  and  colder  by  rarefaction.  The  want  of  ac<niaintance 
with  this  circumstance  led  Newton,  and  many  others  after  him,  into  the  mistake  of  con- 
cluding, that  the  particles  of  elastic  fluids  repel  each  other  with  forces  inversely  as  their 
central  dist^mces;  which  cannot  be  the  case  if  the  capacity  be  affected,  no  matter  in  what 
manner  or  degree,  by  a  change  of  density.  But  very  extensive  experiments,  made  by  some 
of  the  most  eminent  scientific  men  in  France,  and  repeated  in  England,  are  favourable  to  the 
idea  that  the  particles  of  air  observe  the  same  law  as  magnetism  and  electricity,  repelling 
each  other  with  forces  inversely  as  tiie  squares  of  their  distances. 

There  is  a  gradation  of  density  in  the  air.  Being,  as  already  stated,  a  compressible  body, 
It  is  obvious  that  the  lower  parts  of  the  atmosphere,  by  sustaining  tlic  greater  weiglit  or 
pressure  of  the  air  above  them,  must  be  so  much  the  more  condensed ;  and  therefiirp.  as  we 
ascend  in  the  atmosphere,  the  density  will  continually  diminish.  Accordingly,  it  may  bo 
shown  fi-om  tiio  principles  already  laid  down,  that  were  the  temperature  nnd  the  force  of 
gravity  uniform  at  all  heights  atx)ve  thi-  oartli's  surface,  the  densities  of  the  strata  would 
decrease  in  geometrical  progression  for  altitudes  taken  in  arithmeticiil  progrnssion,  so  as 
nearly  to  halve  the  density  for  every  3..')  miles  of  ascent.  But,  independently  of  a  trifling 
change  in  the  force  of  gravity,  this  is  not  exactly  the  law  of  nature;  for  it  is  tbund  that  the 
temperature  generally  decreases  as  we  go  upward,  and  tliut  not  according  to  any  fixed  law 

Vol.  I.  15  "  W 


'm 


m 


i^ 


ITO 


PRINCIPLES  OF  GFAXiRAPIIY. 


Part  11. 


Ilencc  U»c  rolnlion  betwcon  the  dcn^iity  und  iilliliMli^  in  not  of  a  ntciiily  clmrnrlor»  and  can 
only  bo  ol»tainc«l  in  nny  purtirulur  cuhc  I'roin  ohHcrviii^f  tlic  prrsHuro,  tem|M'r»liin^  uml  liypriv 
metrir  sUilo  of  the  iiir.  Tliis  Ih  n  roscnrcli  to  wliicli  many  cniinont  nii-n  Imvo  liiriiod  tlieir 
attrntioii ;  and  th'^ir  HticcotiHivo  latMHirH  huvo  1<m1  to  the  titrnnition  of  convt*iiirnt  rulcH,  by 
which  til'.'  hrif^rhttf  of  tnoinitiuns  can  bo  uhtaimnl  to  a  ('onMidoruhlo  drgroo  of  uecurucy,  and 
with  jrrcat  llicility,  t>y  inoaii.s  of  the  Uironiet«ir,  Sin, 

Tho  ii#M^r[it  fin<i  form  'f  the  atmoHphorc  are  objnrlH  of  intrroHt.  With  nn  nniform  torn- 
nerafun-,  tho  hiw  of  IJoyh;  would  involve  tho  notion  that  itH  hoij,'ht  in  infinitt! ;  hut  thin  in  an 
idea  whirh  lian  Ncarcc^Iy  any  HupporterH,  and  is  jjenerally  Indii'ved  to  bo  inroiM|)atiblo  with 
tho  liiWH  of  motion.  Dr.  WolhiHton,  whono  opinion  in  ontitlod  to  (jroat  doforrnoo,  inain- 
tainn  Ihiit  the  atmoHphcro  nuiHt  torniinato  at  tlic  hoij^ht  wlioro  the  ropulHivo  tlirce  Ijctwoon 
xiti  partirh'H  ('(inals  their  tendency  to  gravitate  towunlw  tho  earth.  The  law  of  jjravity  may 
bo  adinittod  »  .  known,  but  the  Hamo  can  hardly  bt>  at!irniod  of  the  law  whicii  roLMilutOH  tho 
repiilHivo  tI»roo,  h)  lon^  aH  tf»e  teniporaturo  at  ^rrcai  hoiffhts  in  unknown  ;  and  thin  circuni- 
Htance  I(>av<'H  the  Inmndary  umlctormined.  A  doubt  of  a  more  RoriouH  nature,  however, 
atldchcs  \u  thiH  npoculation,  on  the  ground  that  we  are  totally  ignorant  with  what  materialH 
the  air  miiy  ho  mixo<l  at  great  olevationH.  The  atmoHphcrc  in  generally  KUpponod  to  be 
high*  r  at  tho  ccpiator  than  at  the  poles ;  but  we  have  neither  data  Tor  computing  tho  heights, 
nt)r  the  pro|K>rtion  in  which  thoy  ditlbr:  so  that  the  oblate  splieroidal  figure  which  souiO  give 
to  tho  atmosphoro  can  bo  couHidered  an  little  cIho  than  an  ingenious  conjecture. 

Tlie  tomporaturo  of  tho  atmoHphero  has  great  influence  on  most  meteorological  phono* 
inena;  but  it  is  oxcoedingly  variable,  and  can  as  yol  be  determined  only  by  actual  obHorva- 
tion  on  tho  npot.  Nothing  would  tend  to  throw  greater  light  on  many  of  the  unroHolvcd 
qucHtions  iu  moloorology,  than  a  ready  mmle  of  co..;puting  witli  certainty  the  temperature 
which  ohtaiufi  at  any  iiiHtant  in  a  |)oint  of  the  atmobphnro  remote  from  tlio  cont^ict  of  Uio 
earth's  surtiiro,  and  at  any  i)ouit  on  tlic  surface  remote  from  the  observer:  l»ut  these  are 
likely  to  continue  desiderata.  Tho  very  little  that  is  known  of  tho  temperature  of  air  remote 
from  the  eartirs  surface  has  W^vn  derived  from  a  few  aeronautic  excursions,  particularly  the 
ascontof  Al.  Gay-Lussac  to  the  height  of  761)0  yards. 

The  heat  of  the  air  in  on*'  shajK^  or  another  is  no  doubt  greatly  derived  from  the  sun, 
either  innn<»diatoly,  by  intorctpting  tho  solar  rayn,  or  indirectly,  from  itii  contact  with  the 
cartli's  r^urtiico,  which  i.s  more  or  less  hratnd  according  as  it  is  turned  more  or  less  towards 
the  sun :  hut  whether  heat,  in  return,  U»  projected  tVom  the  earth  or  its  atmosphere  towards 
other  refrioUH  of  space,  is  a  disputed  question.  Professor  Leslie  maintains  that  heat,  which 
is  not  aecoinpanied  with  or  rather  is  not  in  tho  state  of  light,  cannot  [Miss  through  a  vacuum, 
and,  of  course,  that  it  cannot  pass  tho  boundary  of  the  atmosphere.  If  so,  it  would  follow 
that  the  atmosphere  docs  not  continually  draw  otf  heat  from  the  earth,  but  may  oflener  be 
tho  warmor  of  the  two.  Many  philosophers,  however,  are  of  a  diflerent  opinion,  among 
whom  WIS  tho  ingf»nious  Dr.  Wells,  with  most  of  those  who  embraced  his  thoctry  of  dew. 
Those  allege,  that  heat  is  couHtaritly  projected  from  tho  earth  and  atmosphorc  towards  tho 
boundless  regions  of  sjmco.  Obs(  rvation  shows,  that  much  heat  pa?ses  upward  from  the 
earth's  surface,  especially  when  the  air  k  clear.  In  tliis  way,  tho  stratum  of  air  in  contact 
with  tln^  surface  is  C(xded  more  thrm  tliat  which  is  somewhat  higher.  It  is  probable  that 
there  exists  a  naturil  tendency  in  tho  atmosphere,  as  in  most  other  bodies,  towards  un  uni- 
form temperature  throughout  its  whole  height ;  and  since  currents  in  its  upper  regions  usually 
:!ome  from  a  warmor  quarter,  und  tho  lower  currents  from  a  colder,  there  is  u|Km  the  whole, 
independently  of  aeronautic  observations,  some  groimd  tor  8upf>osing  tliat  the  decrease  of 
temporal  lire  on  ascending  in  the  atmosphere  should  be  slower  than  the  law  of  capacity  as 
increased  by  dilatation  requires. 

Tlie  follow  ing  list  of  temperatures,  chiefly  observed  at  stations  employed  in  the  barome- 
trical measurements  of  heights,  is  taken  from  M.  Ramomrs  work  on  that  subject.  Only  a 
few  of  these  measurements  embrace  the  whole  lieights  of  the  mountains  on  which  they 
were  made,  and  the  first  case  is  of  a  different  cla^s.  We  Iiave  reduced  the  temperatures  to 
Fahrenheit's  scale : — 


Oif-I.uMar'B  Hr^nl  .... 

C'hlmh-KUn 

Moiil  aian.' 

pillo   

rir<lr  Tfiiftlffi! 

M'ini  Hlan>'.  Chimouiiir . 

Flij«  ..    

Muiit  iVMii.  Tirbr* 

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METKOUOLOGY. 


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Hnlghl  in 

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Thin  tablo  bIiow*,  in  a  vory  strikiiiK  iniiimtr,  witli  how  little  ccrtninty  the  ilocrcMO  of 
t<!m|K!mtiiru  can  liu  UHtiiiiutt'il  t'roiii  thii  iiicrt-ii.su  of  height;  iiiui  Imw-  iiiiHtcnd}'  tlio  rulu  of 
(lijcruiiso  iH  otlcii  lit  till)  Huino  plucn.  M.  ilutiiuiid,  howuver,  Im8  colluctud  some  ciised  which 
are  titill  luoru  iliHcorduiit. 

Tho  jirccitlinK  '"''''"  eontiiinH  the  tein|)urttturi>H  of  the  air  ot  diffcrniit  hui)flittt  for  ono  or  a 
few  parliciiiiir  iiwtuiitx;  hut  wo  shuU  now  udd  a  lahte  from  Huron  llumMdt  nf  Ihi-  mrun 
leinjicniliirrg  of  devatcd  giluatinitu,  aa  deduced  from  neverai  yearn  olworvatious.  The 
do|{riR'i4  are  those  of  Fahruiihiiit'ci  fualu. 

Fruin  thiH  tuble  it  appcan*,  that,  in  tho  moan  state  of  tho  atmosphere,  tho  tcinporaturo 

does  not  dccroatio  uniformly  for  u  unitiirni  accent. 
At  the  equator,  tlio  thurtiioineter  failH  1(P  in  tho 
first  KKK)  yanls  of  ascent,  or  alwut  1°  li)r  :U(>  foot. 
In  tiie  next  l(KH)  yards,  it  is  only  1°  (or  rfiA  feet  • 
but  in  the  third  and  Iburtii  stages  there  is  a  re- 
markable acceleration,  which  huvin);  attained  its 
maximum  rate,  is  diminished  a^ain  in  tho  fltlh 
stuffo  to  Homuwhat  less  tiian  it  was  in  tlio  first,  or 
to  1°  in  'MO  foet.  The  mean  rate  in  tho  varia- 
tion of  temperature,  throuffiiout  tlio  whole  hei(;ht 
of  lijtMW  feet,  at  tho  limit  of  perpetual  snow,  is  1° 
for  every  341  foet.  Tho  smaller  rate  of  decreaso  in  tho  second  and  third  sta^'es  is  ascribcu 
by  Ilumhtjidt  to  the  large  dense  clouds  which  aro  suspended  in  this  region,  and  which,  he 
alleges,  have  tho  triple  effect  of  absorbing  tho  sun's  rays,  forming  rain,  and  intercepting 
tho  radiation  of  heat  from  the  earth.  In  tho  temperate  zone,  the  uecreaso  is  at  tl.o  rate  of 
1°  for  arili  feet,  during  the  first  UKM)  yards  of  ascent.  But  throughout  tho  whole  height  of 
9587  feet,  to  tho  limit  of  perpetual  snow,  where  tho  mean  temperature  is  38,4°,  tho  decreaso 
is  1°  tor  iJ17  foet,  or  almost  1°  for  10()  yards.  As  already  remarked,  observations  made  in 
the  free  regions  of  the  atmos])hero  have  not  yet  been  so  numerous  as  to  warrant  any  certain 
conclusion  regarding  the  teiiiperature ;  but,  so  far  as  such  observations  go,  they  do  not  diflbr 
very  widely  ^om  the  mean  of  those  observed  on  the  sides  and  summits  of  mountains.  But 
generally  in  the  temperato  zone,  a  difference  of  lOflO  yards  in  height  will  produce  a  dilTorence 
of  12°  of  tempernture ;  and  so  on  in  proportion  for  smaller  heights.  In  higher  regions,  the 
difference  between  tho  heats  of  day  and  night,  summer  and  wiiitir,  seem  to  be  loss  than  at 
the  level  of  the  sea ;  though  from  this  there  are  some  exceptions.  Extensive  tablo-Iands 
arc  usually  warmer  than  insulated  peaks  of  tho  same  height.  Humboldt  calculates  that,  in 
the  temperate  zone,  an  ascent  of  110  yards  diminishes  tho  temperature  as  much  as  an  addi- 
tional degree  of  latitude. 

Temperature  of  air  in  mines.  Having  thus  noticed  tho  lower  temperatures  which  obtain 
in  more  elevated  situations,  wo  shall  now  give  some  account  of  the  increased  temperature 
which  generally  prevails  in  air  occupying  deep  caverns  and  mines.  There  can  be  no  doubt 
;is  to  such  facts,  but  the  source  of  tho  heat  is  still  a  subject  of  controversy.  There  are  some 
mines  intensely  cold;  and  as  these  were  first  observed,  the  explanation  oflfered  was,  that 
till!  colder  portions  of  air  had,  by  their  greater  weijjiit,  descended  into  the  mines  :  but  this 
solution  entirely  vanished  when  it  was  known  that  mines  are  generally  hot.  The  heat  of 
the  workmen,  their  fires  and  lights,  have  been  stated  as  sources  of  heat ;  as  likewise  the 
ciiemical  action  of  air  and  water  on  the  minerals.  Some  again  allege  that  a  high  tempera- 
ture obtains  in  the  interior  of  our  globe,  and  consequently  that  the  heat  will  always  be 
greater  as  we  penetrate  fartlicr.  However,  it  is  found  that  on  boring  into  the  solid  strata  in 
tho  bottom  of  warm  mines,  and  letting  down  a  thermometer,  the  temperature,  so  fiir  from 
increasing,  comes  short  of  that  in  the  mine.  This  sufficiently  proves  that,  whatever  be  the 
sources  of  heat,  some  of  them  at  least  must  operate  in  or  be  situated  about  the  mine  itself. 
That  a  higlr  temperature  obtains  in  the  interior,  is  in  many  instances  evident  from  the 
streams  of  hot  water  and  vapour  which  i.ssue  from  fissures  in  the  strata :  but  in  many  warm 
mines  nothing  of  this  is  observable.  Profesoor  Leslie,  Dr.  Forbes,  and  aflerwards  Mr.  Mat- 
thew Miller,  have  suggested  the  heat  evolved  by  a  current  of  air,  while  it  undergoes  an 
increase  of  pressure  in  descending  into  the  mine.  The  first  two  of  these  philosophers  did 
not  deem  this  an  adequate  source  of  heat ;  and  Mr.  Miller  seems  to  entertain  similar  doubts. 
But  from  what  is  now  known  of  the  great  heat  evolved  by  the  compression  of  air,  there  can 
be  little  room  to  question  that  this  furnishes  a  considerable  supply,  wherever  there  is  a  suf- 
ficient current  of  air.  Thus,  if  air  at  the  temperature  of  02°  P.  have  its  density  suddenly 
increased  by  the  170th  part,  the  temperature  will  be  raised  1° ;  supposing  no  heat  to  be  lost 
on  the  sides  of  tho  shafl.  This  would  give  1°  for  a  descent  of  170  feet,  which  is  still  short 
of  the  rate  at  which  the  temperature  is  observed  to  increase  in  British  mines;  but  when 
added  to  the  heat  caused  by  the  presence  of  the  workmen  and  horses,  their  lights,  blas'ing 
of  rocks,  fires,  &c.  together  with  some  increase  of  temperature  belonging  to  the  deeper 
strata,  there  does  not  seem  any  mystery  in  the  heat  of  some,  although  probably  not  of  all, 
mines.    Those  mines,  again,  in  which  there  is  almost  no  circulation  of  air,  and  which  pre- 


I! 


>m 


'■]:• 


v,;h 


m 


II 


m 


m 


SCIENCE  OP  OKOORAIMIY. 


Paht  II 


nenta  wi<lp  iiioutli  to  n  clcornky,  rimy  Imvo  tlirir  li-finwr itiiro  rt'diiiM'd  tiy  radmlinn  lii-iii 
iipwiinlH,  ill  tlin  wiinu  wiiy  tlint  plniitN  iiro  stiirvcil  uitti  cold  liy  \h;\u^  Urn  imu'li  hludti'n.'d 
tVoin  tlir>  wind  whili'  tliey  nro  <>x|Kmi'd  to  ii  clciir  hl<y. 

An  immonM  collection  of  tkutN  (ind  nbpiTvutiniiH  rclutint;  to  tliix  itulij''''t  may  )»•  Mi<i>n  in 
tlio  7V'in«fic(tonj  i^  the  Uvoloaiciil  Snrirlij  of  ('nriiwull,  mid  in  tlii>  lirxt  nuiiiliiT  of  tlm 
Kdin.  Phil.  Journal.  From  the  luttiT  wu  ('xtract  tlm  llillowinjj  Huiiiinury  of  Mr.  UiiUI'i* 
obaurvations,  miulo  in  tho  dnepeiit  cuil-niincH  in  (iri'iit.  Uritiiiii: — 

IVnIiir  IK  ili^plli  nf  444  fci'l 01°  f 

Air  III  p-aiMiMli'iMli M 

I'err)  Main  Callitry,  MrlhumbtrlimJ, 


Air  III  tlm  ■iirtarii     i^  V 

A  KprtiiK  'It  Miirfficr* 411 

IViiipr  at  depth  a(  v/n  IWal    IK) 

Air  m  •■INI' dcjilh     113 

Air  Hlilc|illi  ol'iwrout   (Ml 

IfurUiiftm  Collitri,  Cumitrltni. 

Air  at  the  iiirrarp     M 

A  uprliiK  at  niirl'iire 4H 

Wnter  ut  dvpth  uflHO  diet    00 

Water  SIM  Diet  beneath  tlie  iiirfkce  ofthe  Iriih 
B«a        60 

7tom  OoUlify,  County  <if  UurUm. 
Water  «l  iurfaca      4D 


y\lr  at  tile  riirHire  49 

Wilier  nt  niirfiiie 4U 

Air  III  duplli  c<r  IND'  feet  beiow  tlm  luvid  nf  tho 
•en,  and  iiiiiiiediiituly  under  tlm  In.'d  iif  tlm 

river  Tyiii'  70 

Witter  III  •iinm  depth 68 

lleru  Leilif!'!  Iiynrunietcr  Indiriilml  ilrynuM  . . .  .H3 

Jamnt  CtlUtry,  Onrnty  rf  Durham. 

Air  nl  the  mirfliCD   40) 

Water  ul  mirlHCH 411 

Air  lit  iluplh  cirHH-i  fc>et 70 

Wiilir  at  aanit'  depth 68 


The  engino  pit  of  Jarrow  is  tho  deepest  perpendicular  uhafl  in  Dritain,  being  OflO  feet  to 
the  foot  ofthe  pumps,  where  the  temperature  of  tho  air  wan  04°. 


KUUnfwcTlh  (MU4rf,  Mrlhumitrhiid. 

Air  at  lurftice  4A0  K 

Water  at  iiirnirn 411 

Air  «l  bottom  of  ihaft  7tlO  feel  deep 31 

Air  at  depth  of  INK)  (but,  and  a  niilu  and  half  from 
bottom  ofdowii-cait  pit 70 


Water  at  iiiotl  dl>tant  fori'lieud  and  ISiOU  fuvt 

below  Kiirrare 74°  P 

Air  nt  mime  de|ith  77 

At  thin  depth,  ilistilliHl  water  boiled  at UI3 

When  at  aurfuce  U  boilud  at SlO-.t 


The  temperature  of  aprin^rg  and  caverns,  in  many  places,  coincidoa  with  the  mean  annual 
tempcraturo  of  tho  air :  but  Hinnboldt  alle^rcs  that,  in  latituileu  above  4r)°,  the  mean  heut  of 
s])ring;8  and  caves  exceeds  that  of  tho  atmosphere.  As  connected  with  this  subject,  Mr. 
Fcr^ruson,  of  Raith,  had  four  largo  thennoinetors  sunk  in  his  garden,  to  tho  respective  depths 
of  1,  2,  4,  and  8  feet,  in  lat.  56°  10',  and  50  foot  above  tho  sea.  The  stents  and  scales  rose 
above  ground,  and  indicated  the  follow in<r  monthly  mean  temperatures: 


January.., 
February . . 

March 

April 

May 

Juno 

July 

AuRuat.  ■ .. 
September. 
October. . . . 
November . 
December. . 


1810, 


1  Foot. 

33.00 

33.7 

3S.0 

39.7 

40.0 

SI.O 

S4.0 

SOD 

SI.O 

47.0 

40.R 

3S.7 


i  Feet.     4  Feet,  i  H  Feet. 


Meanofthe  Year  I    43.B 


3(1.30 

.111.0 

311.7 

38.4 

43.3 

MO 

5J.3 

M.H 

SI.3 

411.3 

43.8 

400 


44.1 


4fl.;o 
:ni.o 

SII.O 
41.4 
43.4 
47.1 
30.4 
30.11 
Sl.fl 
411.7 
4r>..'l 
43.0 


43.1 


43.00 

4-i.O 

4i.3 

43.H 

44.0 

4.1.H 

47.7 

4!).  4 

30.0 

40.0 

43.11 

411.0 


40.8 


1817. 


I  Foot. 


33.r.o 

37.n 

3114 
4.V0 
4IIH 
31  1 
33.'J 
33.4 
93.0 
43.7 
41.0 
33.0 


44.U 


a  Feet. 


:w.7o 

40.0 
WM 
44.4 
44.7 
411.4 
33.0 
33.0 
32.7 
40.4 
44.7 
40.8 


43,0 


4  Feet. 

40.53 

41.11 

41.7 

4i2.ll 

44.0 

47.0 

31.4 

320 

53.0 

411.4 

47.0 

44.11 

40,12 


a  Feet. 

43.10 

42.7 
42.3 
42.U 
44.2 
47.H 
411.0 
;'i0.0 
.10.7 
411.8 
47.11 
4U.4 

4*1.0 


Hod  the  thermometers  been  sunk  considerably  deeper,  they  might  have  been  expected  to 
have  indicated  47°  7',  which  is  the  constant  temperature  of  a  neighbouring'  spring  issuing 
from  a  trap  rock. 

The  local  temperature  or  climate  of  a  country  depends  very  much  upon  its  distance  from 
the  equator,  and  its  height  above  the  level  of  the  sea :  but  the  nature  of  tho  surface,  tho 
proportion  of  humidity,  the  distance  of  the  sea,  of  lakes,  of  mountains,  of  arid  or  frozen 
plains,  and  perhaps,  also,  the  internal  heat  ofthe  earth,  have  each  their  share  in  tho  fertility 
or  salubrity  of  a  country.  The  decrease  of  lieat  as  we  recede  from  the  equator  follows  dif- 
ferent laws  in  tho  two  hemispheres,  being  greater  in  tho 
southern  than  in  the  northern,  and  is  also  affected  by  the 
longitude.  On  tho  west  of  Europe,  the  cold  increases  less 
with  the  latitude  than  in  any  other  quarter.  Under  meri- 
dians which  arc  00°  cither  cast  or  west  of  Ix)ndon,  the 
increase  of  cold,  as  we  go  northward,  is  more  rapid  than  in 
England.  According  to  Humboldt,  continents  and  largo 
islands  are  warmer  on  their  western  sides  than  on  the  eastern. 
The  annexed  table  shows  the  mean  temperatures  of  western 


Lat. 

Old 
World. 

New 
World. 

Diflr. 

OO 

81.50 

81.30 

OO 

SO 

77.lt 

77.1) 

0 

30 

70.7 

67.1 

3.0 

40 

03.3 

.34.8 

«.o 

30 

30.11 

38.3 

13.0 

60 

41.0 

23.0 

11)0 

70 

:i3.o 

0.0 

33.0 

Europe  and  North  America  continued  to  tho  equator. 


' 


BuoK  II, 


MKTK(m()I,COY. 


173 


4«i 

W 
.70 
.08 


iMitlicriiml  lincH  lirivn  Ixx'ii  cin)Hiik>rf<l  lut  uiiMuiiiriii)^  thu  iioat  nii<l  cold  of  llio  rnrtli.  Tliu 
rlinmti'  (if  KaHfrrn  AmIii  i-dirii'H  nt'nrrr  to  lliiit  nf  Kiixtorii  AiniTini  tliiiti  ot'  \V»»ti'ni  Kiirupc, 
Tliiirt  tliii  liililiiilcH  (if  NiipU'H,  I'fkmif,  mill  l'liiliulfl|)hiii  urn  r<'i«;MTtivi'ly  41°,  40",  iiiul  4<P, 
whilHt  tlii'ir  iiK'uii  ti!tiiiH>riitiirui«  iir«  Ilil.M'',  M.h'^,  imil  ri:i,4''.  Much  <liir<>rtitice*  uri)  ri'iiilcrnl 
iiioro  nciiHiblo  wlioii  \vi!  ciiniDtct  tlin  plnri-N  linvin}(  thu  mnio  iiicnn  tfinpomtiiri^  liy  liiu>ii 
whicli  lliiiiiMilt  il<>iiiiiiiiniit<'K  iMollM'ririiil  lincx.  'I'Iiiin,  tho  iwHhrriiiul  liiin  nlTiO^  F.  trnvi<r><i'H 
thn  liititucli!  of  4:1'  ill  KiiniiM',  hut  iIcnci'IkIh  to  Int.  'M'  in  Aiiic>ri<'ii ;  the  iKntlicniiiil  lim-  i>t' 
41°  F.  iNiHscH  t'ri)iii  lilt.  (HI''  ill  Kiirii|M'  !•>  lut,  4^""  in  America:  hut  Hiiii'i-  ilic  wt'otmi  ctxi.-t 
(if  Niirtli  AiiD'rica  is  wnriiicr  (liiiii  tlic  i'ii:«tiTii,  tli<>  iNotlK'niial  linrn,  b<'iii)f  triirixl  niuiiil  Uio 
iiortlii'rn  lioiiiiHph<!r«<,  woiiM  liiivu  coiinnvo  HUiniiiit«  ut  tliu  Haul  Mo  of  Initli  uorlilM,  iiiid  cuii- 
V(>x  nt  tlio  wmt. 

Tlio  (litlnrfiici!  Ix'twfoii  tlin  iiionn  tcinpcrntiiro  of  wuinnirr  nnd  wiiiltT  in  nnthiiif;  «t  tlio 
equator,  anil  incronmiH  cuntiiuiully  witli  tlin  liititiiilc.  But  tlio  rxtri'irio  (liUvri'iirn  of  thu 
Nonwiim  id  conipciriitivi'ly  hmiuU  in  VVi'Htcrn  KiiroiM-,  anil  (^reiit  when'  tliii  nwmn  niiinml  tciii- 
licratiiro  in  low,  uh  on  tlii>  oust  ronMn  of  Axia  iiiiil  Atncrica.  If  \Vi>  ilrnw  a  lino  in  a  north- 
cant  dirnction  iVoin  lloriloiiiix  to  WarHaw,  and  coiitiiiuo  it  to  the  Wolj»«,  in  lat.  !VP,  then 
all  placoa  niidor  this  line,  at  the  Nunin  idovation,  will  have  nearly  the  winie  Humnier  ti'iniHTU- 
ture  of  »I9°  or  70°  F.  The  lineM  of  equal  winter  temperature  decline  in  an  opponite  direr- 
tion.  Thus  n  Htrai^rht  lino  drawn  tVoni  t^linliur);h  to  Milan,  almwt  nt  riirlit  aii^luM  to  the 
tbnner  lino,  would  (mihs  over  places  which,  if  equally  elevatctl,  would  have  nearly  the  oaiiie 
winter  temperature  of  37°  or  :W°  F. 

Tlio  oxtromoH  of  temperature  are  experienced  chiofly  in  largo  inland  IriictH,  and  littlo  felt 
in  mnall  i.slandH  romolo  from  continentH.  In  the  United  HtatoH  inteiiNO  cold  in  felt  when  the 
wind  blown  tVom  the  frozen  regions  round  lIuilHon'M  Day.  From  Miow-clad  mountains,  gMAn 
of  cold  wind,  called  mow  whulii,  ruHli  down  nnd  cixil  the  adjacent  plaiiiM.  Tho  heat  acoii- 
miilatCH  to  an  iuitQniHhin;r  dejjreo  when  the  wind  iMsses  over  cxtonwive  de^erts  of  burnin)|r 
Hand,  which  aro  said,  in  mme  inxtancoH  in  Africa,  to  bo  heated  to  the  Niilin^  point.  This 
fino  Hand,  or  rathor  dust,  HomctiineH  rixen  in  tho  air  and  ohHCuroH  it  like  11  tii^r,  eominunicnting 
to  it  an  intolemblo  heat.  In  arctic  countries  the  temperatiirn  m  very  iiiiirh  regulated  by 
tho  freezing  of  tho  water  and  the  melting  of  tho  ice;  by  tho  frco/.inL'  of  the  water  great 
quantities  of  heat  are  given  out  which  iniHlornto  tho  severity  of  the  winterV  cold,  nnd  thus 
save  from  doHtniction  tho  arctic  land  aniinuls,  and  plnntH;  while  in  Kiiniiner,  the  inteiiHity 
of  tho  heat,  produced  by  tho  long  continuance  of  the  sun  above  the  horizon,  is  moderated  by 
tho  abstraction  of  a  considoriible  |)ortion  of  tlmt  heat  by  tho  water  during  the  melting  of  the 
ice.  Had  tho  arctic  regionn  been  entirely  of  land,  neither  plants  nor  animals  could  have 
existed  in  them :  for  during  summer,  owing  to  the  Bun  remaining  akive  tho  horizon  tor 
months,  an  elevation  of  atmospheric  temperature  would  have  Ix'on  proiluced  fatal  to  nnimaU 
and  plants  ;  nnd  in  winter,  tho  long  darkness  nnd  intense  cold  would  have  proved  equally 
fatal  to  animated  k'ings.  The  cold  of  the  icy  regions  of  tho  north  has  been  alleged  to 
reach,  by  currents  of  air,  southern  latitudes,  and  thus  to  lower  their  temperature. 

Baron  Humboldt  has  added  more  to  our  knowledge  of  the  distribution  of  temperatiiro  over 
tho  glolm  than  any  other  who  had  laboured  in  tho  same  boundless  field  of  research.  The 
table  on  the  following  page  contains  his  gonenil  summary,  to  which  is  added  Melville 
Island.  The  temperatures  have  licen  reduced  to  FahrenhiMt's  scale,  and  the  longitudes  are 
reckoned  from  Greenwich.  An  asterisk  is  prefixed  to  those  places  whose  temperatures 
have  been  most  accurately  dotcrmined,  and  in  general  by  meanH  of  8000  observations. 

In  treating  on  tho  mean  annual  tempcr.iture  which  obtains  nt  diflerent  places,  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  give  ft  taldc  which  makes  the  teinpnrature  depend  entirely  on  tho  latitude.  But 
observation  shows,  that  tho  temperature  is  usually  higher  nt  the  same  latitude  in  the  old 
world  than  in  the  new,  nnd  in  north  latitude  than  in  south ;  and,  as  was  already  mentioned, 
it  differs  in  tho  same  continent  nnderdiffercnt  meridians.  So  that  more  than  one  table  would 
be  required  tor  each  quarter  of  tho  globe ;  or  else  one  very  extensive  table,  involving  the 
longitude  aa  well  as  latitude,  which  is  tho  ease  with  Humboldt's  table,  so  far  as  it  goes. 

As  tho  earth  and  its  atmos|)hero  are  continually  receiving  heat  from  tlie  sun,  it  is  plain 
that  their  mean  annual  temperature  must  ho  continually  on  tho  increase,  if  no  heat  be 
thrown  off  by  them  into  surrounding  space.  Professor  Leslie  accordingly  alleges,  tlmt  the 
increase  of  tempornture  is  at  the  rate  of  aliout  1°  in  80  years.  This  would  help  to  explain 
.some  of  the  changes  of  climule  which  seem  to  have  been  gradually  taking  place  during 
successive  ages  in  manv  places,  and  particularly  in  tlie  west  of  Europe.  But  the  late  cele- 
brated Marquis  de  In  Place  has  endeavoured  to  show,  from  astronomical  observations,  that 
tho  mean  temperature  of  the  earth  has  undi:rgoiio  no  sensible  change  during  tho  last  two 
thousand  years.     His  arguments,  however,  arc  not  free  from  objection. 

Sect.  II. — Effvct  ofClimutr  on  Plants  and  Animals. 
Tho  geographical  distribution  of  plants  and  animals  appears  to  be  chiefly  regulated  by  the 
temperature  of  the  atnuisphere.    Each  has  generally  a  particular  climate  in  which  it  thrives 
best,  aiid  beyond  certain  limits  it  ceases  to  exist.    Since  an  increnee  of  height  has  an  effect 


h'.     ■■! 


^#""   ,. 


^. .,, 


f-i  i 


174 


SCIRNCR  OP  fiKOORAI'HY. 


Part  11. 


^ 


ft 


3 
is 

a 


f^^  111 


N.imM  of  KacM. 


IMi'Mlli*  Inliiiiil  .  . .  , 

Niiiii  

'I'm  iiiii'kics    

Iliw|iir<>  di'  Si.  (,'ii- 
llinnl 

NiMlll  t'niio 

MM.-,.   

'I'liii'ii  

*St.  I*i>lrn*hiirfj;  . , , . 

liniiiilu'im 

IMiwiiw 

Aim 


*l>nl 

'Si,),kh.ilin   

(J.i.'IWT 

I'liriNiiiunii 

"("ninclll  111  IViwoii 
Ih'1-k 


'<  i>|«'nliii|nMi 

•Ki'iiiliil  

Kiilkliiiiil  IsliiniJN .. . 
•I'niuiic 

lillMlllm'll 

•Ziiruli 

*ri|Mil>iir!;li 

Wainiiw 

('din'  

DnWiii   

Ili-riic 

I  il'IICVII    

Miiiiln'im 

\ipmm 

Tl.'rmoiil 

•Hn.iii 

'itnilirlilKi",  MiiHx. . . 

r,in< 

IxMllllllI 

niiiiliirK   

Ainslinliim  

MrtiHvt'Is   

•rrmi'lvor 

I'liilnilolpliln 

Ni'w  Yiirk 

rini'iniiiili 

Si.  Main 

!\iititr,<   

IV'kuiji 

Mlinn  

Ilonlcniix 


I.M. 


ri 


CiS 


'til  :iii 

71  II 

I'li'i 

lilt  .'ill 

.'i'.t  rni 

T).'!  tri 
I'll) 


17 


f)  JC, 
17 

!.><  .'1(1 

■ii  :ui 
.'ii 

.v:  m; 

:w  .w 

ID  to 

:!<)  1 

•18  H'l 

■17  i:t 

:('.•  M 

(4.'>  t'H 

■It  fK) 


PiwlUrtn. 


i,"iie. 


O        I 

110  IHw. 

C.l'.'Ow. 
•-Nl  17  K. 

H  >z:\  K. 

V.'i  Wt  c. 
ii')  a>  K. 
V.1I  lI'iK 

mi  I'.iK. 

10  'i'i  K. 

:t7:(v!K. 


:i8k. 
:ir. 

(Iw 
481! 

:I4e. 
X>  K. 

4li  W' 

M»\v 
a-ti:. 
Mi:. 

•■tiK. 

10  w 

•:  K. 
:io  K. 

I'.lw. 
*•.  K. 

8r. 
\!8  K. 

*J*  K. 


Mnrsrillrs. . . 
MoiiIiH'llirr  . 

Hdlllc 

'rnilliili 

\iini;nsaki   .. 
•Nnlclic-/.  .. .. 


Piinrlml 
Alulrra  . 


in  17 

.  1:1  :tr. 

■11  .'):i 

.  i:)  7 

:vi  i.'i 

;ti  31 

:w  :t7 

»!  18 


•Cnim :t0    2 

•Vomrruz  I'.i  II 

if'IMliivnim W:t  10 

"      I'Cimmim 10  '>7 


3    ftK. 

19    Ik. 
71    7w. 

a  Wk. 

II  r.w. 
■^  r>o  K. 

■t  •.^.!  K. 

7:>  10  vv. 

73  .Wh, 

8l'J7w. 

'i    l\v. 

i:w\v 
iir.\>7K. 

•J  1 1  K. 
OSIw. 

ri  a-'  K. 

3  .'.2  K. 

la  a7  K. 

r>  M  K. 

f-X.t.V.K. 

•11  aiH. 
ir.rnnv. 

3    Ik. 

30  18  k 
if.    l\v. 
8ai3w. 
(Wi  l.^w. 


II«M. 

Kool 

0 

0 

13.'iO 

ri3<.N) 

0 

II 
II 
II 

0 

'.(711 

0 

0 

(I 
(I 
II 

3oiin 

0 

II 

II 

•I 

i:k-, 

13.V1 
l.'rtt 

II 

1871' 

0 

IIISO 

.t3a 
■laii 

laro 
■tin 

0 

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Book  IT. 


METROROLOOY. 


I7r> 


on  cliiniito  in  Minio  rrsppcts  Nimiliir  t<i  iin  iiirn-iiHc  of  Intiliulr,  it.  hns  boon  cnintiioiily  mip- 
(HtHcil  t,lml,  tlicri'  iirn  prn|)crly  no  pliiiilH  nrciiliiir  to  liiuli  liil.ituili'H,  Iwcuiw!  biicIi  imiy  l«'  riiin(!il 
oil  llio  iiKiiiiitnlnH  iiiidrr  tin:  ('(|iintor,  wliii-li  cnilmicc  evory  variety  of  climate)  li(!twrt'ti  tlie-ir 
siiiiiiiiit  iinil  Ikikc,  at  iciiHt  in  w)  fnr  iih  tctimnriifiin!  iw  (Mnicornnl.  In  |)oint  of  iilinoKplicri? 
prcHKiirc,  liowcvcr,  tlio  two  Hitimtioim  dillpr  cHHcntiiilly ;  iinil  Boiiif  niitiinilislH  iiili'jrc,  timl 
prrssiirc  w  of  viliil  iiniM)rliilic(>  to  tlir  (rrowtli  of  pliiiitK  I'rofcHMir  Kolicri'iiii'r  in  fif  npinioii 
tliiit  till!  iliiiiiiiiitivi'  Hi/p  orpliiiitH,  in  cliwiitcd  HitiiatioiiH,  dc|M'iiilH  more  dm  IIic  iliiiiiiiiitlnti  of 
pri'swiro  tliiin  of  IcmixTiitiin!.  To  iiHCcrlain  tliiH,  lir  put  rcpiiil  (piiintilicH  nl' Imilcy  mid 
moint  earth  into  two  equal  ri^oeiverH:  tlio  air  in  tli(!  one  had  a  preHKiirc  ol"  14  iiiehew  ofniiT- 
ciiry,  mid  the  olli(;rf)<(;  ^erniiiiiition  roiiimenenil  in  tiotli  at  the  hhiiii'  time,  mid  the  h-aveH 
Jmd  the  mum!  ^ft'""  •'»'•  At  the  end  of  fifteen  diiyH,  the  Hhootw  in  the  rarefied  iiir  wen;  iS 
iiiclieH  IdiiK,  mid  in  tiio  otiier  tVdni  1)  to  10.  The  firHt  were  expatuh'd  miil  Kof),  mid  wet  on 
tlie  mirtiiee,  especially  towards  their  extreniitioH ;  the  ot.hern  were  firm,  rolled  ronml  the  stem, 
and  nearly  dry.  fn  .';onin  reHpectw,  this  n.-eordH  with  wliiit  lliimlHildt  observed  of  the  treeH 
on  the  Aiidt-'N,  that  water  tniiiKpireH  from  them  ev<:n  in  the  driert  weather.  Thit  mcli  expe- 
riments are  inconchiHive,  iihIi-hh  there  were  wime  contrivance  employed  to  renew  the  eonlined 
air  f'r('(]uently.  Independently  of  prenwire,  the  Imrley  in  Iho  conueiiHed  air  had  the  uho  of 
four  times  tim  quantity  of  air  in  the  other  vesHel. 

I'lantH  are  most  iiimierous,  and  exhibit  the  fjniatcBt  variety  of  Bpccies,  and  the  most  luxu- 
riant ffri'Wth,  within  the  tnipics,  beyond  which  they  gradually  diminish.  In  the  arctic 
rejrion.s,  and  in  the  north  of  Russia,  the  ve};etnblo  kingdom  Iuih  dwindled  to  almost  imthing. 
The  lines  which  limit  the  jrrowth  of  certnin  plants  depend  (m  the  averape  summer  fempern- 
liire,  lor  plants  which  reqiiiri-  a  Ion;?  luid  iiMKlerntc  heat;  on  the  temperature  of  the  wiirmiot 
month,  for  those  which  recpiire  a  short  but  great  heat;  and  on  the  tcimperatiire  of  the  cnldeBt 
month,  for  those  which  cannot  hear  cold.  The  trans]iareiicy  of  the  air  is  also  of  innxirtiinco 
to  many  idants;  but  our  limits  will  not  admit  of  enlanriuff,  and  thfirefore  we  shall  confine 
ourselves  to  a  short  account  of  the  cliniates  of  cultivated  plants.  The  plant.'iin,  which  is  a 
primary  article  of  finxl  in  tropical  America,  Te<piircH  a  t.empisratiire  from  8'2°  to  T>i°  F., 
which  occurs  between  lat.  0°  and  87":  but,  in  iho  iMpiinoctial  zone  (hit.  ((°  to  10°),  its  fruit 
dtKis  not  ripen  at  a  greater  altitude  than  !KUK)  feijt.  The  sugar-cane  has  nearly  ilie  siime 
range,  but  Ih  cultivated,  though  with  loss  advantage,  in  the  old  world  to  Int.  'M\°  W,  wherc! 
the  nieiin  temperature  is  iiliout  »i7°.  The  severity  of  the  North  American  winter  iirevents 
the  cultivation  of  the  sugar-cane  beyond  lat.  .'n°;  but  it  succeeds  at  an  altitude  of  r)7f)0  feet 
on  the  t^ttile-land  of  Mexico.  The  fiivouritc  climate  of  the  cotton  pliiiit  lies  hetween  lat.  0° 
and  'M°\  but  it  succeeds  with  a  mean  mimmer  beat  of  75°  or  7!)'^  F.,  if  that  of  winter  do 
not  descend  below  !10°  or  38°.  In  America,  it  is  cultivated  at  hit.  1)7°  ;  in  Kiirope,  at  hit.  40° ; 
and  in  Aslracan,  at  lat.  40°.  The  dote  (lalm  thrives  best  hetween  Int.  2!i°  and  .').")";  but, 
when  sheltered  from  the  north  wind,  it  is  cultivated  on  the  nliores  of  Italy  to  Inf.  44°.  The 
citron  has  nearly  the  snme  lange,  but  is  cultivated  at  Nice,  at  altitudes  of  400  li'ef.  This 
tree,  with  the  sweet  orange,  grows  in  liouisiana  to  lat.  !10°,  but  beyoiid  that  it  is  injured  by 
the  cold.  'I'lie  olive  ranges  in  Euroiio  between  lat.  110°  and  44°  .V;  it  succeeds  wherever, 
with  a  mean  annual  temperature  from  66°  to  58°  V„  that  of  summer  is  not  below  71°,  nor 
that  of  the  coldest  month  below  42 ',  which  excludes  all  North  Americi  lieyoiiil  Int.  'M'\ 
The  favourite  climate  of  the  vino  in  the  old  world  is  tie'ween  bit,  ;tO°and  4H";  hut  it  thrives 
wherever  the  mean  tem]ierature  is  from  62°  to  47.5°,  provided  that  of  winter  is  not  lielow 
33°,  nor  summer  under  t(6"  or  68°.  Such  is  the  case  on  the  shores  of  Eurojie  to  hit.  47°. 
and  in  the  interior  to  lat.  50°,  but  only  to  lat.  40°  in  North  Ariieric;i.  The  rirrulia  or  com- 
mon grain,  as  wheat,  rye,  barley,  and  oatu,  thrive  where  the  mean  annual  lem[ierntiire 
descends  to  28°  F.,  provided  that  of  summer  rise  to  .')2°  or  53°.  In  l,a|)lmid,  barley 
ripens  wherever  the  mean  temperatnro  of  sumnuir  rises  to  47°  or  4*^°.  The  r.iiiid  growth 
of'  Imrley  and  oats  adapts  them  to  tlie  short  summers  of  the  north;  they  are  fijiiiid  as  high 
as  lat.  ()'t,J°  in  Lapland,  along  with  the  jiotato.  In  some  ])arts  of  enstern  RiiH!-i;i,  no  grain 
is  found  beyond  hit.  ()()°.  Wheiit,  which  is  a  precarious  crop,  ai.d  little  ciiltiviited  heyoiid 
lat,  58"  in  western  Europe,  yields  gncxl  returns  in  this  part  of  the  temperate  zone,  when 
the  mean  heat,  while  the  grain  is  on  the  ground,  is  55°;  but  if  no  more  than  40°,  none  of 
the  rrmilia  come  to  maturity.  These  species  of  gniin  are  cultivated  ;it  a  liiMght  of  3500 
feet  on  the  .Alps,  in  lat.  46°.  Rnrley  and  oats  succeed  nt  double  'hat  height  on  Caiicani.-, 
and  at  almost  a  triple  height  on  the  Andes,  along  with  wheat  mid  rye.  In  the  \ve.«t  of 
Europe,  iniiize  has  the  same  range  as  the  vine,  hut  reiiclies  liiithrr  north  on  the  cui^t.  In  its 
native  American  soil,  it  forms  the  chief  article  of  fixid,  from  the  river  I'jiita  to  the  hil<r'-:  of 
Canada.  Requiring  a  short  bnt  warm  seas;in  of  four  months,  it  is  well  .'^iiitid  to  the  eiiriiati' 
of  the  New  World  up  to  the  latitude  of  45°.  The  oak  ceases  at  lat.  03°  in  Nnr\\My,  nt 
()0°  or  01°  in  Finland,  and  at  57°  in  the  government  of  Perm.  The  piniis  silveslris,  or  Scots 
fir,  grows  to  a  height  of  60  feet  in  l.apland,  at  lat  70°,  i.nd  8.50  li'et  iiIkivo  the  level  of  the 
sea  :  there  the  birch  is  found  at  double  that  elevation.  In  eastern  Russia,  the  larch,  pine, 
bircli,  and  mountain-nsb,  disappear  about  lat.  68°;  ond,  nt  Hudson's  Bay,  all  trees  cease 
about  lat.  60°. 


na 


r- 


176 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


pabt  n 


Sbct.  III. — Composition  of  the  Atmosphere. — Aqueous  Meteors. 

Regarding  the  composition  of  the  atmospiierc,  abundantly  vague  and  fanciful  notionsi 
prevailed  lor  many  ages.  The  ancients  considered  air  as  one  of  the  four  simple  olements, 
of  which  they  supposed  all  other  bodies  to  be  compounded.  These  were  earth,  air,  fire,  and 
water,  l^ow  far  the  opinion  was  correct,  which  made  fire  an  element,  is  a  question  on 
which  nothing  i^:  yet  known;  but  the  researches  of  modern  chemistry  have  shown  tiiat  the 
other  three  are  all  ccmiiwund  bodies.  The  chief,  and  perhaps  the  only  essential,  component 
substances  iti  the  atmosphere,  are  the  two  gases  called  oxygen  and  azote ;  its  other  ingre- 
dients, occurring  only  in  small  and  variable  quantities,  are  rather  to  be  considered  as  foreign 
bodies.  The  analysis  of  air  is  a  difficult  problem.  Many  cliemists  have  found  it  to  consist 
of  21  iKirts  by  voluiiic  of  oxygen  to  79  of  nzote;  and  this  proportion  is  sensibly  the  same 
whether  the  air  be  from  the  polar  or  tropical  regions,  from  the  level  of  the  sea  or  a  mountain 
top,  from  the  most  healthy  or  insalubrious  countries.  But  Dr.  Prout,  guided  by  the  laws  of 
definite  proportions,  alleges,  that  if  the  two  gases  of  which  air  principally  consists  be  really 
combined,  tlioy  ought  to  be  20  oxygen  to  80  azote;  and  it  must  be  allowed  that  similar 
conjectures  of  the  same  eminent  chemist  iiave  been  verified  regarding  the  composition  of 
other  bodies,  which  Imd  apparently  deviated  farther  from  tlie  atomic  system. 

The  investigation  of  the  comixincnt  parts  of  the  atmosphere  did  not  keep  pace  with  that 
of  its  mechanical  properties.  i3oyle,  however,  and  his  cotemporaries,  put  it  beyond  doubt 
that  it  contiinod  an  elastic  fluid  and  water  in  the  state  of  vapour.  They  also  conjectured 
that  it  contained  various  other  substances,  which  rose  from  the  earth  ..  ihe  form  of  vapours, 
and  often  altered  its  properties,  rendering  it  noxious  or  fatal.  Since  the  discovery  of  car- 
bonic acid  by  Dr.  Black,  it  has  been  ascertained  that  this  elastic  fluid  always  constitutes  a 
part,  though  a  very  minute  one,  of  the  atmosphere. 

VVith  respect  to  moisture,  or  the  state  in  which  water  exists  in  air,  two  opinions  have 
been  formed :  1.  Water  may  be  dissolved  in  air,  in  the  same  manner  as  salt  is  held  in  solu- 
tion by  water;  2.  It  may  be  mi.\ed  with  air  in  the  stiito  of  steam  or  vapour,  after  having 
been  converted  into  vapour.  The  first  of  these  was  hinted  at  by  Dr.  Ilooke,  and  afterwards 
])roposed  by  Dr.  1  [alley.  It  has  been  adopted  by  many  others  in  succession,  among  whom 
is  Professor  Leslie ;  and  it  cannot  bo  denied  that  many  of  the  phenomena  agree  with  tliat 
theory.  The  second  opinion  seems  to  have  originated  with  Mr.  Deluc ;  but  it  is  to  Mr. 
Dalton  and  M.  Gay  Lussac  that  we  arc  indebted  for  subjecting  tliis  theory  to  the  test  of 
experiment. 

Evaporation  from  the  waters  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  is  undoubtedly  the  source  whence 
the  moisture  which  exists  in  air  is  derived.  Accordingly  we  find  tliat  water  exposed  to  the 
air  suffers  a  gradual  diminution  of  bulk,  till  it  entirely  disappears.  It  is  then  said,  in  com- 
mon language,  to  have  dried  up,  or  to  have  evaporated.  Under  an  exhausted  receiver,  water 
diminishes  even  mori-  rapidly  than  in  the  open  air.  Were  this  owing  to  solution,  tha  very 
reverse  ought  to  follow;  because,  in  place  of  ,'apour  being  caused  by  the  presence  of  air,  it 
goes  on  mor(!  rapidly  in  its  absence.  By  comparing  a  set  of  experiments  made  at  fJeneva, 
with  a  similar  set  on  the  Col-du-Geant,  I0,95()  feet  higher,  Saussure  found  that,  supposing 
the  temperature  and  dryness  of  the  air  the  same  at  both  places,  ihe  evaporation  at  the  upper 
would  be  to  that  at  tlie  lowei  nearly  as  7  to  3;  so  that  a  diminution  of  about  one  third  in 
the  density  of  the  air  more  than  doubled  the  rate  of  evaporation.  It  is  well  known,  that 
cold  is  always  generated  during  spontaneous  evajroration ;  that  is  to  say,  that  water,  as  it 
disappears,  carries  off  a  quantity  of  heat.  Dr.  Black  has  rendered  it  probable,  that  the 
quantity  of  heat  wliicii  disappeai  ■  during  spontaneous  evaporation  i"  ns  great  as  that  which 
is  required  to  form  water  into  steam.  A  wet  body  is  always  cooled  by  exposure  to  dry  air, 
owing  to  the  evaporation  from  its  surflice.  Hence,  in  warm  countries,  liquors  are  cooled  by 
wrapping  wet  clotlis  round  the  bottles  and  exposing  them  to  the  air.  M.  Saussure  observed, 
that  the  evaporation  from  the  surfiice  of  melting  snow  caused  it  to  freeze  again,  when  the 
temperature  of  the  air  was  4°  or  fi"  above  the  freezing  point.  The  simplest  nuKle  of  illus- 
trating the  cooling  inniiciicc  of  eva|K)ration,  is  to  cover  the  ball  of  a  thermometer  with  wet 
cloth  and  expose  it  to  the  air,  wiicn  it  will  be  found  to  indicate  a  greater  cr  less  degree  of 
cold.  This,  it  is  true,  does  not  take  ])lace  if  the  air  be  very  damp,  because  tlien^  is  tiien  no 
ova|X)ration.  Wind  tends  to  promote  evaporation,  both  by  connnuuieating  its  heat  to  the 
collier  evaporating  surface,  and  also  by  sweeping  away  the  va|M)ur  as  it  is  formed.  On  the 
contrary,  thi  re  is  scarcely  any  evaporation  in  perfectly  still  air,  unless  some  substance  be 
present  which  absorbs  the  vaix)ur  as  it  forms. 

On  this  principle.  Professor  Lesli(>  cdutrived  on  elegant  mode  of  pnxlucing  ice  in  any  cli- 
mate. A  rup  u  ith  water  is  ])!aeed  within  the  receiver  of  an  air-puinp,  alonsr  w  iih  some 
substance  uliich  absurbs  the  vapour.  Tlie  rate  of  eva[wration  is  then  increased  in  an  aston- 
ishing degrei,  hy  I'xhausting  the  air  from  the  receiver;  and  the  [)ortion  of  the  water  which 
is  converted  into  va|Kjur  abstracts  so  much  iieiit  from  the  remainder,  that  the  latter  is  .speed- 
ily converted  into  ice. 

Dew  is  a  remarkable  product  of  atmospheric  moisture.     The  quantity  of  atiueous  vapour 


Ii  iiny  cli- 
Jii!i  some 
Inn  iiston- 
li-r  whicli 
1  is  spood- 

lis  vnjicmr 


Book  II. 


METEOROLOGY. 


m 


tttiidi  Cijn  exist  m  ,  nivcn  fipaco,  as  a  cubic  fnot,  is  pretty  frencrally  hnlieved  to  be  the  same, 
whollicr  tiling  be  ii.r  present  in  the  space,  or  iicithiiiir  but  the  vapour  alone.  The  quantity 
is  always  (<•«■/.  par.)  the  same  at  the  same  temperature,  but  it  is  <;reater  as  the  temperature 
is  hii^ber;  ami  therefore,  supposing  the  space  to  be  saturated  witii  vapour  at  a  particular 
tomi)oriiture,  a  portion  of  this  will  return  into  drops  of  water  whenever  the  temperature 
falls.  It  is  on  this  principle  that  a  cold  body,  such  as  a  Iwtt'  •  of  liquor,  being  carried  into  a 
warm  moist  a))artment,  becomes  bedewed  on  the  outside,  till,  perhaps,  the  water  trickles 
down  its  sides;  the  contact  of  the  cold  surface  chills  the  air,  which  in  return  deposits  a  por- 
tion of  its  moisture.  Now  this  is  similar  to  the  mode  in  which  moisture  is  insensibly  depo- 
sited troni  the  atmosphere  on  Ixidies  at  the  eurth's  surface,  and  which  is  known  by  the  name 
of  (/tl/^  All  bodies,  placed  in  still  air  and  exposed  to  the  aspect  of  a  clear  sky,  are  found  to 
liecomo  colder  than  they  would  be  if  some  screen  or  awning  were  interposed  between  them 
and  tlie  sky.  In  such  circumstances,  bodies  often  become  mucli  colder  than  the  surrounding 
air,  w  hich,  if  sufficiently  moist,  deposits  on  them  a  portion  of  its  moisture  or  dew.  When 
the  temperature  is  low,  the  ilew  is  frozen,  and  forms  hoar  frost. 

The  radiation  of  heat  also  deserves  notice.  About  the  commencement  of  the  present 
century,  Professor  Leslie  discovered  that  bodies  possess  very  different  powers  of  radiating 
heat ;  and  that  this  depends  on  the  nature  and  condition  of  their  surfaces.  Metals  possess 
this  quality  in  a  degree  inferior  to  vitreous  bodies,  and  it  is  diminished  in  all  of  them  by 
jKilishing  the  surface.  Most  fibrous  and  filamentous  vegetable  substances  are  good  radiators, 
as  are  likewise  bodies  in  general  which  are  bad  conductors  or  bad  reflectors  of  heat.  Now 
the  degrees  of  cooling,  wliich  difl'erent  bodies  undergo  when  exposed  together  to  the  aspect 
of  the  sky,  is  observed  to  follow  the  same  order  as  that  of  their  radiating  powers ;  and,  of 
course,  the  order  in  which  they  begin  to  acquire  dew,  as  also  the  quantity  acquired;  is  regu- 
lated by  a  similar  law,  as  will  be  seen  from  what  follows. 

For  the  investigation  of  the  causes  of  dew  we  are  chiefly  indebted  to  the  late  ingenious 
Dr.  Wells.  The  ancients  maintained,  that  dew  appears  only  on  calm  and  clear  nights.  Dr. 
Wells  found  that,  in  opposite  circumstances,  very  little  is  ever  deposited,  and  that  little  only 
when  the  clouds  are  very  high.  Dew  never  occurs  in  nights  both  cloudy  and  windy ;  and 
if  in  the  course  of  the  night,  the  weather,  from  being  serene,  sli(i\ild  become  dark  and  stormy, 
dew  which  had  been  deposited  will  disappear.  In  calm  \M'ather,  more  dew  will  appear  if 
the  sky  be  partially  covered  with  clouds,  than  if  it  were  (juito  clear.  It  often  happens,  that 
even  before  sunset,  dew  begins  to  adhere  to  grass  in  spots  which  are  sheltered  from  both  sun 
and  wind ;  for,  in  clear  weather,  such  spots  sufter  much  from  the  chilling  aspect  of  the  sky, 
and  may  often  continue  to  accpiire  dew  during  the  whole  night,  and  tor  some  time  after  sun- 
rise. The  quantity  of  dew  depends  on  the  nioistness  of  the  air,  being  greater  after  rain  than 
atler  long-continued  dry  weather.  It  is  more  abundant,  in  Europe,  with  southerly  and  west- 
erly winds,  than  with  those  which  blow  from  the  opposite  points.  The  reason  of  this  seems 
to  be  the  direction  of  the  sea  rendering  the  wind  moist;  for,  in  Egypt,. dew  rarely  occurs 
unless  the  wind  come  from  the  sea.  But  with  a  southerly  wind,  which  has  passed  along  the 
flrxids  of  the  Nile,  dew  is  usually  observed  in  the  Delta  five  or  six  days  betbrc  the  inimda- 
tion.  Atler  a  long  perio<l  of  drought,  Dr.  Wells  exposed  to  the  clear  sky,  28  minutes  before 
sunset  in  a  calm  evening,  known  weights  of  wool  and  swan-down,  upon  a  smooth,  unpainted, 
dry  fir  table  about  3  feet  in  height,  and  which  liad  been  placed  an  hour  before  in  the  sun- 
shine in  a  large  grass  field.  At  12  minutes  after  sunset  the  wool  was  14°  colder  than  the 
air,  but  had  gained  no  weight.  The  swan-down  was  13°  colder  than  the  nir,  but  had  got  no 
additional  weight;  nor  was  it  any  heavier  at  the  end  of  20  minutes  longer,  but  it  had  then 
become  14J°  colder  than  the  air ;  whilst  the  grass  was  15°  colder  than  the  air  4  feet  above 
ground. — From  these,  and  many  similar  experiments.  Dr.  Wells  concluded  that  bodies  be- 
come colder  than  the  neightouring  air  liefm-c  they  are  dcnvcd. — Ho  bent  a  sheet  of  pa.ste- 
board  into  the  form  of  a  penthouse,  making  the  angle  of  flexure  9()°,  and  leaving  both  ends 
open.  This  was  placed  one  evening,  with  its  ridge  uppermost,  upon  a  grass-plat,  and,  as 
nearly  as  couhl  be  guessed,  in  the  direction  of  the  v.ind.  On  the  middle  of  the  spot  of  grass 
sheltered  by  the  roof,  was  placed  10  grains  of  wool,  and  an  ecpial  quantity  on  a  sjiot  of  the 
grass  fully  exposed  to  the  sky.  In  the  morning,  the  first  10  grains  were  only  2  grains 
heavier,  whilst  the  other  had  gained  16.  The  wool  does  not  here  acquire  moisture  from  the 
grass  by  capillary  attraction,  for  the  same  efl'ect  happens  if  it  be  placed  in  a  saucer;  nor  is  it 
iiy  hygronietric  attraction,  for  in  a  cloudy  night,  wool  placed  on  an  elevated  board  scarcely 
gained  any  weight. 

The  (|uantity  of  dew  varies  according  to  circumstances.  When  wool  ir  placed  upon  a  bad 
commctor  of  heat,  as  a  deal  board,  a  few  feet  from  the  ground,  it  will  become  colder  and 
acqu  re  more  dew  than  if  laid  on  the  grass.  At  the  windward  end  of  the  board,  it  is  less 
bedewed  than  at  the  sheltered  end;  because,  in  the  former  case,  the  wnid  keeps  up  tlio 
ti'mperature  nearer  to  that  of  the  atmosphere.  Rough  and  porous  surfaces,  as  shavings  of 
wood,  straw,  cS.c.,  take  more  dew  than  smooth  and  .solid  IxMlies,  Raw  silk  and  line  cotton 
collect  more  than  even  wool.  Glass,  being  a  goo<l  radiator  of  heat,  is  nnich  more  cpiickly 
"oated  with  dew  than  bright  metals,  which,  indeed,  receive  it  more  readily  than  many  other 

Vol,.  I.  X 


lit']  I 
■i.l 


t| 


:)  >1 


■■r  ( 


»! 

I 


■^■-r-'-' 


0' 


re 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  II. 


tKxIioa.  This  circumstance  has  tjiven  rise  to  the  strango  i(h;a  that  metaJH  absorb  dew,  though 
thuy  bo  the  most  compact  bodies  known.  If  wo  cwvt  a  piece  of  ghv  ■  oartially  with  bright 
tin-toil,  or  ^'ilver  loaf,  tlie  imcovercd  portion  of  the  gloss  quickly  b^  i  cold  by  radiation, 

on  cx|K)snre  to  a  clear  nocturnal  sky,  and  acquires  moisturr;;  w  ..,  begirming  on  thaie 
parts  most  remote  frt.m  the  metal,  gradually  approaches  it.  Thus,  also,  if  wo  coat  a  part  of 
ihc  outside  of  a  window-pane  with  tin-foil  m  a  clour  night,  then  moisture  will  be  dojwsitcd 
inside,  on  every  part  but  that  opposite  to  the  metal ;  but  if  the  metal  be  inside,  then  the 
nutside  of  the  coated  part  of  the  jjane  will  be  sooner  and  more  copiously  bedewed.  In  tlio 
lirst  oise,  the  tin-foil  prevents  the  glitss  under  it  from  dissipating  its  lu'ut,  and  tiiereforo  it 
ran  receive  no  dew;  in  the  second  case,  the  tin-foil  prevents  the  part  of  the  glass  which  it 
coats  from  receiving  the  calorific  influence  of  the  !fi):irtn)ent,  and  hence  it  is  sixiner  cooled 
oil  the  outside  than  the  rest  of  the  pane.  When  the  night,  after  having  boon  clear,  becomes 
cloudy,  though  there  be  no  change  with  respect  to  calmne.«s,  a  rise  in  the  temperature  of  the 
glii;:s  always  ensues.  In  clear  nights  the  temperature  always  falls,  but,  unless  the  air  be 
siitticiently  moist,  dew  does  not  necessarily  follow ;  from  which  it  is  evident,  that  the  cold 
cannot  bo  the  etTect  of  dew.  For  a  more  particular  account  of  these  interesting  phenomena, 
we  must  refer  the  reader  to  Dr.  Wells's  elegant  Esuay  on  Dexo. 

Clouds.  The  various  forms  of  clouds  were  first  successfully  attempted  to  be  arranged 
under  a  few  general  modifications  by  Mr.  Luke  Howard,  and  published  in  the  16th  and  17th 
vols,  of  the  Philosoph.  Magazine.  The  modifications  of  clouds  is  a  term  used  to  express  the 
structure  or  manner  of  aggregation,  in  which  the  influence  of  certain  constant  laws  is  suf- 
ficiently evident  amidst  the  endless  subordinate  diversities  resulting  from  occasional  causes. 
Hence  the  principal  modifications  are  as  distinguishable  from  each  other,  as  a  tree  from  a 
hill,  or  the  latter  from  a  lake;  although  clouds,  in  the  same  modificntion,  compared  with 
each  other,  have  often  only  the  common  resemblance  which  exists  among  trees,  hills,  and 
lakes,  taken  generally. 

There  are  three  simple  and  distinct  modifications,  which  are  thus  named  and  defined  by 
Mr.  Howard: — 

(1.)  Cirrus.  A  cloud  resembling  a  lock  of  hair  or  a  feather.  Parallel,  flexous,  or  diverg- 
ing fibres,  unlimited  in  their  extent  or  direction. 

(2.)  Cumulus.     A  cloud  which  increases  from  above  in  dense  convex  or  conical  heaps. 

(;J.)  Stratus.     An  extended  continuous  level  sheet  of  cloud,  increasing  from  beneath. 

There  are  two  modifications  which  appenr  to  be  of  an  intcrmediiitc  nature:  these  are — 

(4.)  Cirro-cumHlus.  A  connected  system  of  small  roundish  clouds,  in  close  order  or 
contact. 

(">.)  (Vrro-strnlns.  A  horizont-.l  or  slightly  inclined  sheet,  attenuated  at  its  circumference, 
concave  downward,    r  undulated.     Groups  or  p;ifches  have  tliese  characters. 

There  are  two  modifications  which  exhibit  a  compound  stnicture,  viz.: — 

((].)  (:umuln-.<itni,lus.  A  cloud  in  which  the  structure  of  the  cumulus  is  mixed  with  that 
nf  thii  rirro-slralus  or  cirrn-rumulus.  The  cumulus  flattened  at  top,  and  overhanging  its 
1)3  so. 

(7.)  Mimbus.  A  dense  cloiirl  spreading  out  into  a  crown  of  cirrus,  and  piissing  beneath 
into  a  shower. 

Regiinliiig  the  mode  in  which  clouds  arc  suspended  in  the  air,  philosophers  are  not  agreed. 
About  the  commencement  of  the  lust  century,  if  wa'^  supposed  that  the  aqueous  particles  of 
clouds  were  in  the  form  of  liollow  slinlls,  specilically  lighter  than  the  air  in  which  they  float. 
Rut  as  no  evidence  or  probiiliility  CDuld  bi>  adrluced  in  fiivour  of  this  theory,  it  has  given 
place  to  other  speculations  ;  -md,  at  oresent,  iii;my  consider  the  suspension  of  clouds  as  nn 
electrical  phenomenon.  On  attentively  observin<r  the  forms  of  clouds,  it  will  be  found  that 
they  have  a  tendency  to  ns-iMTie  one  or  other  of  the  seven  distinct  modifications  above  men- 
tioned ;  the  pectiliiir  charactiTs  of  which  mav  be  discovered  in  all  the  endless  configurations 
exhiliited  liv  cjnnds  under  difl'cr'Mit  cirrumst:incn-;.  It  niay  be  (iliserved  llirthcr,  that  the 
most  indefinite  and  shapeiess  miLsses  of  clouds,  if  attentively  watched,  will  sooner  or  later 
show  a  tendency  to  assumt^  the  form  of  some  of  these  mollifications;  a  circumstance  which 
sliows  not  only  their  distinct  nature,  but  al.^ii  proves  that  there  are  some  geiierMl  causes,  as 
yet  undiscovered,  why  a(|U(  ous  vapour,  suspended  in  the  air,  sho'ild  assumi;  certain  dilir-able 
and  constant  modifications. 

A  more  minute  description  of  the  formntion  and  changes  of  the  clouds,  and  of  the 
pro;rnostics  of  the  werither  to  be  deduced  from  their  peculiar  appearances,  shall  now  be 
attempted. 

The  cirrus  or  curl-cloud*  may  he  distinguished  from  every  other  by  the  lightness  of  its 
nature,  its  (Ihrous  structure,  and  the  great  and  perpetually  changing  variety  of  figures  which 
it  presents  to  th"  eye.  It  is  gi'nerallv  the  iiiost  (devated  of  clouds,  occupying  the  higher 
regions  of  the  atmos[>here.     As  this  cloud,  under  dilVerent  circumstances,  presents  consider- 


•Tliia,  mid  x\\o  nttiiT  ailililidnil  tPriiiH  whirli  tiill'tw.  have  Ivvu  proposi'd  as  Kiiylish  n.iiiies  hy  Dr.  TtioniBX 
Korstpr. 


RT  11. 

though 

bright 
liation, 
1  thoso 
part,  of 
^posited 
lun  the 

In  thn 
pfore  it 
ivhich  it 
r  cooled 
becomes 
re  of  the 
e  air  be 
the  cold 
;nomena, 

arranged 
and  17th 
press  the 
A's  is  suf- 
al  causes, 
ce  from  a 
inred  with 
hills,  and 

iefmed  by 

or  diverg- 

l  heaps, 
jnealh. 
psc  are — 
io  order  or 

umference, 


d  with  that 
lianging  its 

ng  beneath 

|not  agreed. 
KirticlcR  of 
tlipy  float. 
It  has  given 
louds  as  nn 
fo\md  that 
tibnvc  men- 
ifiSTurations 
ir,"thnt  the 
or  or  later 
knco  whicli 
ll  cniisos.  as 
lin  lie  finable 

Innil   of  the 
now  bi> 

■tiu'ss  of  its 
liiroa  which 
jfho  higher 
Its  consider- 


BooK  II. 


METEOROLOGY. 


179 


Ly  Dr.  ThoniBi 


abl<!  varieties  of  appearances,  it  will  be  jiroper  to  consider  these  separately,  with  reference 
to  the  particular  kind  of  wcatlier  in  wliich  they  prevail.  After  a  continuance  of  clear  fine 
weather,  a  wliitisli  line  of  cloud  may  often  be  observed  at  a  great  height,  like  a  white 
thread  stretched  across  the  sky,  the  ends  seeming  lost  in  each  horizon :  this  is  often  the  first 
indication  of  a  ciiange  to  wet  weather.  To  this  line  of  cirrus,  others  are  added  laterally, 
and  souicliiiios,  as  it  were,  propagated  from  the  sides  of  the  line  in  an  oblique  or  transverse 
direction ;  the  whole  iiaving  the  appearance  of  net-work.  At  other  times  the  lines  become 
gradually  denser;  descend  lower  in  the  atmosphere;  and,  uniting  witii  others  below,  pro- 
duce rain  without  o.xtiibiting  the  above-montioned  transverse  reticulations.  The  above- 
described  varieties  of  cloud,  though  composed  of  straight  lines,  are  ranged  under  the  general 
head  of  ciirus,  from  tiieir  resemblance  to  this  cloud  when  it  appears  under  ci  ived  and  con- 
torted forms.  The  comnid  cirrii/t,  popularly  known  under  the  nsjne  of  the  grey  mare's  tail, 
is  the  proper  cirrus.  It  somewliat  resembles  a  distended  lock  of  white  hair,  or  a  bunch  of 
combed  wool,  and  from  this  it  got  the  name  comoid.  It  usually  occurs  in  variable  weather, 
and  is  reckoned  a  precursor  of  wind  and  ruin.  In  changeable  weather  it  varies  considerably 
in  a  low  hours;  but  when  the  fibres  have  a  constant  direction  to  the  same  point  of  the  com- 
pass for  any  considerable  time,  a  gale  of  wind  generally  springs  up  from  that  quarter. 
During  warm  changeable  weather,  when  there  are  light  breezes  of  wind,  long  and  obliquely 
descending  bands  of  cirrus  are  often  observed  in  the  air,  and  sometimes  seem  to  connect 
distant  clouds.  Frequently,  by  means  of  the  interposition  of  these  cirri  between  a  cumulus 
and  some  other  cloud,  as,  for  instance,  cirro-stratus,  the  cumulo-stratus,  and  ultimately  the 
nimbus  or  rain-cloud,  is  formed.  The  cirrus,  when  attentively  examined,  is  found  to  be  in 
constant  motion,  not  merely  chang.ng  its  form,  but  often  exldbiting  an  internal  commotion 
in  the  substance  of  the  cloud,  especially  in  the  larger  end  of  it.  Every  particle  seems  alive 
and  in  motion,  while  the  whole  mass  scarcely  changes  its  place.  This  motion,  on  a  minute 
examination,  often  appears  to  consist  of  the  fibres  which  compose  l;ie  cirrus,  gentiy  waving 
to  and  from  each  other;  froiiuently,  however,  it  seems  like  minute  specks  all  in  commotion. 
This  takes  place  more  firequently  in  those  large  and  lofty  cirri,  with  rounded  heads  and 
long  pointed  tails,  so  coiimion  in  dry  winds  during  summer  and  autumn. 

The  formation  of  the  cumuhis  is  best  viewed  in  fine  settled  weather,  about  sunrise 
or  a  little  after.  Small  specks  of  cloud  are  seen  here  and  there  in  the  atmosphere.  These 
seem  to  be  the  result  of  small  gatherings  of  the  stratus  or  evening  mist,  which  rising  in  the 
morning  grows  into  small  masses  of  cloud,  whilst  thn  rest  of  the  sky  becomes  clearer.  About 
sunrise  these  clouds  increase;  two  or  more  of  them  unite,  till  a  lorge  cloud  be  formed,  which, 
assuming  a  cumulated  nnd  irregularly  hemispherical  shape,  has  received  the  name  ofciimvhts 
or  slacki'ii-cloud.  This  i.-  ".-iperly  the  cloud  of  day,  as  it  usually  subsides  in  the  evoninp; 
by  retracing  the  steps  of  its  Ibrmution  in  the  morning.  It  separates  into  small  fragments 
and  evaporates,  giving  place  to  the  stratus  or  fiill-cloud,  which  is  therefore  styled  the  cloud 
of  night. 

Some  varieties  in  the  forms  of  the  cumulus  deserve  particular  notice,  as  they  are  sup- 
posed to  be  connected  with  electrical  phenomena.  The  hemispherical  form  is  more  perfect 
in  fine  than  in  changeable  weiithcr.  When  such  well-formed  ciunuj^i  prevail  during  many 
successive  days,  the  weatlier  is  settled,  and  the  electrometer  pretty  feteady  in  its  indications. 
They  are  wliitish  coloured,  and  when  op|K)sed  to  the  sun  reflect  a  silvery  light.  Cunuili 
whicii  occur  during  intervals  between  showers  are  more  fleecy,  and  variable  in  form  and 
colour.  Sometimes  tliry  are  blackish,  and  may  at  any  time  increase  till  they  obscure  the 
sky,  or  assume  the  fiirm  of  the  twain-cloud  or  cumulo-stratus. 

The  stratus  or  fall-cloud  comprehends  fogs,  and  all  thoso  creeping  mists  which,  towards 
evening,  fill  the  valleys,  and  disappear  in  the  morning.  The  cmnuli  which  have  prevailed 
during  a  hot  summer's  day  decrease  towards  evening,  and  hy  degrees  there  is  formed  a 
white  mist  near  the  ground,  increasing  in  density  till  midnight  or  even  till  morning,  and 
generally  disappearing  aller  sunrise,  [n  autimm,  this  cloud  sometimes  lasts  lonj  er  in  the 
morning.  In  winter  it  becomes  still  nion;  dense,  and  sometimes  continues  a  wlm  ••  liay  or 
many  successive  day.s.  A  remarkable  instance  of  this  occurred  in  .January,  1814.  >chen  a 
dense  fog  provaileil  tor  about  a  fortui<rht,  extending  over  a  great  part  of  the  south  a.  i  west 
of  England.  It  was  particularly  felt  at  l.ondon,  where  tlie  stagnation  and  subsidein'C  of 
the  smok<!  more  than  doubled  the  dismal  visitation.  The  stratiis  is  often  jxisitivt^ly  electrified, 
and  its  component  parts  ilo  not  wet  loaves  or  oth'  r  substances  connected  with  the  eartli. 
On  this,  however,  it  may  bo  remarked  that  dry  liolios,  wliich  continue  warmer  than  the  fog, 
must  remain  dry  on  the  ordinary  principles  of  evaporation.  The  stratus  may  be  distin- 
guisiied  from  some  varieties  of  cirro-stratus  which  re.^omble  it,  by  the  circumstimce  that  the 
latter  wets  every  object  it  alights  on. 

The  cirro-cumulus  or  sotider-cloud  is  ."iuhioct  to  some  vari.itions  in  the  size  and  figure 
of  the  orbicular  ma.ssos  of  which  it  is  composed,  and  in  their  distances  from  each  other. 
About  the  time  of  thunder  storms,  the  component  part-,  are  denser  in  their  structure,  rounder 
in  their  form,  and  closer  tojirothcr  than  usual.     Thi3  tias  l«en  frequently  noticed  by  jwois  as 


'l    iP 


i!r 


.^.  I 


Itl. 


ISO 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAl'IIV. 


PabtII 


t 


a  progfiiostic  of  tliunder  and  tcin|H>stuoii8  weatlier.  In  rainy  cliangcable  woatlier,  this  cloud 
has  a  li{,'ht  fleecy  texture,  and  is  very  irreffular  in  tiio  Ibnn  of  its  component  [Kirtw;  so  tliatit 
then  approachea  to  Hio  form  of  tlio  cirro-stratiiH.  Sometimes,  indeed,  it  Lonsists  of  iwheciilte, 
so  Bniall  and  litfht  colonrod  us  to  be  scarcely  discernible.  In  fnio  summer  weather,  the  cirro- 
cumulus  is  neither  so  dense  as  the  stormy  variety,  nor  so  light  as  tiie  one  last  (lcscril)cd ;  itH 
parts  vary  in  size,  and  in  tiieir  proximity.  During  line  dry  weather  witli  light  breezes,  small 
detachmentu  of  cirro-cumulus  rapidly  form  and  subside,  which  do  not  lie  in  one  plane ;  but 
their  arrangement  is  commonly  horizontal.  The  cirro-cumulus  sometimes  commences  in  the 
clear  sky.  At  other  times  tiie  cirrus,  tlie  cirro-strntus,  or  some  other  cloud,  changes  into 
cirro-cuimilns,  and  vice  vcmd.  In  summer,  tliia  cloud  forebodes  heat:  in  winter,  the  break- 
ing up  of  frost,  and  mild  wet  weatlier. 

The  cirro-stratus  is  remarkable  for  its  shallowness,  compared  with  ita  horizontal  extent; 
80  tlin.t  when  any  otiier  cloud  assume.^  this  form,  it  seldom  fails  to  end  in  a  cirro-stratus. 
This  cloud  is  constantly  changing  its  form,  and  gradually  subsiding ;  hence  it  has  been 
called  the  wane-doud.  There  are  many  varieties  in  its  Hgure;  sometimes  it  is  disposed 
in  waving  bars  or  streaks,  varying  almost  infinitely  in  size  and  sliapc.  A  flat  horizontal 
clo'id,  consisting  of  such  streaks,  frequently  occurs  during  changeable  summer  weather;  its 
bars  are  generally  confused  in  the  middle,  but  more  distin<;t  towards  the  edges.  A  variety 
ot  this  Evrl  constitutes  what  is  called  the  mackerel-back  sky.  It  is  ollen  very  high  in  tlie 
atmornheic,  n:  is  proved  from  its  still  appearing  high  wlien  viewed  from  the  top  of  a  lofly 
Piouotain.  The  cumulus,  on  the  contrary,  may  be  seen  on  a  level  with,  or  even  lower  than, 
th'^  observer.  The  cirro-stratus  often  appears  in  the  form  of  a  long  plain  streak,  tai)ering 
>v/n'cis  >)i.-  extremities.  Sometimes  sucii  a  figure  seems  to  alight  on  the  cumulo-stratus ; 
futid,  )• .  \L  jse  cases,  the  density  of  the  latter  inci eases  in  proportion  as  the  former  alternately 
app  "irs  and  evaporates  again  on  its  summits.  The  usual  result  is  the  formation  ot'  the 
nin  'ins,  and  a  fall  of  rain.  Another  principal  variety  of  the  cirro-stmtus  consists  of  sii\all 
c  ws  of  little  clouds,  curved  in  a  peculiar  maimer :  it  is  called  the  cymoid  cirro-stratus,  and 
',  'i  sur-j  indication  of  approaching  storms.  The  last  variety  of  this  cloud  which  we  shall 
now  notlt  >.  is  that  large  and  shallow  veil  of  cloud  which  covers  a  large  portion  of  the  sky, 
pfir'ituliirly  towards  night,  and  through  whicli  tiie  sun  and  mixni  are  indistinctly  seen. 
Tho.se  peculiar  refruclioiis  of  the  light  of  these  luminaries,  called  halos  and  mock  suns, 
ucually  app«;ar  in  tliis  clou<l.  These  are  the  most  certain  signs,  yet  known,  of  approaching 
rain  or  snow. 

The  cumiilo-siratus  or  twain-cloud  is  a  stage  towards  the  production  of  rain,  ond  is  fro- 
iiucntly  formed  in  the  following  manner: — The  c;;miiliis  which  usually  passes  along  in  the 
wind,  seems  retarded  in  its  progress,  grows  (l('ii.--er,  spreads  out  laterally  till  it  overhangs 
the  base  in  dark  an<l  irregular  jirotuberanees.  This  change  often  takes  place  in  all  the 
cumuli  which  are  near  to  each  other;  their  bases  unite,  whilst  the  superstructure  remains 
asunder,  r"sing  up  like  so  many  iiiountain  summit.-',  or  mnssps  of  rocks.  The  cumulo-sfniti, 
in  which  .mil  showfis  and  thunder  .storms  occur,  look  extremely  black  and  menacing  before 
the  rain  commence  Sometimes  the  eunuilo-stratus  evaporates,  or  changes  again  to  tamulus, 
Imt  it  oftener  ends  m  the  nimbus  and  rain. 

The  nimbus  remains  to  be  described ;  a  cloud  whicli  always  precedes  the  fiill  of  rain, 
snow,  or  hail.  Any  of  the  others  idiovo  described  may  increase  so  much  as  to  oliscure  the 
sky,  without  ending  in  rain,  hetoro  which  the  peculiar  characteristic  of  the  rain-cloud  may 
always  be  distinguishiMi,  Tho  best  way  of  obtaining  a  clear  idea  of  the  formation  of  the 
nimbus  or  rain-cloud  is  to  observe  a  distant  shrvver  in  profile,  from  its  first  formation  to  its 
fill  in  rain.  Tho  cumulns  seems  first  arrested  in  its  progrci=t' :  ^licn  a  cirrus  or  cirro-.stratiis 
may  appear  'o  alight  on  the  top  of  it.  The  change  to  cumulo-stratus  then  goes  on  rapidly ; 
and  this  cloud,  increasing  in  dens,  y,  assumes  that  black  and  threatening  aspect  which  i,-^  a 
known  indication  of  rnln.  This  hlackne.ss  is  sroin  clinngod  for  a  more  gray  obscurity;  find 
tiiis  is  the  criterion  of  the  nctiinl  (orination  of  rain  drops,  which  now  liegin  ^)  tall,  while  a 
cirriform  crown  of  fiiiies  extend-  .Vom  t!  r  upper  jwitsof  tho  clouds,  and  small  ciimnli 
enter  into  the  under  jiart.  .\tV',  t.u"  shower  has  spent  itself  the  different  modifications 
appear  again  in  their  .several  sti!ii.;.is:  the  cirrus,  the  cirri)-stratiis,  or  perhaps  the  cirro- 
cumulus,  ap|»ear  in  the  ii])per  regi  Ills  ot  the  air;  wliile  tlii-  remaining  piTt  of  the  broken 
nuiihus  assumes  the  tniin  of  llocI;y  I'ir.iiili,  and  sails  aloKg  in  the  lower  current  of  wind.  The 
reappearance  of  large  riininlo-strati  inilL^iites  a  return  of  the  rain.  In  showery  weatlier,  tiie 
alternate  formation  luid  (iestriiffinn  of  rain-.-loiids  goes  on  rapidly,  ami  is  attended  by  the 
other  inodifications  in  siu'ce.ssion,  as  above  described.  From  its  connexion  with  local 
showers,  the  iiiiiibiis  is  distinguished  almost  exclusively  by  bearing  in  its  broad  field  of  sable 
the  111  nours  of  the  rii.idm'.i. 

Rain.  The<iries  of  rain  have  been  timnded  on  the  alxwe  observations.  Since,  as  already 
mentioiii'i.  ii  greater  (|uantity  <>f  moisture  can  exist  in  a  giv  o  spiic'^  as  the  temnerature  is 
higher,  it  is  plain  that  there  is  a  certain  temperature  at  winch  air  containing  some  moisture, 
will  just  be  saturated,  and  which  is  called  the  point  of  deposition,  or  the  dewing  point ;  ffir, 


Hook  II. 

if  WETEOUOIOGY 

^■i"f  ■  ■■tro  mostly  on  tl.";.,    ".,"V""r'7'  ""■^"  "'<'  ■-im>'n,Nv'i'     '"''•'  ,^"''l'''''''   ''y  the 

■        1« '"^^•'''""'^^'••'^■•-■'^"''-".  table,  show.^ 


s.^^ 


liM 


I  J'I'l!  II 


.,'  I 


'%i<il, 


II 


Iff ' J   I 


162 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOCJRAPIIY. 


Part  II. 


the  menn  moiidily  iind  (iniiiml  quuiititioa  of  rain  wliicli  Imvu  fallen  at  several  placen,  beinff 
the  average  for  imi!iy  years : — 


Jnniinry.. . 
Fi'liniiiry . . 

Miirch 

April 

May 

Jrinc    

July 

Aiiuust . . . 
Heptcmber 
(October  . . 
Nnvciiilior 
Ucc'uiiilicr 


V  4 

Is 

Inch. 

3.:iiu 

2.0!tH 

sunt 

2H:i5 
■iMS 
;i.tl!l7 

:).(i(i5 

:i.!hW 

n.stw 


3G.140 


Inch. 

a.  177 

1.H47 

152;) 

3.IU4 

a..'i73 

■Mm 
;).:iii 

3.1154 
3.T.'4 

:un 

3.28H 


34.I1H 


9  n 

*:•• 

Inch. 
2.1W 
1.1)52 
1.322 
2.07rt 
2.llri 

3.UUII 
2.435 
2.2*1 
3.0711 
2.(i34 
2.SI>M 


i  2 


5a  I  «a 


Inch. 
3.41)1 
S.IIUS 
1.753 
S.1H0 
2.4I)(I 
2.512 
4.110 
45H1 
3751 
4.151 
3  775 
3.1)55 


27.U04     '  3U.714 


Inch. 
S.2ii!i 
5.1'.><l 
3.151 
2.UHII 
3.4HO 
2.722 
4.il.V.) 
5.0X1 
4.H74 
5.4311 
4.7H5 
ti.OlM 

53.IM4 


ax 

Jr. 

Inch. 
3.li'.)5 
2.H:t7 
2.11)4 
2.017 
2.5«rt 
2.1174 
\\>iM 
3.1im 


4.350 

4.143 

3.174 

3.142 

sii.oia 


_51f_ 

Inch. 
1.5115 
1741 
MM 
«.ll71t 
1.1)41 
1.343 
2.303 
2.7411 
l.t)17 
2.2117 

i!rK)4 
i.ipfi 

2i.3;n 


.2 

22 

?>< 

«> 

Jg 

o-a 

>% 

Inch. 

I'r.  Inch. 

Fr.  Inch. 

1.41)4 

1.22rt 

2.477 

l.'i'.0 

1.2:t2 

1.71I0 

1.172 

l.lliO 

1.1127 

1271) 

1.IK5 

2.I)MI 

1.1)3(1 

1.7117 

2.1131 

i.rw 

1.11117 

2.5()2 

2.44H 

l.i-OO 

i.ma 

1.H07 

l.WKI 

2347 

1.H42 

1.550 

4  140 

2.0112 

1.7HI 

4.741 

2.'.'22 

1.7!0 

4.1B7 

1.7311 

l.liOO 

2.3117 

20.(18U 

laiHlt     ;  33.1177 

The  depth  of  rain,  accordincf  to  Humboldt,  at  the  latitudes  of  0°,  10°,  '15°,  and  0()°,  is, 
respectively,  90,  80,  29,  and  17  inclies.  In  the  torrid  zone,  a  small  thick  rain  falls  almost 
every  day  on  that  side  of  the  e(iuator  where  the  sun  is ;  but  it  generally  intermits  during  the 
nigiit.  In  many  places,  there  are  two  wet  and  two  dry  sea.sons  in  the  year ;  and  in  some 
regions,  from  the  effect  ef  the  mountiiins  and  peculiar  winds,  places  under  the  same  iwrallel 
have  tlioir  wet  and  dry  seasons  at  opposite  pericxhs.  Tiioiigh  the  ainiual  deptii  of  rain  be 
greatest  toward  the  e(iuator,  the  number  of  rainy  days  increases  with  the  latitude. 

A(iucous  meteors,  so  essential  to  vegetation,  have  their  salutary  effi^cts  modified  by  the 
chemical  quuUlirs  of  the  moisture  in  the  atmosphere.  The  salt  rain  and  dew  of  the  vicinity 
of  the  Caspian  Sea,  owing  to  the  vapnirs  which  arc  (exhaled  from  tlio  soil,  jirobably  contribute 
to  tliose  saline  efflorescences  which  are  said  to  lie  gradually  overspreading  the  once  fertile 
Boil  of  Persia.  The  salt  fogs  in  tlie  west  of  Jutland  are  very  injurious  to  the  foliage  of 
trees,  without  being  hurtful  to  the  grass.  Rain  has  also  been  known  to  be  impregnated  with 
sulphur,  and  with  various  substances  approaching  to  that  of  animal  and  vegetable  matters. 
Some  of  these  communicate  to  tiie  rain  a  peculiar  colour,  as  that  of  blood,  &,c.  On  the 
other  iiiind,  togs  occur  in  which  little  or  no  moisture  is  present:  sucli  are  called  dry  fogs ; 
and  are  supiwsed  to  bo  the  vapours  and  ashes  i>jected  by  volcanoes,  and  diffused  in  the 
atmosphere  by  the  winds.  Their  occurring  about  the  time  of  great  eruptions  strengthens 
this  conjecture. 

lllacifrs.  Ice  and  snow  absorb  a  large  portion  of  heat  during  liquefaction,  which  they 
give  out  again  on  freezing;  for,  in  the  ordinary  process  of  nature,  water  does  not  cool  below 
;W°  r.  till  the  whole  be  frozen;  nor  docs  its  temperature  rise  above  that  jioint,  while  in 
contact  with  Ici?  or  snow, — that  is,  till  the  whole  be  melted.  Tiiis  property  has  an  important 
effect  on  the  temperature  of  snowy  districts.  It  retards  and  often  prevents  tiie  occurrence 
of  e.xtromo  cold,  and  it  opposes  a  sudden  rise  of  temperature  above  the  freezing  point.  The 
cold  in  the  at'.iosphere,  as  was  formerly  stated,  continually  increases  with  the  elevation ; 
and,  at  a  certain  height,  depending  on  the  climate  or  latitude,  perpetual  frost  prevails. 
Where  the  earth's  surface  attains  this  heiglit,  it  is,  with  the  exception  of  some  steep  or  ver- 
tical cliffs,  continually  covered  with  .«now.  The  snow  acquires  new  additions  from  time  to 
time ;  for,  though  it  may  melt  slowly  from  the  heat  of  the  ground  on  wiiich  it  rests,  yet  it 
suffers  little  decay  externally,  ('xccpt  what  the  air  carries  off  by  evaporation.  The  wamifh 
of  the  .solar  rays  may  soften  it  a  little,  but  this  only  tends  to  its  farther  coasolidation.  Masses 
of  this  sort  are  called  glaciers.  By  accumulating  in  the  manner  just  mentioned,  they  often 
become  top-heavy,  or  a(,'([iiire  such  an  enoriiious  weight  as  to  break  their  hold,  or  crush  theii 
lowiT  jiarts,  which  are  besides  liable  to  be  undermined  by  the  w'armth  of  the  mountain  on 
wliici)  they  rest.  Ilenco  it  not  uufrecmcutly  hai)pens,  that  huge  masses  of  ice  or  coiiglo- 
merat'd  snow  slide  or  roll  down  tliii  sides  of  mount  liiis,  transporting,  iicrliaps,  large  .stones  or 
rngiiK'iils  of  rock-!  til  uliirh  they  had  aillicrfd,  or  wliieli  iiiul  lieeii  .separated  from  their  bods 
by  till'  agi'iicy  of  the  weather.  Detached  glai'iers  otlon  de.sceml  into  districts  having  a 
mean  teniiierature  coiisidcnibly  above  the  midting  point  of  snow.  Hut  so  great  is  the  heat 
consiiMied  in  lii|ri'tying  such  huge  iiin.sses,  that  years  may  elapse  before  they  entirely  dis- 
appi'.ir;  ami  iliiriiii;-  liiat  interval  others  descend;  and  so  on  continually.  So  that  the  limit 
of  perpetual  .~iiow  may  be  tiiunil  in  a  climate  where  little  snow  falls  from  the  clouds.  When 
glaciers  di'.-coiiil  into  the  sea,  and  particularly  whi'n  detaclwil  and  lloiting,  they  are  termed 
icrhi  nrs. 

'i'lie  siiow-liue,  or  lowi'r  limit  in  iiiountains  rnvereil  with  perpetual  snow,  de.scends  in 
winter  ami  rises  again  in  summer.     Uml'T  the  equator,  this  change  is  scarcely  percejjtib't 


IRT   11. 

I,  ho'mft 


1.1  00°,  is, 
lUa  almost 
luring  the 
id  in  Bome 
le  imrallel 
of  rain  be 

fieil  bjr  the 
he  vicinity 

contribute 
jnco  fertile 

foliage  of 
:natcd  with 
)le  matters. 

.     On  the 

dry  fogs  i 
isnil  in  the 
ilreiigthens 


ll'SCIMllls  ill 

liceptib't 


Rook  II. 


METEOROLOGY. 


183 


Imt  it  ini;rfiases  with  the  hititiulc,  and  in  high  latitudes  the  gnow-lino  has  a  great  range.  Tlio 
(lirectiou  of  tlu;  prevuili.ig  winilr*,  with  inuiiy  ciicuuwtancos  tcK)  ninuerous  to  bo  detailed,  huH 
each  itH  clU'Ct.  The  Bnow-lltii;  '\s  lower  on  tlie  sides  of  Mumntiiinx  turned  from  the  mm,  than 
on  acclivities  whicli  receive  hl^  rays  more  perpendicular  to  their  surfiicos.  Hence  it  huppenH, 
that  one  side  of  a  mountain  may  bo  covered  with  perpetual  wiow,  whilst  at  the  same  height 
on  the  (ipixjsite  side  it  is  in  a  state  of  cultivation.  The  snow-line,  therefore,  de])en(ts  so 
nmch  on  localities,  that  no  general  rule  can  be  given  for  computing;  its  altitude.  Though 
oflen  employed  for  estimating  tiio  heights  of  mountains,  it  is  a  most  fallacious  criterion. 

Humboldt  gives  the  followmg  heights  of  perpetual  snow  in  dilTerent  parts  of  the  world  : — 
Andes  of  Quito  (lat.  1°  to  1°  30'),  24(K)  toises.  Volcano  of  Purace  (lat.  2°  18),  2420 toiscs. 
Tolima  flat.  4°  40'),  2:180  toises.  Nevados  of  Mexico  (lat.  19°),  23.'J0  toises.  Hinmldva 
(lat.  ai°),  northern  side,  1950  toises;  southern  side,  2605  toises.  Summit  of  Sierra  Nevada, 
Grenada  (lat.  'M°  10),  1780  toises.  Caucasus  (lat.  42°  to  4^1°),  1650  toiscs  Pyrenees  (lat. 
42°  5'  to  4:i°),  1400  toises.  Swiss  Alps  (lat.  46°),  1370  toises.  Carpathian  mountains 
(49°  10'),  1330  toises.  Norway  (lut.  01°  to  67°),  850  to  600  toises;  and  (laU  70°  to  71°  30') 
550  to  366  toises. 

Colour  of  the  Atmosphere.  That  the  air  has  a  blue  colour,  1ms  been  conjectured  because 
a  distant  landscape  appears  of  that  cast,  which,  however,  is  greatly  diminished  by  a  good 
telescope.  Newton  ascribed  this  phenomenon  to  the  greater  refrangibility  of  the  blue  rays ; 
and  some  consider  it  the  etfect  of  vapour.  The  appearance  of  the  sky,  when  viewed  from 
a  iiigh  mountain,  is  of  a  deep  blue,  approaching  to  black.  But  this  must  be  in  some  way 
illusory ;  because  the  upper  atmusphure  is  highly  transparent,  as  the  heavenly  bodies  shine 
with  increased  splendour. 

Sect.  TV. — Luininous  Meteors. 

Tlie  refraction  and  reflection  of  light  by  air  produce  a  remarkable  phenomenon.  While 
the  rays  of  light  move  in  a  medium  of  uniform  density  and  composition,  they  are  straight; 
but  when  tliey  pass  obli(iucly  into  a  medium  of  a  difl'erent  density,  they  are  bent  or  refracted 
toward  the  denser  medium.  Tlie  rays  of  light,  therefore,  whil.st  coming  through  the  atmo- 
sphere from  tlie  heavenly  bodies,  are  always  entering  into  a  denser  and  denser  stratum  of 
air,  and  are  consequently  bent  down  towards  the  eartii.  The  dilfercnt  rays  suffer  different 
degrees  of  refraction,  according  to  tlieir  colour.  Tliut  of  red  is  the  least,  then  orange, 
yellow,  green,  light  blue,  indigo,  and  violet.  All  solid  bodies  have  the  property  of  reflecting 
light;  and  it  is  probable  that  all  bodies  whatever  reflect  light  in  a  greater  or  less  degree. 
The  clouds  and  air  possess  this  property.  The  rays  which  are  the  most  refrangible,  arc 
also  the  most  easily  reflected.  NV'lien  the  sky  shines  with  a  fine  azure  hue,  it  is  by  means 
of  the  more  reflexible  rays,  which  are  first  reflected  from  the  earth,  and  afterwards  returned 
by  the  atmosphere.  The  refraction  and  reflection  of  light  enable  it  to  diffuse  itself  over 
tlie  atmosi)here,  illuminating  our  hemisphere  for  a  considerable  time  after  the  sun  has  gone 
down  and  before  helms  arisen,  producing  the  morning  and  evening  twilight. 

The  rainbow  is  a  circular  unage  of  the  sun,  variously  coloured,  and  produced  thus : — 
The  solar  rays,  by  entering  the  drops  of  falling  rain,  are  refracted  to  their  farther  surfaces, 
and  thence,  by  one  or  more  reflections,  transmitted  to  the  eye.  But  on  escaping  from  the 
drop,  they  undergo  a  second  refraction,  by  which  the  rays  are  separated  into  their  difl'erent 
colours;  and  in  this  state  are  exhibited  to  an  eye  properly  placed  to  receive  them.  The 
rainbow  is  never  seen  but  when  rain  is  falling,  and  the  sun  and  bow  are  always  on  opposite 
sides  of  the  observer. 

Tlio  halo  is  a  broad  circle  of  a  variable  diameter,  sometimes  white,  but  more  commonly 
exhibiting  a  faint  representation  of  the  colours  of  the  rainbow.  It  appears  in  a  thin  cloud, 
or  in  a  haze,  around  the  .sun  and  moon's  disc. 

The  corona  is  a  circular  space,  full  of  mild  whitish  light,  around  the  moon's  disc.  It 
soniefinics  passes  into  a  yellowish  or  brownish  colour  towards  the  edges.  Tliis  and  the  halo 
are  ]K)pularly  known  by  the  name  o^  burrs ;  and  the  latter  is  accounted  a  prognostic  of  rain, 
especially  when  its  diameter  is  large. 

Parhelia  or  iiwck-suns  arc  images  which  appear  sometimes  above  and  .sometimes  below 
the  disc  of  the  true  sun.  They  arc  supposed  to  be  seated  in  the  points  of  intersection  of 
different  liiilos,  and  to  derive  tlieir  brightness  from  the  union  of  several  reflections.  Parhelia 
are  soinotinies  surrounded  by  a  whitish  border,  sometimes  by  the  colours  of  the  rainbow. 
They  are  rarely  quite  circular,  and  some  have  luminous  trains,  as  has  likewise  tiio  sun  him- 
self, when  near  tlio  horizon,  in  the  vicinity  of  Hudson's  Bay.  It  is  there,  und  in  sinular 
cold  toggy  situatioiiH,  tluit  parhelia  are  usually  seen. 

M(x-k-nioons  or  jiaraselena'  are  of  less  frequent  occurrence  than  parhelia,  but  they  are 
generally  us<,'ribiMl  to  a  similar  cause. 

Luriiinoiis  shadows  or  glories  are  reniarkalile  phendmena,  ir.  which  a  spectator  sees  his 
.sliiulow  projected  on  a  cloud  with  a  luiiiiiums  ring,  sometimes  coloured  like  the  rainbow, 
(encircling  his  head.  'J'lic  spi"ctator,  in  such  cas(;s,  must  either  be  on  an  elevation,  or  the 
rloud  niusi  be  verv  low.     Tlic  siinilow  is  usuallv  of  an  eiioviiious  size. 


i?S 


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It  M 


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■;■■.! 
:    i 


SCIENCK  OP  GE(XJRAI'HY. 


Part  11 


Lonminff  is  the  tnnii  iisnd  by  KailcirM  to  ('xl)^l■.^.^  ii  niriiniK  i)|itic,il  ilnci'ptidM,  liy  which 
objocts  como  into  view,  thoii|rh  mntcrially  iiltiTiMJ  im  to  tlii'lr  n-ul  xitimtioii  or  iMwition.  Thr 
Preiicli  (••.ill  it  iniragr,  iiiiil  the  ItiiiiiiiiH  fuia  mnrffiinii.  It  ollfii  hii|i|i<ns  ut  mm,  th.ii  a  dis- 
tant Hbip  iipponrH  tiK  if  |)aiiiteil  in  the  fky,  pcrhu|iH  iri  an  inviTicd  |Hi!'itioii,  mid  n-it  su|>{uirt('(l 
by  the  water.  Sunkun  n  cltH  nnd  windM  apponr  iix  if  mined  alune  tin'  Mirlim'.  'i'li"  -J.u'deH 
lun^r  tioarclied  in  viiin  tor  un  illuHury  i.slnnd  of  tliiM  Hort,  wliieli  llii>y  kiw  from  a  di'<tiiiife,  iin 
if  plueed  between  tim  ImIrh  of  Aland  and  the  eoust  of  Uphiiid.  'I'lie  >liippiiiy  iiml  hi.i'.ilinirn 
on  the  shore  of  Nai)lo»  have,  troin  Mes«inii,  HoinetiuieN  appeared  lloatiriir  inverted  in  llie  air. 
In  179H,  the  Frenrii  coaHt  appeared  diMtinetly  raim'd  alxive  the  sea,  llir  an  hour,  as  viewed 
firom  the  oppovitn  shore  of  Suhho.x.  'J'o  the  French,  whilst  inarching  in  tiio  K(ryptian  deserts, 
the  sandy  plain  covered  in  the  distance  \n  a  diMise  va()<)iir  pnwented  the  illusive  iiiiriifu  of  a 
vast  lake,  towards  which  thoy  hastened,  Imt  could  never  roach  it, 

The  aurora  borealis,  or  northern  li)flit,  is  ii  remarkable  luminous  phenomenon  v\hich 
occurs  durinff  night,  and  nioht  commonly  in  clear  or  frosty  weather.  It  is  iinkiiowii  in  h)W 
latitudes,  and  becomes  more  frequent  as  wo  recede  from  the  eipjutor.  But  it  is  lionlitful  if 
its  maximum  either  as  to  frccpiency  or  brilliancy  bo  at  the  [nde;  tor  in  the  late  norlii  polar 
expeditions  it  was  seen  to  the  south  of  the  olwerver,  wliercan  at  preater  distances  from  the 
pole  it  appears  to  the  north  or  n  little  tf)  the  west  of  north  of  tlie  spectator.  It  is  usually  of 
a  reddish  colour,  inclininfr  to  yellow,  and  sends  out  frequent  coruscations  of  pah*  lisfht, 
which  seem  to  arise  from  the  horizon  in  pyramidal  nndnlatin);  foriri.s,  and  kIukiIs  with  i^reat 
velocity  towards  the  zenith.  Some  maintain  that  a  whizzing  noise  acconqmnies  tliis  phono- 
inenon,  hut  this  is  not  very  well  ascertained.  Tlie  lijrht  appears  sometimes  remarkably  red, 
ns  was  the  case  in  many  parts  of  Eiiro[)e,  Doc.  5, 17J37.  The  aurora  borealis  freipiently 
appears  in  the  fonn  of  a  luminnus  arch,  chiefly  in  the  sprinff,  and  in  the  autumn  of  a  dry 
season.  The  arch  is  partly  bright  and  partly  dark,  but  penerally  transparent.  This  kind  of 
meteor  is  almost  constant  during?  the  lonjf  winter  niffhts,  in  hiph  latitudes.  Tlie  "merry 
dancers,"  as  it  is  called  in  Shetland,  afford  the  inhabitants  ffreat  relief  amid  the  jjliHim  of 
their  lonjy  dreary  nights.  They  commonly  appear  at  twilight  near  the  horizon,  of  a  dun 
yellow,  and  sometimes  continue  so  for  several  hours,  without  nifrfion ;  alliTwards  they  break 
mto  streams  of  a  stronger  light,  passing  into  columns  nnd  innunierahle  difl'erent  shapes. 
During  this,  the  colour  vnriej  from  all  the  tints  of  yellow  to  the  most  obscure  russet,  e.xhi- 
biting  the  most  beautiful  appearance.  In  the  northern  parts  of  Sweden  and  Lapland,  the 
aurora  borealis  is  singularly  beautiful,  and  nftords  to  travellers  a  very  fine  light  during  the 
whole  night.  In  Hud.son's  Bay  it  ditfiises  a  variegated  splendour  sometimes  e<iual  to  that 
of  the  full  moon.  Similar  lights  were  observed  by  Dr.  Forster  towards  the  south  pole,  but 
they  were  much  feebler  than  in  ihe  nortliern  hemisphere.  The  cause  of  such  phenomena  is 
unknown.     Some  nscfibc  thoiii  to  electricity  and  magnetism. 

The  electricity  of  tlin  atmosphere  is  very  impert'cctly  understood.  In  storms,  the  cloiuls 
usually  exhibit  trie  vitreous  or  |K)sitive  electricity.  In  summer,  when  the  earth  is  drv',  and 
the  day  warm  and  serene,  tlio  electricity  of  the  air  increases  from  sunrise  to  noon  ;  in  which 
state  it  continues  for  an  hour  or  two,  and  again  diminishes,  till  the  dew  ap]K!ar.  It  revives 
towards  midnight,  and  again  decreases  till  it  become  insensible. 

The  phenomena  of  thunder  are  so  '..ell  known,  as  to  require  no  description;  but  no  satis- 
factory explanation  has  yet  been  discovered,  except  that  it  is  intimately  connected  with  elec- 
tricity, which  being  itself  in  a  great  'neasurc  among  the  incofrnitii,  leaves  us  still  in  the 
dark.  Thunder  is  more  frequent  as  we  approach  the  equator,  and  decreases  as  the  latitude 
increases,  being  totally  unknown  in  the  arctic  regions.  It  is  a  very  rare  phenomenon  in 
intensely  cold  weather,  and  seldom  occurs  during  night  in  Ihe  temperate  zones.  It  is 
usually  attended  by  heavy  showers  of  hail  or  sleet,  nnd  le.'^s  frequently  by  rain.  The  distance 
of  thunder  may  be  estimated,  by  allowing  IKH)  feet  fiir  each  second  which  elapses  between 
seeing  the  flash  ot  lightning  and  honang  thi>  rejtort.  It  is  seldom  heard  at  a  greater  dis- 
tance than  two  miles,  and  only  does  mischief  when  vrry  near. 

St.  Filrno's  fire  is  a  faint  light  which  seems  to  adh.re  to  the  points  of  bodies  carried  swiflly 
through  the  air.  It  appears  on  the  tops  of  ship  mastJ,  nnd  at  the  points  of  spears  and  other 
warlike  instruments  when  in  motion.  It  is  generally  believed  to  be  an  accumulation  of 
electric  matter,  A  single  flame  of  this  sort  was  called  by  the  ancients  IMena.  When 
seen  in  pairs,  thoy  were  called  Cantor  and  I'ollvx. 

Fire-balls  arc  those  luminous  bodies  which  appear  usually  at  a  gre:it  height  above  the 
earth,  and  were  on  that  account  long  known  by  the  tcnn  mrtror,  which  is  now  npidied  to 
many  other  aerial  phenomena.  They  present  a  very  imposing  appearance,  and  are  seen  of 
an  immense  size,  sometimes  red,  but  oftener  of  a  vivid  dazzling  white.  They  traverse  the 
atmosphere  with  amazing  velocity.  This,  and  their  great  height,  have  been  inferred  from 
their  being  seen  from  various  distant  places  almost  at  the  same  instant.  Sometimes  they 
burst  in  pieces,  or  discharge  torrents  of  flames,  with  a  detonation  making  both  the  air  and 
earth  to  tremble.  Some  of  these  balls  descend  like  lightning,  break  through  the  ri«>*s  of 
buildings,  destroy  animals,  and  shutter  vessels  at  sea;  in  .short,  tli(>y  an;  oflen  attendeil  witli 
all  the  disastrous  cfl^'cts  of  thunder  and  lightning,  with  which  they  are  occasionally  acroiri- 


I.)  » '.  i 


Book  II. 


MKTEOROLOGY. 


18B 


1(1  swiftly 
Inil  other 
J  at  inn  of 
Wlien 

IIkivo  tlio 

Ipplicd  to 

■  M^on  ot" 

[crt^c  the 

Irr-d  from 

liirs  thi\v 

|e  air  and 

r(in*s  of 

Illicit  witli 

ly  atTOill- 


panifd.  Hoiiin  consider  tlicsn  IotIIh  to  lie  ^(rimt  iiiamicM  of  electric  matter,  pnming  from  ono 
place  U>  tuiother.     Utlicra  HiipiMMO  tlieni  to  be  tlie  mine  with  the  iierolitn«. 

AcrolitcH,  (ir  meteoric  ulnneH,  have  Iroqiiently  deNcended  iVotn  the  atincwphere  Iroin  the 
remotest  anliipiity,  llotli  the  ahovo  opiniunH  may  be  in  no  tiir  correct;  Inrunie  the  tlre-bullii 
exhibit  very  dill'eri'nt  ap|>eiiranceH.  I'hiloHopiierM  are  very  nnich  divided  re^mnlinjf  the  ori- 
j(in  of  nieleiiric  utonen.  Hom(!  imagine  them  to  !»■  I'jected  I'roni  volcanocH  on  the  earth'n  cur- 
tiice;  oIIkth  from  volcunoeH  on  the  moon.  A  tiiinl  claHS  maintain,  that  they  are  (lentinited 
by  the  ('(iiiiiiiuation  and  condeniiation  of  their  coin|M)nent  parts,  previouKly  dilliined  in  the 
atnl<)^<plll're  m  the  KaseouH  form.  (HherH  allegro,  that  they  are  detached  stomas  inovinj,' 
throiiiLrii  the  bonnrllcss  rej^ions  of  H|)ace,  and  which  caHiially  conio  into  contact  with  onr 
planet.  All  tbest'  are  little  else  than  conjecture,  althoufrh  their  liimmtion  in  the  attnosphere 
IS  tiie  most  plausible.  A  numcruus  list  of  the  moot  authentic  falls  of  such  Ixxlies  in  (riven 
in  Phil.  M<iff.  vol.  Ixvii. 

Falling  .ttars  are  very  ordinary  phenomena  everywhere,  but  still  they  belonfj  to  a  class 
which  is  not  well  understood.  Near  the  place  of  their  apparent  descent,  a  fci'tid  gelatinous 
substance  has  freijuenfly  been  fiainil,  of  a  whitish  yellow  colour.* 

The  zodiacal  lifjlit  is  u  luminous  appearance,  seen  after  sunset,  or  before  sunrise,  some- 
what similar  to  the  milky  way,  but  of  a  tliintcr  lipht,  in  the  figure  of  an  inverted  cone  or 
]iyrainid,  with  it«  base  towards  the  sun.  Ita  axis  is  variously  inclined  to  the  horizon,  and 
makes  an  anj;'le  of  nearly  7°  with  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic.  The  earliest  distinct  account 
of  it  was  given  by  Cassini  in  IfiWl;  but  this  niTords  no  ground  for  suppof-iiig  that  it  had  not 
existed  or  been  seim  prior  to  that  date :  it  is  always  observable,  when  the  sky  is  clear,  in  the 
torrid  zone ;  but  is  more  rarely  to  be  found  us  wo  recede  from  the  equator.  The  season 
most  favourable  llir  observing  it  is  about  the  beginning  of  March:  it  is  much  brighter  in 
some  years  than  others,  and  was  particularly  brilliant  at  Paris,  16th  February,  1760.  The 
zodiacal  light  lies  in  the  plono  of  the  sun's  equator,  and  is  therefore  supposed  by  some  to  bo 
connected  with  his  rotation, 

Sbctt.  \.— Winds. 

Winds  are  currents  of  air  occasioned  by  the  disturbance  of  the  equilibrium  of  tlio  atmo- 
sphere by  the  unequal  distribution  of  heot.  The  general  tendency,  in  such  circumstances, 
is  for  the  heavier  columns  to  di.splace  the  lighter ;  iiiid  for  the  air  at  the  earth's  surface  to  move 
from  the  jKiles  toward  the  equator:  in  consequence  of  the  rotation  of  the  earth  on  its  axis, 
another  motion  is  combined  with  the  currents  just  described.  The  air,  which  is  constantly 
moving  from  points  where  the  earth's  motion  on  its  axis  is  slower  to  those  where  it  is 
quicker,  cannot  have  precisely  the  same  motion  eastward  with  the  part  of  tlie  r^iirface  over 
which  it  is  jjassing,  and  therefore  must,  relatively  to  that  surface,  acquire  a  motion  some- 
what westerly.  The  two  currents,  therefore,  from  the  opposite  hemisiiheres,  will,  on  meet- 
ing, about  the  e(iuator,  destroy  that  part  of  each  other's  motion  which  is  in  the  direction  of 
the  meridian,  leaving  nothing  but  their  united  motion  towards  the  west.  Such  is  the  cause 
of  the  trade-wind,  as  proposed  and  rejected  by  Dr.  Hallcy :  it  was  shortly  after  revived  by 
Iladley,  and  is  pretty  generally  received.  The  ti'ade-wind  (with  certain  cxce])tions)  blows 
constantly  from  the  oast,  between  the  latitudes  of  30°  N.  and  3(t°  S. ;  it  declines  somewhat 
from  due  east,  towards  the  parallel  to  which  the  sun  is  vertical  at  different  seasons  of  the 
year.  The  only  supply  for  the  air  constantly  abstracted  from  the  higher  latitudes  must  bo 
made  by  a  counter  current,  in  the  upper  regions  of  the  atmosphere,  carrying  back  the  air 
from  the  eciuator  to  the  poles.  In  a  zone  of  variable  breadth,  within  the  region  of  trade- 
winds,  calms  and  rains  prevail,  caused  prolmbly  by  the  mingling  and  ascending  of  the  oppo- 
site currenls.  High  lands  change  or  interrupt  the  course  of  the  trade-winds:  thus,  under 
the  lee  of  tlie  African  shore,  calms  and  variable  winds  prevail  near  the  Capo  Vcrd  islands, 
while  an  eddy,  or  counter  current  of  air  from  the  south-west,  is  generated  under  the  coast 
of  Guinea.  The  lofty  birrier  of  the  Andes  shelters  the  sea  on  the  Peruvian  shores  from 
the  trade-winds,  which  are  net  felt  till  a  ship  has  sailed  eighty  leagues  westward ;  but  the 
intervening  space  is  occupied  by  a  wind  from  the  south.  In  the  Indian  ocean,  the  trade- 
wind  is  curiously  modified  by  the  surrounding  land  :  the  southern  trade-wind  blows  regularly 
from  the  cast  and  south-east,  from  10°  to  23°  south  latitude ;  but  between  10°  south  and  the 
equator  norfli-west  winds  prevail  from  October  to  April,  and  south-cast  the  rest  of  the  year; 
while  north  of  the  equator,  the  wind  is  south-west  in  summer,  and  north-east  in  winter : 
these  are  called  mnnsno7is,  but  are  not  fully  understood. 

As  to  the  ])arts  of  the  globe  that  lie  beyond  the  region  of  trade-winds,  calms  prevail  pretty 
generally  over  a  narrow  space ;  beyond  which,  the  region  of  variable  winds  extends  probably 
to  the  poles.  Mr.  Forster  ob.erves,  that  beyond  the  tropics  the  west  winds  aie  most  common. 
He  also  supjiosi's  that  east  winds  have  an  ascendency  within  the  antartic  circle.  According 
to  Robins,  a  westerly  wind  almost  constantly  prevails  about  latitude  G0°  S.  in  the  Pacific 


h  ' 


♦  PrnfcsBor  Hr.nnili'rt.  of  llrcsliiii,  lias  |mhliah«il  «  curious  Trcatine  on  Falling  Stars,  to  wliicli  nu  may  direct  the 
attention  of  our  readers.  ,, 

Vol.  I.  Ifl*  Y 


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IMAGE  EVALUATION 
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Corporation 


33  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTRR.N.Y.  14580 

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186 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


PabtIL 


Ocean.  In  Hudson's  Bav,  westerly  winds  prevail  during  three  fourths  of  the  year,  as  also 
in  Kamt^hatka.  At  Melville  island,  the  north  and  north-west  winds  prevail :  on  account  of 
these  winds,  the  Atlantic  may  be  crossed  eastward  in  about  half  the  time  of  returning 
westward. 

Sea  and  land  breezes  arise  from  the  same  general  principle  which  chiefly  occasions  the 
trade-winds:  during  the  day,  when  the  sun  renders  the  surfiice  of  the  land  warmer  tiian  that 
of  the  sea,  the  warmer  rarefied  air  of  the  land  ascends,  being  buoyed  up  and  displaced  by 
the  heavier  air  rushing  firom  the  sea,  and  thus  forming  the  sea  breeze ;  but  the  reverse  often 
happens  during  the  night,  when  the  surface  of  the  land  becomes  colder  than  the  sea,  and 
occasions  a  wind  from  the  land,  or  a  Umd  breeze.  Winds  of  this  sort  are  more  fVequent 
about  islands  and  small  peninsulas  than  in  other  situations ;  but  they  are  not  confined  to  any 
particular  latitude. 

A  variety  of  local  winds  have  also  been  observed.  The  etesiati,  which  is  a  northerly  or 
north-easterly  wind,  prevails  very  much  in  summer  all  over  Europe.  Pliny  describes  it  as 
blowing  regularly  m  Italy  for  forty  days  after  the  summer  solstice.  It  is  supposed  to  be  a 
part  of  the  great  lower  current  moving  towards  the  equator.  Another  northern  wind,  which 
often  continues  about  a  month  in  February  and  March,  is  called  the  omithian  wind,  because 
some  birds  of  passage  then  make  their  appearance  in  the  south  of  Europe.  A  squall,  or 
sudden  gust  of  wind,  is  common  in  many  places ;  and  when  its  impetuosity  is  sufncient  to 
bear  along  trees,  buildings,  &c.,  it  is  called  a  hurricane;  such  winds  have  frequently  a 
whirling  motion,  and  are  accompanied  with  torrents  of  rain  or  hail,  and  even  thunder ;  these 
are  sometimes  called  (orruulof*  .*  they  are  principally  confined  to  the  torrid  zone.  The  sirocco 
is  a  hot  southern  wind,  known  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean ;  when  it  reaches  Naples 
and  Sicily,  it  is  ven  moist  and  relaxing  to  the  human  frame.  Some  warm  climates  are 
occasionally  visited  by  excessive  hot  pestilential  winds,  generally  firom  the  south,  and  known 
under  a  great  variety  of  names  in  different  quarters,  ^ch  are  the  kamsin  of  Ei>ypt,  the 
simoom  or  samiel  of  Arabia  and  the  Desert  The  deleterious  effects,  which  frequently  cut 
off  whole  hordes  or  caravans,  are  sometimes  ascribed  to  the  predominance  of  one  of  the 
component  gases  of  the  air,  or  to  a  mixture  of  nitrous  gas,  &c. ;  but  this  is  not  well  ascer- 
tained. The  very  arid  state  of  the  air,  bearing  along  vast  quantities  of  burning  sand  and 
dust,  must  of  itself  be  very  prejudicial  to  animal  life.  The  harmattan  is  a  warm,  dry,  east 
wind,  which  occurs  in  Guinea,  and  is  also  of  an  unwholesome  description. 

The  velocity  of  the  wind  varies  from  nothing  up  to  100  miles  in  an  hour ;  but  the  maximum 
is  variously  stated  by  different  authors.  According  to  Smeaton,  a  gentle  breeze  moves 
between  4  and  5  miles  per  hour,  and  has  a  force  of  about  2  ounces  on  a  foot ;  a  brisk  pleasant 
gale  moves  from  10  to  15  miles,  with  a  force  of  12  ounces ;  a  high  wind,  30  to  35  miles, 
with  a  fiiroe  of  5  or  8  pounds ;  a  hurricane,  bearing  along  trees,  houses,  &c.  has  a  velocity 
of  100  miles,  and  a  force  of  49  pounds  on  the  square  foot. 

The  force  of  the  wind  is  nearly  as  tlie  square  of  the  velocity  multiplied  by  tlie  density  of 
the  air.  Some  interesting  experiments  are  described  by  Colonel  Beaufoy,  Annah  PkU. 
vol.  viiL  p.  64. 

The  atmosphere  is  the  vehicle  of  sound,  and  we  shall  close  this  brief  sketch  by  noticing 
this  property.  Till  lately,  the  velocity  of  sound  used  to  be  greatly  over-rated.  Prom  the 
experiments  of  Dr.  Moll,  in  the  plains  of  Utrecht,  in  1823,  it  appears,  that  the  mean  velocity 
of  sound  is  nearly  1100  feet  per  second;  but  it  varies  a  litde  with  the  temperature  and 
humidity  of  the  air.    See  PAt2.  7Van«.  for  1824. 


,^»-' 
•^ 


CHAPTER  n. 

HTDROLOOT. 


This  branch  of  natural  history  makes  us  acquainted  with  the  various  properties  and  rela- 
tions of  the  waters  of  the  globe.  Any  definition  of  water  is  unnecessary ;  but  mankind  must 
have  remarked,  at  a  very  early  period,  that  the  waters  distributed  over  the  globe  differ  con- 
siderably in  their  fitness  for  drinking,  for  preparing  food,  and  for  other  domestic  purposes. 
These  differences  are  occasioned  by  the  foreign  bodies  which  this  liquid  holds  in  a  state  of 
solution  or  suspension ;  for  water  is  capable  of  dissolving  a  greater  number  of  substances 
than  any  other  fluid.  Hence  it  is  scaroely  ever  found  native  in  a  state  of  absolute  purity: 
in  some  cases,  the  quantity  of  foreign  matter  is  so  minute,  as  to  have  little  influence  on  the 
taste  or  other  properties ;  but  in  other  instances  they  are  so  abundant,  as  to  render  it  unfit 
for  common  use,  or  even  noxious ;  while  at  other  times  it  is  medicinal,  &c.,  according  to  Uie 
nature  of  the  substances  with  which  it  is  impregnated.  Native  water,  free  from  colour,  is 
almost  never  poisonous,  especially  if  it  be  at  the  same  time  tasteless ;  but  if  blue  from  cop- 
per, green  from  iron,  or  brown  from  vegetable  iinpregnation,  it  is  unfit  for  the  use  of  man. 
Water  performs  the  most  important  functions  in  the  vegetable  and  animal  kingdoms,  ami 
enters  largely  into  their  composition-,  as  a  constituent  part. 


BookII. 


HYDROLOGY. 


187 


Heiu 


The  substance  of  water  presents  itself  under  three  different  forms  of  ajrgre^tion.  If 
under  sufficient  pressure,  it  is  liquid  at  all  temperatures  above  82'^,  so  far  as  is  known.  It  is 
densest  at  the  temperature  of  40°.  When  cooled  down  to  32°,  it  ordinarily  assumes  the 
solid  form  of  ice ;  but  if  great  care  be  taken  to  avoid  agitation,  it  may  be  cooled  almost  to 
zero,  without  freezing.  Congelation  commences  in  the  form  of  prismatic  crystals,  crossing 
each  other  at  angles  of  60°  or  120°,  and  the  temperature,  however  low  before,  instantly 
rises  to  32°.  Dunng  this  process,  the  mass  expands  with  a  prodigious  force,  the  volume 
suddenly  increasing  about  a  ninth  part.  Glass  bottles  filled  with  water,  and  properly  stopped, 
are  burst  during  its  congelation,  and  the  same  has  happened  to  a  strong  bomb-shelL  Water 
passes  into  vapour  at  all  temperatures,  and  under  any  pressure ;  when  the  <!la8ticity  of  the 
vapour  equals  or  exceeds  the  incumbent  pressure,  the  process  proceeds  with  violence,  and  is 
called  boiling.  Under  the  ordinary  pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  this  takes  place  at  about 
212°  of  Fahrenheit's  scale ;  but  the  boiling  temperature  varies  with  the  pressure :  hence, 
water  boils  at  a  lower  temperature  on  a  mountain  top,  and  at  a  higher  in  a  deep  pit 

The  relations  of  water  to  heat  are  very  remarkable.  With  the  exception  of  hydrogen 
OS,  it  absorbs  more  heat  in  warming,  and  parts  with  more  in  cooling,  than  other  bodies  do. 
lence,  large  bodies  of  water  have  a  powerful  influence  in  checking  or  retarding  sudden 
alterations  of  temperature  in  the  surrounding  air.  Ice,  in  melting,  absorbs  as  much  heat  as 
would  raise  its  temperature  140°,  and  gives  out  the  like  quantity  again  in  freezing, — a  pro* 
perty  that  enables  it  to  resist  or  retard  sudden  alterations  of  temperature  in  cold  climates,  in 
a  more  remarkable  degree  than  the  other ;  which,  however,  exerts  its  influence  in  the  torrid 
and  temperate  as  wellas  in  the  frigid  zone.  Lastly,  water,  in  assuming  the  elastic  form, 
absorbs  heat  sufficient  to  raise  its  temperature  1000°,  and  parts  with  as  much  during  re-coiH 
densing  into  water;  so  that  water  possesses  an  almost  boundless  influence  in  tempering 
climate. 

Water,  as  to  its  composition,  was  long  ranked  among  the  simple  elements;  but  the 
researches  of  modem  chemistry  have  ascertained  that  it  is  a  compound  of  88.0  of  oxygen, 
and  11.1  of  hydrogen ;  or'  its  composition  by  volume  and  weight  may  be  thus  stated :  one 
volume  of  oxygen  combined  with  two  of  hydrogen,  or  eight  parts  by  weight  of  oxygen,  with 
one  of  hydrogen.  It  is  composed  and  decompwed,  during  many  of  the  operations  of  nature, 
and  its  chemical  agency  is  almost  universal  It  is  an  ingredient  in  most  bodies  which 
appear  under  the  crystalline  form. 

Sect.  I. — The  Ocean, 

The  ocean  is  the  origin  and  fountain  of  all  the  other  waters  which  occnr,  in  whatever 
form,  on  the  face  of  the  globe.  According  to  some  naturalists,  it  forms  the  remains  of  the 
menstruum  or  chaotic  fluid,  in  which  all  solid  bodies  were  originally  held  in  a  state  of  solu- 
tion, and  fVom  which  they  have  been  precipitated  or  crystallized,  m  short,  brought  to  their 
present  state,  during  the  countless  ages  which  these  processes  are  supposed  to  have  occupied, 
anterior  to  the  creation  of  man :  be  this  as  it  may,  we  are  certain,  that  it  is  from  the  vapours 
exhaled  by  the  ocean  that  the  atmosphere  is  furnished  with  sufficient  moisture  to  support  and 
reftesh  the  organized  beings  which  inhabit  the  earth.  All  nature  languishes  when  the 
atmosphere  withholds  its  rain  and  dews;  plants  fade  and  droop;  animals  foel  their  strength 
failing ;  even  man  himself,  breathing  nothing  but  dust,  can  with  difficulty  procure  shelter 
from  the  sultry  heat  by  which  his  frame  is  parched  and  overpowered.  The  ocean  is  the 
grand  thoroughfare  of  commerce,  forming  a  medium  of  communication  between  the  most 
distant  and  otherwise  inaccessible  portions  of  the  earth.  It  consists  of  one  continuous  fluid, 
spread  round  the  land,  and  probably  extending  from  pole  to  pole.  All  the  gulfs,  all  the 
inland  seas,  form  only  portions  detached,  but  not  entirely  separated,  from  that  universal  sea, 
denominated  the  oceaa  Geographers  roundly  estimate  the  ocean  and  its  branches  to  occupy 
three  fourths  of  the  entire  surfkce  of  the  globe.  But  to  ascertain  the  exact  proportion 
between  the  land  and  water  will  afford  them  ample  employment  for  ages  to  come,  though 
every  day  adds  to  the  stock  of  information  already  acquired. 

The  ocean  is  variously  subdivided  by  different  authors :  it  may  be  conveniently  divided 
into  five  great  basins. 

The  Pacific,  so  named  from  its  comparative  tranquillity,  and  often  called  also  the  Great 
South  Sea,  separates  Asia  from  America.  It  is  the  largest  of  the  basins,  and  somewhat 
exceeds  the  entire  surface  of  diy  land.  Its  greatest  extent,  fVom  east  to  west,  is  about  3700 
leagues,  and  breadth  2700.  It  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  western  and  north-west  shores 
of  America,  and  on  the  west  by  the  eastern  coasts  of  Asia :  on  the  western  side,  and  between 
the  tropics,  its  surfece  is  studded  with  innumerable  groups  of  islands,  all  remarkably  small ; 
and  consisting  generally  of  coral  reefs,  rising  up  like  a  wall  from  unknown  depths,  and 
emerging  but  a  very  little  above  the  sea.  These  islonds  are  the  works  of  innumerable 
minute  insects,  whose  incessant  labours  are  thus  gradually  forming  new  lands  in  the  bosom 
of  the  ocean.  On  the  western  side,  it  communicates  with  the  inland  seas  of  Japan  and 
Okotsk,  the  Yellow  and  Chinese  seas ;  and  on  the  eastern  side,  it  has  the  inlets  of  California 
and  Queen  Charlotte's  Sound.    The  small  isles  of  the  Pacific,  scattered  over  the  torrid  zone. 


'<;? 


|-- 


^ 


-«• 


^> 


i     ''^ 


188 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  11. 


have  their  temporature  so  moderated  by  the  ocean  as  to  enjoy  t!io  most  delightful  climate  ia 
the  world. 

The  second  basin,  or  Atliintic  Oceiin,  is  UHunlly  divided  into  the  North  Atlantic,  und  the 
South  Atlantic,  or  Ethiopic  Ocean.  The  Atlantic  is  boiuuled  on  the  east  by  Europe  and 
Africa ;  and  on  the  west,  by  America :  that  part  of  it  between  Eiiniiic  and  North  America 
is  fVe<iuently  called  the  Western  Ocean.  The  Atlantic  basin  extends  from  7((°  N.  to  35' 
and  50°  S.  latitude;  but  it  is  only  about  lialf  the  size  of  the  I'ucilic  Oceau.  The  length  is 
about  2800  leagues,  but  the  breadth,  which  is  very  unequal,  varies  from  600  to  1800.  The 
South  Atlantic  contains  few  islands  of  any  size,  and  no  inlets  of  consequence ;  but  the  North 
Atlantic  abounds  in  large  islands,  and  in  deep  and  numerous  inland  seas,  which  penetrate 
far  on  each  side  into  both  the  old  and  new  worlds,  and  have  fitted  it  for  the  most  extensive 
commerce  on  tlie  globe.  On  its  eastern  shores  it  receives  few  large  rivers  except  the 
Niger;  but  on  the  west  it  raceives  the  Plata,  Orinoco,  Amazons,  and  Mississippi, — the 
largest  rivers  on  the  face  of  the  earth. 

The  third  basin  is  the  Indian  Ocean,  which  washes  the  shores  of  the  south-cast  coasts  of 
Africa  and  the  south  of  Asia.  It  is  bounded  on  the  cast  by  the  Indian  islands.  New  Holland, 
and  New  Zealand :  its  length  and  breadth  are  each  about  1500  leagues :  it  contains  many 
islands,  the  two  large  bays  of  Bengal  and  Oman,  with  the  deep  inlets  of  the  Persian  Gulf 
and  Red  Sea.    The  halt-yearly  winds  called  monsoons  prevail  in  its  northern  parts. 

Tlie  fourth  basin  is  the  Arctic  Ocean,  an  immense  circular  basin,  surrounding  the  North 
Pole,  and  communicating  with  the  Pacific  and  Atlantic  by  two  channels;  tlie  one  separating 
America  from  Europe,  the  other  America  firom  Asia.  Few  points  of  the  coasts  of^  Europe 
and  Asia,  which  occupy  a  full  half  of  the  circumscribing  circle,  extend  much  beyond  the 
70t.h  parallel ;  and  it  is  doubtful  if  the  other  boundaries,  consisting  of  the  northern  coosta 
of  America  and  Old  Greenland,  reach  nearer  the  Pole ;  so  that  tlie  mean  diameter  of  this 
basin  may  be  taken  at  800  leagues.  Its  interior  or  central  parts  ore  little  known :  several 
islands  are  scattered  over  its  southern  extremities,  the  largest  of  which  is  Old  Greenland, 
whose  northern  limit  is  unknown ;  the  others  are  Spitzbergen,  Nova  Zembla,  the  Isles  of 
New  Siberia,  those  lately  discovered  by  Captain  Parry,  and  several  towards  Baffin's  Bay. 
The  White  Sea,  on  the  north  coast  of  Europe,  is  the  only  deep  gulf  connected  with  this 
basin,  which  is  of  any  importance  to  navigation. 

The  fiflh  basin  is  the  Antarctic,  which  is  still  less  known  than  the  preceding :  it  joins 
the  Pacific  in  the  latitude  of  50°  S.,  and  the  Indian  Ocean  in  that  of  40°.  Floating  ice 
occurs  in  every  part  of  it;  lint  it  is  very  abundant  within  the  parallel  of  60°.  It  was  long 
supposed,  that  a  large  continent  of  land  and  fixed  ice  occnpied  the  greater  part  within  the 
antarctic  circle.  In  1819,  Captain  Smith  discovered  land  lying  between  the  longitudes  of 
65°  and  66°  W.,  and  beginning  at  the  latitude  of  62°.  Mr.  Weddell  has  since  examined 
tliia  quarter  nearer  the  Pole,  which  he  believes  to  be  free  from  fixed  ice. 

Of  the  inland  seas,  the  Mediterranean  is  the  largest  and  most  important :  it  is  deserving 
of  notice  on  various  accounts,  and  in  |mrticular  as  having  been  the  scene  of  by  far  the 
greater  number  of  the  nautical  adventures  of  antiquity.  It  is  the  "  Great  Sea"  of  the  Sacred 
Writings,  though  we  find  it  there  spoken  of  under  other  names.  Its  greatest  length,  flrom 
east  to  west,  is  about  2350  miles ;  and  the  breadth,  which  is  sometimes  small,  is  at  the 
greatest  650.  It  is  bounded  on  the  south  by  Africa,  on  the  east  by  Asia,  and  on  the  north  by 
Europe.  It  communicates  on  the  west  with  the  Atlantic  by  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  and 
with  the  Black  Sea  by  the  Dardanelles  Strait  on  the  east.  It  has  many  islands,  gulfs,  and 
bays,  with  a  very  deep  inlet  on  the  north  called  the  Adriatic  Sea,  or  Gulf  of  Venice.  The 
Black  Sea  is  connected  with  the  Sea  of  Azof;  but  these  containing  only  brackish  water, 
and  being  so  for  inland,  have  more  of  the  character  of  lakes  than  branches  of  the  ocean. 
Proceeding  still  farther  eastward,  we  come  to  the  Caspian  Sea,  which  is  abundantly  salt,  and 
of  great  dimensions ;  but  being  wholly  uncoimected  with  the  ocean,  will  be  aflerwards 
spoken  of  under  the  character  of  a  lake. 

The  Baltic  is  pretty  much  allied  to  the  Black  Sea,  in  having  only  brackish  waters,  which 
are  sometimes  wholly  frozen  over  for  several  months  in  winter,  and  the  ice  so  strong,  that 
armies  have  been  marched  across.  The  Baltic  communicates  with  the  German  Sea  by  the 
strait  called  the  Catte^t:  its  greatest  length  is  1200  miles.  The  North  Sea,  or  German 
Ocean,  is  bounded  by  Britain  and  the  Orkneys  on  the  west,  and  the  continent  of  Europe  oa 
the  east ;  and  reaches  from  the  Straits  of  Dover  to  the  Shetland  Islands,  where  it  joins  the 
Nortiiem  Ocean.  On  the  west  of  the  Atlantic  are  the  Gulfs  of  Mexico  and  St.  liawrence, 
and  Hudson's  and  Baffin's  Bays;  butwc  must  now  proceed  to  treat  of  the  different  properties 
and  relations  of  the  ocean,  so  far  aa  our  limits  will  permit 

The  usual  colour  which  sea  water  exhibits  is  a  bluish  green,  of  various  shades.  Some 
mauitaui,  that  this  is  its  true  and  proper  colour ;  others,  that  it  is  an  optical  illusion,  occa- 
sioned by  the  greater  refrangibility  of  the  blue  rays  of  light, — opinions  which  may  both  be 
true  to  a  certain  extent.  The  ocean  seems  often  to  assume  various  other  colours ;  some  of 
them  no  doubt  real,  but  as  oflen  illusory.  Among  the  more  general  sources  of  deception, 
may  be  reckoned  the  a6]K!ct  of  the  sky :  tlius,  an  apparently  dark-coloured  sea  is  a  commor 


I?' 


Europe  on 

I  joins  the 

iwrence, 

broperties 

Is.    Some 

|ion,  occa- 

both  be 

some  of 

Hcccption, 

,  commop 


BookII. 


HYDROLOGY. 


189 


prognostic  of  on  approaching  storm ;  not  tliot  tlie  water  thon  is  really  blacker  than  usual, 
but  because  the  dark  colour  of  the  cloudH  indistinctly  seen  in,  or  reflected  from  the  waves,  is 
mistaken  for  the  colour  of  the  sea  itself.  VVImtover  other  colour  the  sky  happens  to  wear 
1)08  a  greater  or  less  influence  on  the  appearance  of  the  ocopji ;  thus  red  clouds  seem  to  tinge 
it  red,  &c.  On  some  occasions,  the  edges  of  the  waves,  by  refracting  tlie  solar  beanw  like  a 
priam,  exiiibit  all  tiie  diflerent  colours  of  the  rainbow,  which  is  still  more  nearly  imitated  by 
the  refraction  of  the  rays  in  the  spray.  Not  unfrequcntly,  an  indistinct  image  of  the  neigh- 
bouring coast  reflected  from  the  ruffled  surface  is  mistaken  for  the  colour  of  tlie  water. 

The  variety  of  colours  in  the  sea  may  probably  arise  from  animal  and  vegetable  matters 
diffused  through  the  waters  in  a  putrescent  state,  and  communicating  various  tints.  The 
yellow  and  bright  green  shades  seem  to  be  owing  to  living  marine  vegetables,  which  grow 
at  the  bottom,  stretch  their  fibres  through  the  water,  or  spread  over  the  surface ;  and  it  ia 
supposed  that  the  colour  of  innumerable  minute  animals  is  often  confounded  with  that  of  the 
sea.  Near  the  shore,  and  especially  towanls  the  mouths  of  rivers,  the  diffusion  of  mud  and 
other  earthy  matters  caimot  fail  to  affect  the  colour  of  the  sea :  where  it  is  shallow  or  very 
transparent,  the  colour  of  the  bottom  is  frequently  mistaken  for  that  of  the  water. 

The  colour  of  the  Greenland  Sea,  according  to  Mr.  Scoresby,  varies  from  ultramarine  blue 
to  olive-green,  and  from  the  most  pure  transparency  to  great  opacity.  These  appearances, 
he  thinks,  are  not  transitory,  but  permonent ;  not  depending  on  the  state  of  the  weather, 
but  on  the  quality  of  the  water.  Hudson,  in  1607,  noticed  these  changes,  and  observed  that 
the  sea  was  blue  where  there  was  ice,  and  green  where  it  was  open.  This,  however,  was 
only  accidental.  Phipps  does  not  mention  tlie  green  water ;  it  forms,  perhaps,  one-fourth  of 
the  Greenland  Sea,  between  the  latitudes  of  74°  and  80° ;  often  it  constitutes  long  bands  or 
currents,  lying  north  and  south,  or  N.  E.  and  S.  W.  Mr.  Scoresby  sometimes  passed  through 
stripes  of  pale  green,  olive-green,  and  transparent  blue,  in  the  course  of  ten  minutes.  The 
fooa  of  the  whale  occurs  chiefly  in  the  green  water,  and  there  the  fishers  look  for  them. 
Whales  are  more  easily  taken  in  the  opaque  green  woter  than  in  the  transparent  blue,  be- 
cause they  do  not  readily  see  their  enemies  through  the  former.  On  examining  the  differently- 
coloured  poa  waters,  Mr.  Scoresby  found  various  substances  and  animalcules,  especially  in  the 
olive-green  water.  The  number  of  meduste  was  immense :  they  were  about  one-fourth  of 
an  inch  asunder.  Hence  a  cubic  foot  would  contain  110,.'J92.  From  these,  and  many  similar 
observations,  Mr.  Scoresby  concludes,  that  the  Arctic  Sea  owes  its  colour  to  animalcule^:,  and 
that  they  occasion  the  opacity  of  the  olive-green  water.  The  blue  water  contains  few  ani- 
malcules, and  is  uncommonly  transparent.  The  surface  of  the  Mediterranean  sometimes 
appears  of  a  purple  tint.  In  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  the  sea  is  sometimes  white ;  and  around 
the  Maldive  islands,  black. 

The  transparency  of  the  sea  may  in  many  places  he  very  great,  without  such  property 
being  readily  noticed.  Thus,  where  the  water  is  sufficiently  deep  to  be  dark  at  the  bottom, 
it  may  seem  quite  opaque,  unless  some  fish  or  other  object  happen  to  come  within  view. 
Agitation  of  the  surface  will  likewise  tend  to  conceal  the  transparency.  In  general,  the 
sea  is  more  transparent  as  we  recede  from  the  shore,  and  in  cold  climates  than  in  hot ;  owing 
perhaps,  to  the  smaller  quantity  of  organic  matter  difldised  in  the  waters  of  high  latitudes. 
Prom  this,  however,  there  are  exceptions ;  as  in  the  opacity  of  the  Arctic  Sea  just  noticed, 
and  in  the  case  of  the  Caribbean  Sea,  which  is  often  remarkably  transparent.  Admiral 
Milne  observed  the  bottom  at  a  depth  of  150  feet  in  the  Caribbean  Sea.  Authors  are  not 
agreed  to  what  depth  the  solar  rays  penetrate ;  and  indeed  we  have  every  reason  to  suppose 
that  this  must  depend  upon  and  be  as  various  as  the  transparency.  Some  limit  the  penetra- 
tion to  a  depth  of  100  yards ;  while  others  more  than  double  that  quantity.  The  light 
should  surely  penetrate  to  at  least  double  the  depth  to  which  an  observer  can  see  from  the 
surface. 

The  temperature  of  the  sea  hos  probably  a  tendency  to  follow  the  mean  temperature  of 
the  climate;  but  many  powerfiil  causes  must  interfere  and  modify  it.  Thus,  between  the 
tropics,  the  mean  temperature  of  the  surface  of  the  ocean  is  about  80°,  and  generally  ranges 
between  77°  and  84°.  Beyond  the  tropics,  it  begins  to  decrease,  but  without  observing  any 
strict  connexion  with  the  latitude ;  because,  on  account  of  the  great  specific  heat  of  water, 
powerfiil  currents  cannot  fiiil  partially  to  preserve,  for  some  time,  the  temperature  of  the 

filaco  from  which  they  come.  Hence,  currents  from  the  torrid  zone,  on  passing  into  higher 
atitudes,  raise  the  temperature  of  the  sea  above  what  usually  belongs  to  such  parallels ;  the 
reverse  holds  of  cold  icy  currents  from  the  orctic  regions.  The  teiniicrature  of  the  ocean  is 
much  more  steady  than  that  of  the  superincumbent  air,  and  has  likewise  a  smaller  annual 
range :  unless  where  very  shallow,  it  hos  scarcely  any  diurnal  range. 

The  temperature  of  the  sea  on  desccndin?  below  the  surface  generally  decreases,  but  not 
according  to  any  uniform  or  known  law.  Thus,  at  a  depth  of  five  fiithoms,  it  is  sometimes 
1°  colder,  while  in  other  instances  it  requires  100  fathoms  for  1°.  Sometimes  the  cold 
attains  its  maximum  at  a  depth  of  100  fathoms,  and  sometimes  it  requires  400  or  .500  fathoms. 
According  to  an  experiment  related  by  Capt.  Sabine,  the  temperature  of  the  Caribbean  Sea 
was  4.5.5°  at  a  depth  of  1000  fathoms,  while  its  surfiice  was  83°.    But  the  enormous  pre»> 


U  in 


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SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


PaxtIL 


sure  lit  the  bottom  probably  comprcsBcd  tlie  boll  of  the  thermometer,  and  kept  the  apparent 
temperature  45.5°  above  the  truth.  In  the  Arctic  Sea,  however,  the  temperature  increases 
with  the  depth.  Mr.  Scoresby,  who  first  ascertained  this,  found  an  increase  of  6.6°  and  8° 
nt  the  respective  depths  of  I2(>  and  73()  futhonw;  Capt.  Parry,  6°  at  240  fathoms;  Capt 
Sabine,  7.5°  at  680  futhoms;  Lieut.  Beechy,  10°  at  700  fathoms;  and  Mr.  Fislier,  9.6°  at  a 
depth  (it'  188  futiioms.  Thus,  tlie  rate  of  increase  of  temperature  in  the  Arctic  Sea  has  as 
incoiii^tiint  a  connexion  with  the  depth  as  the  decrease  in  the  temperate  and  torrid  zones. 
Sea  water  freezes  about  28°;  after  which,  the  ice  has  been  olwerved  to  cool  down  to 
—  ar)° ;  but  we  cannot  thence  infer,  that  a  lower  temperature  does  not  occur  in  the  polar 
reffioiis. 

Tim  phosphorescence  of  the  sea  is  a  common  but  very  remarkable  phenomenon,  concern- 
ing till!  cause  of  which  authors  are  not  agreed.  But  most  probably,  as  Newton  conjectured, 
it  proceed.s  from  a  variety  of  causes.  Since  his  time,  it  has  engaged  the  attention  of  many 
eminent  pliilosopiiers.  The  appearance  of  these  lights  is  by  no  means  uniform.  Sometimes 
a  vessel,  in  tniversing  the  ocean,  seems  to  mark  out  n  track  of  fire ;  while  each  stroke  of  an 
oar  emits  a  light,  sometimes  brilliant  and  dazzling,  at  other  times  tranquil  and  pearly.  These 
lights  lire  grouped  in  endless  variety.  Perhaps,  at  one  time,  innumerable  shining  points 
float  on  the  surface,  and  tlien  unite  into  one  extensive  sheet  of  light  At  another  time,  the 
spectator  fancies  he  sees  large  sparkling  figures,  like  animals  in  pursuit  of  each  otiier,  inces- 
santly vanishing  and  re-appearing.  Such  light)  have  been  ascribed  to  luminous  animals, 
and  to  the  phosphorescence  of^emiputrescent  matter  diffused  in  the  ocean.  It  is  well  known, 
that  various  fishes  and  other  marine  animals  emit  light,  which  does  not  in  every  instance 
appear  to  be  voluntary,  or  to  depend  on  the  vital  principle,  as,  in  some  of  them,  it  continues, 
and  p<;rhaps  increases,  atler  death :  but  motion  seems  to  be  either  a  principal  cause,  or  at 
least  an  exciting  one ;  for  this  light  more  rarely  occurs,  and  is  much  fainter,  in  still  water, 
whilst  it  becomes  more  and  more  brilliant  as  the  motion  increases.  It  is  also  more  abundant 
immediately  before  and  during  storms.  In  vol.  v.  p.  SOS.  of  the  Edin.  Phil.  Jour.,  Dr. 
Francis  Buchanan  has  given  a  very  interesting  account  of  an  extraordinary  shining  of  the 
sea,  which  he  observed,  JHst  July,  17a%  in  longitude  61°  25'  E,,  latitude  6°  32'  N.  "  About 
a  quarter  past  seven  p.  m.,"  says  he,  "  the  sea  was  observed  to  be  remarkably  white.  The 
sky  was  everywhere  clear,  except  xiund  the  horizon,  where,  for  about  15°,  it  was  covered 
with  a  dark  haze,  as  is  usual  in  sui '  latitudes.  The  whiteness  gradually  increased  till  past 
eight.  The  sea  was  then  as  high-coloured  as  milk,  not  unlike  tlie  milky  way,  the  luminous 
appearance  very  much  resembling  the  brighter  stars  in  that  constellation.  It  continued  in 
this  state  till  past  midnight,  and  only  disappeared  as  daylight  advanced.  The  whiteness 
prevented  >is  from  being  able  to  see  either  the  break  or  the  swell  of  the  sea,  although  botli 
were  considerable,  as  we  knew  from  the  motion  of  the  ship  and  the  noise.  There  was  much 
light  upon  deck,  as  we  could  discern  all  the  ropes  much  more  distinctly  than  usual.  We 
drew  several  buckets  of  water,  in  which,  even  when  at  rest  there  appeared  a  great  number 
of  luminous  bodies.  The  bulk  of  them  did  not  appear  to  be  more  than  one  quarter  of  an 
inch  in  length,  and  nearly  as  much  in  breadth.  Some,  however,  were  one  inch  and  a  half 
long,  and  of  the  same  breadth  as  the  others.  These  were  seer,  to  move  in  the  same  manner 
as  a  worm  does  in  water.  When  taken  up  on  the  finger,  they  retained  their  shining  faculty 
even  when  dry.  When  brought  near  a  candle,  their  light  disappeared ;  but,  by  minute 
attention,  an  extremely  fine  white  filament  could  be  observed  and  lifted  upon  tlie  point  of  a 
pin.  It  was  of  a  uniform  shining  colour  and  form,  and  about  the  thickness  of  a  spider'd 
thread.  In  a  gallon  of  water  there  might  be  about  400  of  these  animals  emitting  light. 
The  water  itself,  when  in  the  bucket  had  a  natural  appearance.  The  atmosphere  was 
seemingly  free  from  fog.  The  stars  were  bright  and  there  was  no  moonlight  The  night 
before,  the  same  appearance  was  observed  at  ten  p.  m.  ;  it  lasted  only  20  minutes ;  but  as  I 
was  below,  I  did  not  hear  of  it  till  it  was  over." — "  "The  animalcules  which  occasion  the 
unusual  luminousness  of  the  sea  emit  light  only  when  strongly  agitated,  and  hence  appear 
close  by  the  sides  of  the  ship,  or  when  any  larger  fish  passes  swiftly,  or  when  a  bucket  of 
water  is  drawn  and  suddenly  poured  out" — "  In  the  year  1805,  on  returning  from  St  Helena 
to  England,  a  little  north  from  the  equinoctial  line,  and  near  the  coast  of  Africa,  I  had  an 
opportunity  of  seeing  a  still  more  splendid  appearance  of  the  luminous  animalcules.  Soon 
afier  dark  in  the  evening,  it  being  nearly  calm,  we  saw  numerous  lights  at  a  distance,  like 
the  lamps  of  a  great  city.  The  lights  gradually  approached  the  frigate,  and  on  reaching  us 
appeared  to  arise  from  a  great  many  large  fishes  (albicores)  sporting  in  the  water,  and  agi- 
tating the  animalcules,  so  as  to  excite  their  luminous  powers." 

The  depth  of  the  sea  is  a  question  on  which  our  information  is  very  imperfect,  and  there 
is  little  likelihood  that  much  accurate  information  will  ever  be  obtained  on  the  subject  so 
fiir  as  regards  the  wide  ocean.  According  to  the  speculations  of  the  late  celebrated  Mar- 
quis Laplace,  the  depth  of  the  ocean  is  comparatively  small,  and  nearly  uniform.  If,  how- 
ever, it  be  recollected  that  the  bottom  of  tlie  sea  is  still  a  part  of  the  earth's  sur&ce,  and  by 
much  the  greater  part  too,  one  would  be  apt  to  ask,  why  that  larger  part  of  the  surface 
should  be  more  level  than  what  appears  as  dry  land  1  "The  soundings  which  have  been  made 


??• 


nd  there 
ubject,  80 
fed  Mar- 
1  If,  how- 
,  and  by 
surface 
ben  made 


Book  II. 


HYDROLOGY. 


191 


in  the  ocean  are  quite  inadequate  to  decide  the  question.  They,  however,  oflcn  uidlcate  great 
inequalities  in  the  depth ;  but  how  far  hollows  may  have  been  filled  with  dibri»,  or  asperi- 
ties worn  down,  it  is  not  easy  to  say ;  though  it  is  more  likely  that  the  Hummits  of  moun- 
tains exposed  to  the  alternate  or  combined  actions  of  air  and  moisture  suffer  a  more  rapid 
abrasion  thiin  those  which  are  wholly  under  water.  In  general,  the  slope  of  the  adjacent 
shore  is  continued  downward  for  a  good  way  under  water ;  that  is,  the  sea  is  usually  shallow 
where  tlie  shore  is  flat,  while  its  depth  increases  rapidly  by  the  side  of  a  cliff  or  steep  moun- 
tain. It  is  therefore  probable,  that  some  islands,  though  very  small,  may  be  the  tops  of 
sub-marine  mountains  as  large,  pcrhap,  as  the  highest  which  occur  on  the  earth's  surface. 
In  many  instances,  no  bottom  has  been  found;  but  this  might  proceed  either  from  the 
shortness  of  the  line,  or  from  its  being  borne  aside  by  rapid  currents.  We  have  already 
mentioned  a  sounding  of  6000  feet  in  the  Caribbean  sea;  but  Lord  Mulgrave's  line  of  4080 
feet  did  not  reach  the  bottom  of  the  Northern  Ocean.  In  the  entrance  of  the  German  or 
North  Sea,  at  the  Straits  of  Dover,  the  central  depth  is  20  fbthoni^.  Tiiis  extensive  basin 
bontains  various  shallows  and  sand-banks;  yet,  generally  speaking,  the  deptii  increases  in 
going  northward,  and  near  to  Bergen  in  Norway  it  amounts  to  190  fethoms.  A  very  inter- 
esting account  of  the  bed  of  the  German  Sea  is  given  by  Mr.  Stevenson,  Edin.  Phil.  Jour, 
iii.  42. ;  aad  in  the  third  volume  of  the  Memoirs  of  the  Wemerian  Society. 

The  level  of  the  open  sea  is  believed,  generally  speaking,  to  be  everywhere  the  same ; 
or  to  form  a  portion  of  the  surfiice  of  an  oblate  spheroid,  to  which  the  surface  of  the 
land  approaches  with  less  accuracy.  Some  gulfs  and  inland  seas  appear  to  deviate  in 
some  measure  from  the  general  rule.  This  is  more  particularly  the  case  where  the  com- 
munication of  such  seas  with  the  ocean  is  narrow ;  and  there  are  a  few  other  exceptions."' 
When  the  general  motion  of  the  ocean  or  of  the  trade-winds  is  directed  into  the  mouth  of 
an  inland  sea,  it  has  a  tendency  to  raise  its  level  above  that  of  the  ocean.  On  this  account 
it  is  that  the  Arabian  Gulf  or  Red  Sea  is  higher  than  the  ocean,  and  still  higher  than 
the  Mediterranean,  which,  from  the  opposite  action  of  the  wind  and  the  great  evapora- 
tion, is  supposed  to  be  a  little  below  the  general  level.f  Some  gulfs  and  mland  seas,  as 
the  Baltic  and  Black  Sea,  rise  in  spring,  from  the  copious  influx  of  river  water,  and  are 
lowered  in  summer  by  evaporation  and  the  efflux  at  their  mouths.  Of  late  years,  there  has 
been  considerable  discussion  regarding  the  subsidence  of  tlie  Baltic  below  the  level  it  had 
formerly  maintained.  Whilst  some  support  this  opinion,  and  venture  to  explain  the  cause 
of  the  subsidence,  others  deny  the  fact  altogether.  The  trade-winds  and  general  westward 
motion  of  the  ocean  force  the  water  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  so  as  to  maintain  a  higher 
level  there  than  on  the  western  coast  of  the  Isthmus  of  Darien.J  The  consequence  of  this 
accumulation  of  water  is,  that  it  generates  a  current  moving  northwards;  and  which,  after 
various  windings  through  the  Atlantic,  at  length  reaches  the  western  shores  of  Europe,  as 
will  be  more  particularly  noticed  hereafter.  Some  naturalists  allege,  that  the  debris,  or 
alluvial  matters  daily  abraded  by  the  action  of  the  weather  on  the  surface  of  the  land,  and 
swept  into  the  ocean  by  the  rain  and  rivers,  must,  at  length,  raise  the  level  of  the  ocean  till 
it  cover  the  whole  globe,  and  restore  the  reign  of  ancient  chaos.  Unless  there  be  some 
compensating  process,  which  either  makes  up  for  the  exhausted  materials,  or  gradually  ele- 
vates the  entire  continents  above  the  water,  it  is  not  very  easy  to  guess  at  an  alternative. 
A  compensating  power  is  situated  deep  in  the  crust  of  the  earth. 

The  taste  of  sea  water  is  disagreeable  and  bitter,  at  least  when  taken  from  the  surface  or 
near  the  shore ;  but  when  drawn  from  great  depths,  its  taste  is  only  saline.  It  would  there- 
fore seem  that  the  bitterness  is  owing_  to  the  greater  abundance  of  animal  and  vegetable 
matter  near  the  surface.  Man,  in  a  civilized  state,  cannot  make  use  of  sea  water  as  drink ; 
yet  it  is  said  that  the  inhabitants  of  Easter  Island,  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  make  it  their 
usual  beverage.  Some  of  the  lower  animals  occasionally  travel  far  to  drink  sea  water. 
Sheep  are  very  fond  of  licking  the  dry  salt ;  and  so  are  horses  and  cattle.  With  them  it  is 
a  cure  for  various  complaints.  Several  attempts  have  been  made  to  render  sea  water  pota- 
ble, or  to  free  it  from  salt  Distillation  is  the  most  effectual ;  but  the  expense  of  fuel  is  a 
serious  objection  to  this  method  at  sea,  and,  after  all,  it  does  not  divest  it  of  all  its  bitterness. 
Thus,  in  the  midst  of  water,  mariners  are  frequently  in  danger  of  dying  of  thirst,  when 
they  run  short  of  fresh  water.  Sea  ice,  when  melted,  aflbrds  nearly  fresh  water ;  but  being 
devoid  of  air,  its  taste  is  not  very  agreeable,  though  it  would  be  highly  prized  in  time  of 
need.  A  temporary,  and  in  some  degree  an  imaginary,  relief  may  be  obtained,  by  holdin<^ 
salt  water  in  the  mouth. 

The  saline  contents  of  the  waters  of  the  wide  ocean  do  not,  so  far  as  experience  has  gone, 
vary  much  in  different  latitudes  and  under  different  meridians,  although  we  ought  to  find 
the  sea  fresher  in  the  spaces  occupied  by  the  internal  limits  of  the  trade-wind,  and  also  in 
those  tracts  of  the  ocean  where  calms  and  a  high  temperature  prevail,  as  on  the  west  coast 

*  BIrabo  says  the  level  of  the  Gulf  of  Corinth  i!>  higher  than  that  of  the  Gulf  of  Cenchreee, 
t  yUt  Maclarcn  on  the  level  of  the  Red  Sea,  in  the  Edinburgh  Philoimphical  Journal. 
(  The  mean  height  of  the  Fecifie  above  the  Atlantic  i>  eaid  to  be  153  feet. 


41' I 

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SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


PamtII. 


Black  Bes 1.01418 

While  B(« 1.01001 

Biillic l.OlSin 

Lake  Oiirmia,  in  Persia 1.16507 

DumI  8ea 1.11100 


of  Africa.  The  moan  is  about  3.5  per  cent,  in  tbo  weif^ht  of  the  water;  but  the  MtltnesB  i« 
more  or  loss  atfcctod  by  cunrents  and  iitornis.  It  is  diuiiniiihed  at  the  surrace  during  heavy 
rainH,  and  by  the  discharge  of  rivors;  but  incroaHed  by  evaporation,  which  carries  off  the 
water  froHh,  and  leaves  tlio  salt  behind :  hence  there  in  often  little  consistency  in  detached 
observation!*.  From  a  great  variety  of  experimental,  Dr.  Marcot  concludes :  1.  That  the 
Southern  Ocean  contains  more  salt  than  the  Northern,  in  the  ratio  of  l.()201  to  1.02757. 
3.  Tiiat  the  mean  spcciflc  gravity  of  sea  water  near  the  equator  is  l.()2777,  intermediate 
,  >^  l)etweon  those  of  the  northern  and  southern  hemispheres.  3.  That  there  is  no  notable  dif- 
i^^  ference  in  sea  water  under  different  meridians.  4.  That  there  is  no  satisfkctor^  evidence 
tliat  the  sea  at  great  depths  is  more  salt  than  at  the  surface.  5,  That  the  sea,  ui  general, 
contains  mure  salt  where  it  ia  deepest  and  most  remote  from  land ;  and  that  its  saltness  is 
always  diminished  in  the  vicinity  of  large  masses  of  ice.  6.  That  small  inland  seas,  though 
communicating  with  the  ocean,  are  mucli  less  salt  Uian  the  open  ocean.  7.  That  tlio  Medi- 
terranean contains  rather  larger  proportions  of  salt  than  the  ocean.  This  last  is  explained 
from  tlie  fact,  tliat  a  pretty  strong  current  ftom  the  Atlantic  always  flows  inward  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Mediterranean,  to  supply,  aa  was  supposed,  the  water  which  escaped  by 
evaporiition,  and  left  its  salt  behind.  So  great,  however,  is  the  influx,  that  this  inland  sea 
ouglit  to  hiivo  become  perfect  brine,  or  perhaps  to  have  deposited  beds  of  salt,  if  there  were 
MO  efflux ;  and  accordingly  it  is  maintained  tliat  tliere  is  an  outward  current  at  the  bottom, 
very  dcc|),  which  carries  off  this  excess  of  salt,  and  prevents  its  deposition  in  the  vast  hol- 
lows in  tiie  bottom.  The  water  drawn  up  tVom  this  lower  current  is  Salter,  in  a  small  de- 
gree, than  at  the  surface. 

The  following  are  the  mean  specific  gravities  of  tlie  waters  of  different  seas,  according 
to  Dr.  Marcet'a  experiments : — 

Arctic  Oci-an 1.02084 

Ncirthrrn  Hptniiiplicre 1.02858) 

SniitliKrn  llomisplicre 1.02f«! 

Yellow  fl.li 1.02««1 

Mmlilcrrniioan 1.02030 

Snit  nf  Mnrmnra I.OIUIS 

The  saltness  of  inland  seas  is  subject  to  many  varieties.  In  the  entrance  to  the  Black 
Sea,  the  wntcr  is  much  saltcr  at  the  bottom  than  the  surface.  To  account  for  this,  it  is  said 
that  an  under  current  enters  from  the  Mediterranean.  It  is  well  known  that  there  is  an 
outward  current  at  the  surface,  which  brings  with  it  the  less  salt  water  of  the  Black  Sea. 
The  saltness  of  inland  seas  is  often  affected  by  the  direction  and  strength  of  the  wind,  either 
forcing  in,  or  retarding  the  entrance  of,  water  from  the  ocean.  Accordingly,  from  the  expe- 
riments of  Wilcke,  it  appears  that  the  saltness  of  the  Baltic  is  increased  by  a  west  wind,  and 
still  more  so  by  a  north-west  wind ;  but  it  undergoes  a  diminution  when  the  wind  is  fh>m 
the  east    Thus,  the  specific  gravities  are,  for  a 

Wind  at  W 1.0087   I    Ptorm  at  W 1.0118 

DiltontN.W 1.0098   |    Wind  at  E l.OOW 

Hence,  the  proportion  of  salt  in  the  Baltic  depends  in  no  small  degree  on  the  different  winds; 
a  proof  that  tiic  salt  is  not  only  derived  from  the  neighbouring  ocean,  but  that  storms  have  a 
much  greater  effect  on  it  than  has  been  commonly  supposed. 

The  constituent  parts  of  sea  water  have  been  an  object  of  examination  to  many  chemists, 
and  various  sets  of  experiments  made  to  determine  them.  The  late  Dr.  Murray  of  Edin- 
burgh was  of  opinion  that  there  were  various  sources  of  fallacy  in  analysing  sea  water;  and 
that  different  modes  of  operating  on  the  same  water  gave  very  different  results.  Two 
reasons  are  assigned  for  this ;  viz.  that  some  of  the  different  mlta  mutually  decompose  each 
other  in  the  process,  and  that  a  part  is  lost  altogether  by  evaporation,  especially  if  the  tem- 
perature be  high.  According  to  this  eminent  chemist,  10,000  parts  of  water  from  tlie  Frith 
of  Forth,  which  is  not  sensibly  different  from  that  of  the  ocean,  contain  220  parts  of  common 
salt,  33  of  sulphate  of  sodo,  42  of  muriate  of  magnesia,  and  8  of  muriate  of  lime.  On 
analysing  sea  water  from  N.  latitude  25°  30',  W.  longitude  32°  30',  Dr.  Marcct  made  the 
numbers  respectively  266,  47,  52,  and  12.  According  to  Bladh,  the  saltness  is  greater  about 
the  tropics  than  at  the  equator.  Dr.  Trail  maintains  the  contrary ;  and  also  that  the  salt- 
ness increases  with  the  depth. 

Ice  is  formed  on  the  sea,  though  its  saltness  enables  it  to  resist  the  process  of  congelation 
at  tlie  ordinary  freezing  point  of  fresh  water.  This  quality  does  not  withstand  the  rigour 
of  the  Arctic  regions,  where  the  temperature  of  the  air  has  been  observed  so  low  as  55°  F. 
Sea  Wiitrr  freezes  about  28°,  but  the  temperature  varies  a  little  with  the  saltness. — It  is  a 
curious  circumstance,  that  sea  water  parts  with  its  salt  in  freezing.  Hence  compact  trans- 
parent s''ii  ico  affords  fresh  water  on  being  melted.  When,  however,  the  ice  is  of  a  loose 
Dr  celhilur  texture,  its  pores  sometimes  contain  liquid  brine ;  and  therefore,  on  being  melted, 
it  affi)r(l.-!  bruckish  water.  It  is  supposed  to  be  the  affinity  between  the  water  and  suit  which 
retnnis  llic  (.■oiinelation  of  sea  water ;  because  the  greater  the  saltness,  the  lower  is  the 
fineziiijr  teinprratiire.  Detached  masses  of  ice  are  occasionally  met  with,  floating  in  the 
ocean  ut  so  low  a  parallel  ef  latitude  as  40°  in  botli  hemispheres ;  having  been  conveyed 


M 


xjhemiBts, 
1  of  Edin- 
ktcr;  and 
Two 
!  each 
Ithe  tern- 
Itlie  Frith 
j"  common 
Ime.    On 
Inoide  the 
Iter  about 
\  the  salt- 

n<Tclation 
he  rigour 
L  55°  F. 
[.—It  is  a 
let  trans- 
|f  a  loose 

•  melted, 
lit  which 
Icr  is  the 
Ip  in  the 

Iconveyed 


A-- 


Book  II 


HYDROLOGY. 


im 


thither  by  cnrrnnls  from  tlio  polar  regions.*   At  tho  parallel  of  50°  they  are  more  abundant; 
and  there  it  is  common,  in  wmtor,  to  sec  tlic  shiJlow  I'dffcs  of  tho  iea  covered  with  ice.    At 
00°  N.  latitude,  tiie  g\i\fy  and  inland  sens  are  frequently  tVozon  over  their  wholo  surfliee. 
As  we  proceed  toward  tlio  poles,  the  ice  Imcotnes  more  and  more  abundant,  and  of  larffor 
dimensions,  till  nt  length  wo  come  to  fidd»  of  ice,  and  icebergs  or  moiuituins  of  ice.     The 
process  of  conj;elatioii  conmionces  at  tho  »\irfiico  of  the  sea,  with  the  formation  of  slender 
prismatic  crystals  resembling  wet  snow :  this  the  seamen  call  tludge.    Tho  mirfaco  is  at 
tirst  rough ;  but,  by  the  union  of  the  crystals  and  the  accumulation  of  the  sludge,  tho  surface 
becomes  smootii  and  forms  a  continued  sheet,  which  is  next  broken,  by  the  agitation  of  the 
water,  into  fragments  of  about  three  inches  diameter;  these  again  coalesco  into  a  continued 
sheet  of  u  stronger  texture,  which  is  in  its  turn  broken  as  before,  but  into  larver  fragment! 
called  pancake  ice.    Where  the  water  is  free  fVom  all  asitation,  the  congelation  goes  on 
more  regularly,  and  some  allege  more  rapidly.     During  24  nours  of  keen  frost,  the  ice  fre- 
quently attains  a  thickness  of  from  two  to  three  inches,  and  is  soon  fit  for  walking  on :  it  is 
then  called  hay  ice.    When  tho  thickness  is  about  a  foot,  it  is  called  light  ice ;  and  when 
three  feet  thick,  heavy  ice.    Tlio  term  feld  is  given  to  a  sheet  of  ice  so  extensive  that  its 
farther  end  cannot  be  seen  from  a  mast-head.  Very  large  loosened  pieces,  whose  boundaries 
may  be  seen  readily,  are  culled  Jloes.     Fragments  of  thick  ice  floating  together  are  called 
brash  ice.     Floating  ice  of  any  sort,  sutRcicntly  loose  to  allow  a  vessel  to  pass  through,  is 
called  open  or  drift  ice.   Indeed,  there  is  no  end  to  the  terms  which  seamen  apply  to  dif^rent 
sorts  of  ice.   The  sudden  disruption  of  extensive  fields  is  sometimes  produced  by  that  power- 
ful tendency  to  undulation  of  the  surface,  communicated  by  the  motions  of  the  adjoining 
liquid  surfiicc  of  the  ocean  during  a  continued  storm,  which  is  denominated  a  ground  swell. 
The  ice,  when  thin,  merely  yields ;  but,  if  thick  and  little  flexible,  it  is  broken  with  tre- 
mendous noise.     A  very  interesting  account  of  such  a  phenomenon  is  given  by  a  party  of 
missionaries  who  passed  along  tho  coast  of  Labrador  in  sledges  drawn  by  dogs.    They  nar- 
rowly escaped  destruction ;  but  were  near  enouj^h  to  witness  all  its  grandeur.    "  The  mis- 
sionaries met  a  sledge  with  Efwiuimnux  turning  in  from  the  sea,  who  threw  out  some  hint^ 
that  it  might  be  us  well  for  them  to  return.    Afler  some  time,  their  own  Estiuimaux  hinted 
that  there  was  a  ground  swell  under  the  ice.    It  was  then  scarcely  perceptible,  except  on 
lying  down  and  applying  the  car  close  to  tho  ice,  when  a  hollow  disagreeable  grating  noise 
was  heard  ascendmg  from  the  abyss.     As  the  motion  of  the  sea  under  tho  ice  hacTgrown 
more  perceptible,  they  became  alarmed,  luid  began  to  think  it  prudent  to  keep  close  to  the 
shore.     Tho  ice  also  had  fissures  in  many  places,  some  of  which  formed  chasms  of  one  or 
two  feet ;  but  as  these  arc  not  uncommon  even  in  its  best  state,  and  tho  dogs  easily  leap 
over  them,  they  are  frightful  only  to  strangers.     As  tlie  wind  rose  to  a  storm,  the  swell  had 
now  increased  so  much  that  its  effects  on  t)ic  ice  were  extraordinary,  and  really  alarming. 
The  sledges,  insteod  of  gliding  smoothly  along  as  on  an  even  surface,  sometimes  ran  wiUi 
violence  after  the  dogs,  and  sometimes  seemed  with  difficulty  to  ascend  a  rising  hill.  Noises, 
too,  were  now  distinctly  heard  in  many  directions,  like  the  report  of  cannon,  from  the  burst- 
ing of  tlie  ico  at  a  distance.    Alarmed  by  tliese  irightfiil  phenomena,  our  travellers  drove 
with  all  haste  towards  the  sliorc ;  and  us  tliey  approached  it,  the  prospect  before  them  was 
tremendous.     The  ice,  having  burst  loose  from  the  rocks,  was  tossed  to  and  fro,  and  broken 
in  a  thousand  pieces  against  the  precipices  with  a  dreadful  noise ;  which,  added  to  the  raging 
of  the  sea,  the  roaring  of  tho  wind,  and  the  driving  of  the  snow,  so  completely  overpowered 
them  as  almost  to  deprive  them  of  the  use  botli  of  their  eyes  and  ears.    To  make  the  land 
was  now  tho  only  resource  that  remained ;  but  it  was  with  the  utmost  difficulty  that  the 
frightened  dogs  could  be  driven  forward ;  and  as  the  whole  body  of  tlie  ice  frequently  sunk 
below  the  summits  of  tlic  rocks,  and  tlien  rose  above  them,  the  only  tunc  for  landing  was  the 
moment  it  gained  the  level  of  the  coast,  —  a  circumstance  which  rendered  the  attempt 
extremely  nice  and  hazardous.    Both  sledges,  however,  succeeded  in  gaining  the  shore,  and 
were  drawn  up  on' the  beach,  though  not  without  great  difficulty.  Scarcely  had  they  reached 
it,  when  that  part  of  tlie  ice  from  which  they  had  just  escaped  burst  asunder,  and  the  water, 
rushing  up  from  beneath,  instantly  precipitated  it  into  the  ocean.     In  a  moment,  as  if  by 
signal,  the  whole  mass  of  ice  for  several  miles  along  the  const,  and  extending  as  far  as  the 
eye  could  reach,  began  to  break  and  to  be  overwhelmed  with  the  waves.   The  spectacle  was 
awfully  grand.     Tlie  immense  fields  of  ice  rising  out  of  the  ocean,  clashing  against  one 
another,  and  then  plunging  into  tho  deep  with  a  violence  which  no  language  can  describe, 
and  a  noise  like  the  discharge  of  a  thousand  cannon,  was  a  sight  which  must  have  struck  the. 
most  unrodocting  mind  with  solemn  awe.    The  brethren  were  overwhelmed  with  amaze- 
ment nt  Ihnir  miraculous  escape;  and  even  the  pagan  Esquimaux  expressed  gratitude  to 
God  lor  their  deliverance. "t 

Tho  term  icvUrg  i.s  applied  to  huge  masses  of  ice  resembling  mountains,  whether  resting 
on  the  land  or  lloating  on  tlie  sea.    The  latter  part  appear  to  be  sometimes  formed  in  the 


I 


I 


li;Jr   ■' 


i.  n 


*  Horahiireh  inriilniiH  iccbprgii  having  been  mot  with  in  Sonlli  lat.35°  M)',  nidWest  long.  17°  50'. — PkiLMig. 
f  Brnwn'H  History  uf  Die  Propagation  of  Christianity,  vol.  ii.  p.  17 

Vol,  I.  17  Z 


IIM 


SCIKNCE   OP  GEOGRAIMIV. 


PabtII, 


•CK  itxoir,  by  tlin  accumiilation  of  ico  and  riiow  ;  at  other  timoH  In  ho  fVn((tnont«  of  lond  icci- 
ber^rNor)r|ncicni,  which  have  b«3cn  pilinj;  upon  tho  i<horo  till  quite  overgrown,  nnil  ultimately 
IimIomi  fliid  launched  into  tho  ocean  by  their  own  weight.  MoMeii  of  thiH  imrt  abound  in 
Uifl'iii'n  lliiy,  where  Iheyaro  RomotimeH  two  miles  lonir,  ami  half  or  one  third  an  bnmd.  They 
are  hriHtletl  with  variouo  Roircs,  risinjir,  perhaps,  1(N)  feet  above  the  surfiice,  and  doHcf^ndiii); 
li'ilf  iiH  much  below  it.  When  compact  ico  flouts  in  water,  the  port  under  tho  Nurthct^  in 
iiliout  nine  times  ns  groat  os  that  alxivo  it;  and  hence  the  icebergs  may  sometimoH  denceud 
fi)  n  j;rc:it  depth,  thouf^h  they  should  be  fiir  from  consisting  of  very  comiMict  ico.  Icpber),'rt 
of  (in  even  surface,  rising  00  feet  abovu  the  sen,  and  having  on  area  of  five  or  six  sipiari! 
Miilo",  lire  very  common.  Thono  of  East  Greenland  are  of  inferior  size,  and  they  aro  still 
sniollor  around  Spit/.bergcn,  where  some  of  enormous  dimensions  occur  on  shore.  The 
reason  which  Mr.  Sroresby  aNsigns  for  this  is,  that,  owing  to  the  shallowncfs  of  tho  water 
into  which  tho  huge  moiwuH  are  precipitatc<l,  they  are  all  shattered  against  tho  liottom  into 
a  thouHand  pieces  before  they  are  fairly  launchml  into  deep  water.  "  On  an  excurBion  to  one 
of  the  Seven  Icebergs,  in  July  1818,"  says  Mr.  Scoresby,  "  I  was  particularly  fortuiioto  in 
witncswing  one  of  the  grandest  effects  which  these  polar  glaciers  ever  present.  A  strong 
north-westerly  swell,  having  for  some  hours  been  beating  on  tho  shore,  hod  loosened  a  num- 
ber of  fragments  attacheil  to  tho  iceberg,  and  vorious  iKiaps  of  broken  ico  denoted  recent 
shoots  of  the  seaward  odgo.  As  wo  rowed  towards  it,  with  a  view  of  proceeding  close  to 
its  base,  I  observed  a  few  little  pieces  fall  from  the  top;  and  while  my  cyo  whs  Hxed  upon 
the  place,  an  immense  column,  probably  50  feet  smiaro  and  150  feet  high,  began  to  leave 
the  parent  ico  at  the  top;  and  leaning  majestically  forward,  with  an  accelerated  velocity 
fell  with  an  awful  crash  mto  the  sea.  The  water  into  which  it  plunged  was  converted  into 
an  appearance  of  vapour  or  smoke,  like  that  from  a  furious  cannona<lin^.  Tho  noise  was 
equal  to  that  of  thunder,  which  it  nearly  resembled.  Tho  column  which  fell  was  nearly 
square,  and  in  magnitude  resembled  a  church,  It  broke  into  a  thousand  pieces.  This  cir- 
cumstance was  a  happy  caution ;  for  wo  might  have  inadvertently  gone  to  the  very  base  of 
tho  icy  cliff,  fVom  which  masses  of  considerable  magnitude  were  continiiolly  falling."  A 
huge  ina.ss  of  this  sort  which  fcdl  on  a  RuH,'<ian  ship,  broke  the  fore  and  main  masts,  xprung 
the  bowsprit,  and  flung  the  ship  over  with  siich  violence  that  a  piece  of  ordnance  was  thrown 
overboard  from  under  tho  half-dock,  niid  the  captain  and  some  of  the  crew  were  projected  in 
fJio  same  manner.  Tho  captain,  however,  CBcapcd  unhurt ;  but  tho  mate  and  two  others 
were  killed,  and  many  were  wounded. 

Icnberg.s  variously  affect  navigation.  They  are  often  highly  useful  by  protecting  naviga- 
tors from  gales,  as  well  as  from  the  concussions  of  drift  ice,  which  moves  more  quickly  when 
acted  on  by  the  wind  than  tho  inaswy  iceberg.  To  the  latter,  ships  are  scjmetimes  moored, 
hut  not  without  danger;  for  these  floating  masses  aro  sometimes  so  nicely  balanced  as  to  be 
easily  overturned,  should  they  happen  to  calcli  the  Imttoin  of  tho  sea.  The  concussion  pro- 
duced in  this  way  sometimes  detaches  large  firagmcnts;  and  sometimes  the  iceberg  rolls 
forward,  to  tho  imminent  danger  of  the  ves.sel,  though  perhaps  100  yards  distant, — so  great 
are  tho  waves  and  whirls  caii.sod  by  such  an  occurrence.  Many  dangers  and  discourage- 
ments attend  the  navigation  of  tho  polar  seas :  but  ttie  recent  attempts  to  discover  a  north- 
west passage  through  the  Arctic  Sou  have  rendered  tho  ice  a  subject  of  considerable  interest. 
Theso  attempts  have  not  yet  been  crowned  with  success:  but  difl'eront  navigators  have 
brought  such  (lifferent«accounts  of  the  state  of  tho  ice,  that  it  is  probably  vofy  changeable 
and  very  difficult  to  examine.  It  is  not  qtiite  agreed  that  any  navigator  has  been  within  6° 
of  tiic  North  Polo ;  although  some  accounts  pretend  to  a  still  nearer  approach.  Captain 
Parry,  in  his  last  voyage,  reached  to  82°  45'  N.  lat.  The  failure  of  Captain  Cook's  attempt 
to  pt<netratc  to  tho  South  Pole  gave  rise  to  an  idea,  which  has  been  pretty  generally  enter- 
tained since  his  time,  tliat  tho  South  Pole  is  surrounded  with  fixed  ico  to  the  distance  of  18° 
or  19° ;  and  a  more  recent  Russian  expedition  gave  .still  worse  hopes,  as  they  could  not  get 
heyond  the  latitude  of  70°  S.  Mr.  Woddoll,  however,  has  since  reached  255  miles  nearer 
the  pole,  and  mot  with  no  such  obstruction:  this  enterprising  navigator  contends  strenuously 
tliat  the  South  Pole  must  be  free  from  ice,  and  might  be  reached  by  sea.  Some  of  his  argu- 
ments aro  rather  plausible ;  but  tho  question  is  involved  in  so  many  uncertainties,  that  nothing 
less  tliO/n  actual  trial  con  decide  it. 

The  expansion  and  contraction  of  ice  has  important  effects.  Though  water  undergoes  a 
<rreat  expansion  in  the  act  of  freezing,  yet  ice  obeys  the  ordinary  law  of  solids, — that  of 
expanding'  by  heat  and  contracting  by  cold.  Tiie  effect,  therefore,  of  intense  cold  is  to  con- 
tract ice,  which,  if  of  largo  dimensions,  or  fixed  all  around,  has  no  alternative  but  to  rend 
wlicro  it  is  contracting  most.  This  is  ofl<m  attended  with  a  tremendous  reiM)rt.  On  tho 
contrary,  a  rise  of  temperature  may  not  only  bring  tlie  parts  to  meet  again,  but  often  makes 
them  lap  over,  or  burst  up  with  great  violence.* 

The  motion  of  the  waters  of  the  ocean  is  almost  perpetual ;  and  it  is  believed,  that  without 

*  TIiP  iiinst  nntiitfnctnry  urcnnnt  if  the  [Hilar  ico  ia  that  of  Scnrcghy,  first  puhliMietl  in  the  Memoirs  or  Ibe  Wei 
neuan  Natural  Hiatury  Society 


mTlI. 

id  icft- 
nntely 
ind  in 
TJipy 
mid  ill); 
thci^  w 
occond 
pboriJH 
Hciimrit 
ro  Btill 
.     The 
D  water 
om  into 
1  to  one 
iiiato  in 
i  Htrong 
a  num- 
1  recent 
close  to 
cd  upon 
to  leave 
velocity 
rted  into 
oiue  was 
18  nearly 
TliiB  cir- 
y  base  of 
img."     A 
ts,  sprung 
08  thrown 
•ojccted  in 
wo  others 

[i(f  navipa- 
ickly  when 
>s  moored, 
m1  as  to  be 


j 
il 


Iderpfoes  a 
I— that  of 
1  is  to  con- 
lit  to  rend 
On  the 
|en  makes 

at  without 

|arilieW«i 


Boob  II. 


MBTEOttOLOOY. 


19ft 


this  provision  in  the  economy  of  nature  the  Hoa,  in  place  oftnmporlng  and  purifying  the  air, 
would  both  hncome  putrid  and  exhale  noxinuM  vaimurH. 

Wnve».  The  motions  which  firMt  present  themsnlvpH  to  our  notice  nro  the  partial  and 
iiltr>rnate  rising  and  tailing  of  the  surl'aco,  known  by  tho  name  of  undulations  or  woven.  This 
«>rt  of  motion  is  caused  by  the  wind,  which,  bydiBlod|fing  or  depressing  a  certain  portion  of 
tlio  wiitnrs,  has  destroyed  tho  equilibrium  or  lovol,  which  they  naturally  endeavour  to  recover, 
Waves  in'iy  bo  cumparod  to  tho  reciprocation  of  water  in  a  syphon  or  bent  tube.  It  was  in 
this  way  that  Newton  deduced  tho  velocity  of  waves,  and  tho  time  required  to  an  undulation. 
If  water  ascend  and  doscenil  altornatoly  m  tho  legs  of  a  bent  tube,  and  a  pendulum  bo  con- 
Ntnictcd  whose  length  liotweon  tho  |viint  of  suspension  and  centre  of  oscillation  is  e(|ual  t.i 
half  tho  length  of  the  water  in  tho  tube,  then  this  fluid  will  ascend  and  descend  during  eiicli 
oscillation  of  tho  pendulum.  Hence  the  velocity  of  tho  waves  is  as  the  square  roots  of  their 
breadths ;  the  breadth  being  the  di.stanco  between  the  tops  of  the  ridges.  In  tho  same  way, 
it  may  be  shown  that  tho  apparent  progressive  motions  or  waves  through  spaces  equal  to  their 
breadths  are  perfonnod  in  tno  times  in  which  pendulums  oscillate  whoso  lengths  are  equal  to 
those  breiulths.  I  lenco  waves,  whose  breadth  is  39j  inches,  will  seem  to  pass  over  that  sparo 
in  ono  second.  Waves  are  scarcely  over  without  progressive  motion ;  but  the  real  progrens 
of  tho  surface  of  the  water  is  generally  small,  compared  to  tlio  apparent  motion  of  the 
waves;  as  is  easily  prove<l  from  any  floating  body  which  does  not  rise  above  tho  surfiice  so 
ns  to  bo  hurried  forward  by  tho  wind.  Waves  are  distinguished  into  natural  and  accidentnl. 
Tho  natural  arc  proportional  to  the  strength  of  tho  wind  producing  them: — the  accidontiil 
are  occasioned  by  repercussion  of  tho  wind  from  hills  and  bold  coasts,  and  by  tho  dashini; 
of  the  waves  on  rocks  and  shoals.  Divers,  it  is  ssid.  And  tho  waters  perfectly  still  at  the 
depth  of  thirty  yards,  during  the  greatest  tempest.  But  this  can  only  be  known  of  some 
sheltered  spots ;  for  when  do  divers  descend  in  an  open  sea  during  a  tempest  1  Waves  are 
always  seen  rolling  towards  the  shore ;  but  an  obstacle  op|X)sed  to  them  becomes  tho  centre 
of  a  new  series  wnich  spreads  in  circles.  Ono  sot  of  waves,  however,  may  not  interfere 
with  the  motion  of  another,  and  they  may  mutually  cross  without  interruption.  Sometimes 
the  ordinary  oscillations  are  combined  with  a  distant  swell,  called  tho  bore,  which  rises 
impetuous  after  certain  intervals.  Breakers,  or  waves  which  break  against  some  obstaclo, 
when  formed  over  a  great  extent  of  shore,  are  distinguished  by  the  name  ofmtrf.  The  surf 
is  greatest  in  those  parts  of  tho  ocean  where  the  wind  blows  always  nearly  in  the  same 
:lirection. 

Currents.  There  are  two  permanent  and  general  sorts  of  currents  in  tho  ocean,  wliich 
aro  supposed  to  originate  in  two  great  movements, — that  of  tho  tropical  waters  westward 
round  the  globe,  and  that  of  the  pcdar  waters  towards  tho  equator.  But  it  is  plain  that  the 
latter,  or  polar  currents,  imply  the  existence  of  a  Ihiril  set,  moving  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion; otherwise  the  waftrs  at  the  poles  would  soon  be  exhausted,  together  with  the  ice  from 
which  they  are  partly  derived.  It  is  well  known  that  the  rain,  fog,  or  snow,  which  foils  in 
the  polar  regions,  could  never  supply  any  perceptible  current  towanls  the  equator.  The 
movement  of  the  tropical  waters  westward  is  ascribed  to  tho  agency  of  the  trade  winds, 
which,  blowing  constantly  from  the  east,  must  impress  their  motion  on  the  sea  to  a  certain 
extent  But  tlie  'resulting  current  is  necessarily  modified  by  the  position  of  the  great  conti- 
nents. This  grand  westerly  motion  prevails  generally  between  30°  P.  and  30°  N.  latitude. 
According  to  Humboldt,  its  mean  velocity  is  from  nine  to  ten  miles  a-day.  In  the  Atlantic 
it  separates  into  two  branches,  ono  of  which  forms  the  well-known  Gulf  Stream.  This 
branch  flows  northward,  through  the  middle  of  the  Atlantic,  till  it  reaches  the  Cape  Verd 
Islands :  it  then  turns  west,  passe';  through  tho  Caribbean  Sen,  and  the  strait  between  Cuba 
and  Yucatan,  winds  round  the  Mexican  Gulf,  and  rushes  out  by  the  Bahama  Channel;  then 
spreading  out  to  a  greater  breadth,  it  sweeps  along  the  shores  of  the  United  States  to  New- 
foundland. At  this  point  it  is  deflected  south-eastward  by  a  southerly  current  from  Baffin's 
Bay,  and  piisaing  tlio  Azores  and  Canary  Isles,  returns  in  a  groat  measure  into  itself,  and 
repeats  its  circumgyration.  The  waters  of  the  North  Atlantic,  between  tho  latitudes  of  11° 
and  43°,  thus  form  a  continued  whirlpool,  completing  a  circuit  of  3800  leagues  in  about  31 
months.  Its  velocity  is  greater  as  the  depth  and  breadth  aro  less.  Its  breadth  is  51 
leagues  in  the  Bahama  Channel,  and  velocity  from  three  to  five  miles  an  hour.  In  its 
retrograde  course  from  longitude  50°  to  the  Azores  the  bremhh  is  160  leagues,  and  velocity 
from  seven  to  eight  miles  a-day.  An  insulated  expanse  of  almost  motionless  water,  140 
leagues  in  breadth,  occupies  the  interior  of  tho  circuit.  This  grand  current  sends  off  one 
branch  near  Newfoundland,  which  proceeds  north-eastward,  and  sometimes  deposits  tropical 
fniits  on  the  shores  of  the  British  isles  and  Norway.  In  ITTQ,  Dr.  Franklin  traced  this 
current,  by  means  of  its  high  temperature,  quite  across  the  Atlantic ;  and,  since  his  time, 
it  has  been  more  closely  traced,  especially  by  Captain  Sabine.  A  second  branch,  escaping 
at  the  Azores,  enters  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  and  forms  the  upper  and  middle  current  which 
prevails  in  that  strait  Another  branch  of  the  great  tropical  current  sets  along  the  coast  of 
Brazil,  and  at  length  passes  tlirough  the  Straits  of  Magellan.  In  the  Pacific  Ocean  the 
waters  have  a  general  westward  motion  from  the  coast  of  Peru,  which  must  he  partly  sup» 


m 


HCIKNCE  OF  aEOORAPIlV. 


^' 


Past  II. 


pliod  bv  the  lut-montionml  ciirrunt  after  iloulilintf  Cbin3  Hum.  The  cnrrpnt  fVuin  the 
coRMt  ur  I'oru  M  luiiM  |)orceptil)l<!,  till  it  vnUin  tliu  Indiutt  (kcan ;  wlirn,  Htri'iiKthcntvd  by  tlin 
iiiirthcrly  currontii  thorn,  it  fluwH  nioiitf  the  cuturn  cimat  of  AtVica,  atiil  (loiiliiox  Ihu  ('a|)«  iii' 
(i<Niil  Hupo,  in  a  rapid  utrcuin,  \M)  niiietf  bruud,  and  from  7°  to  8^  wariiKT  thiiii  tho  cunti- 
KUuuH  Hcu.  A  current  fruin  the  H<iuth  I'olu  tetii  along  the  wont  Mf  of  Nuw  Ilollniid  into 
llio  Day  of  Bengal :  it  m  mipixMod  that  other  portionit  of  tho  gcnurul  |)oliir  ciirrtMit  dvtioct 
tho  great  weiterly  current  northward,  atlor  it  Iiom  paaaed  theiouthurn  proniontorioH  of  Africo 
and  Aaiorica.  In  the  Northern  l)coun,  in  the  ipoco  compriHod  betwoi-n  Ort'cnlund  and  tlin 
coostti  of  Britain  and  Norwiiy,  and  between  I^abrador  and  HpitzbvrgiMi,  a.  gri^ut  body  of 
watera,  acted  on  by  three  or  four  latenil  currentit,  in  luppoaed  to  perform  a  M.-rDotual  circuit. 
Theao  watera  receive  their  iuipulne  eoHtward  Oom  a  branch  of  the  Oulf  Htroam,  which 
nuMoa  fVom  Newfoundland  ulong  tiie  north-woitt  cooatii  of  Scotland  and  Norway,  At  tho 
North  Capo  in  Lapland,  a  great  weaterly  current  tVuni  Nova  Zoinbla  tnrni  tho  watera  north- 
westward along  both  aidea  of  Hpitzlicrgun.  Beyond  thit)  iHland,  being  met  by  a  current  iVom 
the  pole,  they  turn  aouth-wcutward,  and  paaa  along  the  cuant  of  (irennland  to  Daviij'a  Htraita, 
where  they  are  deflected  tiuiithward  by  a  fourth  current  from  Duflin'H  Bay ;  and  having  re- 
turned to  Newfoundland,  reconmience  thnir  revolution.  Thua  two  great  whirlpoolH,  con- 
nected with  one  another,  touch  at  the  Bank  of  Newfoundland,  which  Mccina  to  bo  a  bar  cant 
up  by  their  conflicting  watera ;  and  revolving  inHippoMite  dircctiona,  occupy  four-flflha  of  tlic 
North  Atlantic.  The  aniall  current  which  euU  trom  the  Bay  of  Biacay  acroaa  the  mouth 
of  the  English  Channel,  and  through  St.  George'a  Channel,  Ih  moat  probably  a  branch  of  tho 
Gulf  Stream  which  had  come  oflT  at  the  Azorea.  Wore  other  parta  of  the  ocean  oa  minutely 
examined  aa  the  North  Atlantic,  it  ia  to  bo  expected  that  other  great  vortices  would  be 
diacoverod. 

Local  or  temporary  currents  are  produced  bv  winds,  the  discharge  of  rivers,  tho  melting 
af  ice,  &G.  In  general,  currents  which  do  not  duaucnd  to  a  great  depth  are  liable  to  change 
with  the  winda,  (nrticularly  when  they  blow  for  a  long  time  with  oqual  force,  oa  the  men- 
aooiu  do.  These  winds  give  by  turns  entirely  opiweite  directions  to  the  currents  which  pre- 
vail from  the  Maldivia  Inlands  to  Arabia  and  Zungucbar.  When  the  supply  of  fVcsh  water 
in  an  inland  sea  falls  short  of  what  in  carried  utT  by  evaporation,  itx  level  will  have  a  tend- 
ency to  fall  below  that  of  the  ocean;  and  hence  tho  water  will  flow  into  it  from  the  ocean. 
But,  as  formerly  noticed,  a  continual  influx  of  salt  water,  to  be  concentrated  by  evaporation, 
must  have  a  tendency  to  render  such  inland  hch  italter  than  the  ocean  ;  and  the  saltcr  water 
being  the  heavier,  naturally  endeavours  to  keep  under  the  lighter,  which  enters  from  tho 
ocean.  In  this  way,  it  forms  an  outward  current  in  the  bottom  of  the  entrance.  Such  is 
Haid  to  be  the  cose  witli  the  Mediterranean,  as  was  first  hinted  b^  Dr.  Hudson  in  1724.  The 
reverse  of  all  this  takes  plaoo  where  the  iiupply  of  fresh  water  m  an  inland  sea  exceeds  the 
evaporation,  as  is  the  case  with  the  Baltic,  tiie  Black  Sea,  and  the  Sea  of  Azof.  In  these 
the  outward  fresher  current  is  uppermost,  while  the  heavier  saltcr  current  enters  below. 
Since  the  mean  quantity  of  salt  brought  in  must  equal  what  is  carried  out,  if  no  permanent 
change  take  place  in  the  saltncss  of  tho  inland  sea,  it  follows  that  the  Salter  current  is  the 
rimaller  of  tho  two.  However,  the  weather  sometinios  produces  temporaty  exceptions  to  this 
general  rule.  The  current  which  flows  into  the  Mediterranean  by  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar 
sots  along  the  shores  of  Africa  and  Egypt  to  Syria,  where  it  turns  north-westward ;  and, 
joined  by  the  current  from  the  Diirdanclles,  it  makes  the  circuit  of  the  Adriatic,  then  of  the 
coasts  of  Tuscany,  France  and  Spain,  and  ultimately  returns  to  the  Straits,  In  the  Cattegat, 
a  northern  current  proceeds  from  the  Baltic  along  the  coasts  of  Sweden ;  and  anotlier,  a 
southern  current,  enters  into  the  Baltic  along  the  coasts  of  Jutland.  In  the  German  Sea, 
u  north  current  sets  from  the  Straits  of  Dover  along  the  continental  shore,  while  a  south 
current  comes  from  the  Orkneys  along  the  British  coast 

Whirlpools  or  eddies  are  produced  by  the  meeting  of  currents  which  come  in  difierent 
directions.  These,  by  encountering  in  a  narrow  passage,  turn,  as  it  were,  about  a  centre, 
which  is  sometimes  spiral,  till  they  unite  or  one  of  them  escapes.  The  most  celebrated 
whirlpools  are  the  Euripus  near  the  coast  of  Negropont,  the  UharybdiH  in  the  Straits  of 
Sicily,  and  the  Malstrocm  on  the  northern  coast  of  Norway.  Such  eddies  sometimes  aug- 
inent  their  force  by  means  of  two  contrary  high  tides,  or  by  the  action  of  the  winds.  In 
certain  states  of  the  tide,  some  of  tiiem  cease  altogether ;  but  they  do  not  fail  to  make  up  for 
this  afterwards.  Their  danger  to  navigation  is  well  known ;  but  is,  perhaps,  inferior  to  the 
dread  which  they  inspire.  They  draw  vcs-sols  along,  and  dash  thnin  against  the  rocks,  or 
engulf  them  in  the  eddies.  The  wrecks,  perhaps,  do  not  appear  till  some  time  afterwards ; 
or,  indeed,  they  may  never  be  seen  at  all,  Tliis  has  given  rise  to  the  notion  that  these  vortices 
have  no  bottom.  The  phenomena  and  dread  of  whirlpools  have  aflbrded  excellent  matter 
tor  marvellous  fables,  both  to  the  ancient  poets  and  more  modern  writers. 

The  tides  form  a  remarkable  phenomenon,  consisting  in  the  alternate  rise  and  fall  of 
the  surface  of  the  sea  twice  in  the  course  of  a  lunar  day,  or  at  a  mean  rate  every  12"  25° 
14".  The  instant  of  low  water  is  nearly,  but  not  exactly,  in  the  middle  of  tlie  interval 
between  two  liigli  waters.    Tho  tide  generally  takes  nine  or  ten  minutes  longer  in  ebbin;; 


■  m 


V- 


below, 
rinancnt 

is  the 

to  this 
ibraltav 
rd;  and, 
n  of  the 
attegat, 
lothcr,  a 
lan  Soa, 

a  Hiiuth 

different 
I  centre, 
jlebratcd 
Itraits  of 
TICS  au";- 
iiidf.    In 
ke  up  for 
or  to  the 
rocks,  or 
orwards ; 
\  vortices 
it  matter 

Id  fall  of 
12"  25° 
interval 

I  in  ebbinp. 


Book  II. 


v^ht 


IIYDFIOI/KJV. 


Wl 


than  flowinif.  At  the  now  ami  fUll  moon  tho  tidri  attain  tlie  irrrateiit  height,  and  thn  in. 
trrviil  iM'twcni  (wii  lii;r||  watem  in  limut,  vie.  Vi'  UY"  '.^4'.  At  the  minrtrrH  of  the  moon  the 
tidcHiiri'  the  h-nnt,  and  the  inturvulH  tho  Krentiitt,  viz.  Vi''  'M)"  7*.  I'he  time  of  hi|;h  water 
IN  moHily  rcvuhtted  hy  Iho  nmon ;  and  in  (jencrul,  in  the  open  mta,  in  from  two  to  thre*-  lurtirx 
allrr  thiit  plunct  jiiinm-n  the  nieridiun,  either  uliuvo  or  under  the  horizon.  On  the  NhorcN  of 
\urili'  ciiiiliiiiMitN,  and  where  tliere  itru  NhaHoWH  ami  otntniction*,  Kroat  irref^ularitieN  tiikc 
phicf  III  thiNreN|N'rt;  and  when  theNo  exceed  Nix  himrit,  it  may  »eem  iin  if  tho  hijrh  wnt<  r 
jircfi'di'd  the  iikioii'n  imHMaKe  over  the  meridian.  TiiouKh  tho  tideH  neem  to  be  regulated 
chierty  liy  the  iiiiH)n,  they  appenr  iiImi  in  a  certain  dojjree  to  bo  under  the  inlhience  of  tlio 
mill.  ThiiN,  at  the  Hvzi){ieH,  when  the  nuii  iind  moon  come  to  the  meridian  to|;ether,  the 
tiih'i",  I'Vi^ry  thiiijf  else  conxich'red,  are  the  hiifhrnt  At  the  qiiarterN,  when  the  Hiin  atnl 
moon  are  IN)°  drntant,  thn  tideH  are  leant.  The  former  aro  called  tho  upriiiff,  the  latter  the 
.  tifiip  tiileN,  The  lii|{heHt  of  the  nprinif  tideH  in  not  that  immediately  atVer  the  new  or  full 
nvH)ii ;  hut  In  hi  }(enenil  tho  third,  and  in  wime  caaoa  tho  fourth.  The  lowent  of  tho  nenp 
tiden  iM-ciirH  much  about  the  name  time  ntler  the  qimrteri.  Tho  total  mnpiitiide  of  the  tide 
in  eHtiinateil  by  the  diflbrence  between  tho  hoiffhta  of  hif|h  and  low  water.  The  hi^lier  the 
flood  tide  rlHex,  tho  lower  tho  ebb  tide  ({omirally  «inka  on  the  mmo  diiy.  At  Brent,  thn 
medium  Nprini;  tide  in  about  19  feet,  and  the  mean  neap  tide  about  0.  On  other  parts  of 
the  count  of  Prance  oppoHJte  to  England,  the  wateni,  lieing  confincil,  rine  to  a  (jreat  hei|;ht, 
and  do  so  on  liotli  »ideN  of  tho  Channel,  At  St.  Male  it  is  tVoni45toft()ft>et.  Nearly  im  hlRJi 
tidoH  occur  at  AnnapollH  Royal,  in  Nova  Hcotiii.  It  in  the  obNtruction  which  the  land  pr^'- 
Rents  to  the  niotioiiH  of  tho  waterH  wliicli  occaHJonii  tiden  of  any  conNenuence  at  all :  were 
tho  (flohe  entirely  covered  with  water,  the  tideo  would  be  very  insiijniticant.  ThuR,  m  the 
I'acilic  Ocean,  tlio  tiprin|;  tide  amnuntH  only  to  Ti  f<>et,  and  the  neap  to  from  2  to  2.!S  f(>et. 
On  the  other  hand,  a  free  coimnunicatiun  with  tho  ocean  is  indinpenHahie,  to  proilure  a  hiph 
tide.  ThuH,  in  inland  Hean,  the  tiden  aro  very  triflin)f,  bccaueio  the  luminarieH  act  nearly 
equally  over  the  whole  surface  at  the  same  time. 

The  height  of  thn  tide  increaaeH  oa  the  eun  or  moon  is  nearer  the  earth,  but  in  a  higher 
ratio.  The  riHO  of  the  tides  is  likewise  preater  when  the  sun  or  moon  is  in  the  eiiiiator,  and 
less  aH  they  decline  from  it  When  tho  observer  and  thn  moon  are  on  the  same  Me  of  the 
C(iuator,  tho  tide  which  happens  when  the  moon  ia  above  the  horizon  \a  greater  thnn  when 
she  is  liclow  it.  Tho  reverse  occurs  when  the  observer  and  tho  moon  are  on  oppowite  pidcti 
of  the  eijiiator.  If  the  tides  be  considered  relatively  to  the  whole  globe  and  to  the  open  Ken. 
it  appears  thut  there  isa  meridian  alxiut  IM)"  eastward  of  tlie  moon,  where  it  is  always  high 
water,  both  in  the  hemisphere  where  the  moon  is  and  in  the  opposite.  On  the  we,it  cide  o!" 
this  circle  the  tide  is  flowing;  on  the  cast  it  is  ebbing;  and  on  the  meridian,  whicli  is  iit 
right  angles  to  the  same,  it  is  everywhere  low  water.  These  meridian  circles  move  west- 
ward, keeping  nearly  at  the  same  distance  from  tho  m(X)n  :  onlv  approaching  nearer  to  her 
when  new  or  full,  and  withdrawing  at  the  quarters.  In  high  latitudes  tho  tides  are  \'ery 
inconsiderable.  It  is  prolmble  that  at  the  poles  there  are  no  diurnal  tides ;  but  there  is  i-iaw 
ground  tor  thinking  that  the  water  will  rise  higher  at  tho  pole  to  which  the  luminaries  are 
at  any  time  nearest,  than  at  tho  opposite. 

Ti„.  r..o..(  wave  which  f  illows  tho  moon  as  aliove  described,  and  constitutes  the  tide,  is 
to  be  considered  as  an  undulation  or  reciprocation  of  the  waters  of  the  ocean ;  in  which 
tJiere  is,  excent  when  it  passes  over  shallows  or  approaches  thn  shore,  very  little  progressive 
motion.  In  all  this  wo  ore  as  yet  overlooking  the  operation  of  local  causes,  winds,  currents, 
&.C.,  liy  which  these  general  laws  are  mmlilied,  overruled,  or  even  reversed.  Most  people 
find  little  ditficulty  in  conceiving  how  the  waters  should  rise  on  tho  side  of  tho  globe  which 
is  n(!.\t  the  nuxm ;  but  there  can  scarcely  be  a  harder  task  than  bringing  many  to  aeo  why 
the.  waU'TR  xhoiild  at  the  name  lime  rise  on  the  side  which  is  turned  from  the  moon.  We 
must,  however,  confine  ourselves  to  a  very  brief  and  palpable  explanation.  The  force  by 
which  the  moon  draws  any  particle  of  our  glolw  towards  her  is  greater  when  it  is  nearer  to 
ner,  and  less  when  more  remote.  The  force,  therefore,  with  which  the  moon  attracts  tho 
particles  on  the  side  nearest  her  ia  greater  than  the  average  force  which  she  exerts  on  the 
whol(>  globe.  These  particles,  therefore,  rise  or  endeavour  tf^  come  near  the  moon.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  force  by  which  the  moon  draws  the  particles  which  are  farthest  from  her 
Doing  less  than  the  average  force,  these  particles  endeavour  to  recede  from  the  nuxjn,  and  in 
80  doing  they  also  recede  from  the  earth's  centre ;  that  is,  they  rise  higher  than  the  general 
level.  The  action  of  the  sun  is  similar  to  that  of  the  moon ;  but  his  being  almost  four 
liundred  times  as  distant,  greatly  diminishes  his  effect.  At  the  new  and  full  moon  the 
luminaries  act  together.  an<l  (iroduce  sprinff  tides.  The  highest  of  all  are  a  little  after  the 
autunmal,  and  before  the  vernal,  equinox  ;  and  the  least  spring  tides  occur  a  little  after  the 
solstices.  At  the  <iuarters  of  tho  moon  her  action  is  opposed  by  tliat  of  the  sun,  and  there- 
fore itifip  tiiles  !ire  the  result. 

Tho  time  of  liiirh  water  deserves  consideration.  The  precedin?  is  suflicient  to  show  that 
lliei)lioMninena  (iftiie  tiih^s  an;  etlects  that  miirht  l)eexp«'cted  from  thn  principle  of  attrarlion 
or  ii'r:ivit.atioii;  l)iil  since  liie  waters  iiccessirily  occupy  some  time  in  moving  from  one 


*/ 


lee 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY, 


Pabt  IL 


I'll 


it 


ill!!        I 


place  to  another,  this  is  tlic  reason  why  the  high  water  occurs,  not  when  the  moon  is  on  tiie 
meridian,  but  from  two  to  tliree  lioiirs  uftorwards.  /or  the  same  reason,  wlien  the  sun  is 
before  or  west  of  the  moon,  he  hastens  the  rise  of  the  tide ;  and  when  behind  her,  he  retards 
it.  Considerable  extent  of  surface  is  necessary,  in  order  that  the  sea  should  be  sensibly  . 
affected  by  the  action  of  the  sun  and  moon ;  for  it  is  only  by  the  inequalitv  of  such  action 
on  different  parts  ofthe  mass  of  waters  that  their  level  is  disturbed.  In  imrrow  seas,  and 
on  bhores  far  from  the  main  body  of  the  water,  the  tides  are  not  caused  by  the  direct  action 
of  the  sun  and  moon,  but  are  waves  propagated  from  the  great  diurnal  undulation.  Of  thi;^ 
the  tides  on  tlie  coast  of  Britain,  and  in  the  German  sea,  are  remarkable  examples.  The 
high  water  transmitted  from  the  tide  in  the  Atlantic  reaches  Ushant  between  three  and  four 
hours  atler  the  moon  has  passed  the  meridian,  and  its  ridge  stretches  north-west,  so  as  to  fall 
a  little  south  of  the  coast  of  Ireland.  This  wave  soon  after  divides  itself  into  three  branches ; 
one  passing  up  the  British  Channel,  another  ranging  along  the  west  side  of  Ireland  and 
Scotland,  and  tiie  third  entering  the  Irish  Channel.  The  first  of  these  flows  at  the  rate  of 
about  TiO  mil(!s  an  hour,  so  as  to  pass  through  the  Straits  of  Dover,  and  to  reach  the  Nore 
about  midnight  at  the  time  of  spring  tide.  The  second  being  in  a  more  open  sea,  moves 
more  rapidly,  reaching  the  north  of  Ireland  by  six  p.  m.  ;  about  nine  it  has  got  to  the  Ork- 
neys, and  forms  a  wave  or  ridge  btretching  due  north ;  at  twelve  the  summit  of  the  same 
wave  extends  from  the  coast  of  Buchan  eastward  tc  the  Naze  of  Norway ;  and  in  twelve 
hours  more  it  passes  southward  through  the  German  Sea  and  reaches  the  Nore,  where  it 
meets  the  morning  tide  that  lotl  the  mouth  of  the  Channel  only  eight  Iiours  before.  Thus, 
these  two  tides  travel  round  Britain  in  28  hours ;  in  which  time  the  primitive  tide  has  gone 
quite  round  the  globe,  and  nearly  45  degrees  more.  Various  curious  anomalies  are  observed 
in  the  tides  of  particular  places :  such  as  their  ceasing  altogether  for  a  day  or  two,  at  a 
certain  age  of  the  moon ;  while  at  other  times  they  become  considerable,  though  perhaps 
occurring  only  once  a  day  It  is  said  that  on  some  coasts  there  is  never  more  than  one 
tide  in  the  course  of  a  lunar  day,  which  is  probably  owing  to  some  oversight :  but  it  may  bo 
shown  from  theory,  that  if  the  observer's  distance  from  the  pole  be  equal  to  the  moon's 
declination,  he  will  see  but  one  tide  in  tl^e  day.  Small  tides  occur  six  times  a  day  on  the 
shore  of  the  Isle  of  Negropont.* 

Tlie  agency  of  the  tides  is  probably  very  extensive  in  many  of  the  operations  of  nature, 
and  in  particular  in  those  which  regard  geology.  The  late  Professor  Robison  suggested  how 
experiments  might  be  made  to  determine  the  mean  density  of  the  globe,  from  the  temporary 
cliange  which  is  undoubtedly  caused  on  the  directio:-.  of  gravity  by  the  great  body  of  water 
brougiit  to  Annapolis  Royal,  and  then  withdrawn  by  the  stream  tides. 

Sect.  II. — Springs, 

Springs  are  composed  of  the  waters  issuing  from  crevices  in  the  earth.  Of  such  there 
are  great  varieties.  Some  of  the  principal  distinctions,  independently  of  the  qualities  of 
their  waters,  are, — temporary  springs,  which  only  flow  during  a  certain  season  of  the  year ; 
perennial,  which  always  run ;  intvrmiitinfr,  which  alternately  run  and  cease,  either  wholly 
or  in  part,  at  short  intervals;  periodical,  which  flow  and  ebb  regularly  at  particular  periods; 
spouting,  which  issue  with  considerable  force,  forming,  perhaps,  a  jet  of  water.  The  mag- 
nitude of  springs  passes  through  every  gradation,  from  being  scarcely  perceptible,  to  con- 
siderable rivulets.  They  have,  likewiise,  a  wide  range  of  temperature;  but  necessarily 
limited  between  the  freezing  and  boiling  points.  It  is  most  usual  for  springs  which  are 
large,  and  which  appear  to  is^'ue  from  a  considerable  depth,  to  have  nearly  the  mean  tempe- 
rature of  the  place ;  and  in  some  instances  the  temperature  is  remarkably  steady, — not  the 
slightest  variation  being  perceptible  in  the  course  of  the  year.  Hence  apparently,  or  rela- 
tively to  the  air,  they  are  colder  in  summer  and  hotter  in  winter.  It  is,  no  doubt,  this  con- 
trast which  has  given  rise  to  the  popular  notion,  that  good  springs  are  really  colder  in  sum- 
mer and  hotter  in  winter.  Nothing  is  more  common  than  to  see  a  well  smoking  during 
intense  frost,  which  shows  nothing  of  the  kind  during  warm  weather;  but  it  does  not  require 
a  really  high  temperature  to  exhibit  such  an  appearance,  but  only  a  temperature  not  so  low- 
as  that  of  the  air.  The  most  that  any  spring  keeps  within  the  range  of  both  seasons,  is  to 
remain  always  at  one  temperature.  The  greater  number  of  the  smaller  springs,  however, 
becoino  a  little  wo'-mcr  in  summer  and  colder  in  winter;  particularly  those  which  come 
along  for  a  considerable  way  at  a  small  depth  under  ground.  By  so  doing,  they  participate 
ill  the  temperature  of  the  surface,  which  varies  with  the  season :  but  all  springs  preserve  a 
greater  warmtli  than  the  mean  temperature  of  winter ;  and,  excepting  the  thermal  or  hot 
tiprinirs,  tjicy  do  not  reach  the  mean  heat  of  summer. 

Hot  springs  are  tliose  which  preserve  a  heat  above  the  mean  temperature  of  the  place. 
Such  iLs  are  merely  tepid  are  common  in  most  countries,  especially  in  mines.  Those  having 
II  c<)ni<i(lorul)ly  higlier  tempt^rature  are  less  frc(iucntly  met  with,  and  mostly  in  volcanic  dis- 
tricts ;  but  some  of  tlicm  reach  the  boiling  point,  or  are  actually  boiling  and  spouting  forth 


*  Vide  Bteveii«i>n°« nruat  work  nn  llic  Bell-Rock  I.iKlit-liousR,  Tor  nbBervntionB  on  Tides  in  the  Britiah  Man 


'1' 


BooeIL 


HYDROLOGY. 


109 


br  in  sum- 


i  the  place, 
lose  having 
Llcanic  dis- 
futing  forth 

litiali  aaal 


with  great  violence,  which  indicates  tlieir  having  had  a  still  higher  temperature  before  get- 
ting vent  The  most  remarkable  are  tiie  hot  springs  of  Iceland,  some  of  which  are  con- 
sidered among  the  greatest  wonders  of  the  world.  They  are  believed  to  be  more  abundant 
in  Iceland  tlian  in  any  other  country.  But  the  interest  which  the  number  and  variety  of 
these  hot  springs  excites  in  a  person  who  never  saw  any  thing  similar,  is  quickly  lost  in  the 
feelings  which  are  roused  on  beholding  the  magnificent  and  tremendous  explosions  of  the 
Geysers,  as  they  are  called.  Besides  the  principal  fountains,  there  is  a  great  number  of 
boiling  springs,  cavities  full  of  hot  water,  and  several  from  which  steam  issues.  There  are 
also  some  places  full  of  boiling  mud  of  gray  and  red  colours.  The  silicious  depositions  of 
the  waters  of  the  Great  Geyser  have  formed  for  it  a  basin  56  feet  in  diameter  in  one  direction, 
and  46  in  the  other ;  a  projection  from  one  side  causing  it  to  deviate  from  the  perfect  circle. 
In  the  centre  of  this  boisin  is  a  cylindrical  pit  or  shan  10  feet  in  diameter.  Through  this 
the  hot  water  rises  gradually,  filling  it  and  the  basin,  after  wliich  it  runs  over  in  small  quan- 
tities. At  intervals  of  some  hours,  when  the  basin  is  full,  explosions  are  heard  from  below, 
like  the  report  of  distant  cannon,  and  at  tlie  same  time  a  tremulous  motion  of  the  ground  is 
felt  all  around  the  basin :  immediately  the  water  rises  in  a  mass  from  the  pit,  and  sinking 
again,  causes  the  water  in  the  basin  to  be  agitated  and  to  overflow :  another  and  a  stronger 
propulsion  follows,  and  clouds  of  vapour  ascend.  At  length,  strong  explosions 'take  place, 
and,  large  quantities  of  steam  escaping,  the  water  is  thrown  to  a  height  of  from  30  to  00 
feet,  and  even  to  200  or  300  feet.  The  steam,  coming  into  contact  with  the  cold  air  of  that 
climate,  is  condensed  into  thick  clouds,  which  are  tossed  and  rolled  with  great  rapidity ;  the 
whole  forming  a  very  singular  and  magnificent  exhibition.  After  continuing  for  some  time, 
tliO  explosions  cease,  when  the  basin  and  pit  are  found  empty.  Bursts  of  steam  sometimes 
take  place,  when  the  water  is  rising,  without  any  warning  by  subterraneous  noise.  These 
phenomena  seem  to  be  occasioned  by  steam  finding  its  way  from  below  into  cavities,  where 
part  of  it  is  condensed  into  water,  which  water  is  at  length  forced  out  by  the  action  of  the 
steam  under  high  pressure.  The  New  Geyser  is  somewhat  smaller  tlian  the  other.  There 
are  many  hot  springs  of  less  note  in  Iceland ;  but  perhaps  the  most  curious  of  the  whole  is 
the  Tunguhver.  Among  a  great  number  of  boiling  springs  are  two  cavities,  within  a  yard 
of  each  otlier,  fi-om  which  the  water  spouts  alternately :  while  fironi  one  the  water  is  tlirown 
about  ten  feet  high  in  a  narrow  jet,  the  other  cavity  is  full  of  water  boiling  violently.  This 
jet  continues  about  four  minutes,  and  then  subsides ;  when  the  water  from  the  other  imme- 
diately rises,  in  a  thicker  column,  to  the  height  of  three  or  four  feet.  This  continues  about 
three  minutes ;  when  it  sinks  and  the  other  rises,  and  so  on  alternately. 

The  natural  jets  of  water,  called  spouting  springs,  only  difler  from  the  rest  in  comir 
down  sonie  oloee  canal  from  a  fouLlainon  a  higher  level.     Being  thus  closely  confined,  they 
burst  forth  in  consequence  of  the  pressure,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  artificial  spouting  foun- 
tains do.* 

Intermitting  fountains  have  sometimes  been  viewed  by  the  multitude  as  of  a  miraculous 
nature.  One  at  Como,  in  Italy,  rises  and  falls  every  hour:  another  at  Colmars,  in 
Provence,  rises  eight  times  as  often.  At  Fronzanches,  in  Languedoc,  one  has  a  period  of 
24  hours  15  minutes.  England  aflbrds  many  examples  of  such  springs;  particularly  those 
on  the  sea  coast,  whose  waters  rise  and  fall  witli  the  pressure  of  the  tides.  The  town  of 
Tideswell,  in  Derbyshire,  is  named  from  a  noted  fountain  of  this  sort  which  once  flowed 
there,  but  has  now  ceased  to  observe  its  tides.  The  principles  on  which  intermitting  springs 
depend  are  attempted  to  be  explained  in  every  popular  treatise  on  hydrostatics  and 
hydraulics.f 

Various  have  been  the  opinions  of  philosophers  concerning  the  origin  of  springs.  Some 
suppose  tliat  sea  water  is  convoyed  through  subterraneous  ducta  or  canals  to  the  places 
where  the  springs  flow  out  of  tlie  earth :  but  in  this  way  fresh-water  springs  could  not  be 
produced  ;  because  sea  water  cannot  be  freed  from  its  salt  by  filtration.  It  is,  besides,  dif- 
ficult to  conceive  how  tiie  water  should  filter  vpwards.  In  order  to  overcome  these  objec- 
tions, recourse  has  been  had  to  subterranean  heat,  by  which  the  water  is  conceived  to  rise 
upwards  in  vajwur  through  certain  fissures  and  cavities  of  the  mountains  where  it  is  col- 
lected, and  issues  forth,  as  we  see,  in  springs.  Others  vory  the  iiypothesis  a  little,  by  saying 
that  the  sea  water  is  raised  tlirough  tiie  mountains  by  capillary  action ;  but  here  we  ought 
still  to  liave  salt  springs ;  and  it  has  been  further  objected  that  a  current  cannot  be  produced 
by  capillary  action. 

Tlio  most  prol)ablo  theory  is  that  proposed  by  Dr.  Ilalley,  who  maintained  that  springs 
arc  nothing  iiioro  than  ii  part  of  tlie  water  which  fills  on  higher  ground  filtrating  through, 
and  nflorwards  issuing  forth  at  a  lower  level.  This,  it  is  true,  does  not  at  first  sight  appea 
to  account  for  the  permanent  flow  of  springs  during  dry  weather.  To  complete  the  theory 
it  is  supixisod  that  the  water  at  fii-st  collects  in  large  subterranean  cavities,  from  which  it 
afterwards  filtrates  slowly,  and  passps  towards  the  springs.     The  disposition  of  the  rocks  in 


■»  'i't 


*  Vide  Ed.  Nkw  riiil.  Journal,  vol.  ix.  for  oliscrvations  on  apouting  upringa  and  Artesian  ivells. 
t  Vide  Ed.  NVvv  Pliil.  Journal,  vol.  viii.  for  an  account  of  intermitting  springs. 


^^■^\ 


»  .      .,!*• 


*«: 


■JOO 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPIIV. 


pAiir  U. 


strata  contributes  much  to  the  collecting  of  the  waters  under  the  surfiice,  ami  conveyir.g 
them  without  waste,  as  if  in  clowi  pipes,  till  they  ure  united  in  fountain!^,  lukos,  rivers 
dtc.  Dr.  Halley  showed  that  the  evaporation  from  the  sea  alone  is  a  sufficient  supply  for 
all  the  waters  that  the  rivers  carry  into  it.  His  calculation  was  founded  on  a  very  complex 
view  of  the  subject,  and  liable  to  several  objections.  Buifon  took  a  more  Hinii>lo  view  of 
.the  matter,  by  selecting  one  of  those  lakes  that  send  out  no  strenm  to  the  ocean,  and  show- 
ing that  tlio  probable  evaporation  from  the  suriuce  of  the  lake  is  equal  to  all  the  water  car- 
ried into  it. 

The  thcorj'  of  hot  springs  is  deserving  of  consideration.  It  has  been  ascertained  that  the 
greater  number  of  warm  and  hot  springs  occur  in  volcanic  countries — wliere  volcanoes  for- 
merly burnt  or  are  still  in  a  state  of  activity  ;  and  of  those  that  do  not  occur  in  volcanic  dis- 
tricts, some  arc  associated  with  trap  and  granite  rocks,  to  which  most  geologists  assign  an 
igneous  origin.  Hence  it  is  inferred  that  they  owe  their  temperature  to  the  same  cause  or 
causes  as  gave  rise  to  volcanic  and  ignigenous  rocks.  That  the  heat  of  such  springs  is 
oilen  connected  with  volcanic  action  cannot  admit  of  doubt;  for,  from  the  Geyser  of  Iceland, 
the  transition  is  almost  unintenupted  to  the  hot  springs  in  the  dormant  volcano  of  the 
island  of  Ischia,  and  from  thence  to  those  connected  witii  the  process  which  formerly  took 
place  in  the  now  extinct  volcanoes  of  Hungary  and  Auvergne.  The  hot  and  warm  springs 
of  Bath  and  Bristol,  however,  occur  in  a  limestone  country  wherr  10  igneous  rocks  are  visi- 
ble ;  but  these  may  be  under  the  limcs^tone.  This  opinion  is  fui  .her  countenanced  by  the 
fact  that  many  of  tlie  hot  springs  met  with  in  primitive,  and  also  in  secondary,  formations, 
occur  in  spots  where  the  strata  afipear  to  have  been  disturbed  by  igneous  agency.  Of  this 
there  is  a  striking  example  at  the  hot  springs  of  Carlsbad  in  Bohemia  ;  the  hot  springs  of 
Clifton  issue  from  a  limestone  which  appears,  at  an  early  period,  to  have  been  disturbed  by 
igneoi'i  action :  the  hot  springs  of  Pfefl'ers,  in  tlie  Grisons,  gush  from  a  ravine  from  400  to 
654  feet  in  depth,  and  so  perpendicular  that  the  provisions  required  for  the  inmates  of  tlie 
bath  are  lowered  from  ropes  attached  to  the  summit  of  the  cliff,  and  so  narrow  that  the  rocks 
in  some  places  touch  overhead,  and  nowhere,  perhaps,  are  more  than  30  feet  apart.  The 
most  obvious  explanation  of  such  a  phenomenon  is  to  be  found  in  some  convulsion  of  nature, 
such  as  that  caused  by  an  earthquake,  or  the  sudden  elevation  of  a  large  tract  of  country. 
The  other  hot  springs  in  Switzerland  appear  in  circumstances  for  the  most  part  similar. 
Those  of  Weissenburg,  in  tlie  canton  of  Berne,  rise  out  of  a  gorge  of  the  same  kind  ns  that 
of  Pfeflers  :  those  of  Ijouechi  appear  at  the  foot  of  the  mural  precipice  of  the  Gemini :  whilst 
the  spring  of  Baden,  in  tlie  canton  of  Argovia,  from  which  the  only  remaining  one,  that  of 
Schinzatii,  is  not  far  removed,  lies  near  the  [wint  where,  in  consequence  of  the  two  moun- 
tains of  Staflelegg  and  Lagern  having  been  severed  asunder  by  .some  great  convulsion,  the 
waters  of  the  Rhine  and  of  the  other  rivers, — which  appear  to  have  once  constituted  a  single 
lake  extending  from  Coiro  in  the  Grisons  to  tliis  mountain  ridge,  including  the  lakes  of 
Zurich  and  of  Wallenstailt,  with  the  intermediate  country, — in  one  continuous  sheet  of 
water,  flowed  off  by  the  channel  now  taken  by  one  of  the  rivers,  the  Limmat  alone.  Thus 
the  Rhine,  says  Dr.  Daub<Miy,  may  be  supposed  to  owe  its  original  direction  to  tiie  event 
which  produced  one  hot  spring,  and  its  present  course  to  that  which  occasioned  another. 

Some  springs  apparently  emit  inflammable  matter;  for  when  a  light  is  applied,  it  seems 
to  take  Are  like  ardent  spirits.  But  it  is  not  so  much  the  water  that  is  inflammable,  as  some 
gas  which  it  exhales,  or  bituminous  matter  floating  on  ila  surface. 

Springs  in  the  sea.  Powerfiil  springs  are  occasionally  met  with  boiling  up  in  the  bottom 
of  the  sea,  so  as,  in  some  instances,  to  rise  above  the  surtiice.  From  some  of  them  naviga- 
tors can  draw  up  fresh  water  fit  for  taking  on  board  as  store.  The  natives,  in  certain  places, 
know  where  to  dive  under  the  surface  of  the  sea  for  fresh  water ;  which,  perliaps,  may  be 
the  only  source  whence  they  could  obtain  it. 

Mineral  waters,  and  the  quantity  of  matter  they  deposit.  Springs  in  their  course  through 
strata  convoy  along  with  them  portions  of  the  strata,  not  only  from  higher  to  lower  situa- 
tions, but  also  from  below  npwards.  They  contain  salts,  earths,  acids,  metals,  and  inflam- 
mable matters,  of  very  varied  nature:  the  variety  depending  sometimes  on  the  nature  of  the 
strata  through  which  they  pass ;  at  other  times,  as  in  those  that  rise  upwavds  in  \-olcanic 
districts,  on  igneous  agency.  Holfman  remarks,  that  when  warm  and  hot  springs,  and 
those  richly  impregnated  with  mineral  matters,  occur  in  countries  at  a  distance  from  active 
and  extinct  volcanoes,  we  observe  the  strata  from  which  they  issue  to  be  much  deranged, 
thus  intimating  that  formerly  earthquakes  and  other  igneous  agencies  were  ut  work  in  the 
district*  where  these  springs  now  flow.  The  quantity  of  mineral  water  brought  from  the 
interior  of  the  earth  by  springs  is  very  great;  whether  that  matter  is  ab.Kliactcil  from  tiio 
stratT  traversed  by  the  springs,  or  is  brought  by  them  from  a  great  depth,  iis  in  volcanic 
countries.  Blven  some  ciilcan-ous  springs  in  Britain  deposit  annually  vast  quantities  of  cal- 
careous tuffii  and  ealcanviiis  sinter.  In  the  neighboHrlioo<l  of  Edinburgh  there  are  great 
calcare{,ns  deposits  from  calcareous  sjirings  that  flow  through  limestone  rocks ;  and  appear- 
ances of  the  same  description  abound  around  all  the  calcareous  springs  in  Enu'land.  Near 
to  Clermont,  in  France,  some  calcareous  springs,  rising  througli  toc\i.AO^ granite  and  g%ieiss. 


•*• 


W'^'l\ 


"  rr^    ^ 


^^ 


Book  IL 


HYDROLOGY. 


»1 


have  formed  a  mound  or  iiilt  240  feet  high.  Many  of  tlie  great  edifices  in  Rome  are  huilt 
of  calcareous  deposits  from  calcareous  springs.  The  hot  springs  of  Carlsbad  annually  deposit 
much  calcareous  tufTu  and  sinter.  Other  springs,  as  the  hot  springs  in  Iceland  and  in  the 
Azores,  dc|iosit  unnuully  great  quantities  of  silica.  Salt  springs  also  bring  from  the  Ulterior 
of  the  earth,  and  spread  over  tlieir  vicinity,  much  salt,  which  salt  may  be  derived  from  the 
saline  clays  and  salt  beds  through  which  they  pass;  in  other  instances  the  salt  may  come 
from  a  grciit  depth  as  an  igneous  production. 

Chemical  nature  of  spring  waters.  The  water  of  springs,  when  very  pure,  is  named 
foft ;  if  iujprbgnated  wiUi  calcareous  suits,  hard ;  and  if  impregnated  with  various  mineral 
matters,  mineral.  It  was  long  believed  tltat  hard  water  was  unfit  for  brewing  and  diitilla- 
tion ;  and  hence  soil  water  was  often  procured  for  these  operations,  at  great  expense ;  but  it 
is  now  found  that  water  which  owes  its  hardness  to  lime  is  the  most  proper  of  all  tor  tlie 
fermentation  of  worts.  A  time  will,  however,  be  necessary  to  remove  the  popular  prejudice 
in  favour  of  soft  water.  We  have,  in  the  Table  on  the  following  page,  given  a  view  of  the 
composition  of  the  most  celebrated  mineral  springs. 

According  to  some  chemists,  the  salts  found  by  chemical  analysis  in  springs  are  considered 
as  existing  in  the  waters ;  the  lute  Dr.  Murray  considers  the  compound  existing  before  con- 
centration of  the  water  as,  in  all  cases,  the  most  soluble  salts  that  can  be  formed  out  of  the 
ingredients  present.  But,  ui  reality,  so  far  from  our  having  determined  in  any  given  case 
the  nature  of  the  existing  combinations  between  tlie  ingredients,  we  are  ignorant  even  of 
any  method  by  which  such  knowledge  is  attainable.  If,  says  Berzelius,  tlie  physician 
inquires  of  the  chemist,  what  the  proportion  these  salts  bear  to  each  other  in  any  given  case 
may  be,  the  latter  must  reply,  that  this  is  a  question  as  to  which  we  are  at  present  entirely 
in  the  dark ;  as  tlie  proportion  depends  not  only  on  the  quantity  of  acids  and  bases  present, 
which  admits  being  ascertained,  but  also  on  the  relative  force  of  affinity  subsisting  iJetween 
tlie  one  and  the  other,  for  determining  which  we  have  as  yet  no  data  whatever. 

Sect.  III. — Lakes. 

A  lake  is  a  body  of  water  which  does  not  communicate  with  the  ocean.  Independently 
of  the  qualities  of  their  waters,  lakes  are  distinguished  into  several  sorts : — 1.  Those  which 
receive  streams  of  water,  and  have  an  outlet,  are  tlie  class  of  lakes  best  known.  It  is  rare 
for  a  lake  to  give  rise  to  more  than  one  river,  which  oflcn  bears  the  name  of  the  principal 
stream  whicii  flows  into  the  lake,  though  tlie  two  rivers  may  differ  materially  in  every 
respect.  2.  Those  which  receive  streams  of  water,  and  often  great  rivers,  without  having 
any  visible  outlet.  This  class  is  less  numerous  than  the  former,  and  is  confined  to  warm 
climates ;  but  the  largest  of  all  lakes,  the  Caspian  Sea,  belongs  to  it.  3.  Those  whicli 
receive  no  running  water,  but  have  an  outlet, — circumstances  which  imply  that  such  lakes 
are  fed  with  springs  from  beneath,  or  with  small  imperceptible  streams  from  the  adjacent 
land.  4.  Those  which  receive  no  running  water,  and  have  no  visible  outlet.  Lakes  of  this 
class,  exclusive  of  marshes,  are  for  the  most  part  small,  and  merit  little  attention.  Without 
regarding  the  foregoing  distinctions,  some  writers  subtlivide  lakes  into  two  kinds,  according 
to  the  general  character  of  the  surface  in  which  their  basins  ore  situated :  viz.  those  which 
are  formed  in  deep  hollows  between  the  ridges  or  at  the  foot  of  mountains,  and  fed  by 
springs  or  torrents ;  and  tliosc  whicii  are  formed  in  low  and  level  countries  for  want  of  a 
general  declivity,  or  dammed  up  by  a  mere  accumulation  of  alluvial  matter. 

Subterranean  lakes  form  a  class  of  lakes  diflering  remarkably  from  all  the  preceding,  and 
are  bodies  of  water  contained  in  cavities  quite  covered  over  by  earthy  strata.  It  is  only 
when  such  cavities  are  laid  open  by  earthquakes,  by  the  falling  asunder  of  mountains,  by  the 
action  of  the  weather  or  of  rivers,  by  the  operations  of  mining,  or  when  the  roof  falls  in, 
that  their  situation  becomes  known.  But  they  are  probably  very  numerous,  though  perhaps 
often  of  small  size.  It  is  not  easy  to  account  for  the  permanent  and  uniform  flow  of  many 
springs  on  any  otiior  supiMsitioii.  Some  of  them  appear  to  give  rise  to  rivers,  while  others 
are  known  to  receive  very  considerable  streams  which  lose  themselves  in  the  interior.  Such 
are  the  numerous  cavities  of  the  Julian  Alps.  It  is  to  similar  reservoirs  that  wo  must  attri- 
bute the  periodical  disappearance  of  certain  lakes  situated  above  ground.  There  are  some 
caverns  in  Norway  which  affonl  a  passa^je  to  rapid  currents  of  woter,  as  appears  from  the 
sound  heard  through  their  roofs.  It  is  natural  to  suppose  that  many  strcnins,  finding  no 
readier  outlet,  flow  into  subterranean  cavities,  are  absorbed  by  the  earth,  or  discharge  them- 
selves under  ground  into  the  sea.  In  this  way  may  be  explained  the  origin  of  those  springs 
of  fresh  water  that  are  to  be  seen  spouting  up  even  in  the  midst  of  the  waves  of  the  ocean. 
The  waters  thrown  up  by  volcanoes,  the  sudden  and  terrible  inundation  of  mines,  the  number 
of  rivers  which  disappear,  the  mountains  w-hich  are  suddenly  engulfed  in  tlic  bosom  of  new 
lakes, — all  these  facts  leave  no  doubt  of  the  existence  of  extensive  subterranoan  cavities 
containing  largo  bodies  of  water.  Tlie  digging  of  wells  has  supplied  a  fact  still  more  inter- 
esting to  pliysical  geography.  It  oppears  that  there  are  lakes,  or  ratlier  sheets  of  water, 
which  extend  under  ground  to  considerable  distJinces.  In  digging  wells  near  Aire,  in  the 
province  of  Artoin,  tliey  always  come  to  a  cluvey  bed ;  which  being  pierced,  the  water  gushes 

Vol.  L  '  2  A 


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Book  II. 


HYDROLOGY. 


203 


forth  in  largo  bubblcei,  and  forms  pomiuneiit  t>priiiga.  In  tliu  coimlry  of  Mtxlena,  \yo  And 
every  wliere,  iit  the  doptli  of  twenty  yards,  u  bod  of  clay  live  Itiot  thick;  wliich  being  pierced, 
the  water  t<|x>iit8  up  with  considerable  force — indicating  that  it  i.s  connected  with  a  reservoir 
which  stjinds  at  o  higher  level.  There  is  a  district  in  the  interior  of  Algiers,  where  the 
inhabitants,  after  digging  to  a  depth  of  about  200  fathoms,  invariably  come  to  nater,  wliich 
flows  up  in  such  abundance  that  they  call  it  tlie  subterranean  sea. 

Lakes  wliich  receive  niucli  water,  but  have  no  outlet,  were  believed  necessarily  to  com- 
municate with  tlie  ocean  by  some  subterraneous  channel.  The  great  distance  of  some  of 
them  troin  the  ocean  seemed  to  stand  in  the  way  of  such  an  explanation ;  and  doubts  might 
still  have  remained,  were  it  not  for  the  discoveiy  of  the  remarkable  fact,  that  home  of  the 
principal  lakes  of  this  description  have  their  surfaces  far  d(!pressed  below  the  level  of  the 
ocean.  Thus  the  surface  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  which  i.s  the  largest  known  lake,  and  without 
an  outlet,  was  found  by  Engelhardt  and  Parrot  to  be  334  feet  beneath  the  level  of  the  Black 
Sea.  A  similar  depression  has  been  iscertuincd  of  the  level  of  the  tiimous  Bead  Sea,  in 
Judea,  which  is  also  a  lake  without  an  outlet.  Its  surface  is  below  that  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean in  its  neighbourhood,  and  consequently  still  farther  below  the  higher  level  of  the  Red 
Sea.  The  true  explanation  as  to  the  consumption  of  the  waters  of  such  lakes  seems  to  bo, 
tliat  it  is  carried  off  by  evaporation.  The  climates  in  which  the  two  last-mentioned  are 
situated  accord  well  with  this  supposition.  The  level  of  these  lakes,  liowever,  varies  with 
the  weather,  and  with  the  abundance  or  scarcity  of  the  waters  discharged  into  them  by  rivers 
at  particular  seasons  of  the  year.  The  variation  in  the  licight  of  the  Caspian  Sea  is  from 
four  to  cigiit  feet ;  but  the  level,  at  a  particular  jioint  of  its  shore,  must  be  aft'ected  by  the 
direction  of  the  wind,  and  probably  by  a  very  trifling  tide.  When  tiio  banks  of  lakes  are 
very  porous,  they  cannot  fail,  during  very  dry  weatlier,  to  absorb  a  large  (wrtion  of  the  water, 
and  to  throw  it  off  by  evaporation. 

The  depth  of  great  lakes  has  been  seldom  ascertained  with  much  exactness.  The  gene- 
ral depth  of  the  Caspian  Sea  is  from  60  to  70  fathoms ;  but  this  increases  towards  the  south 
end  to  such  a  degree,  that  no  bottom  can  be  found  with  a  lino  of  880  fathoms.  In  lakes,  as 
in  the  ocean,  the  slope  of  the  bank  is  continued  downward  tor  a  considerable  way  below  the 
water;  that  is,  deep  lakes  are  to  be  found  in  mountainous  districts,  and  shallow  niurshy  ones 
in  flatter  countries.  The  depth  of  liOch  Ness,  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  is  in  some 
places  130  fathoms,  which  is  tour  times  the  mean  depth  of  the  German  Soa;  and  its  JKittom 
IS  actually  30  fiithoms  below  the  deepest  part  of  that  sea,  between  the  hititiidos  of  Dover 
and  Inverness.*  The  Lake  of  Geneva  attains  the  still  greater  depth  of  161  llitlioms.  Many 
other  lakes  are  known  to  be  excee<lingly  deep,  without  the  amount  being  ascertained.  Seve- 
ral have  passed  for  ages  as  bottomless;  but  this  opinion  now  obtains  little  credit.  It  is  more 
probable,  that  most  lakes  are  daily  getting  more  shallow,  from  being  tilled  up  with  mud  or 
debris. 

The  temperature  of  tlie  surface  of  lakes  depends  on  the  climate  and  sca.-on  ;  but  at  the 
bottom  of  deep  lakes  it  undergoes  little  or  no  change  throughout  the  year,  and  approaches 
to  that  which  corresponds  to  the  maximum  density  of  water,  which  different  writers  estimate 
variously,  from  39"  F.  to  42.5° ;  but  40°  is  most  commonly  received.  In  Loch  Catrine  and 
liOch  Lomond,  the  temperature,  at  all  depths  below  40  fathoms,  is  41°;  but  the  mean  for 
the  climate  is  47°.  The  deep  lakes  of  Tliun  and  Zug,  in  Switzerland,  have  a  temperature 
of  42°  at  the  depth  of  15  brasses.  Thun  was  41.5°  at  the  depth  of  lOo  brasses,  while  the 
surface  was  60° ;  and  Zug,  41°  at  38  brasses,  with  surface  58°.  The  bottom  of  the  Lake  of 
Geneva  has  a  temperature  of  42° :  that  of  tiie  I^ago  Sabatino  at  Rome  is  44.5°,  at  a  depth 
of  80  fathoms.  Tepid  springs  may,  in  some  cases,  keep  up  the  temperature,  when  they 
occur  at  the  bottom  of  lakes.  From  what  wo  mentioned  of  the  Caribbean  Sen,  it  docs  not 
appear  that  the  climate  has  much  influence ;  and  yet  most  powerful  springs  of  fresh  water 
are  known  to  boil  up  in  its  shallower  parts.  Such  springs  probably  approach  to  the  moan 
temperature  of  the  climate;  or,  perhaps,  those  who  contend  for  an  increiuse  of  heat  with  the 
depth  of  the  solid  strata  would  claim  for  them  a  higher  temperature.  Deep  lakes  almost 
never  freeze,  except  in  a  very  cold  climate ;  because  the  whole  body  of  water  must  cool 
below  40°  before  congelation  could  commence.  Accordingly,  neitiier  Ixicli  Ness  nor  its 
elfliient  river  of  the  same  name  are  ever  frozen  over. 

The  qualities  of  the  waters  of  lakes  are  various,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  substances 
with  which  they  may  be  mixed  or  contaminated.  The  principal  distinctions,  in  this  ro.^pect. 
are  fresh,  saline,  and  alkaline.  I^akes  which  receive  much  fresh  water,  and  have  a  copious 
efflux,  are  almost  always  fresh ;  but  those  which  lose  much  of  their  water  by  evaporation 
may  be  slightly  saline,  especially  if  the  neighlwuring  soil  abouiid  in  salt.  When  lakes  have 
no  outlet,  they  are  invariably  saline.  To  account  for  this,  two  reasons  have  been  given, 
which  are  quite  compatible  with  each  other.  The  one  is,  that  salt  lakes  having  no  outlet 
ore  concentrated  [lortions  of  the  waters  of  the  deluge,  retained  by  the  hollows  of  the  earth's 
surface;  and  that  nil  other  lakes  were  originally  such,  and  saline;  but  those  have  had  their 

*  Vidu  SteveiiBon,  Wurncrian  McmoirB,  niiil  Etiinburgli  Pliil.  Journal. 


1\      111* 


r. ' .;;; 


m. 


m 


I 


^§wm 


204 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAI IIY. 


Part  II 


salt  washed  out  and  carried  to  the  ocean,  wliich  are  travereod  by  rivers  or  otiier  fresh  water 
The  other  opinion  is,  that  the  salt  in  lokes  has  come  from  Bpriiigs,  or  been  washed  from  the 
soil  of  tlie  adjacent  country  by  means  of  the  rain  nnd  rivers :  for  such  laites  are  most  abun- 
dant where  the  soil  contahis  saline  matter;  and  where  lakes  only  lose  water  by  evHiwration, 
the  vapour  goes  off  fresh  and  leaves  the  salt  bciiind.  The  Dead  Sea  is  the  saltest  of  all 
known  lakes,  and  appears  to  have  been  so  lor  upwards  of  4(HM)  years ;  for  in  the  book  of 
Genesis  it  is  called,  by  way  of  distinction,  the  "  Salt  Sea,"  even  at  a  time  when  the  adjacent 
plain  was  as  noted  for  fortdity  as  it  is  now  for  barrenness.  The  waters  of  this  lake  are  in  a 
state  of  saturation,  containing  about  eight  times  as  much  salt  as  those  of  the  ocean.  The 
salt  must  be  accumulating  in  beds  at  its  bottom ;  for  the  river  Jordan,  which  is  brackish, 
necessarily  carries  in  more.  Masses  of  bitumen  frequently  float  on  the  surface,  and  seem 
to  rise  from  the  bottom  of  the  lake.  The  same  thing  occurs  in  other  Asiatic  lake?,  some  of 
which  are  impregnated  with  borax.  In  tlio  island  of  Trinidad,  there  is  a  lake  which  pro- 
duces an  enonnous  quantity  of  bitumen  fit  for  naval  purposes. 

Some  lakes  are  both  saline  and  alkaline,  as  is  the  case  with  a  series  of  lakes  in  Jjower 
Egypt  These  are  called  the  Natron  Lakes,  from  their  abounding  in  soda,  which  is  tliere 
called  trona  and  natron,  the  nitre  of  the  Sacred  Writings. 

Lakes  appear  to  have  been  much  more  numerous  at  a  former  period  than  at  present,  and 
to  have  occupied  a  large  proportion  of  the  surface  of  the  land.  Traces  of  their  existence 
occur  everywhere.  Many  of  them  have  been  filled  up  with  debris,  and  become  level  plains 
traversed  by  a  river ;  some  have  been  drained  by  the  gradual  deepening  of  their  outlets ;  or 
both  causes  have  often  operated  together.  Others  have  got  vent  through  cracks  caused  by 
earthquakes,  or  by  the  subsiding  of  a  part  of  the  basin.  The  kingdom  of  Hungary  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  originally  the  basin  of  a  lake ;  and  some  go  so  far  as  to  allege  the  same 
of  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  Geological  phenomena  also  show  that  new  lakes  arise,  and  old 
ones  disa])pear,  during  those  great  risings  and  sinkings  of  the  land  which  have  taken  place 
during  former  periods,  and  even  now  are  not  without  example. 

*rhere  are  several  modes  in  which  now  lakes  may  be  formed.  In  hot  tropical  climates, 
many  large  lakes  are  formed  during  the  rainy  season,  and  entirely  disappear  on  a  change  of 
weather ;  but  such  hardly  deserve  the  name,  being  rather  land-floods,  though  they  would  be 
permanent  lakes  in  a  colder  country.  We  have  already  mentioned  the  formation  of  a  visible 
or  open  lake  from  the  felling  in  of  the  roof  of  a  subterranean  one.  When  a  mountain  falls 
asunder,  it  often  happens  that  it  stops  up  a  neighbouring  river  and  valley,  and  forms  a  lake. 
But  the  water  of  a  river  obstructed  in  this  manner  will  always  overflow,  and  can  scarcely 
tail  to  regain  its  former  level,  either  by  wearing  away  a  cut  for  itself  above,  or  by  under- 
mining the  ruins  beneath.  Shallow  marshy  lakes  are  frequently  formed  by  the  surplus 
waters  of  rivers  detained  on  flat  ground  by  an  accumulation  of  mud.  Ice  and  snow  some- 
times accumulate  in  narrow  passes  between  mountains,  so  ns  to  obstruct  and  make  the  water 
stagnant,  and  form  a  temporary  lake,  increasing  perhaps  for  years,  till  at  length  the  pressure 
of  the  water  is  augmented  to  such  a  degree  as  to  burst  the  icy  barrier.  The  consequences 
are  sometimes  dreadful.  So  great  a  discharge  of  water  and  ice,  precipitated  from  the 
mountains,  tears  up  not  only  alluvial  substances,  but  frequently  portions  of  rocks,  which  are 
scattered  over  the  plain  below.  Thus  villages  and  fertile  fields  are  almost  instantly  con- 
verted into  deep  hollows  and  heaps  of  rubbish.  These  cavities  perhaps  continue  filled  with 
water,  forming  small  lakes. 

There  are  certain  lakes  which  disappear  and  re-appear  periodically,  without  regard  to 
the  rainy  season.  Such  are  supposed  to  be  filled  and  emptied  in  a  manner  similar  to  the 
cavities  of  intermitting  springs,  or  to  communicate  with  some  subterranean  lake  wliich 
undergoes  such  periodical  changes.  That  any  lakes,  remote  from  the  sea,  should  communi- 
cate with  it  under  ground,  so  as  to  rise  and  fall  with  the  tide,  is  very  improbable.  In 
Portugal  there  is  a  small  lake  near  Boja,  which  emits  a  loud  noise  on  the  approach  of  a 
storm.  Other  lakes  appear  agitated  by  the  disengagement  of  gas.  Near  Boleslaw,  in 
Bohemia,  a  lake  of  unfethomable  depth  sometimes  emits  blasts  of  wind  which  raise  up 
pieces  of  ice.  Some  of  the  Scottish  lakes,  and  the  Wetter  in  Sweden,  experience  violent 
agitations  even  during  serene  weather.  A  coincidence  of  dates  has  given  ground  for  believ- 
ing that  these  agitations  are  connected  with  earthquakes  in  distant  countries. 

Sect.  FV. — Rivers. 

The  origin  and  progress  of  rivers  have  been  compared  by  Pliny  to  the  life  of  man.  "  Its 
beginnings  are  insignificant,  and  its  infancy  is  frivolous;  it  plays  among  the  flowers  of  a 
meadow,  it  waters  a  garden,  or  turns  a  little  mill.  Gathering  strength,  in  its  youth  it 
becomes  wild  and  impetuous.  Impatient  of  the  restraints  which  it  still  meets  with  in  the 
hollows  among  the  mountains,  it  is  restless  and  fretful ;  quick  in  its  turning,  nnd  unsteady 
in  its  course.  Now  it  is  a  roaring  cataract,  tearing  up  and  overturning  whatever  opposes 
its  progress,  and  it  shoots  headlong  down  from  a  rock  ;  then  it  becomes  a  sullen  nnd  gloomy 
pool,  buried  in  the  bottom  of  a  glen.  Recovering  breath  by  repose,  it  ngniii  diislics  nlontr, 
till,  tired  of  uproar  and  mischief,  it  quits  all  that  it  has  swept  along,  and  leaves  the  oppnin<.^ 


li 


regard  to 
ilar  to  the 
kc  which 
communi- 
bable.  In 
Iroach  of  a 
lleslaw,  in 
raise  up 
Ice  violent 
Iforbeliev- 


fcan.  "Its 
Iwers  of  a 
y  youtli  it 
titli  in  the 
1  unsteady 
hi  opposes 
lid  ploomy 
lii'S  aloriL'i 
lo  opcnin^^ 


nooK  II. 


HYDROLOGY. 


206 


of  the  valley  strewed  witli  the  rejected  waste.  Now  quitting  its  retirement,  it  comes  abroad 
into  the  world,  journeying  with  more  prudence  and  discretion,  tiirough  cultivated  fitdds, 
yielding  to  circumstancca,  and  winding  round  what  would  trouble  it  tooverwheliri  or  remove. 
It  posses  tiirough  the  populous  cities,  and  ull  the  busy  haunts  of  man,  temlering  its  services 
on  every  side,  and  becomes  the  support  and  ornament  of  tlie  country.  Increa.sed  by 
numerous  alliances,  and  advanced  in  its  course,  it  becomes  grave  and  stately  in  itti  motions, 
loves  peace  and  quiet,  and  ih  majestic  silence  rolls  on  its  miglity  waters  till  it  is  laid  to  rest 
in  the  vast  abyss."  The  sun  and  tiio  host  of  heaven  have,  in  all  ages  nnd  nations,  been 
objects  of  sincere  worship.  Next  to  them,  the  rivers  seem  to  have  ttttri'cted  the  grateful 
aclcnowledgcmenta  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  neighbouring  countries.  They  liave  every- 
where been  considered  a  sort  of  tutelar  deities,  and  each  little  district,  every  retired 
valley,  had  its  river  god,  who  was  preferred  to  the  others.  The  expostulation  of  Naainan 
the  Syrian,  who  was  offended  with  the  prophet  for  enjoining  him  to  wash  in  tlie  river 
Jordan,  was  the  natural  effusion  of  tiiis  attachment.  "  Wliat  (said  he),  are  not  Abana  and 
Pharpar,  rivers  of  Dama.scus,  more  excellent  tlian  all  the  waters  of  Judea]  Miglit  I  not 
wash  in  them  and  be  clean  1  so  he  went  away  wroth."  In  those  countries  particularly 
where  the  labours  of  the  husbandman  and  shepherd  depended  on  what  took  place  in  a  far 
distant  country  by  the  fulling  of  periodical  rains,  or  the  melting  of  the  collected  snows,  the 
Nile,  the  Ganges,  the  Indus,  were  tlie  sensible  agents  of  nature  in  procuring  to  tlie  inhabit- 
ants of  their  fertile  banks  all  their  abundance,  and  they  bscume  objects  of  gratefiil  adoration. 
Their  sources  were  sought  for  even  by  conquering  princes,  and  wlien  found  were  worshipped 
with  the  most  affectionate  devotion.  These  rivers  preserve  to  this  day  the  fond  adoration  of 
the  inhabitants  of  the  countries  through  which  they  pass,  and  their  waters  are  still  held  sacred. 

The  terra  river  is  applied  to  any  lorge  current  of  water  which  is  not  in  the  ocean  or  its 
branches,  and  which  may  discharge  itself  into  the  ocean,  into  lakes,  marshes,  or  into  other 
rivers ;  for  the  waters  ot  some  rivers  never  reach  the  ocean ;  as  is  tiie  case  with  the  Wolga, 
the  Jordan,  and  others,  which  discharge  themselves  into  salt  lakes,  having  usually  th(!  name 
of  seas.  Wlien  the  atmosphere  supplies  a  country  witli  more  water  than  it  has  an  opportu- 
nity of  carrying  off  again  by  evaporation,  the  surplus  either  penetrates  through  tlu,'  surface 
or  collects  into  small  streams,  which,  afterwards  uniting  and  receiving  the  water  of  springs, 
gradually  form  larger  and  larger  currents,  wiiich,  if  allowed  to  proceed  increasinjr,  !it  length 
become  rivers.  Some  rivers  proceed  from  lakes  or  marshes,  but  none  come  immediately  from 
the  sea.  They  invariably  occupy  the  lowest  parts  of  the  districts  from  which  their  waters 
are  derived,  and  these  districts  are  called  their  basins.  The  Imsins  are  usually  lM)unded  by 
high  lands,  and  sometimes  by  mountains.  They  form  natural  divisions  in  physical  geography. 
Those  of  tlie  Rhone,  Garonne,  Loire,  Seine,  and  part  of  the  basin  of  the  Rhine,  comprehend 
the  greatest  part  of  France.  In  some  cases,  the  boundaries  of  basins  are  not  well  defined ; 
as  where  the  surface  becomes  flat  or  marshy.  This  is  the  casc!  between  the  basins  of  the 
Amazon  and  Orinoco,  which  are  connected  by  a  natural  and  navigable  communication.  In 
Europe,  the  sources  of  the  Dwina,  of  the  Niemen,  and  of  the  Borysthcnos,  are  nearly  united 
in  a  marshy  plain.  It  is  evident  that  the  deep  ravines  through  which  rivers  flow  could  not 
in  many  instances  be  the  work  of  the  rivers  themselves ;  because  the  margins  of  such  ravines 
are  often  higher  than  other  places  of  the  district,  through  which  the  rivers  ought  to  have 
flowed  before  such  vr.lleys  were  cut,  as  some  fancy,  out  of  solid  rock.  A  more  rational 
explanation  is,  that  a  crack  or  rent, — the  effect  of  some  earthquake  or  subsidence, — had 
taken  place ;  and  that  the  water,  getting  through  such  rent,  had  gradually  widened  it  by  the 
attrition  of  its  sand  and  gravel :  the  still  more  corroding  action  of  the  weather  would  mate- 
rially assist  in  widening  the  upper  part  of  the  ravine.  Many  rivers  appear  to  have  been  at 
first  a  scries  of  lakes  and  cataracts  alternately,  through  which  the  water  was  conveyed  from 
higher  to  lower  ground.  The  bottoms  of  these  lakes  are  gradually  filled  up  with  debris, 
the  outlets  are  by  degrees  deepened,  or  the  basins  rent  through  as  above  described.  The 
lakes  at  length  become  dry  plains,  traversed  by  the  river;  the  cataracts,  clefts  or  deep 
ravines ;  and  the  river  acquires,  upon  the  whole,  a  pretty  uniform  descent.  There  arc  traces 
of  these  changes  everywhere :  the  parallel  roads  of  Lochaber,  ns  they  are  called,  seem  to  be 
nothing  else  than  the  horizontal  shelves  with  which  lakes  are  usually  siirroiindod.  From 
these  it  appears  that  the  valleys  of  Glen  Glnoy,  Glen  Roy,  and  Glen  Six-an,  have  formerly 
been  the  basins  of  lakes,  which  are  now  cut  through  an(l  emptied.  Throe  distinct  basins 
are  observed  in  the  course  of  the  Rhine :  first,  that  of  the  Lsiko  of  Constance ;  the  second 
reaches  from  Ba.sle  to  Bingen ;  and  tlio  third  from  tliis  to  the  sea.  They  are  separated  from 
each  other  by  rocky  straits.  In  many  cases,  the  suhsidciioe  of  the  water,  at  successive  sUiges, 
can  ho  traced  from  one  level  to  another,  by  mreins  of  the  difl'oront  horizontal  siiclves  still 
visible  on  the  sides  of  the  valleys.  Sir  Thomas  Lauder  reinnrked  this,  in  the  ahovf  nimod 
glens  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland.  In  the  valley  of  the  Rhino,  Professor  Pl.iytair  distin- 
guished four  or  five  such  terraces,  at  the  successive  heights  of  twenty,  thirty,  or  tin-ty  fi't'l 
alove  one  another.  The  same  thing  occurs  on  the  banks  in  the  great  chain  of  North  .\morican 
lakes  which  are  not  yet  empty. 

The  larger  rivers  are,  their  fall  or  declivity  is  generally  so  much  the  smaller.    The  reason 

Vol.  I.  18 


n 

111 


!  1 


■'fl 


-'■(•, 


"l!:;:i 


m 


|||1|!P" 


T 


ii 


206 


SCIENCE  OP  (lEOGRAPHY. 


# 


Part  II. 


of  this  is,  that  largfi  rivers  nncessarily  occupy  tlin  lowest  parts  of  the  country;  an  J  also,  that 
there  are  no  materials  of  which  Iwds  of  rivers  are  ordinarily  formed,  that  could  hav(!  resiHtcd 
the  action  of  a  jjrent  river,  having  a  rapid  tall,  during  the  lapse  of  ages.  In  the  last  20(' 
leagues  of  the  Amazons,  the  fall  is  only  10.5  feet ;  and  in  the  30(X)  miles  above  that,  the 
mean  fill  is  only  five  inches  per  mile.  The  Seine,  between  Valvins  and  Sevres,  has  a  fall 
of  nlwiit  i)..")  inches  per  mile.  The  Ijoirc,  between  Briairo  and  Orleans,  has  only  one  foot  in 
]:<,.%(!.  Between  the  Himalaya  chain  and  the  hoh,  the  Ganges  has  only  four  inches  jier  mile. 
'I'ho  (Mitirn  fall  of  the  Wolga  is  9-'J7  PVench  feet,  or  five  inches  per  mile.  Notwithstanding 
the  rnpiiiity  of  the  Rhine,  it  has  only  a  fall  of  four  feet  per  mile  between  Schaffliauscn  and 
Stnishurg;  and  of  two  feet  between  that  and  Sclienckonschontz.  Sometimes  a  river  falling 
into  another  with  great  rapidity,  and  at  an  acute  angle,  will  nt  the  time  of  flood  force  the 
hitter  to  flow  back  for  a  short  way.  Such  is  sometimes  the  eflect  of  the  Arve  on  the  Rhone, 
which  is  fiirced  back  into  the  Lake  of  Geneva. 

The  bnre  is  a  phenomenon  which  occurs  on  some  great  rivers,  which  enter  the  sea  with 
ponsidcrnbly  velocity,  and  experience  a  sudden  check  or  obstruction  from  the  flow  of  the  tide : 
the  consequence  is,  that  an  enormous  wave,  known  by  the  term  6orc,  and  various  other  names, 
is  generated  and  sent  backward  or  up  the  river  with  great  velocity,  to  the  no  small  danger 
nf  the  navigation.  The  principle  on  which  this  phenomenon  depends  is  nearly  allied  to  that 
if  the  hydraulic  ram :  at  the  spring  tides,  it  appears  of  a  correspondingly  greater  magnitude. 
In  the  Amazons,  the  lieight  of  this  wave  is  estimated  at  180  feet 

Rivers  are  subject  to  inundation.  In  the  Sacred  Writings,  some  allusions  are  made  to  the 
jvertlowings  of  the  Nile;  but  those  of  the  Jordan  are  distinctly  mentioned,  as  covering  all 
the  banks  during  harvest,  and  expelling  the  lions  which  lurked  in  the  thickets,  so  as  to 
drive  them  infuriated  through  the  country.  Modern  travellers,  however,  assert  that  this 
river  does  not  now  overflow ;  and  they  allege  as  a  reason,  that  its  channel  is  become  deep 
enough  to  hold  tlie  floods.  It  is  as  likely  that  the  banks  have  been  raised  by  the  de|X)8ition 
of  mud  and  tlie  growth  of  vegetables :  perhaps  the  fall  of  snow  and  rain  upon  Mount  Leba- 
non, from  which  the  floods  came,  is  not  so  abundant  since  its  forests  of  cedars  were  cut 
down ;  Ibr  some  travellers  arc  of  opinion  that  this  river  must,  from  the  accounts  of  the  an- 
ficnts,  have  been  formerly  of  much  greater  magnitude,  at  all  seasons  of  the  yeai ,  than  it 
now  ap|K!ars  to  be. 

The  excessive  rains  which  fall  in  tropical  regions,  during  a  certain  season  of  the  year, 
•<c<'.isioii  the  inundation  or  overflowing  of  the  rivers  which  originate  in  the  torrid  zone. 
I'hc  following  Ls  nearly  the  general  rulo  for  the  rainy  reason ;  viz.,  that  periodical  rains 
n-(>rywhcre  prevail  from  the  equator  to  the  parallel  of  latitude  over  which  the  sun  is 
vprticul.  Humboldt  mentions  as  another  pretty  correct  and  still  more  general  rule,  apply- 
ing likewise  to  the  frigid  zone,  that  the  season  of  floods  falls  within  fi)ur  months  of  midsum- 
mer. The  floods  of  rivers  originating  in  high  latitudes  proceed  principally  from  the  melt- 
ing of  the  ice  and  snow  on  the  mountains,  by  means  of  the  summer's  heat.  Such  floods  are 
violent,  but  of  short  duration,  and  occur  in  the  four  months  preceding  the  summer  solstice. 
Some  of  these  rivers  have  two,  or  perhaps  three,  successive  floods,  corresponding  to  the 
seasons  of  tlmw  in  the  low  ground,  on  the  sides  of  mountains,  and  on  their  summits. 

The  ancients  were  quite  aware  that  some  rivers  derived  their  floods  from  the  sources  we 
have  just  mentioned ;  but  the  overflowings  of  the  Nile,  in  a  country  remote  from  Iwth  rain 
and  snow,  excited  their  surprise.  The  mystery  was,  however,  dispelled,  when  once  it  was 
known  that  tlie  Nile  principally  draws  its  waters  from  the  tropical  regions,  where  the  exces- 
sive peritxlical  rains  cause  other  rivers  to  overflow.  The  Nile  begins  to  swell  in  June,  and 
contii.ues  to  do  so  till  the  middle  of  August,  when  it  has  reached  its  maximum  lieight  of 
from  24  to  28  feet.  With  the  exception  of  a  few  elevated  spots,  and  some  of  the  higlier 
accumulations  of  alluvia)  matter,  on  the  margin  of  the  river,  the  whole  of  the  Delta  and  the 
long  valley  of  Egypt  ie  then  covered  with  water.  The  rising  of  the  Ganges,  which  is  partly 
owing  to  the  melting  of  snow  and  partly  to  the  rainy  season,  commences  in  April,  nnil,  like 
the  Nile,  attains  its  maximum  of  about  31  or  32  feet  in  the  middle  of  August.  Tropical 
rivers  which  move  parallel  to  the  equator  spread  their  waters  pretty  uniformly  over  the  1om» 
ground  :  such  is  the  case  with  the  Orinoco  and  the  Senegal.  In  rivers  which  descend  from 
great  elevations,  or  move  at  right  angles  to  the  equator,  the  action  of  the  tropical  rains  is 
extremely  une()ual ;  for  the  surplus  water  only  overflows  the  low  and  flat  districts.  This  is 
exactly  what  happens  with  the  Nile :  but  it  is  sufficient  here  to  mention  the  general  princi- 
ples ;  as  the  inundations  of  particular  rivers  will  be  described  along  with  their  respective 
countries. 

Waterfalls,  or  cascades  and  cataracts,  are  often  formed  by  rivers  in  descending  from  pri 
mitive  mountains  into  secondary  countries.  Compact  durable  rocks  are  requisite  for  pro 
ducing  a  permanent  eflect  of  this  kind  :  such  are  the  cataracts  of  the  Nile,  of  the  GangeSi 
and  various  other  rivers.  Some  cataracts,  like  those  of  Tunguska,  in  Siberia,  have  gradu- 
ally lost  their  elevation  by  the  wearing  away  of  the  rocks,  and  have  now  only  a  rapid  de- 
scent. According  to  Humboldt,  the  height  of  the  groat  cataract  of  the  Rio  de  Bogota,  in 
South  America,  long  estimated  at  liJOO  feet,  is  about  800  feet ;  that  of  Staubbach  is  about 


"»■ 


Book  II. 


HYDROLOGY. 


307 


000  feet.  The  small  river  Ache,  in  Bavaria,  which  rises  in  the  cavern  of  tlin  jflacior  of 
Mount  Tnurnri,  runs  throu|;h  tho  volley  of  Anhenthal,  and,  after  reaching  the  Gulf  of  Tau- 
rcn,  throws  itnelf  over  an  olevotion  of  "2000  feet.  It  has  five  ifrcat  falln;  tho  lawt  of  which 
•brnis  a  niowt  inafrnificent  arch  of  waters,  which  is  resolved  into  spray  before  it  reaciics  the 
f(round.  The  noise  of  tho  waters  is  so  terrible,  that  it  is  hoard  at  the  distuncc  of  more  thon 
a  league;  anil  the  current  of  air  produced  by  the  descent  of  the  water  is  so  vioU.'iit,  that  it 
drives  Imck  those  who  attempt  to  odvanco  towards  tho  pulf:  it  is  necessary,  therefore,  to 
approiicli  it  by  walking  backwards.  The  full  of  Garispa  m  India  is  KKH)  foot.  One  of  tho 
most  considerable  known  falls  takes  place  on  tho  river  Niagara,  whicli  connects  I.nkes  Erie 
and  Ontario.  The  river  here,  just  before  the  full,  is  divided  by  Goat  Island  into  two  prts : 
tho  one,  6(K)  feet  broad,  falls  to  the  depth  of  150  feet ;  while  the  other,  3.'»  yards  brouci,  fulls 
164  feet  in  perpendicular  height  In  Scotland  the  most  considerable  falls  are  those  on  the 
river  Clyde,  near  Lanark,  where  the  river  is  precipitated  down  three  successive  precipices 
of  red  sandstone.  In  tho  upper  fall,  that  of  Bonnilon,  the  whole  river  throws  itself  over  n 
precipice  !M)  feet  high:  lower  down,  M  Corra  Linn,  it  is  precipitated  from  a  height  of  P4 
feet  The  lowest  fall,  that  of  Slonebyreg,  consists  of  three  stages,  being  broken  by  two  pro- 
jecting rocks ;  its  fall  is  80  feet  In  tho  course  of  tho  river  Foyers,  on  the  side  of  I/)ch 
Ness,  there  are  two  falls ;  the  upper  fall  is  40  feet  high,  tho  lower  90  feet.  In  the  miner- 
alogical  report  of  Lapland,  presented  to  the  Swedish  government,  the  discovery  of  a  great 
waterfall  in  the  river  Lulea  is  particularly  mentioned.  It  is  said  to  be  one  eighth  of  a  mile 
broad,  and  to  fall  400  feet;  if  the  mile  be  German,  as  is  most  likely  (equal  to  four  and  a  half 
English  miles),  the  breadth  exceeds  half  an  English  mile. 


rces  we 
)th  rain 
it  was 
excesi- 
uie,  and 
ight  of 
higlier 
and  the 
is  \mrtly 
nil,  like 
topical 
the  low 
I  ml  from 
rains  is 
This  is 
princi- 
tpectivc 

torn  pri 
[for  pro 

Ganges, 

jradu* 

lapid  de- 

Igota,  in 

lib  about 


CHAPTER  HI. 

OGOaNOSY. 

This  branch  of  natural  history  makes  us  acquainted  with  the  structure,  materials,  relative 
position,  and  mode  of  formation,  of  the  great  mineral  masses  of  which  tho  crust  of  tlie 
earth  is  composed. 

In  conveymg  to  our  readers  a  short  view  of  this  important  subject,  we  shall  adopt  the 
following  arrangement : — 

I.  Describe  the  physiognomy  of  the  earth's  surface. 

II.  Give  an  account  of  the  action  of  water  and  air  on  that  surfocc. 

III.  Give  an  account  of  the  action  of  volcanoes  and  earthquakes  on  the  earth's  surface. 

IV.  Describe  the  different  structures  observable  in  the  solid  moss  of  the  globe. 

v.  Define  and  describe  the  different  classes  and  species  of  rocks  of  which  the  crust  of  tiio 
earth  is  composed. 

Sect.  I. — Physiognomy  of  the  Earth's  surface. 

Dry  land.  The  dry  land,  or  the  land  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  is  arranged  into  masses 
of  various  magnitudes  and  forms.  It  is  not  equally  distributed ;  for  a  much  larger  portion 
of  it  occurs  to  the  north  than  to  the  south  of  the  equator ;  and  the  difference  in  this  respect 
is  so  great,  that  the  southern  half  of  the  globe  is  principally  water,  while  the  northern  is 
chiefly  land.  About  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  it  was  asserted  that  a  great  contment 
must  exist  towards  the  south  pole,  in  order  to  counterbalance  the  mass  of  land  in  the  north- 
em  hemisphere ;  but  by  the  voyages  of  Cook  and  Bellinghausen,  and  particularly  the  late  enter- 
prise of  Weddel,  it  has  been  shown  that  in  high  southern  latitudes,  in  place  of  a  continent, 
there  are  but  a  few  groups  of  islands.  The  absence  of  a  continent  near  the  south  pole  does 
not  itself  prove  that  there  is  less  land  there  than  in  the  north,  since  it  is  possible  that  the 
land  in  general  may  be  only  rather  more  depressed  in  the  south,  and  consequently  the  ocean 
is  spread  more  ■  extensively  over  the  surface  of  the  earth  in  that  quarter.  Tho  dry  land 
is  arranged  into  two  grand  divisions  named  worlds,  viz.  the  Old  World  and  the  Neto 
World.  The  Old  World,  in  the  eastern  hemisphere,  extends  from  S.  W.  to  N.  E.,  and 
comprehends  the  three  continents  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa.  The  Nrw  World,  in  the 
western  hemisphere,  extends  from  N.  to  S.,  and  is  composed  of  two  continents,  viz.  North 
and  South  America. 

The  general  direction  of  the  land  in  the  two  worlds  is  different  In  America,  it  is  from 
N.  to  S. :  in  the  Old  World,  it  is  S.  W.  to  N.  E:  and,  if  we  omit  Africa,  it  is  almost  parallel 
with  the  equator.  The  longest  straight  line  that  can  bo  drawn  on  the  Old  World  com- 
mences on  the  western  coast  of  Africa,  from  about  Capo  Verd,  and  extends  to  Behring' 
Strait,  on  the  north-east  coast  of  Asia:  it  is  about  11,000  miles  in  length.  A  similar  linp 
traced  along  the  New  World  from  the  Strait  of  Terra  del  Fuego  to  the  northern  shore  of 
North  America  measures  nearly  9000  miles. 

"The  Old  and  New  Worlds  have  the  following  features  in  common :  northern  ond  southern 
halves,  connecting  isthmuses,  a  peninsula  on  the  one  side,  and  a  group  of  islands  on  the 
other.    This  arrangement  will  appear  evident  fi^m  the  following  details. 


m 


!  m 


vi 


906 


SriKNCK  OK  (}KO(!RAI'IIY. 


I'aht  II. 


Tho  olil  world  inny  Ut  conHidcii'il  ah  ciiiniMiNi'il  of  two  i;ri<at  lialvrH:  tlin  nno,  llio  wi<Mtorn« 
iiicliiili'H  Kiiro|M»  iiiiil  AlVU'ii;  tlio  olln«r,  tlu«  ciiHti'm,  Anm  anil  Ni-w  llolliiiiil.  In  tlm  wontorn 
liiilt',  tint  two  coiitinrntx,  vi/..  Kiimpo  luiil  AlVifii,  aro  connrcti'il  to|;i'tlii'r  liy  tlio  iNlluuuH  of 
Sill'/,  mill  liavo  (III  tlii<  oiii)  hiiiiil  tlu<  JHlanilMiirtlii-  Mt'iiitrrraiittan,  ami  on  tliti  oilier  tho  pon- 
iiiMiilii  of  Ariiliiii.  Ill  tho  oitHtorn  hall',  tlio  two  (■oiilinonlH  ul'  Axia  anil  Now  llollund  uro,  to 
n  ri-rtiiiii  oxti'iit,  I'oliiii'iUoil  to^rcthcr  hy  tho  iHlaiiilM  of  Java,  Siinintni,  il'r. ;  ami  in  (Voiit  of 
this  lintkiu  isllimiiii  is  I'lijiiia  and  other  iNlands,  and  on  tho  other  Hide  the  |N>nin!'iilii  of  India, 
'riie  New  World  in  eoniiNiseil  of  two  ha1vt>ii,  a  northorn  and  ii  Moiitherii :  thi-He  aro  connected 
(iiirelher  liy  the  ii^thinuti  of  Darieii;  and  on  tlio  front  aro  Hitnuted  tho  WoHt  India  iHhindH,  and 
lii'hinil  tile  peniiiNula  of  ('iilifurnia,  ^ 

Another  };eiier:il  feature  in  tho  ^roneral  diNtriliiitioii  of  tho  dry  land,  Ih  tho  tn)M)rin|f  of  nil 
the  irreat  |ieniiisiilaH  to  the  miulh.  Thin,  li>r  exainplo,  In  the  cane  with  tho  continent  of  Africa, 
with  Arahia,  liidiii.  South  Aiiiericii,  Scandinavia,  S|Niiii,  Italy,  (iruece,  Coroa,  AliiHhka,  Knm< 
tchatka,  ('alilorniii,  Florida,  and  (ireenhtnd. 

llewiileH  the  Old  and  New  VVorlilH,  u»  aliove  doticrilM>d,  thero  (x:cur,  disporBcd  thronifh  tho 
ix-eaii,  niitiieroiirt  NMiallor  niusoe.s  of  land,  tbrniiii);  inlandri  of  varioim  iimffnitudcH  and  tiiruiH. 
Those  i>liinilH  situated  near  to  the  continontM  aro  coiiMiderod  an  h<donKin)f  to  them.  Thux 
the  Dritish  isles  Mon)r  to  Kiirope,  thotie  of  Ja|>an  tu  Asia,  tho  West  India  iHlnndH  to 
Aiiierioii,  imd  Maihiffasear  to  Africa,  Hut  huHides  these  there  are  other  inland.^  and  ^roupH 
of  ishinils,  situated  at  a  diHtanco  from  continents,  and  which  cannot  bo  referred  to  any  of  tho 

tireoHlinir  divisions,  hut  to  tho  ocoans  in  which  tliuy  occur;  as,  tiir  p.xainple,  tliu  Sandwich 
HlamlH,  in  tho  North  Pacific  Ocean. 

SuRNKcr.  I. — liifqimlitieii  of  the  Sitrfucv  nf  thr  Dry  Iinnd. 

Tim  snrlace  of  the  land  exhihits  (jreat  variety  in  as|)ect,  tiiriniii},''  iiinuntaiim,  hills,  viilloyH, 
mill  plains.  The  most  j;eneriil  of  these  features  are  what  ;;eo{;rii pliers  term  hi^h  laud  and 
low  Idiul.  llifth  himh  aro  lolly,  uneven,  and  widely  extended  miiHses  of  land :  thus,  tho 
iiioiiiitainoiis  tnii-t  of  country  cxtendin;,'  from  the  Na/e  of  Norway  to  the  North  (/'apo  is  n 
liiijh  land.  Liup  Imuh  are  widely  extended  low  and  flat  coinitries:  thus,  tho  northern  (iiirt 
of  Kiiince,  the  Netherlands,  llollund,  imrt  of  fierniany,  and  Silesia;  Poland,  and  l']uro|toan 
llussiii  form  what  may  he  called  the  jrreat  Knro|H'aii  low  Iniul.  Wo  Hhall  first  explain  the 
structure  of  hifjii  land,  and  next  that  of  low  liiiiil. 

(1.)  Sirurliirc  of  liiifh  limit.  In  a  \i\g\\  land,  the  centml  [wirts  aro  gouorally  tho  most 
rufrijed  anil  lorty,  while  the  exterior  districts,  those  which  lionler  on  the  low  land,  aro  lower, 
and  less  riii.'fred.  The  centml  part  is  named  nlpinv,  the  lower  and  tho  exterior  part  hilly. 
The  alpine  part  of  a  liipfh  land  is  coni|)osed  of  a  central  and  lolly  chain  of  monntaiiiH,  named 
the  rrntriil,  or  hifrli  mnuiiliiin  chain,  towards  which  there  tend  a  (Toatcr  or  lesser  number 
of  hitrrnl  or  princi;>al ;  and  from  these  iiirain  SHhonliniitr  chains.  'I'lio  high  mountain  chain 
forms  the  walir-shrd  {divnrtia  aqiiaruni)  of  the  district;  and  tho  hollows  that  traverse  the 
up|>er  part  of  this  chain  aro  named  pa»»rs  (roh.)  On  pasisinpf  from  one  side  to  another  of 
tho  alpine  land,  we  do  not  always  travel  throni;h  a  pas.s  or  col,  but  somotimes  across  a  com- 
paratively Mat  tract,  many  loaH;uns  in  extent;  such  arc  namp<l  table-liind».  In  crossing 
from  Norway  to  Sweden,  wc  pass  in  somo  parts  across  a  table-land ;  also  in  tnivellinp  from 
Vera  Cruz  by  Mexico  to  Acapulco.  Tho  inclined  planes  on  which  tho  latenil,  or  principal 
and  sulwrdinate,  chains  aro  distributed  nro  named  the  mdivitins  of  tho  hii^h  land.  Tho 
hollows  that  si-i'iirato  thcso  chain.s  from  each  other  are  named  vnllcys:  those  valleys  lioiinded 
by  principal  ciiains  nro  namwl  principal  valleys,  nw\  sometimes  truntvemt;  valln/a ;  while 
the  valleys  between  subordinate  chains  are  named  milmrdinutc  valleys.  Tho  hilly  or  lower 
part  of  the  ''isrh  land  is  coni|Ki8ed  of  comoaratively  low  and  less  rusjifcd  chains,  called  chains 
of  hills,  \\\i\J\  are  irregularly  grouped,  lieing  entirely  without  a  central  or  hipjli  mountain 
chain.  The  valleys  in  this  hilly  land  are  shorter,  less  steep,  and  not  so  ruffged  as  in  tho 
more  central  or  alpine  part  of  the  high  land. 

(2.)  Stnirtiire  of  low  land.  Low  land  is  formed  principally  of  extensive  plains,  li«t.le 
elevated  alH)ve  the  level  c*'  tho  soa,  in  which  we  occasionally  observe  fjentle  risiii;.'s  and 
undulations  of  the  surface,  that  ollen  extend  to  .i  considerable  distance,  and  sometimes  form 
the  limits  between  neijjhbourinff  rivers.  Now  niid  then  conical  and  table-shaped  hills  rise 
np  sinijly  and  suddenly  in  a  low  country,  as  is  the  case  with  volcanic  and  iffneous  hills,  The 
plains  of  the  low  land  an-  characteri.sed  by  the  presence  of  pjirliciiliir  hollows  or  concavities, 
which  are  named  rivrr-coiirses  or  rivrr-viiHcys ;  because  in  those  rivers  flow.  In  such  hol- 
lows we  ilistiiisriiish  the  bed  of  the  river,  and  the  holm  or  haiiu^h  land ;  further  we  observe 
the  /ii'n-A  and  low  \mnks  of  tho  river,  and  the  ravines  or  small  valleys,  that  traverse  tho  hiph 
bank  and  terminate  in  tho  low  tank.  There  is  still  another  kind  of  hollow  met  with  in  the 
low  land  ;  it  is  that  in  which  lakes,  {fenerally  shallow,  are  contained. 

Coast.i.  The  marjjin  of  the  dry  land,  where  it  meets  ).lio  waters  of  the  ocean,  has  received 
the  general  name  of  con**.  It  varies  in  its  aspect.  Sometimes  it  is  low  and  shelvinpr,  and 
then  the  neicrhbonrinfj  gea  is  shallow  to  a  considerabli!  distance;  at  otl>er  times  it  is  steep, 
lolly,  and  ni<.'!jed,  and  then  the  sea  is  deep.     In  many  parts  of  Great  Hritain,  and  on  the 


T 


DOOK   II. 


GEOGNOSY. 


auu 


Lna,  li'tlP 

linK"  ""'' 
no's  torn* 
|hi\l«  rise 
lis.     Tin' 
liruvitiop, 
\w\\  liol- 
.  observo 
I  tlio  high 
1th  in  tlie 

I  rpccivcil 

jrinjT,  and 

is  steeP) 

Id  on  the 


rontiiii'iit,  ns  in  IlDllnnd,  tlio  coaitt  In  lnw  unil  Hnndy,  nnd  the  iiniul  '\»  ocrnaiunully  blown  into 
hillH. 

('iivi:<.  Tlii'.ii'  iin;  nivilii'H  nl"  KrctitiT  or  Ii'hm  rxli'iij,  wliidi  nrti  (•illicr  opnn  ti>  diiy,  ■«  in 
llip  cisi'  (if  till'  iiiii^.niilid'nt  ciivrM  in  tin;  1h1i<  of  FnIii,  iIiomo  in  Arriin,  liiimo  nriir  Wi'myxn  un 
the  fill  t  ii|'  I'Mc'^liiro,  &r.,  wln-n  llicy  iiro  nnnicd  vxlirnnl  or  o/k'/i  ravit ;  or  they  iirii  nioro 
or  h'MM  fonri'iili'd  in  tho  interior  of  tin;  tdcMh  in  which  thoy  lire  conliiiiird,  iih  Maclran'H  Ciivi! 
in  thi'  I  di'  of  hi(;|r,  und  nmny  cuiich  in  tlio  linicMtono  of  DorliyHhiru :  Hnch  uru  nuniud  inlirnal 
ciivrg. 

HuwiMrr.  2. — Inequaliliei  iif  Ihf  Sur/ari!  of  the  Suhmarint:  ImhuI, 

Th(<  iNittnni  of  tlin  wn,  likn  thit  mirtiico  of  tlio  dry  land,  vnricN  in  form.  In  Homo  mm 
thori'  iHM'ur  llatx  iind  |diiinH  rnn^in|i(  to  n  conHidoriildn  oxtont,  und  near  to  tiin  mirfltcn  id'  tho 
WRtcr,  liinnintf  what  iiro  riilhul  nhmih ;  in  other  euMOH,  pliiiiiH,  of  Kreiit  ('xlent,  occur  ihie|dy 
neiited,  or  iniirh  h<>low  tiic  Nnrfacu  of  the  Men,  which  iiro  iU>noniinated  ilivp  tubmnriiw  plaini. 
'rhoNo  Huhm.'irine  piiiinn,  like  tlin  pliiinn  on  tlio  dry  land,  Nonii!tinie.i  contain  IioIIowh  of  con- 
Hiderablo  extent,  nnd  of  i^'reat  depth;  the  <l(«op  IioIIowh  nnder  the  Hea  off  tlui  c<Mi«t  of  Scot- 
limd,  known  under  the  name  of  Sfimtroif  pita,  are  of  tliJH  deHcriptioii.  The  wa  bottom  iH 
HometiineH  hiUij ;  thuHo  IuIIh  vary  in  form  nnd  iiinf^nitiido,  and  arc  either  deeply  neated,  or 
rino  »lH>ve  the  Hiirfaco  of  tho  water,  forniinf;  rockH  or  iNlandx.  In  tropical  wcaN,  tho  iNittom, 
when  not  very  dnei>,  ItocomoH  enoruwted  with  coral;  which  coral  Honietinios  riMos  to  tho  wur- 
'Cnct^,  and  then  formn  vnrul  nhouh,  coral  rirfg,  or  coral  iiilfs.  If  tho  lN)ttoni  in  very  ducp, 
bnt  KouiU  u|)  tVoin  1m>1ow  hillN  whone  HinniiiitN  an;  not  far  bc'low  the  level  of  tho  ocean,  those 
in  tropical  scad  uIho  Iwcoino  covered  with  coral. 

Hbct.  11. — Ffffrcin  of  Waltr  and  thn  Atmosphere  on  the  Surface  of  the  Lanil, 

Water  is  a  very  nctivo  agent  in  altorinf;  and  varionwly  niodifyin^r  the  Hiirfiicn  of  tho  earth, 
nnd  itH  enerfjy  is  increased  when  it  carries  along  with  it  mechanical  matter,  as  sand,  jjravol. 
Sic,  anil  particularly  when  aided  by  tho  gnawinj,'  influence  of  the  iitmospliere.  Through 
these  agents  tho  whole  snrliire  of  the  dry  land  is  kept  more  or  less  in  a  slat^'  of  motion,  by 
their  breaking  up  thn  strata,  and  removing  with  greater  or  less  rapidity,  the  broken  rocky 
matter"  fVom  point  to  i)oint,  and  ollen  into  lakes  nnd  tho  ooa. 

Water  acts  mechanically  and  chemically:  it  acts  mcchunicuUy  when  it  removcH  \wc\.  of 
tho  soil  or  broken  rocky  matter  over  which  it  passes,  or  corrmles  tho  channel  in  which  it 
flows,  or  the  reservoirs  in  which  it  is  contained ;  it  also  acts  nu'clianically,  when,  on  being 
iinbilM'd  by  rocks,  it  increases  their  weight,  nnd  thus  favours  their  rending,  blipping,  and 
overturning;  and,  lastly,  it  actjf  niechanieally,  when,  by  its  freezing  in  finsures,  it  breaks  up 
moimtain  innsses  nnd  rocks.  It  acts  chi'iniralli/,  when  it  dissolves  ixirticnlar  mineral  sub- 
stances, as  rm-k-salt,  out  of  the  rocks  through  which  it  percolates. 

SuiMECT.  1. — Mechanical  lUstroying  Effects  of  Water. 

(1.)  Rivulets  and  Rivers.  Running  waters,  in  their  conrso  from  the  higher  to  the 
lower  parts  of  a  country,  carry  along  with  them  the  debris  already  ])re|)ared  by  the  action 
of  the  weather  on  exposed  rocks,  and  also  more  or  less  considerahlo  ]Kirtions  of  the  strata 
of  the  basin  in  wiiich  tlioy  flow.  The  ([uantity  of  abraded  matter  depends  in  a  great  degree 
on  tho  quantity  of  sand  or  gravel  the  river  carries  along  with  it ;  it  being  a  fact,  that  running 
water,  when  i)uro,  acts  but  feebly  on  com])iict  strata,  and  displays  its  sciK)i)iiig  or  excavating 
|Kiwer  only  when  carrying  ahaig  with  it  sand,  gravel,  nnd  such  other  matters,  which  com- 
nninicate  to  it  a  mechanical  destroying  action.  As  the  velocity  of  tho  river  diminishes, 
its  carrying  jiower  diminishes;  and  frequently,  long  before  it  has  reached  the  marsh,  lake, 
or  the  sea  into  which  it  disemliogues  itself,  it  carries  only  slime  and  slcech,  leaving  the 
gravels  and  larger  solid  masses  in  higher  parts  of  its  course.  The  transporting  power  of 
water  is  nmch  greater  than  many  aro  aware  of:  it  is  strikingly  shown  by  the  enormous 
quantities  of  rubbisli,  and  great  blocks  of  stone,  which  are  swept  along  by  ri\  iilets  when  in 
the  state  of  flixxl  or  swollen.  This  transporting  power  is  materially  assisted  by  flio  diminished 
specific  gravity  of  the  rocks  when  hnmerseil  in  the  water,  by  which  their  weight  is  often 
diminished  one-third,  and  even  one-half.  The  transporting  of  heavy  stones  by  water  in 
situations  whore  ice  occurs  is  assisted  by  tho  ice  which  adheres  to  them,  and  which  dimin- 
ishes the  specific  gravity  of  tho  mass. 

(2.)  Lakes.  Around  the  margins  of  many  lakes  we  ol)serve  a  beach,  formed  of  tho  fi'ag- 
inents  of  tho  neighliouring  strata,  broken  ofT  in  pnrt  by  the  waters  of  t!ie  lake.  Tho  bursting 
of  lakes  also  occasions  great  changes  in  the  neighbouring  country,  which  changes  are  of  a 
mechanical  destroying  nature. 

(3.)  Ocean.  The  waters  of  tho  ocean  exercise  a  powerful  destroying  ofTcct  on  coasts. 
If  tlie  coasts  are  Iwld  and  rugged,  they  are  violently  assaulted  by  tho  waves  of  the  ocean ; 
the  crags  and  cliffs  split  and  tumble  down,  in  frightful  and  irregular  succession.  The  perfo- 
rated rocli,  tho  Diireholm,  on  the  west  coast  of  Shetland  ;  the  perforated  rocks  described  by 
Captain  Cook  near  New  Zealand ;  the  stalks,  holms,  and  skerries  on  the  coasts  of  Shetland,. 

Vol.  I.  18*  2B 


i\\\ 


ii-^ 


ri 


01 


I* 


ttf"' 


■i 

m  scrKNCR  OP  awMiHAPHY.  Pa«t  n. 

Srotliiml,  Bwl  Norway,  arc  oft'citii  of  flm  ilcHtroyiiix  imwur  of  tho  wnven  of  flic  moiin,  con- 
jdiiii'il  Willi  till'  Kimwmix  actuiii  ot'llm  wnitlii'r.  On  iliiim)  riH'ky  ohihIh  wIktp  llii'  Htriitii  iiro 
of  uiii"<iiml  linnlmwM,  tli(>  nottrr  iKirtioiiH,  uml  nWt  |Mirt  of  llio  niirrdiiiMlinj;  ImrdtT  iimitu,  nrn 
ruiiKivi'il  liy  llio  nction  of  tlii>  wavi-*;  anil  limn  ura-rai'rt  lire  toriiiiMl, 

Tim  wiitiTH  of  llm  orciiii  tirtcn  iiIiki  raiw  I'.ri'iiiltlil  riivii(;i'H  in  low  roiintrifd  i'.v|K)hp(I  to 
llii'ir  tiiry.  Itollitnd  tlmiiiilirH  iniiny  Htrikini;  i>xiuii|>I<>n  of  itn  ili'viidtatiiiK  power,  In  llie 
yi'iir  l-'*i»  tlio  wntofN  nt'  the  ori-tin,  ii)j;itittpil  by  ii  violent  teiii|)«'Hf,  iniinilaleil  the  eoiintry  j 
ilie  Uliiiie,  HWollen  lit  the  time  hv  e.vtraordiniiry  (IihxIh,  ami  retiiineil  iit  a  ((reat  heifflit,  |Mirlly 
by  till'  wiitem  of  tlio  ixtean,  miif  partly  by  the  wiiwl  blowin({  in  ii  contrary  ilireelion  to  ita 
coiirne,  Kprend  over  the  neiylilHHiriii;,' eoiiiitry :  but,  the  tein|M!Ht  luiviiii,'  nuddeidy  Htibnided, 
the  lnt'hly  nlevtttwl  waterM  retired,  with  unrli  velocity  and  forco  ns  to  carry  with  them  ii 
ciiiiiiiderafdo  |iortion  of  the  noil,  and  letl  in  it»  idiiro  the  mm  nosv  named  tho  '/.iii^ilrr  Sin. 
Ill  the  year  I'Wl,  a  ffreat  inundation  wibniorKed  the  Kouthern  part  of  the  province  ot  llullnnd, 
drowned  (l<),(NHI  porwiiiN,  and  on  retirin((  formed  the  Hifn-lluoK. 

The  action  of  tho  Hen  on  the  mibmnrine  land  in  alwi  worthy  of  notice.  Stovcnnon  spcnkH 
of  nitritntiona  of  tho  »ca  reacliinf^  to  a  depth  of  iipwardn  of  2(K)  feet ;  ntntint;  that,  at  a  con- 
niileruble  depth  the  power  of  the  ocean  in  m  conNiderablo  nn  to  break  rocka  in  piecea,  und 
throw  them  npon  tho  coasts  in  iiiaHMei),  of  varioiw  ai/es  and  forma.  Thiia  ho  aaya,  "  mimeroua 
proot'a  of  tho  a«ia  boinjf  diatiirbed  to  n  coiiaidprHble  depth  liave  alao  la'currod  ainc(!  the  erec- 
tion of  tho  Bell-Rock  lii^rlit-hoiixe,  Hitiiated  u|Hin  a  annkcn  rock  in  tho  aea,  twelve  milea  ofl' 
Arbroath,  in  FortUrahire.  S<iino  ilrift-slonvii  of  lar^o  dirnenaiona,  nieaaurin^r  npwarda  of 
thirty  cubic  foct,  or  more  than  two  tona  wnijjht,  have,  during  atorma,  been  often  thrown  upon 
the  rock  from  the  deep  water.  Theae  larjje  lionhler-sfonta  are  ao  familiar  to  the  light- 
lionae  koepora  at  tliia  atiUion,  iia  to  bo  by  thorn  tenned  travellera,*  On  the  couat  of  the  muin 
land  of  Shetlnml,  particularly  on  the  weat  coaat,  wo  have  obaerveil  many  atriking  diaplaya 
of  tho  power  of  tho  waves  in  moviiiflf  enormona  ninaaea  of  rocka. 

The  currents  that  traverse  tho  neean,  like  rivera  on  the  dry  land,  probably  acoop  out  beda 
for  thomaolvoa,  and  carry  awiiv,  und  often  to  distant  placea,  frtcnt  ijuantitiea  of  abraded 
matter.  Tho  pulf  atreain,  and  other  brunchca  of  tlio  (jreiit  etpiinoi'tial  current,  may  oct 
powert'nlly  inthia  way;  and  flie  piime  mny  he  the  caao  with  the  currents  in  other  aciia, 
nnd  thiMi<  that  enter  mcditerrunnaii  acna  and  wind  round  them,  oa  tho  Baltic  and  Medi- 
terranean. 

(4.)  Arlion  of  wairr  hy  its  own  wrifrfit.  Water  by  ita  own  weiRht  contribntea  very  much 
to  the  deirrndation  of  the  siirliiee  of  the  fflolie,  Sometimea  great  nuiaaea  of  rock,  particu- 
larly thoae  of  a  RolV  and  ixiroua  nature,  imbibe  much  water,  by  which  their  weight  ia  in- 
creased, and  tlina  occasions  breakinij  nnd  rending,  and  slipping  of  ^la8^e8  often  of  enormona 
magnitude.  Clay  beds  wnnetimes  heconin  soft  from  the  jiercolutidn  of  rain  or  anow  water 
from  the  superincumbent  strata.  When  this  takes  place  the  superincumbent  beds  loso  their 
anpport,  ami  if  the  clay  and  superiiiiposed  rocks  ure  inclined  at  a  conaideriible  angle,  the 
rwks  in  vast  masses  separate,  and  slide  down  into  the  lower  part  of  the  country.  The  fall 
of  the  Rosabcrg,  in  Hwitzerland,  in  September  1H()2,  may  be  mentioned  aa  an  e.vamplo  of 
this  phenomenon.  This  mountain  (Rosabers)  is  fillKl  feet  high,  nnd  lies  opjwsito  to  tho 
Rigiberg,  which  rises  0182  fed  ataive  the  level  of  the  aea.  Tho  Rosaberg  ia  com[)oaed  of 
molasse,  with  beda  of  clay,  and  nil  inclined  at  an  angle  of  45°  to  .W.  It  is  aaid  that  the 
clay  in  some  of  the  beds  was  much  softened  by  the  percolating  water,  nnd  the  thick  aupcr- 
incnmbent  bods  of  molasse,  in  this  way  losing  their  supiairt,  were  aeparated  from  the  inclmcd 
and  sort  surface  nndornoatli,  nnd  slid  into  tiie  valley  below.  This  avnlnnche  of  dcbria  nnd 
mnd  overwhelmed  several  villages,  nnd  destroyed  from  800  to  000  persons.  In  the  year 
1714,  the  west  aide  of  the  Diablereta,  in  tho  Valais,  separated,  and  in  ita  ccairsc  downwards 
covered  the  neighlKiuring  country  with  its  ruins  for  two  miles  in  length  nnd  breadth ;  the 
immense  l)l<K;ks  of  stones  and  heaps  of  rnbbish  interrupted  the  course  of  the  rivers,  and 
lakes  were  thus  formed.  In  the  venr  101-".  the  once  considerable  town  of  I'leurs,  in  the 
Grisons,  with  the  neighliotiring  village  of  Rchehuio,  were  overwhelmed  W  a  vast  niaaa 
of  rock,  which  had  imbibed  nuich  water,  and  seixiratcd  from  the  south  side  of  tho  mountain 
-of  Corto. 

(5.)  Effectx  of  the  frnziiiir  of  wittvr.  In  those  regions  of  the  earth  where  tho  freezing 
and  thawing  of  water  tikes  place,  tho  expansive  uml  destroying  nction  of  ice  ia  often  dis- 
played on  n  grand  scale.  In  tho  history  of  northern  countries  we  meet  with  many  accounts 
of  the  noiaes  nnd  rendiiigs  of  rocks,  occasioned  hy  the  expansion  of  water  during  its  freezing 
in  tho  fltsiires  of  rocks.  Terrible  disa.sfers  take  pliee  in  nlpino  countries  by  the  bursting 
nnd  tall  of  great  masses  of  rock,  split  by  the  freezing  of  the  water  in  rents. 

(().)  Drslroi/inff  pffirls  of  irp  twil  snow.  Water  in  the  form  of  ice  causes  considerable 
changes  on  the  snrfiice  of  the  earth.  Thus,  when  floated  along  in  great  innsses  by  rivers,  it 
breaks  up  their  bank.s  nnd  thus  ntlbrds  them  an  opportunity  of  ileva.stating  the  lower  country ; 
and  the  ma.ssos  are  ofl»n  so  great,  that  enormous  heaps  of'^the  strntA  are  thereby  torn  oft' and 
carried  to  a  distance.  When  sea  ice  is  drifted  against  tho  clifl's  and  precipices  on  the  coast, 
the  breaking  and  destruction  it  occasions  sometimes  almost  pass  belief.     For  tho  breaking 


'  vi  •  v: 


r!.i!i  S,-.r.  IT/ 


IT 


II. 


notm  II. 


GKOONOflY. 


til 


I,  roll- 
U\  II  ro 
w,  iiri' 

wril  til 
III  till' 
luiiiry  1 
,  (mrlly 

\  to  it* 
l)lliull'>l< 

tlli'lll  11 
Vr  S'fl. 
lollnnti, 

\  fipriik« 
il  It  con- 
cex,  mwl 

lUllHTOUM 

llio  cri'c- 
iiiilci  oft" 
wariln  of 
)wn  III""' 
;lio  UrIiI- 
thi'»n<"'* 
K  di»l)liiy« 

» out  bt'ds 
uf  abrulfil 
t,  nmy  "ct 
jtlicr  will". 
ami  Mcdi- 

vrry  niucli 

:k,  iinrticii- 

•itjlil  in  ill- 

f  I'liormoiiii 

^iiow  water 

loHO  tlii'ir 

uncle,  the 

Tlic  full 

'Xiiniiilo  of 

site  to  the 
)iiHK»eil  of 
id  that  the 
lick  supcr- 
.hc  inclined 
dolirirt  tinil 
[u  thp  ycnr 
downwards 
rciidth;  the 
riverx,  nnd 
'iirs,  in  the 

Vlist   1111188 

mountain 

Iho  freczint? 
Ih  oilen  dis- 
^ly  iicoountti 
litri  fteczinij 
Ihc  hursting 

lonsideraUo 
lliy  rivers,  it 
Icr  country ; 
Itoruoft'and 
In  the  coast, 
lie  breakuig 


I 


up  mid  inovini;  of  InrKo  nuuiMHi  of  nick,  oii>'  of  ihc  moiit  pi  verfuT  engine*  employed  by 
nature  uro  the  irlncirrH.  TheN*'  iiiiihueH  nl'  riin|{ritli  'I  WBter  aii<l  !<iui\v,  'n  their  coiirtndown- 
wnril,  piiNh  iH'liirii  them  eiioriiiiiiiM  i|ii(intitii'n  of  brofcu'M  fieky  matter,  which  fiiriil  gtetA 
MioiiiiiU,  niiiiiud  nioriuno. 

HuMMrr.  'i. — t'himwal  ilrxh  'i/iiiu  l\ffirt$  nf  Waitf. 
AtliioNiiliorin  water  eiilrrii  into  thu  lUNiire!*  of  rockn  in  'i  pure  Ntate,  hut  inMiea  ftiflh  "Ifiiin 
more  or  leHN  iinureKiiatod  with  iiiiiierul  iiiiitterN  of  viiriiKiH  kiiuN  nliraih'd  tVom  the  strata 
through  which  they  |nihii.  The  nioNt  uhiiiidant  HiilMitiinco  hriJii)(ht  out  in  thin  way  tVoin  tho 
interior  of  the  criiHl  of  the  earth  i*  lime,  which  iM  de|KiHito<l  iVom  t.hcsft  rHlcarcoim  water*  in 
tho  l!irm  of  tullH.  Many  of  the  excavatioim  in  hmeHtono  are  (mrtly  owinj;  tu  thjii  df^stroyinpr 
otil'ct  of  water.  Sprint;  watern,  in  puHHin^  throu|;h  hed*  of  tfy|Niiim  and  rock  wit,  diMwdvn 
a  |x)rtioii  of  them,  and  in  thin  way  HomutimeH  occiiMion  uunaiderable  chanj;oii  in  the  interior 
and  even  thu  Nurliice  of  the  cartli,  liy  tho  Nii|wrincumbunt  ■trata  yloldinn  (*^'^'  ^'i"  holhiwM 
formed  by  tho  removal  of  the  Halt  and  (fy|Mum. 

HiiBKKrr,  \\.—\ffchanirul  fitrming  FJfce.U  i\f  Wattr. 

(1.)  tWminff  vffvrU  of  titrinif*.  HprinK*  briiiif  from  tho  interior  of  the  oarth  muddy 
matter  of  variuun  iteMcriptionH ;  and  in  thu  coiirHo  ol  time,  if  the  HprinffH  aro  RpoutinK-nprini^ii, 
liillockH  and  hillH  of  coiiNideruble  nmKnitiidn  are  thiiH  formo<l. 

('2.)  liukiH.  When  lake*  aro  tilled  up,  or  are  eniiitie<l,  we  And  the  wpacc  formerly  occin 
iod  liy  tiiem  covered,  to  a  ffreater  or  leiwi  denlli,  with  tho  alluvial  matter  broii(;ht  into  them 
ly  tho  river*  tliat  How  into  them.  When  liiKe*  humt  tlioir  barrier*,  at  different  time*,  they 
leave  on  their  *ide*  a  »erie*  of  natural  terrace*  or  platfonn*,  of  which  wo  have  a  *plendiil 
example  in  (ilen  Koy.  In  Olcn  Roy  theHO  terrace*  are  known  under  the  namo  of  Pnrallrl 
Rnath  of  Ulfu  Roy ;  liecaiiae  *omo  have  fancied  they  were  not  natural  arrangement*,  but 
work*  of  art, — riNul*  tortned  by  tho  ancient  inhabitant*. 

(:),)  Riven.  When  river*  aro  in  a  Htato  of  fltNxl  they  nflen  overflow  their  bank*,  and 
cover  tho  nei};hbourin)f  country  with  their  woter*.  Thus  the  Oiuijjch,  near  if*  mouth,  in  tho 
rainy  *oaM<)ri  overflow*  the  country  to  tiie  breadth  of  one  hundred  mile*,  and  to  tho  depth  of 
nearly  twelve  fectj  and  the  Indii*,  during  it*  period  of  inundation,  extends  thirty  or  forty 
mile*  ft-om  it*  bank*.  Thi*  fltHxl  water  carrie*  with  il  muddy  and  other  matter*,  and  dcpoHit* 
them  u|K)n  tho  land.  Oenird  say*  that  the  annual  fliKid*  of  the  Nile  hail  raised  the  surface 
of  UpjH'r  K({ypt  about  six  feet  four  inche*,  Eii|;li*h  moamire,  wince  the  commencement  of' 
the  CliriHtian  era,  or  four  inches  in  a  century.  In  other  countrie*  extensive  depo*it«, 
extendinif  aloiiff  the  «iiies  of  river*,  are  fonned  by  the  overflowiiiff  of  their  water*.  VVhero 
river*  enter  lake*  and  the  aea,  they  form  triiinKular  piece*  of  lanil  named  drltas,  fVom  their 
resoiiiblance  in  form  to  tho  trianJ(umr-^llapell  Greek  letter  A.  These  deltji*  ore  more  strongly 
marked  in  lake*  than  in  nearly  inchxtcil  hoiih,  a*  tlie  IMediterrancan ;  and  in  these  sea*  than 
in  tho  ocean,  where  the  deposition*  are  much  interrupted  by  current*.  The  most  fiimou* 
in  history  of  these  delta*  is  that  of  tho  Nile.  This  delta  ha*  been  considerably  enlarf^ed 
since  tlie  time  of  Herodotus,  but  not  to  the  extent  stated  by  many  writers.  At  no  pjeat 
distance  from  tho  shore  of  tlie  delta  tho  depth  of  tho  Mediterranean  is  about  seventy-two 
feet,  and  fiirtiier  out  tho  sea  suddenly  deepen*  to  20<K)  feet, — a  depth  very  probably  beyond 
reach  of  the  delta,  and  which  may  lie  conjectured  to  bo  tho  orijrinal  depth  of  this  part  of 
tlie  Mediterranean  aea.  The  deltas  of  the  other  river*  that  flow  into  the  Mediterranean, 
as  the  Rhone  and  tho  Po,  exhibit  phenomena  similar  to  those  observed  in  the  delta  of  Effypt ; 
and  by  their  considerable  extent,  oiid  annual  prowth,  furnisli  ample  proof*  of  the  forminjj 
power  of  rivers,  and  of  tho  resemblance  of  alluvial  matter*  to  strata  of  an  older  date.  The 
great  sea-<leltu8,  or  those  formed  where  rivers  flow  info  the  ocniin,  are  sometime*  on  a  great 
scale,  as  is  tho  ciise  with  the  Ganges,  of  which  a  most  interesting  account  ha*  been  given 
by  Reiinel  and  some  other  writers.  A  full  description  of  this  tiiagnificciit  delta,  as  also  of 
the  vast  deposite*  at  the  mouths  of  tho  Mis»is.sippi,  Orinoco,  and  other  great  rivers,  will  bo 
given  in  the  Ixidy  of  this  work.  At  present,  however,  we  may  remark,  that  the  quantity  of 
matter  carried  into  tho  sea  by  all  tho  river*  on  the  globe  i*  very  great,  and  fully  as  consider- 
able us  that  stated  by  some  author*,  who  have  been  held  as  exaggerating  the  amount  of  this 
earthy  matter  carried  from  the  dry  land  to  the  shores  of  the  ocean.  Tho  alluvial  matter 
brought  down  by  rivcr*  not  only  forms  great  tract*  of  land  at  their  mouths,  but  also,  through 
the  ogency  of  currents,  ii««iBfed  by  tlie  waves  of  the  iKean,  gives  rise  to  extensive  tracts  of 
low  and  flat  land,  which  extend  along  the  coast*. 

Downs.  When  the  sea-coast  i*  low,  and  the  bottom  consists  of  sand,  the  waves  push 
this  sand  toward*  the  shore,  where,  at  every  reflux  of  the  tide,  it  becomes  partially  dried, 
and  the  winds,  which  oflen  blow  from  the  sea,  drill  up  some  portions  of  it  upon  tho  beach. 
By  this  forming  action  of  the  ocean,  sandy  flats  and  ilownK,  or  ranges  of  sond-hills,  are 
formed  along  tho  coast.  When  this  sand  is  moved  about  by  tho  wind,  it  forms  what  is  called 
ilig  sand-flood.  Westward  from  the  mouth  of  the  river  Findhorn,  in  Morayshire,  a  district 
consisting  of  upwards  of  ten  square  miles  of  land,  which,  owing  to  its  fertility,  was  once 


i     ,  I 


SI3 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  U. 


4 


1 


n* 


III'. 


li 


named  the  Granary  of  Moray,  has  boon  depopulated,  and  rendered  utterly  unproductive  by 
the  sand-flood.  This  barren  waste  may  be  cliaracterised  as  liilly ;  tlic  accumulatiuns  of  sand 
composing  tliese  liills  freijuently  varyinj,'  in  tlieir  heigiit,  and  liitowir'o  in  tlicir  situations. 
The  sand  hills  of  Barry,  at  tlio  mouth  of  tiie  Tay,  composed  of  blown  sand,  are  from  200 
to  300  feet  high.  Belnelvic  links,  in  Aberdccnsiure,  and  tiie  extensive  sandy  tracu  in  tiio 
Shetland  and  Western  Islands,  are  of  the  same  description.  These  blowing  sands  some- 
times block  up  the  mouths  of  rivers  and  rivulets :  thus,  many  years  ago,  the  mouth  of  tlio 
river  Findhorn  in  Moray  having  become  blocked  up  with  blowing  sand,  it  cut  out  for  itself 
its  present  channel,  which  conducts  it  by  a  more  direct  course  to  the  sea.  In  consequence 
of  this,  the  old  town  of  Findhorn  had  changed  its  situation  irom  the  cast  to  the  west  side  of 
the  river,  and  its  site  has  since  been  covered  by  the  sea.  The  lake  at  Strathbeg,  which 
covers  a  square  mile  of  country,  on  the  coast  of  Aberdeenshire,  about  ten  miles  north  from 
Peterhead,  was  formed  about  170  years  ago,  by  the  ciioking  up  by  blowing  sand  of  a  small  ^ 
stream  that  fell  into  the  sea.  These  barriers  sometimes  give  way,  when  tlie  tract  is  again, 
for  a  time,  covered  by  the  sea;  a  new  barrier  again  rises,  and  the  sea  is  excluded  a  second 
time.  These  operations,  on  a  great  scale,  would  aiford  alternation  of  productions  of  the  land 
and  of  the  sea.  The  sands  of  the  African  deserts  may  be  sea  sands,  or  land  sands,  or  botii 
together.  Dr.  Oudnoy,  Major  Denham,  and  Captain  Clapperton  have  abided  to  our  knowledge 
of  the  blowing  sands  of  the  African  deserts.  The  coloured  engraving  of  the  sand-hills  of 
tlie  African  desert  in  Denham,  Oudney,  and  Clapperton's  Narrative,  is  a  striking  and  in- 
teresting representation  of  the  form  of  the  moving  sand-hills  of  Africa. 

Sand  banks.  The  bed  of  the  German  Ocean  supports  many  accumulations  of  sand, 
called  sand-banks.  One  of  these  extends  fiwm  the  Frith  of  Forth,  in  a  north-easterly 
direction,  to  a  distance  of  110  miles,  while  another,  the  Dogger  Bank,  extends,  north  and 
south,  for  upwards  of  350  miles.  The  average  height  of  these  submarine  sand-banks  is 
estimated  at  about  seventy-eight  feet :  the  whole  surface  of  the  various  shoals  in  this  sea 
laid  down  in  charts,  according  to  Stevenson,  is  equal  to  about  one-fifth  of  the  whole  area  of 
the  German  Ocean,  or  about  one-third  of  the  whole  extent  of  England  and  Scotland.  These 
banks  are  composed  of  quartz  sand,  varying  in  the  size  of  the  grain,  from  coarse  to  fine, 
which  is  abundantly  mixed  with  broken  shells  and  fragments  or  corals.  These  banks  are 
conjectured  to  owe  their  origin  to  the  action  of  currents  and  the  tides. 

SuBSECT.  4. — Chemical  forming  Effects  of  Water. 

(1.)  Springs.  Many  spring  waters,  after  dissolving,  by  means  of  the  superabundant 
carbonic  acid  with  which  they  are  impregnateii,  calcareous  matter  abraded  from  limestone 
rocks,  or  rocks  contairing  lime,  allow  the  carbonate  of  lime  to  crystallize,  in  consequence  of 
the  escape  of  the  acid,  and  in  this  way  form  depositions  of  calc-sinter,  or  calcareous  alaba.ster, 
on  the  roofs,  sides,  and  floors  of  caves;  or  fill  up  fissures  in  rocks,  and  form  veins;  or  wlien 
flowmg  over  the  surface  of  rocks,  form,  if  the  surface  is  horizontal,  horizontal  beds — it 
inclined,  inclined  beds — of  calcareous  sinter  and  calcareous  tuflu.  These  beds  sometimes 
extend  very  far,  and  with  a  thickness  of  200  or  300  feet  The  water  of  such  springs,  when 
collected  into  hollows  so  as  to  form  lakes,  often  deiwsits  vast  quantities  of  calcareous  sinters 
and  tuffos;  and  hence  sucli  lakes,  when  emptied,  present  extensive  calcareous  dejiosits. 
The  travertine  employed  at  Rome  for  building  is  a  lake  or  spring  calcareous  deposit  of 
sinter  and  tufla ;  and  the  town  of  Guancavelica  in  South  America  is  built  of  a  compact  cal- 
careous tuffa  from  the  calcareous  springs  in  the  neiglilwurhood.  In  the  mountain  limestone 
districts  in  England,  also  in  tlie  lias  districts  both  in  England  and  Scotland,  the  roofs,  walls, 
and  floors  of  caves  are  often  elegantly  ornamented  by  numerous  varieties  of  calcareous 
sinter.  In  Persia,  as  mentioned  by  Sir  John  Malcolm,  there  are  great  deposits  of  a  very  fine 
calc  sinter,  whicli  is  extensively  employed  for  ornamental  purposes ;  and  in  tlie  marshes  of 
the  great  plain  of  the  vast  circular  valley  of  Hungary,  according  to  Beudant,  there  is  a 
constant  deposition  of  horizontal  strata  of  calcareous  tuflu  and  sinter,  which  are  so  hard  as 
to  be  used  for  building,  all  tlu;  houses  of  Czlca  being  constructed  of  these  minerals.  Thf 
|)ea-stono,  a  beautiful  calcareous  carbonate,  is  formed  in  very  considerable  abundance  from 
the  waters  of  calcareous  hot  springs,  as  those  at  Carlsbad  in  Bohemia.  As  these  calcareous 
springs  often  flow  into  rivers,  and  the.so  rivers  terminate  in  the  sea,  it  is  evident  that  in  this 
way  a  vast  quantity  of  carbonate  of  lime  must  reach  the  o<;can  where  it  will  be  deposited  in 
the  various  forms  of  sinter,  luffa,  and  limestone.  The  Geysers,  or  hot  springs  of  Iceland, 
and  those  of  St.  Michael's  in  the  Azore.s,  deposit  on  the  dry  land  vast  quantities  of  siliceous 
.sinter.  This  siliceous  mineral,  which  is  sometimes  like  o|)al,  although  generally  pure,  is 
not  always  so,  being  occasionally  intermixed  with  other  earths,  and  thus  giving  rise  to  par- 
ticular mineral  substances.  Such  springs  also  pour  their  waters  into  the  ocean,  and  even 
rise  from  the  bottom  of  the  sea  sometimes  a  considerable  way  upwards,  or  even  jot  above  the 
surface  level  of  the  sea,  all  the  time  throwing  out  much  water  impregnated  with  silica, 
which  is  deposited  on  the  submarine  land  in  various  forms  and  states,  depending  on  a  variety 
Df  circumstances,  which  our  limits  prevent  our  noticing. 

(2.)  Lakes.     Having  already  noticed  the  calcareous  depositions  from  the  waters  of 


Sect. 


u. 

eby 
Banil 
ions. 
•200 
I  the 
loine- 
if  the 
itself 
acnce 
iile  of 
which 
I  from 
1  ginaU  ,. 
againt 
second 
[w  land 
or  both 
wledge 
•hills  of 
and  in- 

3f  sand, 
•easterly 
jrth  and 
banks  is 

this  sea 
e  area  of 
1.  These 
e  tx)  fine, 
banks  an: 


;rabundant 
limestone 
lequence  of 
[alabaster, 
;  or  when 
il  beds— it 
.sometimes 
ings,  when 
lous  sinters 
Is  dejHJsits. 
deposit  of 
impact  cal- 
1  limestone 
[oofs,  walls, 
calcareous 
a  very  fine 
marshes  of 
there  is  a 
so  hard  as 
irals.    The 
lance  from 
calcareous 
ithat  in  thif' 
leposited  in 
of  Iceland, 
of  siliceous 
tlly  pure,  i'^ 
rise  to  par- 
ti, and  even 
pt  alwve  t\ic 
with  silicn, 
m  a  variety 

waters  of 


Book  II. 


GEOGNOSY. 


SIS 


some  lakes,  we  may  now  mention  some  other  dejjoaits  that  appear  to  owe  their  origin  ic 
lakes.  The  lx)g  iron-ore,  or  liydro-pliosphato  of  iron,  is  often  found  in  such  situations  as  to 
sliow  tliat  it  has  been  deposited  from  the  waters  of  lakes ;  and  in  pome  countries  it  is  col- 
lected from  the  sides  and  bottoms  of  lakes  once  in  a  certoin  number  of  years;  thus  allowing 
tliat  it  is  still  forming  in  such  situations.  In  salt  lakes  considerable  depositions  of  salt  take 
place;  and  wiien  such  collections  of  wafer  dry  up,  or  are  drained  off,  the  sides  and  bottoms 
of  the  liollows  are  found  incrusted  with  salt,  wliicli  is  sometimes  disjMiscd  in  bods  alternately 
witii  buds  of  clay. 

(8.)  Marine  incruflatinns.  Collections  of  perfect  and  broken  sea-shells  and  nf  corals  are 
sometimes  found  agglutinated  by  calcareous,  clayey,  or  ferruginous  matters,  forming  banks 
or  bods  of  considerable  extent.  Beds  of  tliis  kind,  particularly  those  formed  of  shells,  are 
met  with  in  many  parts  of  the  coasts  of  this  island.  In  other  coimtries,  as  in  the  West 
Indies,  a  solid  conglomerate  of  shells  and  corals  lines  a  considerable  extent  of  coast  on 
several  of  the  islands.  The  human  skeleton  from  the  island  of  Guiulaloupo,  in  the  British 
Aluseum,  is  imbedded  in  a  rock  of  this  description. 

SuBSECT.  5. — Effects  of  the  Atmosphere,  tj-c. 

Effects  of  the  atmosphere.  The  air  and  moisture  of  tlie  atmosphere  effect  great  clianges 
on  the  rocks  at  the  surface  of  the  earth.  They  eitlier  simply  disintegrate  the  rock,  or  not 
only  break  it  down,  but  also  occasion  a  change  in  its  chemical  constitution.  Sandstone,  and 
other  rocks  of  the  same  general  description,  oflen  yield  very  readily  to  the  weather;  their 
basis  or  ground  is  washed  away,  and  the  quartz,  mica,  and  otlier  particles  remain  in  the  form 
of  sand  and  grovel.  When  trap  veins  intersect  strata,  it  frequently  happens  that  the  softer 
parts  of  the  rock  are  destroyed,  while  the  harder  trap  appears  rising  several  feet  or  yards 
above  the  neiglibouring  surface,  and  crossing  the  country  like  walls ;  hence,  in  Scotland, 
they  are  named  tbjkes.  The  variously  shaped  summits  of  mountains  and  hills  owe  much 
of  their  form  to  the  destroying  influence  of  the  weather.  Some  caves,  as  certain  open  caves 
in  sandstones  and  limestones,  are  also  formed  by  the  destroying  powers  of  tiie  atmosphere. 
The  various  changes  in  tlie  form  of  rocks,  by  which  they  assume  columnar,  globular,  tabular, 
and  indeterminate  angular  forms,  and  fall  into  scales,  crusts,  layers,  g-ravrls,  and  saiuls,  are, 
to  a  certiin  extent,  effects  of  the  destroying  powers  of  the  atmosphere.  Valleys  owe  much 
of  their  form  and  extent  to  the  destroying  influence  of  the  atmosphere.  Their  sides  and 
summits,  everywhere  exposed  to  its  action,  become  covered  with  debris;  and  in  this  way 
valleys  experience  greater  changes  than  are  produced  on  their  bottom  by  the  passage  of 
the  river,  and  on  its  sides  by  the  rushing  of  the  torrent.  The  chemical  destroyinff  etTects 
are  to  be  tracul  to  the  carbonic  acid  of  the  atmosphere,  and  to  the  vast  (piantities  of  the 
same  matter  which  rise  from  the  interior  of  the  enrtii :  this  acid  dissolves  lime,  abstracts 
alkaline  matters  from  granite  and  other  similar  rocks,  and  by  combining  with  iron,  converts 
that  universally  distributed  substance  into  a  s-oluble  carbonate.  The  oxygen  of  tiio  atmo- 
sphere also,  by  its  action  on  the  iron  and  other  constituents  of  rocks,  assists  in  breaking 
them  down. 

Effects  of  electricity  on  rocks.  Electricity,  as  a  chemical  agent,  may  be  considered  not 
only  as  directly  producing  an  infinity  of  changes,  but  also  as  influencing  almost  all  that  take 
place.  There  are  not  two  substances  on  the  surface  of  the  globe  that  are  not  in  different 
electrical  relations  to  each  other;  and  chemical  attraction  itself  seems  to  be  a  peculiar  form 
of  the  exhibition  of  electric  attraction :  and  whenever  the  atmosphere,  or  water,  or  any  part 
of  the  surface  of  the  earth,  gains  accunuilated  electricity  of  a  difl'erent  kind  from  tlie  con- 
tiguous surfaces,  the  tendency  of  this  electricity  is  to  produce  new  arrangements  of  the 
parts  of  those  surfaces.  Thus,  a  positively  electrified  cloud,  acting  even  at  a  great  distance 
on  a  moistened  stone,  tends  to  attract  its  oxygenous,  or  acidiform,  or  acid  ingredients;  and 
a  negatively  electrified  cloud  has  the  same  effect  uiwn  its  earthj',  alkaline,  or  metallic  mat- 
ter; and  the  silent  and  slow  operation  of  electricity  is  much  more  important  in  the  economy 
of  nature  than  its  grand  and  impressive  operation  in  lightning  and  thunder. 

Sect.  III. — On  Volcanoes,  and  the  Chanires  thry  produce  on  the  Land  and  the  Bottom  of 

the  Sea. 
The  agents  whicli  the  globe  conceals  in  its  interior,  and  whose  existence  is  manifested  at 
its  surfiiee,  are  made  known  to  us  by  the  phenomena  of  volcano(s  and  earthquakes.     We 
shall  first  describe  these  jihenomena,  and  afterwards  add  some  observations  on  their  causes. 

SimsECT.  1. — Distributintt  of  Volcanoes. 

Volennoes,  as  is  well  known,  are  openings  in  the  crust  of  the  earth,  whence  there  issue 
from  time  to  time  jets  of  iMiriiing  substances  and  currents  of  melted  matters  whicli  bear  the 
name  n\'  hinis.  These  openinirs  are  generally  on  the  summit  of  isolated  mountains;  tiiey 
have  the  f^inn  of  a  fiituirl,  and  take  tlie  name  of  craters. 

Position  if  volriinoes.  Volcanoes  occur  in  all  quarters  of  the  globe,  and  are  often  d'» 
'.ributed  in  a  linear  direction. 


fl 


i 

m 
T 

I:     i 


i  ii. 
ii  a!, 

I'm 


'Vl 


4!  I 


'  k";* 


,jt»' 


214 


SCIENCK  OF  r.KO(JRAPIIV. 


Part  IF. 


Dislrilintion. — Etiropo  coiilains  l)nt  low  Ixirnin^  voIciiiuhh,  On  llin  coimt  of  Sicily,  wi' 
Hoe  A']Umi  rixiiifjf  iiku  u  cuIossum  to  ii  hcijrlit  of  1(),H7()  IOii;;liNli  fbot  On  liio  opiKwiii!  uoaHt 
of  Iliily  Nvn  liiivn  V'cHuviuH,  wliiirh  iI(m\m  not  uttuin  more  tliiui  tlio  third  of  this  ulfviilion,  viz. 
iVXti  l('('l.  Iti'twcuii  thcui,  in  the  l.ipiiri  iHlandn,  wo  liiiil  the  Hiniill  volcimo  of  Hlroiiiholi, 
uiiil  tiio  voh'iiiiiirs  of  Vuloano  and  Viiluunollo,  wiiich  Htill  Hrn(lk(^  Tin'  ixhuidH  of  the  Aiclii- 
pohijTd,  at  Milo  and  Kantoriiio,  contiiin  nionntaiiiH  whicii,  dnrin^r  an  rarly  hiHtoric  porioil,  pro- 
(hiccd  torribh*  i};nciMis  pliononiena.  Icohind  in  tin;  north,  in  tlie  midst  of  snow  an<i  ice,  pre- 
sents til  our  view  many  voicaiKK's,  of  wliii;h  tht;  most  tirominent,  Meehi,  rises  to  u  liiii^rhl  of 
Th'MK)  fe(>t.  Farther  to  tin;  nortli,  in  the  desolate  and  dreary  Jan  Maven's  Islaiiil,  extendinfr 
between  nortli  latitnde  70"  40'  mid  71°  H',  is  the  volcano  of  Ksk  Alount,  which  rises  to  u 
hoijjht  of  ir)(K)  feet  nliovo  the  Noa-l>eauli  in  Janu!'<on'H  Hay.  Tlift  continent  of /l(tin,  as  Itir 
ns  IS  known  at  present,  exhibits  but  few  volcanoes.  Wo  can  scarcely  reckon  three  or  lour 
un  itii  wt>stern  shores,  or  on  tin;  od^es  of  the  (Jasniaii :  there  arc  none  in  ibt  northern  part : 
Hutnt'  but  va|r)iely  known  exist  in  Central  Asia:  in  the  east,  the  peninsula  of  Kamtschatka 
contains  live  or  six;  but  in  the  islands  which  surround  this  continent  their  number  is  j^reat. 
The  islands  on  thecoastof /\/ric«,  suclias  Iknirbon,  Madapiscar,  the  (.'ape  de  Verd  Islands,  the 
Canaries,  and  the  Azores,  also  coutuin  several  volcanotw.  In  Amirini,  if  we  except  those  of 
the  West  India  islands,  we  observe  the  jj reater  jiart  of  them  on  the  rid^e  of  that  jrreat  Cordil- 
lera, which,  like  an  immense  wall  or  lolVy  terrace,  Ixirders  the  weHt<>rn  part  of  that  conti- 
nent. They  are  remarkable  not  only  on  account  of  their  iHwition,  but  also  tiir  their  colossal 
form,  the  nature  of  the  ma.sses  of  which  they  are  com|Kised,  and  the  materials  they  throw 
out.  Torrents  of  tire  rarely  issue  from  them,  but  stn-anis  of  water  and  mud  are  of  treijuent 
occurrence:  the  total  number  of  American  volcanoes  is  iilHiut  eifrhty-six;  tln^y  are  placed  as 
it  were  in  {jroups.  The  kinj^doni  of  (luatemala  presi'iits  alwiit  twenty  ;  iii  M(!xico  there  are 
si.v,  in  the  number  of  which  is  the  Joriillo,  ho  well  known  from  the  account  of  Ilumlioldt. 
But  it  is  in  Peru  that  the  (greatest  (Kcur:  there  are  seven  in  that  country,  of  which  we  shall 
luenlion  I'iehincha,  nearly  15,9:11  feet  hifjh ;  Cotopaxi,  wicli  ri.scs  to  the  heifjlit  of  18,807 
feet;  and  Antisana,  which  attiiins  a  height  of  ID.llUi  i'eet.  On  a  roufjh  estimate,  we  state 
the  number  of  buruiiifr  volcanoes  includiiifr  solliitjiras  at  :)()!<;  of  these  1!)-1  are  in  islands, 
ond  the  other  109  are  on  the  continents :  tlu!  most  distant  from  the  sea  an;  those  of  Aiin'rica 
and  .\sia  ;  in  I'eru  there  are  volcanoes  thirty  leaijues  from  the  sea;  and  that  of  Poixicntepell 
near  Mexico,  which,  however,  is  now  only  a  smoking  volciino,  is  fitly-six  leiii,'nes;  and  th(;y 
occur  in  the  very  centre  of  Asia.  The  circnmstaiice  of  the  most  active  volcanoes  beiu<:f  situ- 
ated in  the  vicinity  of  the  sea,  is  a  fact  worthy  of  beinj,'  recollected ;  it  becomes  still  moro 
so  when  we  obs(>rve,  that  there  are  submarin<!  volcanoes  burning  in  the  midst  of  tlu?  waters. 
The  islands,  and  the  phenomena  which  they  have  lieen  observed  to  produce,  at  Santorino, 
on  the  coast  of  Iceland,  in  the  Azores,  &c.,  leave  no  doubt  respi^ctini;  tlieir  existence. 

Independently  of  volcanoes  in  a  stjite  of  activity,  the  interior  of  our  continents  ('oninins  a 
prcat  number  of  fxtinrt  vokanor.i,  but  which  still  present  their  oriffinal  form,  or  incontes- 
table remains  of  that  form  :  perhaps  no  country  contains  moro  numerous  and  splendid  displays 
of  them  than  France;  there  are  moro  than  a  hundred  in  Auverffiie,  Vivarais,  and  Cevennes. 
They  are  conical  niountain.s,  composed  of  laviw,  scoria^,  and  volcanic  ashi-s  heaiHid  uiwii  tjacli 
other ;  many  of  f hem  present  a  crater,  whicli  has  retained  its  form  in  a  ffreiiter  or  less  defrrcn ; 
and  sometimes  there  are  seen  as  it  were  issuing  from  their  bases  lavas  which  extend  to  a 
ilistjince  of  several  thousand  yards,  and  which  have  perfectly  jin'scrved  the  form  of  cnr- 
rmts :  the  matter  of  which  they  are  composiMl  resembles  that  of  lava  trap.  VVe  may  fur- 
ther remark,  that  volcanoes  ore  never  or  scarcely  ever  isolated ;  they  are  collected  into 
irroups.  This  is  the  case  willi  the  American  volcanoes;  those  of  Asm,  and  the*  different 
Archipeliijjoes  are  similarly  situated :  in  Eiiropi!,  the  Greek  islands  and  soethorn  Italy  i)re- 
seiit  distinct  fjroups.  Sometimes  volcanoes  ar^  arranged  one  after  the  oilier  in  the  same 
line,  as  is  tlie  ciisc  in  South  America,  and  in  the  extinct  volcanoes  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  Puy  de  Dome. 

Si'iwF.rr.  2. — Phrnomena  and  Throry  of  Vnlcannrs. 

Volcanoes  do  not  incessantly  t>mit  flames,  nor  do  lavas  constantly  flow  from  them ;  they 
remain  tor  ages  in  a  state  of  inactivity.  Vesuvius  was  extinct  from  time  immemorial,  when, 
awakening  t'nim  its  slnmlier,  it  suddenly  rekindled,  in  the  reign  of  Titus,  and  buried  the 
cities  of  I'ompeii,  Ilerculaneum,  and  Staliiie  under  its  ashes.  It  became  quiet  again  at  the 
end  of  the  fiHeenth  century;  and  in  l(i:l(),  when  it  resumed  its  action,  its  summit  wr.s  inlia- 
liited,  and  (hovered  with  W(xh1.  The  inhubitaiits  of  Catania  regarded  as  fables  the  accounts 
of  history  respecting  eruptions  of  .Etna,  till  the  perio<l  when  their  city  was  ravaged,  and  in 
part  destroyed,  by  the  lire.-!  of  that  volc'uio. 

Siibterrancmi  noises,  and  the  appearance  or  increase  of  smoke,  which  issues  from  the 
crater,  are  generally  the  I'lrst  symptoms  of  volcanic  action.  Presently  the  noi.se  becomes 
louder,  the  earth  treiiibles,  it  experieuc(!s  shocks,  and  every  thing  pr(x;laim3  that  it  is  in 
labour.  The  smoke  increases,  thickens,  and  becomes  charged  w^ith  ashes.  When  the  air  is 
traui|iiil,  the  >iiiol<e  is  seen  rising,  under  tin'  torin  ol'  an  immen.se  column,  to  a  very  great 


tII. 

f,  we 

COtt»* 

1,  viz.. 

\iTlii- 

I,  l>r«>- 
,,  ,,r.-; 

jflil  ut 

•s  U>  u 
,  ua  liir 
or  tour 
n  jmrt: 
scliiilka 

X  (rrullt. 

,i(Ih,  llic 

lllOMC  of 

t  Ciirilil- 

it  CDllti- 

colofwil 
;.y  throw 
troiiuciit 
|)laci!il  us 
llitsrt!  are 
luiiilwUlt. 
1  vv('  HhiiU 
of  lH,H(n 

\vo  Htatc 
ill  islands, 
,(•  Anuirii'tt 
l>iiitali'l>ull 
;  and  tlioy 

still  more 

1„.  wiiUirH. 

Saiitorino, 

Mice, 
couuiiis  a 

ir  incontcs- 

|li(\  (lisplnya 
CfWfunoH. 
\H)on  «!icli 
iss  (lojrrcR  ■) 
■xtonil  to  tt 

[nil  of  cnr- 
,,  may  fur- 
lectctl  into 
lie-  (ViiTercnt 
]i  Italy  pre- 
ri  the  same 
lurhooil  of 


Ihcni;  they 
[)rial,  when, 
1  buried  tlie 
Lpraiii  lit  the 
It  wr.s  inha- 
lie  accounts 
Igcd,  and  in 

_^.,  from  the 

■se  l)i'conie!i 

Tliat  it  is  i" 

l>n  the  air  is 

L  very  great 


Book  II. 


(JECJGNOSV. 


215 


hoij^lif,.  There,  fMidin^r  itholf  in  a  mnT  ntniiiNphere,  it  cnuwH  to  rise ;  its  upper  part  dilatinjr, 
torniH  iiK  It  W(!ri!  an  e.\|)aniieil  Hilininit,  placed  iiprin  a  lenfrlliened  Nhal)..  'I'lie  chxiil,  with  Uie 
hU|i|><)rtiii<r  eohinin,  in  liivoiirahie  cireuMibtnlice.s,  haH  the  li^riire  of  an  iiiiiiienHe  iiinbrellu,  or 
of  tlie  llaliiin  piM(>,  lo  which  i'liny  the  i'lider  conipan^d  that  of  tlie  eruption  of  Vemivins  in 
A.  1).  "0,  and  which  was  accurately  represiinlt^l  in  OcUAh'.t,  18*22.  At  other  times  tlie  snioko 
disperses  in  the  air:  it  there  tonus  thick  and  vast  clouds  whicii  oliscuro  tho  day,  and  covci 
tlie  surroundin;,'  country  with  darkness,  'J'huse  ccdiiiiuis  and  chiuds  are  ollcn  travi.Tsed  by 
cnornioiiH  jcXn  of  re<i-hot  sand,  resendilin^j  llaiM(!s,  and  rising  to  extruordinary  heights.  Home- 
times  Ihi'V  are  trav(!rsed  l)y  llashiis  of  li{r|itnin^r,  un<i  <jn  ail  sides  loud  explosionH  are 
heard.  'I  hen  then'  are  projected  ri;d-hot  stimes  and  niasH4^s  in  fusion.  They  issue  from  the 
volcano  with  a  noise  which  is  fre(|uently  vi^y  loud.  'J'hey  ris*;  into  the  air,  spreadin^r  out  in 
their  ]>rofrress,  and  liill  around  the  month  of  tlie  volcano  under  the  (i)rni  of  showers  of  ashuH, 
ficorin',  or  stxnies.  The  shocks  and  (piakinj,'s  of  the  (Ground  continue  and  increase  in  violence. 
in  lh(!  midst  of  these  convulsions,  and  on  these  accessions,  the  m<'lte<l  matter  which  filled 
the  suhterruuean  furnaces,  alre.'uly  carried  into  the  mountain,  is  raist-d  up  by  elastic  fluidfl; 
it  ascends  to  the  crater,  iills  it  up,  and  passiuf;  over  the  least  elevateil  part  of  this  enormous 
cavity,  spreads  out  ujion  the  tliinks  of  the  volcano.  It  then  dcsc(;nds,  sometimes  vary  (|uickly  ; 
Hometimes,  and  more  liecpiently,  as  a  majestic  river,  (piielly  rolled  ulon^  its  peaceliil  waters. 
Very  frt'tpiently,  when  the  lava  rises,  the  walls  which  contain  it  beintf  unable  to  resist  its 
inunense  pressun;  or  its  heat,  (rive  way  and  hurst  asunder.  It  rushes  forth  like  an  imp<!tuuuR 
torrent  throiifjh  this  new  aptirture;  rivers  and  torrents  of  fire  make  their  way  t<i  the  fixjt  of 
the  mountain ;  tlu^y  s|iri!ad  out  u|Km  the  nei;r|||K)iirinjr  p^round,  carryiufr  alon(<^  or  huryin^r  all 
that  they  (ind  in  their  way,  hreakiu},'  down  or  overthrowing,'  every  oi)stacle  that  op|)oses  their 
patisu^e.  In  tlit;  midst  of  torrents  of  fire,  enormous  currents  of  water  and  nnid  sometirncH 
issue  from  v'olcanoo.^,  and  delujjes  falling!;  from  the  atmosphere  increase  the  ravafjes,  lay 
waste  fields  which  lavas  had  spared,  and  carry  dei-'olation  into  places  which  hud  ulrea<ly 
thought  themselves  liappy  in  haviiijr  escaped  the  scoiir^i's  of  the  eruption.  Mitphitie  gases 
and  noxious  exhalations  sometimes  arise,  particularly  in  low  situations;  they  destroy  animals 
and  blast  vejjetation,  and  thus  complete  the  scene  of  mi.sery  and  di'solation. 

Afler  the  emission  of  llie  lavas  tlu;  (Mirth  seems  freed  of  tb(!  evil  whicli  agitated  it,  the 
carth(|uakes  cease,  the  cxplosioii.s  and  ejections  diminish  tiir  Hime  time,  and  the  volcanc 
enjoys  a  moment  of  rest:  hut  i>reHonlly  a  new  accession  takes  place,  reproducing  in  a  still 
more  terrible  manner  the  same  ))h(Miomena ;  and  this  slate  of  tilings  continiK-s  during  a 
variahle  periwl  of  time.  At  length  the  crisis  cea-se's,  and  the  volcano  finally  resumes  its 
original  traiKjuillity. 

Having  premised  this  general  account  of  volcanic  action,  we  shall  next  treat  of  the  huI)- 
stanc(!s  ejected  or  projected  into  the  atmosjihere  by  volcanoes,  and  the  lavas  which  they 
pour  onU 

n.  Ejected  Mailers. 

These  arc,  1.  Smoke.  2.  Ashes,  !J,  Sands,  4.  Scoriij;.  5.  Volcanic  bombs,  0.  Unal- 
tered Masses  ? 

(1,)  Smoke.  Tho  enormous  ctdumns  of  smoke  which  are  seen  issuing  from  the  crater, 
sometimes  with  extraordinary  rapidity,  are  chiefly  composed  of  atpieous  vapour.  This  vapour 
is  generally  charged  with  gaseous  siilistances,  and  particularly  with  hydrogen  gas,  sometimes 
also  with  carlKinic  acid.  Sulphurous  ncid  and  muriatic  acid  an;  also  given  out.  TIk;  .smoke 
is  gray  or  white;  sometimes  als(}  brownish  black,  or  fuliginous,  and  then  the  smell  is  not 
unlike  that  of  asphaltum,  or  mineral  (litcli.  It  oflen  contains  a  great  quantity  of  volcanic 
ashes. 

(2.)  Aslus.  The.sc  ashes,  which  appear  to  Ix;  nothing  else  than  the  substances  of  the  lava 
reduced  to  a  state  of  minute  mechanical  division,  are  fiirmed  of  flocculent  and  extremely 
minute  particles  of  a  gray  colour,  and  forming  a  paste  with  water.  They  are  always  mixed 
with  a  greater  or  less  «iuantity  of  sand,  which  gives  them  tho  blackish  colour  which  they 
sometimes  exhibit.  The  torrents  of  gas  and  va|)our  which  issue  from  the  craters  carry 
these  ashes  along  witli  them,  bearing  them  into  the  atmosphere,  where  they  form  vast 
clouds,  sometimes  so  dens(!  as  to  cever  the  surrounding  country  with  darkness.  During  the 
eruption  of  ITecla  in  170(5,  clouds  of  this  kind  pnHluccd  such  a  degree  of  darkness  that  at 
Glaiimba,  which  is  more  than  (itly  l(>,igues  distant  from  the  inountain,  people  could  only  find 
tlieir  way  by  groping.  During  ilie  eriiptioii  of  Vesuvius  in  1794,  at  TasertLi,  fiiur  leagues 
distant,  peciple  could  only  wiiik  by  the  light  of  torches.  On  iIk!  1st  of  jNliiy,  1812,  a  clouil 
of  volcimie  ashes  and  .sand,  coming  from  a  volcano  in  the  island  of  St.  Vincent,  crjvered  th 
whole  of  Harbadoes,  spreading  over  it  so  intensi^  a  darkness,  that  at  mid-day,  in  the  open  air 
one  could  not  (lerceive  the  trees  or  other  objeets  near  bini,  or  even  a  white  Irindliercliicf 
plaee(l  at  the  distance  of  six  inches  from  tlie  eye.  The  distance  to  whicli  these  volcanic 
ashes  are  carried  by  the  winds  is  truly  astonishing.  Barliadoes  is  najre  than  twenty  leagues 
from  St.  Vincent's,  and  lleela  is  filly  liMiL'ues  from  Oliiundia.  I'rocojiius  relates,  that  in  472 
the  ashes  of  Vesuvius  were  carried  as  far  u.s  Constantinople ;  that  is  to  .«ay,  to  a  distance  of 


-•fy 


216 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPIIV. 


Part  II. 


250  Icajrues.  These  showers  of  nslics  proiluco,  in  llic  countries  wlicrc  tliey  fiill,  uartiiy 
beds,  often  of  great  thickness,  whicli,  on  being  licaped  up  and  penetrated  by  water,  form 
some  kind  of  volcanic  tuffa. 

(3.)  Volcanic  sands.  Tliese  are  small  particles  of  lavas  which  have  been  ejected  into  tlie 
air  in  the  form  of  drops,  and  there  harden.  Tiiey  are  notjiiiig  but  very  (small  sized  scorim, 
or  fragmonta  of  onlinary  scorin\  Tiiey  arc,  nioroovcr,  mingled  with  numerous  small  crys- 
tals of  augite  and  felspar,  or  with  fragments  of  these  crystals.  Tiie  (luantity  of  these  sands 
which  volcanoes  eject  is  immense.  Tiiey  form  tiie  greater  part  of  the  ejections,  and  of  tlie 
mass  of  many  volcanic  mountains,  of  Alinn.  for  exuniplu,  according  to  M.  Dolomiou.  The 
tincst  mingle  with  tlie  ashes,  and  form  ])art  of  the  clouds  already  mentioned.  Otiu^rs,  accu- 
mulating in  too  great  quantity  to  be  sustained  upon  tlie  acclivities  of  tlie  mountain,  slide 
down  and  spread  out  at  its  base.  In  the  eruption  of  Vesuvius  of  1822,  a  current  of  sand  of 
this  description,  still  red-hot,  was  taken  at  a  distance  f!)r  a  torrent  of  lava. 

(4.)  Scoria.  The  gases  which  come  from  the  depths  of  the  volcano,  passing  through 
the  moss  of  melted  lava  with  great  force  and  velocity,  carry  off  some  parts  of  that  viscid 
matter,  and  bear  them  along  with  them  into  the  atmosphere.  They  are  there  furtiicr  divided, 
in  consequence  of  the  resistance  which  the  air  opposes  to  them ;  and,  in  cooling,  they  assume 
the  intumesced  and  slaggy  appearance  which  the  scorisu  of  forges  so  frc(iuently  have. 

(5.)  Volcanic  bombs.  When  the  matter  of  lavas  is  projected  in  a  soil  state,  as  is  most 
commonly  the  case,  it  sometimes  on  cooling  in  the  air  assumes  the  form  of  drops,  tears,  or 
elongated  spheroids,  to  which  the  name  of  volcanic  bombs  is  given.  They  abound  in  the 
extinct  volcanoes  of  Auvergne. 

(6.)  Unaltered  ejected  masses.  Volcanoes  sometimes  eject  stones,  many  of  which  boar 
no  marks  of  common  fusion.  These,  by  some,  are  considered  as  fragments  of  rocks,  which 
form  the  walls  of  internal  cavities,  and  which  may  have  been  torn  off  and  projected  by  some 
current  of  elastic  fluids;  others,  again,  maintiiin  that  they  are  fragments  of  rocks,  which 
have  been  formed  by  igneous  solution  and  crystallization.  Fragments  of  these  dubious 
masses  are  found  in  great  numbers  on  the  Monte  Somma.  There  they  arc  of  granular 
limestone,  containing  mica,  and  many  other  minerals  besides. 

Projectile  power  of  volcanoes.  Did  our  space  allow  of  it,  it  would  be  interesting  to 
inquire  what  is  the  intensity  of  that  force  which  throws  such  quantities  of  matter  to  so  great 
a  height.  We  can  only  remark,  that  the  greatest  velocity  in  the  case  of  ^Etna  and  Vesuvius 
was  found  to  be  equal  to  that  of  a  cannon-ball  at  the  moment  when  it  issues  from  a  cannon, 
the  velocity  being  from  four  to  five  hundred  yards  per  second.  The  gigantic  Cotopaxi  pro- 
jected a  piece  of  rock  about  an  Iiundred  cubic  yards  in  magnitude  to  the  distance  of  three 
leagues. 

b.  Lavas. 

Eruptions  of  lavas.  When  we  have  an  opportunity  of  seeing  the  liquid  lava  in  the 
crater,  it  resembles  the  melted  matter  in  our  funiaces,  and  appears  as  it  were  Iwiling  with 
greater  or  less  violence.  .lets  of  the  melted  matter  are  thrown  up  from  the  liquid  sur- 
face, through  the  agency  of  elastic  fluids.  It  is  by  these  elastic  fluids  that  the  lava  is  raised 
upwards  in  the  crater.  When  the  mountain  is  high,  as  Teneriffe  or  JEtna,  these  fluids  are 
not  sufficiently  powerfiil  to  raise  the  lava  to  tlie  summit,  or  rather  the  sides  of  the  mountain 
are  not  sufficiently  strong  to  resist  the  weight  and  force  of  the  long  and  iieavy  column  of 
lava ;  it  therefore  presses  or  melts  the  walls  whicli  surround  it,  and  thus  forms  an  opening, 
through  which  it  issues  with  great  rapidity.  When,  on  the  contrary,  the  mountains  arc 
comparatively  low,  as  Vesuvius  for  example,  the  lava  reaches  the  mouth  of  tliR  crater  and 
flows  over  its  lijis,  and  from  tlienco  downwards  along  the  acclivities  of  the  mountain.  On 
reaching  the  bottom  they  divide  into  several  branches,  according  to  the  nature  and  slope  of 
the  ground  over  which  they  flow.  The  currents  or  streams  of  lava  vary  much  in  regard  to 
the  velocity  with  whicli  tlioy  move.  This  velocity  deiiends  upon  the  slope  of  the  ground 
upon  which  it  flows,  as  well  as  upon  the  quantity  and  visridity  of  the  lava.  At  Vesuvius, 
M.  de  la  Torre  saw  currents  jiassing  over  a  space  of  about  800  yards  in  an  hour.  Sir 
William  Hamilton  observed  one  which  traversed  1800  yards  in  the  same  time.  The  eruption 
of  1776  presented  another,  which  moved  more  than  2000  yards  in  14  minutes.  Hurlik 
observed,  during  the  eruption  of  180.5,  a  torrent  flow  from  the  summit  to  the  siw-sliore,  a 
distance,  in  a  straight  line,  ot'  about  7000  yards.  Those  we  have  mentioned,  however,  are 
extraordinary  velocities ;  f(>r  in  general  lavas  move  slowly.  Those  of  jEtna,  flowing  uptiii 
an  inclined  plane,  are  considered  quick  when  they  traverse  a  space  of  400  yards  in  an  hour. 
In  flat  grounds  they  sometimes  occupy  whole  days  in  advancing  a  few  yards. 

The  slowness  with  which  la\as  cotd  is  not  less  remarkable  than  that  with  which  they 
move.  If  tlieir  siirfiiee  is  quickly  cooled  and  consolidated,  the  case  is  different  with  the 
interior;  the  heat  cnnrentnitcs  there,  and  is  retained  fijr  whole  year.s.  Currents  are 
mentioned  which  were  llouiiig  ten  yr.irs  after  emerging  from  the  crater,  and  lavas  were  seen 
smoking  in  A\U\a  twenty  yciirs  iiller  mm  cniptidii. 

Tlie  heat  of  li(|uiii    lava    is  ni'rirly  tli;il  of  liquid  trap,  a^  greenstone  or  l)a.salt.     The 


V 


Book  II. 


GEOGNOSY 


217 


linfT  upon 
\  un  hour. 

li\cii  ttipy 
I  with  the 
Vents  ate 
Ivere  seen 

Lit.    The 


particular  temperatures  ore  given  by  Dr.  Kennedy,  Sir  James  Hall,  and  Professor 
Jameson. 

Tlie  ma^jnitudo  of  lava  currents  varies  much.  The  largest  current  wiiich  has  ever 
issued  from  Vesuvius  \va.s  about  14,000  yards  long;  tliat  of  the  eruption  of  1805  waa 
8000;  that  of  1704  was  in  length  4200  yards,  in  breadth  from  100  to  4(K)  yards,  and  in 
depth  from  eight  to  ton  yards;  tliat  wiiich  issued  from  ^Etna  in  1787  was  four  times 
larger ;  and  Doloniieu  relates  tliat  that  volcano  furnished  one  more  than  ten  leagues  in  length. 
But  the  largest  current  known  is  that  which  in  Iceland,  in  1783,  covered  an  extent  of 
twenty  leagues  in  length  by  four  in  breadth. 

Tliese  currents,  by  being  superinduced  on  each  other,  and  having  interposed  between  them 
other  products  of  eruptions,  as  sand,  ashes,  and  scoria-,  form  a  series  of  inclined  beds  that 
give  rise  to  the  cone  of  the  mountain.  In  short,  the  cone  is  composed  of  a  series  of  con- 
centric layers  or  coats  of  lava,  scoriiB,  &c. ;  the  outgoings  of  which  are  sometimes  well  seen 
in  natural  sections  in  the  mountain. 

c.  Different  Kinds  of  Eruptions. 

Watery  and  muddy  eruptions.  In  the  accounts  of  volcanic  eruptions,  mention  is  often 
made  of  torrents  of  water  and  mud  vomited  forth  by  volcanoes.  Many  of  these  watery  and 
muddy  eruptions  are  external  actions,  as  is  the  case  with  those  mentioned  as  having  taken 
place  in  Vesuvius,  yEtna,  and  Hecla ;  others  are  internal,  as  those  of  Quito. 

(1.)  External  aqueous  anil  muddy  eruptions.  These  are  owing  to  great  rains,  which 
frequently  take  place  by  the  condensation  of  the  great  volumes  of  aqueous  vapour  that  rise 
from  the  craters  during  volcanic  action.  This  rain,  on  mixing  witli  tiie  ashes  and  sands, 
forms  currents,  more  or  less  charged  with  earthy  matters,  which  descend  on  tiie  sides  of  tiie 
mountain,  spread  themselves  at  its  base,  and  sometimes  to  a  distance  in  the  low  country. 
The  melting  of  bodies  of  snow  by  the  lavas  also  occasions  great  floods  of  water  and  mud. 
Of  this  a  striking  instance  is  related  as  having  taken  place  on  Mount  JEina  in  1735,  where, 
by  the  sudden  melting  of  a  great  body  of  snow  by  a  stream  of  liquid  lava,  a  terril)le  inunda- 
tion was  produced,  which  devastated  the  sides  of  the  mountain  for  eight  miles  in  length,  and 
afterwards  covered  the  lower  parts  of  ./Etna,  together  with  the  plains  near  tlie  sea,  with  great 
deposits  of  sand,  ashes,  scorim,  and  fVagments  of  lava.  Similar  floods  of  ashes  and  sand  arc 
mentioned  by  authors  as  taking  place  in  Iceland  and  in  America,  where  the  summits  reach 
above  the  snow  line. 

(2.)  Internal  aqueous  and  muddy  eruptions.  These  waters  also  frecpiontly  make  their 
way  into  tlio  mountain  by  infiltration.  They  there  collect  in  particular  reservoirs;  and  at 
the  period  of  explosion,  or  when  tlie  mountain  happens  to  split  in  consequence  of  some  shock, 
tlicy  issue  forth,  and  cover  the  neighbouring  countries.  During  the  earthquake  wiiich  over- 
turned Lima  in  1746,  four  volcanoes  opened  at  Lucanos  and  in  the  mountains  of  Cfnicepcion, 
and  occasioned  a  frightful  inundation.  The  mountains  of  Quito  sometimes  present  tiic  same 
phenomena:  but  it  is  tliere  accompanied  with  extraordinary  circumstances.  The  enormous 
cones  of  Cotopaxi,  Pichincha,  Tunguragua,  &c.,  are  but  in  some  measure  tlie  summits  of  the 
volcanoes  to  wiiich  they  belong,  and  whose  acclivities  are  probably  encased  in  tiio  great  mass 
of  the  Andca.  No  true  lavas,  within  the  memory  of  man,  have  been  vomited  forth  by  these 
volcanoes ;  yet  Humboldt  saw  consolidated  lava  currents  on  Sanguay,  and  even  on  Antisana. 
It  miglit  be  said,  says  Humboldt,  that  the  volcanic  agents,  which  seldom  have  force  sufficient 
to  raise  the  column  of  lava  to  the  summit  of  ^Etna  and  of  tiie  Peak  of  Teneritt'e,  would  still 
less  be  able  to  raise  it  in  volcanoes  of  nearly  double  the  height.  In  ^tna  and  Tencriffe,  the 
lava  may  force  an  opening  at  the  lower  part  of  tho  mountains,  and  thus  burst  out ;  but  this 
could  not  happen  in  volcanoes  whose  sides  are  strengthened,  to  a  height  of  nearly  3000 
yards,  by  tho  whole  breadth  of  the  Cordilleras.  These  volcanoes  confine  themselves  to  the 
emission  of  ashes,  scorim,  and  pumice.  They  also  vomit  immense  quantities  of  water  and 
mud,  but  much  more  frequently  by  openings  which  take  place  on  the  sides  of  the  cone  than 
by  the  craters.  These  muddy  waters  form,  as  it  were,  great  lakes  in  the  difll'rcnt  cavities 
which  these  enormous  mountains  contain.  They  issue  from  these  cavities,  as  wo  have  said, 
when  a  communication  is  opened  with  the  exterior.  Thus,  in  1698,  the  volcano  of  Cargu- 
arazo,  which  is  in  tho  neighbourhood  of  Chimborazo,  and  perhaps  forms  a  part  of  it,  broke 
down,  and  covered  with  mud  eighteen  square  leagues  of  country.  Similar  muddy  waters 
are  still  conUiined  in  jMirts  of  the  same  country,  which  are  of  volcanic  origin,  l)ut  which  no 
longer  present  any  indication  of  fire;  and  they  are  equally  vomitnl  forth  during  great 
commotions  of  the  ground.  In  Peru  and  Quito  it  is  not  by  fire  and  currents  of  burning  mat- 
ters that  the  volcanoes  commit  their  ravages,  but  by  the  water  and  enormous  streams  of 
mud.  This  substance  is  mud  which  is  at  first  of  a  soft  consistence,  soon  hardens,  and  bears 
the  name  oi"  nutya.  It  presents  two  curious  ])lienomona.  Sometimes,  as  in  the  inoya  which 
inundated  the  country  of  Pilielo,  and  which  destroyed  the  village  of  that  name  during  the 
earthquake  of  1797,  it  contains  a  combustible  matter,  which  renders  it  blackish  and  soiling, 
and  which  exists  in  so  large  a  i|uantity  in  it  that  the  inhabitants  make  use  of  this  nioya  as  a 
kind  of  fiiol.     Frequently  the  same  muddy  waters,  issuing  from  subterranean  caverns,  carry 

Vol.  I.  19  2C 


i  R 


■ 

P 

mi 

v  U 

m 

ii 

r 
■  i 

'1 

T  ■ 


218 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  II. 


witli  thom  a  ffrcnt  quantity  of  small  flshcB.  These  fislios  are  u  species  of  pimrlodrs  (P. 
cycloiniin).  Most  of  thcin  ure  not  more  thun  four  inches  lonff.  Their  number  is  sometimes 
m  jrriMit  tlint  diseases  are  occasioned  in  the  country  by  their  i>ntrefaction.  They  arc  the 
same  as  those  which  live  in  the  brooks  of  the  country.  What,  then,  lias  intruiuccd  them 
into  tho^('  siil)t(>ri-aiioan  lakes!  It  would  appear  that  there  are  some  conummications  i)otween 
the  upper  and  lower  level  of  these  lakes  and  thi;'"  surface  of  the  ground;  hut  what  could  have 
raised  lliepi  from  the  level  of  this  surface  to  the  summit  of  the  volcanoes,  lor  they  sometimes 
issue  from  the  crater!  It  is  very  difficult  to  give  any  exjilanation  of  this.  From  all  that 
has  been  said  alH)ve,  it  does  not  appear  that  the  mud  which  issues  from  these  volciinoes  comes 
from  the  subterranean  caverns  where  the  volcanic  fires  have  their  focus,  and  prepare  the 
matter  of  lava. 

Air  tiNil  mud  volcanoes.  In  some  countries  we  obsorvo  issuini;  from  the  pround  jots  im- 
pelled by  leases  and  charfred  with  earth,  which,  on  beinnf  de|)ositcd  in  the  form  of  mud,  in 
the  noiirhlKiurluKxl  of  und  chiefly  around  the  apertures  which  have  vomited  them,  form  cones, 
which  represent  on  a  vi-ry  small  scale  volconic  cones,  and  which  are  theretbre  named  air 
vnlcdiwrs.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  of  these  is  that  of  Macalouba  in  Sicily.  It  consists 
of  a  hill  of  dried  nuid  about  IfK)  feet  high.  Its  upper  part,  which  is  2(M)()  feet  in  circum- 
ference, presents  a  nuiltitude  of  small  cones  of  which  the  larirest  are  not  atxive  a  yard  in 
diameter.  They  have  a  small  crut(!r  full  of  soft  clay,  which  is  every  instant  traversed  by 
larfjc  bubbles  of  {jus,  which  burst  with  an  explo<lin}T  noise,  aTid  scatter  the  clay  aroimtl. 
Some  of  these  explosions  have  been  seen  throwinff  jets  of  mud  to  the  heiijht  ot  16()  feet. 
In  the  neighliourhood  of  Modena  there  are  many  of  these  small  nmd  volcanoes,  where  they 
arc  called  sahrs  on  account  of  the  saltness  of  the  water  they  scatter  alwuf .  Tlie  gas  which 
occasions  the  phenomena  is  hydrogen  gas  charged  with  petroleum  and  carbonic  acid.  Similar 
mud  volcanoes  occur  in  the  Crimea,  Java,  Trinidad,  and  America. 

d.  Periods  of  Aclivilij  of  Volcanoes,  and  the  Theory  of  their  Formation. 

Periods  of  aclivily  of  volcanoes.  The  periods  of  activity  of  volcanoes  are  hut  transitory 
and  of  short  duration.  They  arc  followed  by  years,  and  even  ages,  of  rest.  Ilnmboldt  is 
of  opinion  that  the  frequency  of  eruptions  seems  to  be  in  the  inverse  ratio  of  the  size  of  the 
volcano.  The  smallest  of  them,  Stromboli,  is  continually  throwing  up  volcanic  matter;  the 
eruptions  of  Vesuvius  are  less  frequent,  there  having  been  but  eighteen  recorded  since  1701; 
those  of  yEtna  are  iiuich  rarer;  those  of  the  Peak  of  Tenpritfe  still  more  so;  and  the  colossal 
summits  of  Cotopaxi  and  Tunguragua  scarcelj'  exhibit  one  in  the  course  of  a  hundred  years. 
To  periods  of  activity  there  sometimes  succeed  jjoriods  of  repose.  The  crater  is  filled  up 
and  becomes  cov<;red  with  f5)rests.  These  burning  furnaces,  whence  torrents  of  fire  have 
issued,  become  the  reservoirs  of  subterranean  lakes,  whose  waters  are  peopled  with  fishes, 
and  in  elevated  situations  the  sides  and  summits  of  the  mo\mtain9  become  covered  with  snow 
and  ice.  But  most  commonly  the  state  of  rest  is  not  complete;  the- crater  remains  open, 
and  there  is  exhale<l  from  it  a  greater  or  less  quantity  of  vapours,  which  attack  the  masses 
that  lie  in  their  way.  Sometimes  they  produce  different  saline  and  metallic  incrustations. 
Volcanic  districts  in  which,  however,  no  eruption  has  taken  place  since  the  commencement 
of  our  history,  and  in  which  the  volcanic  cones  are  nearly  effaced,  still  betray  by  their  vajiours 
and  exhalations  the  tire  which  formerly  ravaged  them,  and  which  is  not  yet  extinct.  Such 
are  the  Phleffrcun  Fields,  on  the  coast  of  Puzzoli,  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples, 

Cause  of  volcanoes.  This  is  an  obscure  subject.  A  conjecture,  hazarded  many  years  ago, 
may  be  stated.  There  being  no  decided  proof  of  a  central  heat,  in  the  commoiily  received 
sense,  it  may  Ik;  assumed  that  the  matter  of  lavas  is  seated  deep  in  the  crust  of  the  earth,  in 
spaces  of  greater  or  less  extent,  from  whence  it  is  sent  up  from  time  to  time  among  tho 
previously  existing  stratJi,  by  tho  agency  of  elastic  fluids. 

Sect.  IV. — Earthquakes. 

On  earthquakes,  and  the  changes  they  produce  on  the  eartVs  svrfacf.  Werner  distin- 
guishes two  kinds  of  earthquakes.  Some,  he  says,  appear  to  bo  connected  with  n  particular 
volcano,  and  to  have  their  focus  in  the  same  region  as  it.  They  are  only  felt  to  the  distat.je 
of  a  few  leagues  around,  and  their  paroxysms  are  almost  always  connected  with  those  of 
the  volcano.  Others,  which  appear  tu  have  their  focus  at  a  much  greater  deptli,  and  whoso 
effects  are  niurli  greater,  are  propagated  to  inunense  distances  with  inrrodible  celerity,  and 
are  felt  almost  at  the  same  time  at  points  thousands  of  miles  rlistnnt  from  each  other.  "So;r' 
of  the  latter  however  approach  the  former,  and  are  still  connected  with  volcanic  phenor,  ■in. 
Tims,  during  the  earthquake  which  overturned  Lima  in  174f),and  which  was  one  oC the  most 
terrible  that  has  been  recorded,  four  volcanoes  opened  in  one  night,  -"ui!  the  agitation  of  tho 
earth  ceased. 

rnirirsiiHty  of  rartlKjvnkes.  If  in  the  more  violent  we  include  the  slighter  agitations 
of  the  earth's  snrfiice  in  particular  places,  earthquakes  may  be  said  to  be  universal  or  general, 
and  we  may  affirm  that  no  considerable  country  is  entirely  exempted  from  them.  Sandy 
deserts  ami  fertile  region,",  primitive,  secondary,  and  tertiary  hills,  extensive  plains,  and  even 


11. 


^noT  (listin- 
I  particular 
lip  (liHtai.CP 
111  thoso  of 
Iniul  wliose 
llpTity,  and 
Ipr.  So:r' 
llipnov,  'in. 
1(4"  tho  most 
Ition  of  the 

;\  (jit  at  ions 
lor  nrpiipral, 
■in. "  Sandy 
Is,  and  even 


4r' 


Book  II. 


GEOGNOSY. 


210 


rnnrshy  districta  but  little  olovatod  ulwvc  tin;  level  of  the  sen,  uffiird  no  protection  airainst 
ti.  -se  destruutivu  phunoiiieim,  which  are  equally  prevalent  in  cold,  in  ifnipemte,  and  in  tropical 
climuteH.  Tliey  are,  however,  jjenerally  considered  more  freiiucnt  nt'iir  to  coasts;  thuSi 
Syria,  the  coasts  and  islands  of  Asia,  America,  the  European  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean, 
and  Iceland,  are  mast  subject  to  them;  while  the  plains  of  Africa,  Asia,  and  the  North  of 
Europe  are  least  cxixtsed.  Viewinjj  tlie  whole  earth,  and  including  every  slijjhterugitjition, 
carthquukes  appear  to  he  oxceedin^'ly  numerous,  and  it  may  ho  maintained  that  not  a  week 
passes  in  which  the  earth's  surface  in  some  place  or  other  is  not  more  or  less  aj^itatert.  Tlic 
fjreat  number  of  concussions  observed  in  civilized  countries,  and  the  tiict  that  some  districts 
are  constantly  agitated  by  them,  entitle  us  to  draw  the  conclusioti.  Their  return  in  the 
places  most  subject  to  them,  and  in  the  places  where  they  are  less  frequent,  is  not  regulated 
by  any  precise  |)eriod  of  time.  Their  appearance  is  not  connected  with  any  particular  season 
of  the  year  or  state  of  the  atmosphere,  and  they  take  place  by  day  as  well  as  by  night. 

Phv.iwmenu  of  Earlhiuakm.  The  phenomena  peculiar  to  earthquakes  are  in  themselves 
sutficiently  simple.  They  consist  in  tremblings  and  oscillations  of  the  earth's  surface,  called 
shocks;  extending  over  greater  or  smaller  tracts  of  country,  and  frequently  following  a  par- 
ticular direction.  The  shocks  appear  at  first  chiefly  as  perpendicular  heavings;  then  as 
horizontal  undulations  or  oscillations;  lastly,  in  some  instances,  there  is  a  violent  agitation: 
the  motion  is  more  or  le.ss  rotatory.  If  to  these  we  add  the  rending,  slipping,  rising  and 
sinking  of  the  ground,  the  violent  agitations  of  the  sea,  lakes,  rivers,  and  springs;  consist- 
ing, in  springs,  in  their  drying  up  or  bursting  forth  with  great  violence ;  in  lakes,  rivers,  and 
the  ocean,  in  their  fiiUing  and  rising,  and  rushing  backwards  and  forwards,  owing  to  the 
sinking  and  rising  of  the  land,  we  obtain  un  enumeration  of  the  princii>al  phenomena.  As 
the  subject  is  very  interesting,  we  shall  view  it  somewhat  in  detail,  and  under  the  following 
heads  :  —  1.  Shocks,  'i.  Extent  of  earthquakes.  3.  Duration  of  shocks.  4.  Magnitude  of 
rents  formed,  and  the  phenomena  connected  with  them,  5.  Elevation  and  subsidence  of  the 
land.     6.  Agitations  in  the  sea.    7.  Notice  of  particular  earthquakes. 

(1.)  Shocks.  The  slighter  shocks  of  an  earthquake,  consisting  of  perpendicular  heavings 
and  horizontal  undulations,  commonly  produce  rents  in  houses,  moving  light  objects  in  them, 
as  articles  of  furniture.  Persons  unacquainted  with  the  phenomenon,  or  who  do  not  per- 
ceive it  from  tlic  subterraneous  noise  resembling  thunder  which  accompanies  it,  feel  un- 
steady while  in  their  beds,  but  particularly  when  sitting,  and  believe  themselves  seized  with 
a  sudden  giddiness.  The  shocks  proceed  gradually  to  be  more  violent,  and  then  they  are 
very  easily  perceived  even  by  the  inexperienced.  Then  the  most  substantial  buildings  are 
shattered  to  |)ieces,  and  the  inhabitants  buried  beneath  their  ruins :  while  buildings  of  a  lighter 
coa.struction  are  only  rent,  and  very  slender  reed  huts  are  least  of  all  exposed  to  destruction. 
In  some  cases  the  fracturing,  or  as  it  were  trituration,  surpas-ses  description.  Ilence,  for 
the  plainest  reasons,  it  is  most  dangerous  to  remain  in  houses  or  inhabited  places ;  but  even 
the  fields  and  mountains  themselves  afford  no  perfect  security,  inasmuch  as  the  fields  fre- 
quently in  some  places  open  into  fissures,  and  are  rent  asunder ;  while  mountains  are  not 
only  rent,  but  slide  down  into  the  valleys,  dam  up  rivers,  form  lakes,  and  cause  inundations. 
Although  the  desolation  produced  by  these  convulsions  exceeds  all  description,  this  is  much 
more  the  case  with  the  rotatory  motions ;  a  species  of  motion,  however,  the  existence  of 
which  has  been  denied  by  some  geologists.  In  proof  of  it,  however,  it  may  be  mentioned, 
that  during  the  earthquake  of  Catania,  whose  general  direction  was  from  S.  E.  to  N.  W., 
many  sUitucs  were  turned  round,  and  a  largo  mass  of  rock  was  turned  2ij°  from  South  to 
East.  But  the  rotatory  motion  was  more  strikingly  exemplified  in  the  earthquake  at  Val- 
paraiso, on  the  19th  November,  1822,  by  which  many  houses  were  turned  round,  and  three 
palm-trees  were  found  twisted  round  one  another  like  willows.  These  rotatory  motions  of 
masses  of  rock  are  particularly  interesting  when  viewed  in  connexion  with  the  pheno- 
mena of  faults  or  shifls  among  strata  in  non-volcanic  districts.  It  is  only  tlie  slighter  earth- 
quakes that  pass  by  with  a  single  shock;  in  most  of  them  more  shocks  follow  at  short  inter- 
vals, and  for  the  most  part  the  number  is  proportioned  to  the  violence  of  the  concussion. 
The  first  shock  is  sometimes  the  most  powerful,  but  the  second  is  as  often,  if  not  oftener, 
ecjually  violent.  Further,  the  concussions  arc  also  repeated  atlor  longer  intervals,  as  the 
eartiiquakes  in  Syria,  that  sometimes  continue  fiir  a  number  of  months,  with  longer  or  shorter 
intermissions  ;  but  the  first  catastroplie  is  generally  the  most  violent  and  destructive. 

(2.)  Kxtcnt  of  earthquakes.  It  is  tlie  agitation  of  the  sea  that  points  out  the  great  extent 
of  the  tracts  of  land  convulsed  by  earthquake.*.  In  this  respect,  the  earthquake  at  Lisbon, 
in  17.V),  wa.s  the  most  remarkable  and  most  violent  that  over  visited  Europe.  In  conse- 
quence of  it,  by  tiic  concussion  on  the  bottom,  or  momentary  rising  or  upheaving  of  the  sub- 
marine land,  the  sea  overfl."i\ved  the  coasts  of  Sweden,  England,  and  Spain,  and  of  the 
isl.'iniis  of  Antigua,  Barbanoos,  and  Martinicpie  in  America.  In  Barbadoes  the  tide,  which 
rises  only  28  inches,  rose  20  feet  in  the  bay  of  Carlisle,  and  the  water  appeared  as  black  as 
ink,  owing  probably  to  bituminous  matter  thrown  up  from  the  bed  of  the  ocean.  On  the  1st 
of  November,  when  the  concussion  was  most  violent,  the  wafer  at  Guadaloupe  retreated 
twice,  and  on  its  return  rose  in  the  channel  of  the  island  to  a  height  of  from  10  to  12  feet. 


'i 


fii 
m 


\m 


r.lHil 


imM 


illil! 


- 1 


'W» 


^»  •* 


220 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAI'llY. 


Part  II. 


Similar  appearances  were  witnessed  at  Martinique.  A  wave  of  the  sea,  00  feet  high,  over- 
flowed a  part  of  the  city  of  Cadiz ;  and  the  lakes  of  Switzerland,  sncli  as  Geneva,  were  ob- 
served  to  be  in  commotion  six  hours  after  the  first  shock.  It  is  also  remarkable  tliat  a(;ita- 
tions  were  noticed  in  lake  Ontario,  in  October,  175.').  Durinff  the  earthquake  at  Lima,  ir)86, 
a  wave  of  the  sea  rose  84  feet  high  in  the  harbour  of  Calliio,  During  tlio  eartlKjuakes  in 
Calabria  in  179t3,  the  sea  not  only  overflowed  the  coast  and  drowned  many  people,  but  was 
in  general  so  much  agitated  that  the  guns  on  shipboard  sprung  from  the  deck  to  u  height  of 
several  inches. 

(3.)  Slippinff  of  Utountaiiu.  Besides  the  common  operations  of  earti«iuakes  already 
mentioned,  others  occur  that  do  not  immediately  succeed  the  concussions,  and  therefore 
happen  less  frequently.  To  these  belong  tlie  sliding  down  of  parts  of  mountains,  as  at 
Dobratch  in  1345,  and  the  fulling  together  of  two  mountains  in  Jamaica  in  lOtVi,  by  which 
the  bed  of  a  river  was  dammed  up.  In  the  latter  place,  a  part  of  a  mountain  slid  down  and 
covered  many  plantations ;  the  city  of  Port  Royal  sunk  to  the  depth  of  eight  fathoms ;  and 
a  plain  of  1000  acres  fell  in,  with  all  the  buildings  upon  it. 

(4.)  Duration  of  ahockt.  Single  shocks  frc()uently  succeed  one  another  very  rapidly,  and 
often  ofter  greater  or  smaller  intervals  of  time ;  they  are  occasionally  single,  frequently  very 
numerous ;  and  in  volcanic  districts,  shocks  sometimes  happen  after  a  lapse  of  months  or 
years,  are  tlien  followed  by  longer  or  shorter  intervals,  and  even  periods  of  10  or  100 
years.  In  regard  to  this,  it  is  remarkable  that  since  the  earthquake  which  in  1204  shook 
Antioch,  Damascus,  and  Tripoli,  Syria  was  spared  till  the  latter  half  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  although  no  region  of  the  earth  suflt'rs  more  from  these  destructive  phenomena 
tlian  that  country.  It  is,  in  short,  difficult  to  define  the  duration  of  a  single  shock.  It  is 
undoubtedly  brief  in  general ;  and  in  slighter  shocks,  witnessed  by  tranquil  spectators  and 
consequently  observed  with  greater  attention,  it  is  not  longer  than  a  few  seconds.  In  the 
greater  convulsions,  for  instance  at  Lima,  Caraccas,  Calabria,  Catania,  Zante,  Antioch,  &c. 
tiie  time  is  reckoned  from  fifty  seconds  to  one  minute  and  five  seconds,  or  indefinitely  from 
a  few  minutes  to  a  few  seconds.  When  we  consider  how  exceedingly  distracted  the  atten- 
tion is  when  the  shock  is  first  perceived,  that  the  duration  cannot  be  measured  by  means  of 
a  watch,  but  by  supposition,  and  that  by  such  a  m(Kle  of  computation  we  are  in  the  habit  of 
reckoning  time  much  longer  than  it  really  is,  we  may  with  great  probability  conclude  that 
the  duration  of  a  single  shock  does  not  go  beyond  a  few  seconds,  and  wc  may  aflirm  that, 
at  the  most,  it  rarely  exceeds  half  a  minute. 

(.5.)  Magnitude  of  rents  formed  by  earthquakes.  These  vary  from  a  few  feet  to  many 
fathoms  in  extent  They  have  either  a  direction  which  is  nearly  straight  or  more  or  less 
winding,  or  they  run  in  all  directions  from  a  centre.  During  the  terrible  Calabrinn  earth- 
quakes of  1783,  rents  were  formed  of  great  dimensions ;  in  the  territory  of  San  Fili  there 
was  formed  a  rent  half  a  mile  long,  two  feet  and  a  half  broad,  and  twenty-five  feet  deep ;  in 
the  district  of  Plaisano,  a  rent,  of  nearly  a  mile  in  length,  one  hundred  and  five  font  broad, 
and  thirty  feet  deep  opened  ;  and  in  the  same  district  two  gulfs  arose,  one  at  CerzuUi,  three 
quarters  of  a  mile  long,  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  broad,  and  about  one  hundred  feet  deep ; 
and  another,  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  mile  long,  about  thirty  feet  broad,  and  two  hundred  and 
twenty-five  feet  deep.  Ulloa  relates  that  in  the  earthquake  of  1746,  in  Peru,  a  rent  took 
place,  which  was  two  miles  and  a  half  long,  and  four  or  five  feet  wide.  These  rents  some- 
times close  again ;  thus,  in  the  year  1692,  in  the  island  of  Jamaica,  during  an  earthquake, 
the  ground  heaved  like  a  boiling  sea,  and  was  traversed  by  numerous  rents,  two  or  three 
hundred  of  which  were  often  seen  at  a  time  opening  and  closing  rapidly  again. 

(6.)  Elevation  and  subsidence  of  land  during  earthquakes.  It  is  evident  that,  if  the 
land  is  fractured  and  then  traversed  with  vast  rents  by  earthquakes,  that  portion  of  the 
land  will  in  some  places  sink  and  in  others  rise,  and  this  not  once  but  several  times  in  the 
ftime  place.  In  the  year  1772,  during  an  eruption  of  one  of  the  loftiest  mountains  in  Java, 
the  ground  began  to  sink,  and  a  great  part  of  the  volcano,  and  part  of  the  neighbouring 
country,  estimated  to  be  fifteen  miles  long  and  six  miles  broad,  was  swallowed  up.  During 
the  earthquake  at  Lisbon  in  17.'i.'>,  a  new  quay  entirely  di8ai)peared ;  thousands  of  the  in- 
habitants had  taken  shelter  on  it,  in  be  out  of  the  reach  of  the  tottering  and  fiiUing  build- 
ings, wiien  suddenly  the  quay  sunk  down  with  its  thousands  of  human  beings,  and  not  one 
of  their  dead  bodies  ever  floated  to  the  surfiice.  In  the  year  1692,  during  an  earthquake  in 
Jamaica,  a  tract  of  land  about  a  thousand  acres  in  extent  sank  down  in  less  than  a  minute, 
and  the  sea  immediately  took  its  place.  On  the  north  side  of  the  island  several  large  tracts 
with  their  whole  population  were  swallowed  up,  and  a  lake  appeared  in  their  place  covering 
above  a  thousand  acres.  Numerous  examples  of  the  upraising  of  the  land  by  earthquakes 
might  be  given ;  we  shall  enumerate  a  few  of  them.  On  the  19th  of  November,  1822,  a 
most  dreadful  earthquake  visited  the  coast  of  Chili ;  the  shock  was  felt  at  the  same  time 
throughout  a  space  of  one  thousand  two  hundred  miles  from  north  to  south.  When  the 
country  around  Valparaiso  was  examined  on  the  morning  after  tiie  shock,  it  was  foimd  that 
the  entire  line  of  coast,  for  the  distance  of  more  tiiau  a  hundred  miles,  was  raised  above  its 
foimVr  leVei.     Tiie  area  over  which  tliis  u))raising  took  place  was  estimated  at  one  hundred 


»^^ 


OOOK  II. 


GEOGNOSV. 


221 


IIT  II. 

over- 
re  ob- 

11)1  iUi- 

,i.m 

.kes  in 
it  was 
ight  of 

ilrcady 
ci'otbre 
■1,  as  lit 
'  which 
iwn  and 
m;  and 

dly,  and 
itly  very 
onths  or 
or  10() 
)4  shook 
cntnenth 
enomena 
k.    It  is 
itors  and 
.    In  the 
ioch,  &c. 
itely  from 
the  atten- 
means  of 
e  habit  of 
elude  that 
iffirm  that, 

ct  to  many 

ore  or  less 

■ian  earth- 
Fili  there 

•t  deep ;  in 
feot  broad, 

siiUi,  three 
feet  deep ; 
indred  and 
_  vent  took 
[Cuts  somc- 
arthquake, 
]o  or  three 

Ihat,  if  the 
lion  of  tlic 
Jncs  in  tiic 
lis  in  Java, 
Ighbourinn; 
V     Durin<: 
lof  the  in- 
ling  build- 
W  not  one 
fchquake  in 
1  a  minute, 
krgc  tracts 
|c  coverinfr 
Trtiiquakes 

]pr,  1822,  a 
janie  timo 
JvVlicn  the 
Ifound  that 
ll  atove  it^ 
Ic  hundred 


tliousand  square  miles :  tiie  rise  upon  tlie  const  was  from  two  to  four  foot ;  at  the  distance  of 
u  mile  inland,  it  was  estimated  from  live  to  seven  ftet.  On  the  iHth  of  Marcii  in  the  year 
17W),  ut  8t.  Maria  di  Niscomi,  some  miles  troni  'J'crranuovo,  near  tlie  noulh  const  of  Sicily, 
u  loud  subterranean  noise  was  heard  under  the  town  just  mentioned,  and  the  day  ailcr  oarth- 
quakes  were  tblt;  then  the  ground  gradually  sunk  down  for  a  circumference  ol  three  Italian 
miles,  during  seven  shocks,  and  in  one  (jlace  to  a  depth  of  thirty  feet ;  us  the  subsidence  was 
unequal,  rents  were  formed,  some  of  which  were  so  wide  that  they  could  not  be  leaped  over : 
this  gradual  sinking  continued  to  the  end  of  the  month,  About  the  middle  of  this  period 
an  opening  took  place  in  the  subsiding  land,  aliout  tliTeo  feet  in  diameter;  througli  these 
continued  to  flow,  for  tliree  hours,  a  stream  of  nuid,  which  covered  a  space  sixty  t(?<'t  long 
and  thirty  feet  broad ;  the  mud  was  saltish  and  composed  of  chalky  marl  and  a  viscid  clay, 
with  fragments  of  crystalline  limestone ;  it  smelt  of  sulphur  and  petroleum.  On  tlie  lOlh 
June,  1819,  at  Cutch  in  Bombay,  a  violent  carth()uake  took  place,  during  which,  indopenilent 
of  otiier  changes,  the  eastern  and  almost  abandoned  channel  of  the  Indus  was  much  altered  : 
this  estuary  was,  before  the  earthquake,  fordable  at  Luckput,  being  only  a  foot  deep  wiicn 
the  tide  was  at  ebb,  at  flood  tide  never  more  than  six  feet ;  but  it  was  deepened  at  the  fort  of 
Luckput,  alter  the  earthquake,  to  more  than  eighteen  feet  nt  low  water,  showing  that  a  con- 
siderable depression  had  taken  place.  The  channel  of  the  river  Runn  was  so  much  sunli 
that,  instead  of  being  dry  as  before,  during  that  period  of  the  year,  it  was  no  longer  fordablo 
except  at  one  place ;  and  it  is  remarked  by  Captain  Macmurdoch, — and  the  observation  is  of 
high  geological  import,  as  connected  with  the  formation  of  valleys,  of  river  districts,  &c. — 
"should  the  water  continue  throughout  the  year,  we  may  perhaps  see  an  inland  navigation 
along  the  northern  shore  of  Cutch ;  which,  from  stone  anchors,  &,c.  still  to  be  seen,  and  the 
tradition  of  the  country,  I  lielieve  to  have  existed  at  some  former  period."  Sindree,  a  small 
mud  fort  and  village  belonging  to  the  Cutch  government,  situated  where  the  Runn  joins 
the  Indus,  was  overflowed  at  the  time  of  the  shock.  The  people  escaped  with  difficulty, 
and  the  tops  of  the  houses  and  walls  are  now  alone  seen  above  water.  In  the  year  179(), 
in  the  Caraccas,  during  an  earthquake,  a  portion  of  granite  soil  sunk,  and  left  a  lake  80() 
yards  in  diameter,  and  from  eighty  to  an  hundred  feet  deep;  it  was  a  part  of  the  forest  of 
Aripao  which  sunk,  and  the  trees  remained  green  for  several  months  under  water. 

(7.)  Affilations  of  the  i>ea.  We  have  already  noticed,  in  a  general  way,  the  agitations 
observed  in  the  sea  during  earthquakes;  we  shall  now  add  some  particulars  illustrative  of 
these  motions.  During  the  Lisbon  earthquake  of  175.5,  the  sea  rose  along  the  coast  of 
Spain ;  and  at  Cadiz  it  advanced  in  the  form  of  vast  waves  sixty  feet  high.  At  Lisbon 
about  sixty  thousand  persons  perished.  The  sea  first  retired,  and  laid  the  bar  dry ;  it  then 
rushed  in,  rising  upwards  of  fifty  feet  a1x)ve  its  ordinary  level.  At  Kinsale,  in  Ireland,  the 
sea  rushed  into  the  harbour,  and  invaded  the  land.  At  Tangier,  in  Africa,  it  rose  and  fell 
eighteen  times  on  the  coast  At  Funchal,  in  Madeira,  it  rose  fifteen  feet  above  high-water 
mark ;  although  the  tide,  which  ebbs  and  flows  there  seven  feet,  was  then  half  ebb.  Even 
ships  at  sea,  a  considerable  distance  from  land,  felt,  in  the  midst  of  these  convulsive  motions, 
as  if  hurried  across  a  ridge  of  rocks.  This  took  place,  to  a  distance  of  100  or  270  nautical 
miles  from  the  coast,  during  the  earthquake  at  Lisbon  in  1816.  During  the  Lisbon  earth- 
quake of  1755,  the  shock  was  felt  at  sea,  on  the  deck  of  a  ship  to  the  west  of  Lisbon,  and 
produced  nearly  the  same  feeling  as  on  land.  At  San  Lucar,  the  captain  of  the  Nancy 
frigate  felt  his  ship  so  violently  agitated  that  he  thought  he  had  struck  on  the  ground ;  but, 
on  heaving  the  lead,  found  lie  was  in  deep  water.  Captain  Clark,  from  Derina,  in  N.  lat. 
36°  2-1',  between  nine  and  ten  in  the  morning,  had  his  ship  shaken  as  if  she  had  struck 
upon  a  rock,  so  that  the  seams  of  the  deck  opened.  Dr.  Shaw  relates,  that  in  1724,  being 
on  lioard  the  Gazello,  an  Algerine  ship  of  50  guns,  they  felt  such  violent  shocks,  one  after 
another,  as  if  the  weight  of  twenty  or  thirty  tons  had  been  let  fall  from  a  ijood  height  on 
the  ballast.  Schouten,  speaking  of  an  earthquake  which  happened  in  the  Moluccas,  says, 
that  the  mountains  were  shaken,  ii  nd  ships  that  wore  at  anchor  in  thirty  or  forty  fathoms' 
water  were  jerked  as  if  they  had  run  ashore,  or  come  foul  of  rocks,  Le  Genii  says,  "  that 
ships  at  sea  and  at  anchor  suffer,  during  earthquakes,  such  violent  agitations  that  they  seem 
to  be  falling  asunder;  their  ginis  break  kw.so,  and  their  masts  spring." 

(8.)  Notices  of  jmrticuhir  Earthqitalics.  A  full  account  of  all  the  principal  earthquakes 
that  are  known  would  much  exceed  uur  limits ;  wo  shall,  therefore,  select  only  a  few  of  the 
more  interesting. 

No  part  of  Europe  is  more  visited  by  onrthqunkos  than  Italy  and  the  neighbouring 
islands.  The  first  earthquake  particularly  worthy  of  notice  was  that  which,  in  the  year 
63,  destroyed  Herculancuni  and  Pompeii.  Since  that  period  they  have  frciiuently  visited 
Italy  and  Sicily,  but  much  snldomer  from  A.  D.  fi.'j  to  the  twelfth  century,  than  from  that 
period  till  modern  times,  that  is,  till  tlie  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  crnturies.  Of  these 
we  shall  describe  one  of  the  most  recent  in  Calabria,  and  another  of  still  later  date  in 
Sicily. 

Earthquake  of  1783.  The  earthquake  that  so  much  nficcted  Calabria,  and  destroyed  the 
city  of  Messina,  ra:;ed  at  unequal  periods  from  tiic  5th  of  February  till  the  28th  of  March, 

19* 


m 


;ifi  M 


I,:!  IP: 


I'i. 


lO;^ 


ml  i\ 


399 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pabt  II. 


178H.  Acconlinff  to  Sorcin,  its  principal  Htvit  wbh  tlio  smiill  town  of  Oppido  in  the  neish- 
biiurliotKJ  (if  Atniiiionto,  ii  snnw-covoroil  p<'iik  of  tliu  Apminiiii.'ij.  From  tliis  point,  mya  Sir 
Williiiiii  Iliimilton,  nMuiid  to  a  (liHtniict!  of  twenty-five  iniicH,  comprehendB  the  surtace  of 
country  which  sufl'erod  most,  and  whore  all  the  towns  and  villajfCH  wcni  destroyed.  If  we 
dPKcribo  the  circle  with  a  radius  of  neventy-two  iriiles,  it  will  includo  the  whole  country 
whicli  was  in  iiny  wny  allbcted  by  the  enrlhciuiike.  The  first  shock,  on  the  6th  February, 
ill  two  niiniitcM  threw  down  the  preatcsl  purt  of  the  houses  in  all  the  cities,  towns,  and 
vilbiifes  fVoni  tlin  western  acclivities  of  tiu!  ApiMUiinus,  in  Calubriu  Ultra,  to  Messina  in 
Sicily,  iiiid  convulsed  the  whole  surface  of  the  country.  Another  shock,  which  tofik  pluco 
on  the  "^.'jtli  of  Miirch,  was  nearly  e(|ually  violent.  The  jfranito  chain  which  extends 
throuj^h  Calabria  from  imrth  to  south  was  but  slightly  agitated,  the  princi|)al  shocks  being 
propagated  with  a  wave-like  motion  tlirouffh  the  tertiary  sands,  sand-stones,  and  clays,  from 
west  to  east.  It  was  remarked  that  the  violence  of  the  shock  was  greatest  at  the  line  of 
junction  of  the  f^ninito  iiiid  tertiary  rooks,  occasioned  probably  by  the  interruption  of  tho 
undulatory  movement  of  the  poller  strata  by  tho  harder  granite.  Tho  granite  range  also 
prevented  the  passage  of  the  shocks  to  the  countries  on  the  opposite  Bide  of  the  niountain- 
rnnge.  Alxiut  iJlKI  towns  anil  villages  were  dcatroyod,  more  than  one  hundred  hills  slid 
down,  fell  together,  (lanmied  up  rivers,  and  formed  lakes:  numerous  rents,  often  of  vast 
magnitude,  were  formed;  many  subsidences  and  also  upraisings  of  the  ground  took  place; 
and  tho  general  features  of  the  country  were  so  much  changed  that  they  could  scarcely  be 
recognised.  Thus,  in  a  very  short  space  of  time,  the  whole  country  was  as  much  changed 
as  if  it  had  been  exposed  to  common  influences  for  many  thousand  years.  The  total  num- 
ber of  human  beings  that  perished  was  estimated  at  100,(100,  and  it  was  difficult  to  find  even 
distant  relations  to  succeed  to  tho  prtmerty  of  some  families, 

Earthniiahi:  of  Lisbon  in  17.55.  In  no  part  of  southern  Europe  has  so  tremendous  aii 
earthquake  occurred  as  that  which  began  on  the  Ist  of  November,  1753.  On  the  morning 
of  that  day,  at  thirty-five  minutes  after  nine,  without  the  least  worning,  except  a  noise  liku 
thunder  heard  under  ground,  a  most  dreadful  earthquake  shook,  by  short  but  quick  vibra- 
tions,  the  foundations  of  Lisbon,  so  that  ninny  of  the  principal  edifices  fell  to  the  ground  lii 
an  instant :  then,  with  a  scarcely  perceptible  pause,  the  nature  of  the  motion  changed,  now 
resembling  that  of  a  wngon  driven  violently  over  rough  stones,  which  laid  in  ruins  almost 
every  house,  church,  convent,  and  public  building,  with  an  incredible  destruction  of  the 
people.  It  continued  in  all  about  six  minutes.  At  the  moment  of  its  beginning,  some  per- 
sons on  tho  Tagus,  near  a  mile  from  the  city,  heard  their  boat  make  a  noise  as  if  it  had  run 
aground,  tliough  then  in  deep  water,  and  saw  at  the  same  time  houses  falling  on  both  sides 
of  the  river.  Four  or  five  minutes  after,  the  boat  made  the  like  noise,  caused  by  another 
shock,  which  brought  down  more  houses.  The  bed  of  the  Tagus  was  in  many  places  raised 
to  its  surfrice.  Ships  wore  driven  from  their  anchors,  and  jostled  toget  k  with  great  vio- 
lence ;  and  the  masters  did  not  know  if  they  were  afloat  or  aground.  Tlu  large  quay  called 
Caes  dti  Prada,  was  overturned,  crowded  with  people,  and  sunk  to  an  unfatliomable  depth 
in  the  water,  not  so  much  as  one  body  afterwards  ajipearing.  The  bar  was  seen  dry  from 
shore  to  shore ;  then  suddenly  the  sea,  like  a  mountain,  came  rolling  in,  and  alwut  Belem 
castle  the  water  rose  fifty  feet  almost  in  an  instant ;  and  had  it  not  been  for  the  great  bay 
opposite  tho  city,  which  received  and  spread  the  great  flux,  the  lower  part  must  have  been 
under  water.  As  it  was,  it  came  up  to  the  houses,  and  drove  the  inhabitants  to  the  hills. 
About  noon,  there  was  another  shock,  when  the  walls  of  several  houses  which  were  yet 
standing  were  seen  to  open  from  top  to  bottom  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  yard,  but  closed 
again  so  exactly  as  to  leave  scarce  any  mark  of  injury.  It  is  remarked,  that  on  the  Ist  of 
November,  17.56,  being  the  anniversary  of  tho  fatal  tragedy  of  this  unhappy  city,  another 
shock  gave  the  inhabitants  so  terrible  an  alarm  that  they  were  preparing  for  their  flight  into 
the  country,  but  wore  prevented  by  several  regiments  of  horse  placed  all  around  by  the 
king's  orders.  Many  of  the  largest  mountains  in  Portugal  during  the  great  earthquake  were 
shaken  as  it  were  to  their  foundation,  and  many  of  them  opened  at  their  summits,  split,  and 
rent,  and  huge  masses  of  them  were  cast  down  into  the  subjacent  volleys.  The  same  dread- 
ful visitation  was  experienced  at  Oporto.  We  are  told  that  at  about  forty  minutes  past  nine 
in  the  morning,  the  sky  being  serene,  was  heard  a  dreadful  hollow  noise  like  thunder  or  the 
rattling  of  coaches  over  rugged  stones  at  a  distance;  and  almost  at  the  same  instant  was 
felt  a  severe  slioch  of  an  earthquake,  which  lasted  six  or  seven  minutes,  during  which  every 
thing  shook  and  rattled.  It  rent  several  churches.  In  the  streets  the  earth  was  seen  to 
heave  under  the  people's  feet,  as  if  in  labour.  The  river  was  also  amazingly  affected ;  for 
in  the  space  of  a  minute  or  two,  it  rose  and  fell  five  or  six  feet,  and  continued  to  do  so  for 
four  hours.  The  river  Douro  was  observed  to  burst  open  in  some  parts,  and  discharge  vast 
quantities  of  air ;  and  the  agitation  was  so  great  in  the  sea,  beyond  the  bar,  that  it  was  ima- 
gined the  air  got  vent  there  also. 

On  the  fatal  day  of  the  great  earthquake  of  Lisbon,  at  Ayamonte,  near  where  the  Gua- 
diana  falls  into  the  bay  of  Cadiz,  a  little  before  ten  o'clock,  immediately  on  a  rushing  noise 
being  heard,  a  terrible  earthquake  was  felt,  which  during  fourteen  or  fifteen  minutes  damaged 


I  the  Gua- 
ling  noise 
I  damaged 


Book  II. 


GEOGNOSY. 


alnifwt  nil  tho  Imililinirs.  In  littlo  mure  than  half  an  hour  after,  tho  M>a  and  river,  with  all 
their  canaN,  overllowoa  their  bdiindH  with  great  violunco,  laying  under  water  all  tliu  conxta 
of  the  iiilnnils  adjacent  to  the  city  and  \ta  neighbourhood,  flowing  into  tho  ntrei^lH.  The 
water  roHu  three  timet),  after  it  liiul  ax  many  times  tiulMiidcd.  One  of  the  HwelU  wax  at  tho 
time  of  ohh.  The  water  came  on  in  voMt  black  niountaiuH,  white  with  fuum  at  the  top,  and 
demolished  more  than  lialf  of  tho  town  at  tho  bar  called  I)e  Canala.  Tiio  earlii  was 
observed  to  open  in  several  places,  and  from  tho  apertures  (lowc<l  vast  (juiintilieH  of  water. 

At  Cadiz,  m  tho  same  monung,  some  minutes  after  nine,  tho  whole  town  was  ^Imken 
with  a  violiMit  earthquake,  which  lasted  about  ftvo  minutes.  The  water  in  the  cisterns 
under  ground  rolled  backwards  and  forwards.  At  ten  minutes  after  eleven,  a  wave  wiut 
seen  coming  from  sea,  eight  miles  oft*,  at  least  sixty  feet  higher  than  umuiiI.  It  dai^hed 
against  tlie  west  part  of  tho  city ;  at  lost  it  camo  upon  the  walls,  beat  in  tlm  breast-work, 
and  carried  pieces  of  eight  or  ten  tons  weight  forty  or  fifty  yards  from  the  wall.  When  tlio 
wave  was  gone,  some  parts  that  are  deep  at  low  water  were  left  quite  dry,  tor  the  water 
returned  there  witli  the  same  violence  as  it  came.  On  the  same  eventful  morning  (libraltur 
wiiH  agitated  by  an  earthquake.  It  lasted  about  two  minutes.  The  ffuns  on  the  battery 
wvrr.  Keen  to  rine,  other*  to  sink,  the  earth  having  an  iindulalinff  motion.  Alust  iMioplc 
wero  seized  with  giddiness  and  sickness,  and  some  fell  down,  oUiers  were  stupefied,  tliough 
many  that  were  walking  or  riding  felt  no  motion,  but  wero  sick.  The  sea  rose  six  feet 
every  fifteen  minutes,  and  fell  so  low  that  boats  and  all  tho  small  craft  near  the  shore  wero 
left  aground,  as  were  numbers  of  fish.  Ships  in  tlie  bay  seemed  as  if  they  hud  struck  on 
rocks.  The  flux  and  reflux  lasted  till  six  next  morning,  having  decreased  gradually  from 
two  in  the  afternoon. 

This  earth(iuakc  excited  much  attention,  from  the  incredibly  great  extent  at  which  slighter 
contemporary  shocks  wero  experienced.  They  extended  from  Greenland  and  Iceland  to 
Norway,  Sweden,  Germany,  Britain,  Switzerland,  Prance,  Simin,  Morocco,  Salee,  Fez, 
Teutan,  and  even  to  the  West  Indies  and  the  lake  Ontario  in  North  America. 

However  dreadful  many  of  the  earthquakes  of  Europe  were,  they  bear  no  comparison 
with  those  which  have  desolate<l  many  parts  of  Asia.  Passing  over  those  which  were 
observed  in  the  islands,  on  the  eastern  continent,  and  in  the  environs  of  the  Caspian  Sea, 
our  attention  is  particularly  drawn  towards  Syria,  on  account  of  tho  ravages  it  has  frequently 
experienced. 

Gibbon,  in  the  forty-third  chapter  of  his  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  gives  the 
following  account  of  the  earthquake  that  took  place  at  Antioch  in  A.  D.  520.  May  3(t. 
"The  near  approach  of  a  comet  may  injure  or  destroy  the  globe  which  we  inhabit;  but  the 
changes  on  its  surfoce  have  been  hitherto  produced  by  the  action  of  volcanoes  and  earth- 
quakes. The  nature  of  the  soil  may  indicate  the  countries  most  exposed  to  these  formidable 
concussions,  since  they  are  caused  by  subterraneous  fires,  and  such  fires  arc  kindled  by  tho 
union  and  fermentation  of  iron  and  sulphur.  But  their  times  and  efTects  appear  to  lie  beyond 
the  reach  of  human  curiosity,  and  the  philosopher  will  discreetly  abstain  from  the  prediction 
of  earthquakes,  till  he  has  counted  tho  drops  of  water  that  silently  filtrate  on  tho  iufliun- 
mable  mmeral,  and  measured  tlie  caverns  which  increase  by  resistance  tho  explosion  of  the 
imprisoned  air.  Without  assigning  the  cause,  history  will  distinguish  the  periods  in  wiiieh 
these  calomitous  events  have  been  rare  or  frequent,  and  will  observe,  that  this  fever  of  the 
earth  raged  with  uncommon  violence  during  the  reign  of  Justinian.  Each  year  is  marked 
by  the  repetition  of  earthquakes,  of  such  duration,  that  Constantinople  has  been  shaken 
above  forty  doys ;  of  such  extent,  that  the  shock  haa  been  communicated  to  the  whole  sur- 
face of  the  globe,  or  at  least  of  the  Roman  empire.  An  impilsivc  or  vibratory  motion  was 
felt :  enormous  chasms  were  opened,  huge  and  heavy  bodies  were  discharged  into  the  air, 
the  sea  alternately  advanced  and  retreated  beyond  its  ordinary  bounds,  and  a  mountain  was 
torn  from  Libanus,  and  cast  into  tho  waves,  where  it  protected,  as  a  mole,  the  new  harbour 
of  Botrys,  in  Phtenicia.  The  stroke  that  agitates  an  ant-hill,  may  crush  the  insect  myriads 
in  the  dust;  yet  truth  must  extort  a  confession,  that  man  has  industriously  laboured  lor  his 
own  destruction.  The  institution  of  great  cities,  which  include  a  nation  within  tiic  limits 
of  a  wall,  almost  realizes  the  wish  of  Caligula,  that  the  Roman  people  had  but  one  neck. 
7\oo  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  persons  arc  said  to  have  perished  in  tho  eartliquake  of 
Antioch,  whose  domestic  multitudes  were  swelled  by  the  conflux  of  strangers  to  the  festival 
of  the  Ascension.  The  loss  of  Berytus  was  of  smaller  account,  but  of  much  greater  value. 
That  city,  on  the  coast  of  Phmnicia,  was  illustrated  by  the  study  of  the  civil  law,  wliicii 
opened  the  surest  road  to  wealth  and  dignity :  the  schools  of  Berytus  wero  filled  with  the 
rising  spirits  of  the  age,  and  many  a  youth  was  lost  in  the  earthquake  who  might  have  lived 
to  be  the  scourge  or  the  guardian  of  his  country.  In  these  disasters,  tho  architect  becomes 
the  enemy  of  mankind.  The  hut  of  a  savage,  or  the  tent  of  an  Arab,  may  be  thrown  down 
without  injury  to  the  inhabitants ;  and  the  Peruvians  ha<l  reason  to  deride  the  folly  of  tlieir 
Spanish  conquerors,  who  with  so  much  cost  and  labour  erecte<l  their  own  sepulchres.  The 
rich  marbles  of  a  patrician  are  dashed  on  his  own  head ;  a  whole  people  is  buried  under  the 
ruins  of  public  and  private  edifices,  and  the  conflagration  is  kindled  and  propagated  by  ti»e 


%:A 


■;IM|' 


|'»i 


:lli!:i 


BCIENCE  OF  tJK(X;HAPHY. 


PabtU. 


1  ( 


inmniii'rablo  flrnx  wliich  mo  iicumKury  tt)r  llio  mibitiiiti'iicn  uiul  iimmit'urturnH  of  a  jfront  city, 
liiNtiMiil  of  the  iiiiitiml  Mytnimtliy  wliicli  niijflit  comt'ort  atxl  nofii^i  llii'  diMtniNxcil,  iFicy  ilruiul* 
l\illy  cxpcrii'Mi'f  (lie  vioi'H  iinil  |HiHHl(>im  wliirli  iini  ri'lciiHcil  I'riuii  tin-  li'iir  ot'|HiniHliim'iil:  tha 
tiilti'riiiir  liiiii.-i''H  iiri'  |iillii(;i>il  by  intrriiiil  iiviiri('i>;  rcvciiKP  I'liiltriici'H  tlir  iiiiiirji'iit,  unil  hi'IccU 
dm  victlin;  iiml  tlii<  ciirtli  otii'ii  kwiiIIdU)!  tlin  nHHiiNHiii  or  tlic  rnviHiicr  in  tln'  ruiihiiiiiiiiiitiun 
of  tlinr  criiiii'H,  SujM'rMtitioii  involvrn  tlir«  prcKcMl  (lunger  witli  iiivixilili'  tcrnirH;  iiriil  if  tlio 
iiiiiix'''  "f  ili'iiili  iniiy  foiiii'tiiiicx  l)(!  Hul)H)>rvi)'iit  to  tliu  virtiin  ur  rrpciitiinci'  ul'  jmiIimiIiiiiIh,  an 
nlVriifliti'tl  j)ci)|)li'  JM  nioro  toruilily  iiiuvimI  to  nx|)«(ct  tlio  fiid  of  tlin  worl<l,  or  foilcpnciiti!  with 
HorviN'  lioiniii,'"'  the  wrath  of  an  avfriginj/  Doily."  In  1109  Hin((ln  Hhcnikn  i:oiitiiiui'.l  tor  four 
iMoiilhM;  iiiid  in  I'Hn  aiuitlicr  ('nrthi|iiitKi>  ili-ntroyed  many  cilioH,  fiilfd  np  the  viilicyH  of 
(.I'hiiiiiiM,  mill  r<hiitti'r<Hi  till'  IxiHiiltic  diMtrit-tii  of  Hiiiirun,  ho  thiit,  acrordiii)^  to  tlio  i'.\pri'Ntiiuii 
tlicii  ciiri'i'iit,  '/  wiif  nil  litii/^^ir  p^uiiiHilr  to  nay,  llvrr.  flood  ihin  ur  Ihiit  cily.  A  drcadlUl 
piirtlKpiiiki'  t'Kik  pliic<>  ill  IIW;  tlii>  Nliook»  coiitimicd  tor  u'lx  nioiitiiH.  At  tlu'  lirxt  xhoc'k  the 
ritii's  nf  Aiitincli,  IJiiIIm'c,  Acri', 'rrijMdi,  &c.  wero  laid  ia  ruiiiM,  and  nO.CMN)  pcrwiiiH  kiliod. 
Tlio  iimrc  ri'ci'iit  oiirtli(piuki',  of  l^tW,  JiiHfed  still  lunger,  and  coiiiniittcd  drt'iidful  ruvii((ci. 
On  the  Ilttli  nf  Aii(;iist,  in  one  liorriblts  niulit,  Alomn),  Aiitioch,  Diiin,  (IcKHcr,  indeed  every 
Hin;;le  villiij;i'  iind  eottajfo  witliin  the  paHliiilic  of  Alepixi,  wan,  within  ton  or  twelvu  xecondiii 
ronipli'tely  di'-itroyed,  and  converted  into  a  heap  of  nibbiuli :  m>  letM  than  '.'0,(MM)  |mjoii1o  IudI 
their  livcH,  and  innny  iiioro  wore  mutilated;  a  very  grout  nuinWr,  cuimidorini;  tlio  low 
population  of  these  placex. 

Africa  is  very  little  known,  and  we  nro  thoreforo  ignorant  of  any  cnrthqimkeH  in  ita 
interior,  where  they  may  oceur  ax  IVoqiiently  na  in  other  places.  The  southern  extremity  of 
this  rontiiient  is  rarely  vii<ited  by  slijrht  Nliocks,  but  they  iiro  more  mimerniis  in  the  north, 
where,  in  .Miircli,  lf<VJ5,  they  did  considorablo  dama);i>  to  Aljjiers  and  Blida,  On  the  contrary, 
Amrririi,  particularly  in  the  southern  [kitU,  is  inferior  to  no  (lurtuf  tlio  world  for  the  mu^niitudo, 
iiuiiiber,  iind  duration  of  its  eartluiiiaki's.  We  shall  now  mention  a  few  of  the  jjreiitesl 
recorded  by  uiitiiralisfs.  To  these  belonj;  the  oarth(|uiike  of  1740,  which,  within  live  iiiiiiuteti, 
destroyed  the  ifreiiter  piirt  of  Lima;  Callao  was  inundated;  and  of  4(I0()  persons,  *20()  only 
psciijM'd,  Till'  destruction  of  New  Andalusia,  on  the  81st  of  October,  17(KI,  was  0(|iially 
lerrinlc.  The  shucks  extended  over  Cumaim,  Caniccas,  Miiriicaibo,  the  shores  of  the  ('asiinar, 
the  Metii,  llie  Orinoco,  and  Ventures;  and  the  >rraiiito  districts  in  tlio  mission  of  Kncaranada 
were  iilsd  sli  ikeii  by  their  violence.  An  oarthipuike,  in  1707,  destroyed  a  jyreat  partof  I'erii. 
It  proceeded  I'njin  the  volcano  Tiinjjuratfua,  continued  witii  slijfht  shocks  during;  tlio  whole 
of  Febniiiry  iind  March,  ond  returned  on  the  irnh  of  Apiil,  with  increased  violence.  Many 
places  were  lilb'd  up  by  the  siiniiuits  of  itiountuiiis  tumbling;  down;  niudily  water  flowed  t'roiii 
the  volciino;  and,  spreading  over  the  country,  became  atlerwards  an  iniUiratcd  crust  of  clay. 
The  eiitiri'  number  of  persons  who  pi^rished  on  this  occasion  was  10,(HK).  No  carthcpuike 
coiilil  well  be  more  destructive  to  any  place  than  that  which  destroyed  the  Caraccas  in  1812, 
and  of  which  Humboldt  has  given  an  excellent  description.  The  Caraccas  was  thought 
secure  (III  nceonnt  of  its  primitive  mountains,  although  in  1041,  1703,  and  1778,  violent 
eartlKpiakes  were  experienced,  and  a  slighter  shock  in  1802.  Humboldt,  from  actual  inspec- 
tion, hiid  no  doubt  but  this  country,  from  lieing  in  a  volcanic  region,  must  Ik;  liable  to  such 
disasters.  In  December,  1811,  various  shocks  wore  felt;  on  the  12th  of  March,  1812,  the 
city  of  Cnracctts  was  destroyed.  The  sky  was  clear,  and  in  Venezuela,  there  had  not  been 
a  drop  of  rain  for  five  months:  there  was  no  (brewurning  prognostic,  for  the  tirst  shock  at 
seven  ininufes  past  four  in  the  aflernoon  came  on  unexpectedly,  and  set  the  bells  a  ringing. 
This  was  immediately  succeeded  by  a  second  shock,  which  caused  a  waving  and  rolling 
motion  in  the  earth,  then  a  subterraneous  rumbling  noise  wns  heard,  and  there  was  a  third 
shock,  in  wliicli  the  motion  was  perpendicular,  and  sometimes  rolling  horizontally,  with  a 
violence  wliicli  nothing  could  withstand.  The  people,  in  place  of  flying  directly  to  the 
open  liclds.  flocked  in  crowds  to  the  churches,  where  arrangements  liad  been  made  fiir  a 
prm^ession  ;  ami  the  multitudes  assembled  there  wore  buried  beneath  the  ruins.  Two  churches 
l.TO  feet  liiirh,  and  supported  by  columns  of  from  twelve  to  filleen  feet  in  diameter,  fell  in  a 
mass  of  riil)bish,  and  were  for  the  most  part  ground  into  dust.  The  Caserne  cl  Qiinrtel 
vanished  almost  entirely,  and  a  regiment  of  soldiers  stationed  there,  and  about  to  join  the 
procession,  disappeared  at  the  same  time  along  with  it;  a  few  individimls  only  escaped  ;  nino- 
tentlis  iif  tlio  city  were  completely  destroyed,  and  most  of  the  houses  that  remained  were 
rendered  iiniiiliabitable;  the  number  of  people  killed  was  reckoned  at  nearly  1(),(MHI,  without 
includiMi;  t'n-^o  who  iierished  afterwards  from  bruises  and  want  of  sustenance.  The  clouds 
of  dii.-t  liavm;,'  fillen,  were  succeeded  by  a  serene  night,  which  formed  a  frightful  contrast 
with  llie  de-tniction  on  the  earth,  and  with  the  dead  IxMlies  lying  scattered  among  the  ruins. 
The  duratiiiii  of  each  particular  shock  was  reckoned  by  some  50  seconds,  by  others  1  minute 
12  seconds.  These  shocks  extended  over  the  provinces  of  Venezuela,  Varinas,  INIarocaibo 
and  into  lli>'  mountains  in  the  interior.  La  Oiuiyra,  Mayrpiatia,  Iji  Vegn,  St.  Felipe  and 
Merida,  uere  almost  entirely  destroyed.  In  La  Guayra  and  St.  Felipe  the  numl)er  of  persons 
killed  was  about  5000.     On  the  5th  of  April  another  violent  eurthquakc  took  place,  during 


v^^ 


I  in  ill 
inily  of 
3  north, 
)nlriiry, 
rnituiie, 
|{ri!iileMt 
niiiulos, 
>00  oi>ly 
cinwUy 
('iiMinar, 
caraniiiliv 
;  tif  I'l'rn. 
Im  wliok' 
•.    Miiny 
iwed  from 
it.  ofdiiy. 
irthciutiko 
in  IHl'i, 
thought 
l-t,  violent 
111  inspcc- 
o  to  Huch 
|l812,  the 
not  been 
shock  at 
.  ringing. 
[A  rollinn 
,iH  a  third 
y,  with  a 
hy  to  the 
lade  for  a 
churches 
,  fell  in  a 
[l  Qunrtel 
join  the 
m'I  ;  ninc- 
ned  were 
I,  without 
lie  clouda 
rontrast 
the  ruins. 
jl  minute 
iiracaibo 
•lipe  and 
(f  persons 
I,  during 


Dootll. 


0K(K1N()HY. 


92r) 


whioh  nnormoiDi  IVn;rn«'HfK  \vnr«  dctnrlicil  fVoni  thn  nunintiiiiin.     It  wu  mid  tlmt  the  moun- 
tain Hilla  limt  tVoiii  .K*)  to  U(M)  foot  of  iIm  height  liy  xinkintf. 

<:ati»r  i\f  t'lirlhipiakrn. — The  ori|{inal  hy|iutheMiH,  whicli  nltrilmtcd  volcanic  eruptiotiN  ami 
enrtliqtinki'H  In  the  ()|H'riition  of  ciintrul  tire,  whn  at  lirKt  attacked  chieHy  liy  Stnki'ly,  wiui, 
tVoMi  the  phi'noiiii'iui  iif  two  earthipmkeit  olwerved  nt  Itondon  on  the  ftli  Fi'hniury,  and  Hth 
of  Mnivh,  171(1,  ciMlwi'viiured  to  prove  that  they  were  caUMed  hy  a  highly  ovrrcliarged 
Htate  of  (he  eli'i'tric  fl'  il,  Andrew  liena  alHrtiiH,  that  they  urn  Hudden  expIoitionM,  I'liii.ied 
by  giiM  in  the  intcruu  >(  the  earth,  which  he  helieveit  wouhl  Imi  liiund  then*  incloHed  ii> 
reoervoirH  of  Kiilphiir  and  bitumen.  D<<ccariii,  an  in  known,  endeavoured  to  attribuli^  to  elec- 
tricity every  tiling  that  had  any  pMlxilde  utilnity  for  it;  hence  he  lielieved  that  an  uccuiiiu* 
lation  of  it  m  the  cruxt  of  the  earth  produced  concumionH  with  the  clondti,  and  then  exhibited 
the  appearance  (if  oarth(|uiikeN,  lluniboldt  found  it  to  bo  a  prevail itig  opinion  in  America 
that  carthiiuakeH  are  idectrieal  phenomena ;  but  ubacrven,  tliat  tluH  nuiHt  bo  excuied  by 
reiiMon  of  the  partiality  entertained  for  Franklin.  The  invention  of  the  Voltaic  pile,  and 
the  olworvatiou  of  itH  wingular  oporationis  induced  many  philoMpherM,  at  leant  tho«e  nuturaliMtf 
who  were  norfuctly  intimate  with  tho  nature  of  this)  rGiimrkabio  appratna,  to  couHider  the 
whole  cartii  an  a  column  er  pile  of  thin  deiicription,  or  that  it  containH  an  apparatus  of  this 
deicription  in  itM  interior.  These  fancies,  however,  load  to  nothing  satisfactory.  Where 
then  can  wo  seek  tor  the  cause  or  caiises  of  oarthquakcs?  Tho  subject  is  entirely  hypothe- 
tical, as  wo  have  no  means  of  reaching  tho  seat  of  these  remarkable  phenomena.  The 
theory  of  the  eartlupiako  is  the  same  astTiatof  tho  volcano.  The  agitations  may  be  imxluccd 
by  the  motions  of  the  li()uid  and  gasooui  matter  at  a.  great  depth  in  the  cru*t  (^  the  earth 
endeavouring  to  f  grape. 

Snr.  V. — Account  (\fthe  different  Structures  oh»ervable  in  the  Cnut  of  the  Earth. 

Before  the  time  of  Werner,  little  had  been  accomplif'  tnl  in  rejford  to  the  determination 
of  tho  structures  that  occur  in  the  crust  of  tho  earth.  Somo  maintained  that  everywhere 
irregularity  prevailed,  and  that  it  was  in  vain  to  look  for  order  or  rcgiilarity  in  tho  coarse 
rocky  masxes  of  which  mountains,  hills,  and  plains  are  composed.  Werner,  however,  on 
flfeiieral  groundc,  assumed  that  if  determinate  structures  and  arrangements  occurred  in  tlie 
vegetable  and  uniiiial  kingdoniH,  the  same  must  be  the  case  in  the  mineral  kingdom,  not 
only  in  simple  minerals,  but  also  in  the  great  and  more  generally  distributed  masses  of 
which  the  crust  of  tho  earth  is  principally  composed.  His  investigations  fully  confirmed 
tho  truth  of  this  opinion,  for  minerals  he  found  as  well  characterised  as  plants  and  animals 
and  the  following  details  will  show  tlmt  there  exists  aniun^  mountain  rocks,  or  those  groa 
masses  of  which  the  crust  of  tho  earth  is  composed,  a  beautiful  series  of  structure,  from  that 
of  hand-specimens  to  tho  general  arrangements  of  the  great  rock  formations.  Wo  shall 
consider  tnese  structures  in  tho  tbllowing  order,  beginning  with  the  smallest  and  terminating 
with  tlio  greatest. 

Sunsirr.    — Different  Structures, 

1.  Structure  of  mountain  rocks  in  hand-specimens. 

3.  Structure  of  strata  and  beds, 

3.  Structure  of  formations. 

4.  Arrangements  of  formations  in  regard  to  each  other. 

5.  Structure  of  veins. 

(1.)  Structure  of  mountain  rochs.  The  kinds  of  structure  occurring  in  mountain  rocks 
are  tho  following: — 1.  Compact.  2.  Slaty.  H.  Granular.  4.  Porphyritic.  5.  Amygda- 
loidal.  6.  Conglomerated.  In  the  compart  structure,  tho  mass  is  uniform,  without  slaty 
or  any  other  arrangement,  and  when  broken  exhibits  various  fractures  as  earthy,  splintery, 
conchoidal,  oven,  &ic.  Common  compact  quartz  is  an  example  of  this  kind  of  structure. 
In  tho  slnlt)  .itrnrturc  the  rocks  split  readily  into  thin  layers  or  slates,  as  in  common  roofing 
slate.  Rocks  having  tho  granular  sirurlure  are  composed  of  granular  concretions  or 
imperfect  crystals,  as  in  primitive  limestone  or  statuary  marble.  In  the  pwpht/rilic  .structure 
there  is  a  basis  or  ground  with  imbedded  crystals,  generally  of  felspar  or  (luartz,  or  both, 
as  in  porphyry:  in  tlie  amygdnloidul  structure  tliere  is  also  a  basis  orgrounil ;  but  here  the 
Imiso  does  not  contain  imbedded  crystals,  but  amygdaloidnl  cavities,  whicli  are  cither  nearly 
empty,  half  filled,  or  completely  filled  with  minerals.  The  rock  named  amygdaloid 
exhibits  this  kind  of  structure.  Ijistly,  the  conglomeratrd  structure  is  that  wliicli  we 
observe  in  the  rock  named  conglomerate,  which  is  composed  of  fragments  imbedded  in  a 
basis  or  ground. 

(2.)  Structure  of  strata  and  beds.  When  a  mountain  or  hill  is  composed  of  tabular 
masses  of  the  same  kind  of  rock,  as  of  sandstone,  that  extend  throughout  the  hill,  it  is  said  to 
be  stratified,  and  the  individual  tabular  masses  are  named  strata,  as  in  fg.  58.  If  among 
these  strata  there  occur  tabular  masses  of  a  different  rock,  the  masses  are  named  beds:  a.  fig 

Vol.  I.  a  D 


il 


li  m 


< .  f 


£26 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


pabt  n. 


69.  represents  a  bed  of  limestone  iu  tljo  cliff  of  stratified  Bandstonc.    These  strata  and  beds 

58 


vary  in  positio7i ;  sometimes  they  are  flat  or  horizontal,  or  they  are  more  or  less  inclined  until 
they  become  vertical,  or  are  set  on  their  edges.  They  also  vary  in  the  point  of  the  compass 
towards  which  they  arc  inclined,  or  dip ;  but  it  is  worthy  of  remark  that  the  dip  is  always 
at  riffht  angles  to  the  range  or  direction  of  the  strata;  and  that  if  the  dip  is  given,  we  know 
the  direction :  but  a  knowledge  of  the  direction  will  not  give  us  the  dip.  Their  direction 
also  varies.  The  position  of  strata  is  determined  by  a  well-known  instrument,  the  clinometer, 
which  is  a  compass  with  an  attached  quadrant.  When  we  e.\amiue  the  structure  of  indi- 
vidual strata  and  beds,  several  varieties  may  be  discovered :  thus,  in  some  beds,  the  rock  is 
arranged  in  columns,  as  in  basalt ;  in  others,  the  arrangement  is  in  tables,  as  in  porphyry ; 
or  in  balls,  as  in  granite  and  greenstone. 

(3.)  Structure  of  formation*.  The  idea  of  formations  was  first  clearly  brought  out  by 
Werner.  To  his  views  on  this  most  important  subject  we  con  trace  tlie  new  character  of 
geology,  and  the  great  progress  made  in  geognosy  within  these  Inst  tliirty  years.  But  this 
IS  not  the  place  for  discussing  the  subject  All  those  rocks  which  appear  to  have  been  formed 
ai  the  same  time,  and  in  tlie  same  or  similar  circumstances,  and  which  agree  in  position, 
structure,  mass,  petrifactions,  imbedded  minerals,  &c.  are  said  to  belong  to  the  same  formation. 
These  formations  are  divided  into  simple  and  compound.  Simple  formations  are  those  prin- 
cipally composed  of  one  rock ;  compound  formations,  of  more  than  one  species  of  rock : 
granite  is  an  example  of  a  simple  formation ;  the  first  secondary  sandstone,  or  the  great 
coal  formation,  of  a  compound  formation,  because  it  contains  several  rocks;  viz.  sandstone, 
slate,  limestone,  coal,  and  ironstone. 

(4.)  Arrangement  of  formations  in  re/fard  to  each  other.  When  two  formations  occur 
together,  and  the  one  rests  upon  the  other,  the  subjacent  formation  is  named  the  fundamen- 
tal rock,  and  that  which  covers  or  lies  upon  the  other,  the  superincumbent.  The  line  where 
the  two  rocks  or  formations  meet  is  called  the  line  of  separation  or  line  of  junction.  In 
j^g.  59.  a  is  the  fundamental  rock,  and  6  the  superimposed  rook,  and  c  c  the  line  of  junction. 


When  the  strata  of  the  s\ii)erimposed  formation  is  parallel  with  the  strata  of  tin?  fundamental 
or  subjacent  rock,  the  stratification  is  said  to  be  conformable,  aejig.  60  where  a  formation  a, 


we  shall  say  of  limestone,  rests  on  b,  of  sandstone.     If  the  strata  of  the  superimposed 
formation  are  disposed  as  at  c,  fg.  61.,  they  are  said  to  be  unconformable.    Laustly,  if  the 


Virata  lie  over  tlie  ends  of  the  strata  of  the  fundamental  rock,  as  at  b,  in  ^fig.  59.,  they  arc  said 


%  s 


ift. 


Book  1L  GEOGNOSY.  287 

to  be  unconformable  and  overlying.  If  the  strata  rest  on  the  fundamental  rock,  as  represented 


in  Jig.  62.,  they  are  said  to  bo  saMle-shaped ;  if  ns  represented  'mfig.  63.,  they  are  said  to 


be  mantle-shaped  i  if  disposed  in  a  boson-shaped  hollow,  as  in  Jig.  64.,  they  are  said  to  be 


hasonrshaped ;  if  in  a  lengthened  or  trough-like  hollow,  aa  in^^.  65.,  thev  are  said  to  be 


trough-shaped.  Li  a  mountain  or  natural  section  of  Neptunian  or  aquatic  rocks,  as  limestone, 
sandstone,  slate,  &c.,  the  undermost  or  lowest-lying  strata  are  considered  to  be  the  oldest : 
therefore,  on  ascending  a  mountain,  as  that  in^^.  66.,  from  atob,  we  pass  from  the  newer 


to  the  older  rocks;  but  if  from  c  to  6,  from  the  older  to  the  newer.  Formations  were 
formerly  more  continuous  than  at  present,  portions  only  remaining  of  extensive  deposits. 
The  remaining  portions  occupying  different  situations  have  received  particular  names,  ac- 
cording to  the  situations  in  which  they  occur.  When  in  patches  on  tlie  summits  of  hills,  as 
represented  at  a  a  a  in  Jig.  67.,  they  are  called  mountain-caps.  When  in  hollows,  as  at  6  6, 
they  are  named  upjillings. 


(5.)  Structure  of  Veins.  These  arc  tabular  masses  that  intersect  the  strata  and  beds  of 
the  mountain  or  tract  in  which  they  occur.  The  tabular  masses  of  trap  or  whinstone  veins 
that  cut  across  the  strata  of  Great  Britain  are  there  popularly  known  under  the  name  of 
ivhin  dykes.  Veins,  like  strata,  vary  in  position,  being  sometimes  vertical,  at  other  times 
not  much  inclined  to  the  horizon ;  their  direction,  inclination,  and  dip  are  determined  in  the 
same  manner  as  in  strata.  These  intersecting  masses  vary  in  breadth  from  an  incli  or  less 
to  many  Mhoms ;  in  length,  from  a  few  inches  to  several  miles ;  and  in  depth,  from  a  few 
inches  to  an  unknown  and  vast  depth.  Veins  appear  to  have  been  originally  open  rents  or 
fissures  traversing  the  strata,  which  have  been  filled  by  an  afler-process  witli  the  mineral 
matters  they  now  contain.    This  being  the  case,  we  naturally  expect  to  find  the  strata  on 


■   'ffi^ 


■!  ^■<'-:( 


, 


4 


228 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  II. 


the  walls  of  veins  exhibiting  the  same  phenomena  as  occur  in  the  walls  of  rents.    When 
rents  cut  across  strata,  they  sometimes,  as  in  Jig.  68.,  at  a,  b,  produce  no  derangement ; 


68 


while,  in  other  cases,  the  strata  on  the  opposite  sides  of  the  rent  do  not  correspond,  owinc^ 
to  the  strata  on  one  side  sinking  down,  as  represented  in  Jig.  69. :  this  derangement  is  call- 
ed a  shiji,  flip,  or  fault. 


Such,  then,  are  the  different  structures  observable  in  tlic  great  masses  of  whicli  the  crust 
of  the  earth  is  composed.    We  next  proceed  to  give — 

Sect.  VI. — An  Account  of  the  different  Classes  and  Species  of  Rocks  of  which  the  Crust 

of  the  Earth  is  composed. 

It  was  at  one  time  a  general  opinion  that  the  formations  of  which  the  crust  of  the  eartli 
is  composed  were  destitute  of  all  regularity  in  distribution  and  in  individual  characterii. 
Lehman,  a  German  miner,  was  early  convinced  of  a  certain  degree  of  order  in  their  arrange- 
ment; and  in  his  well-known  work,  first  stated  their  division  into  Primitive  and  Secondary ; 
under  the  first  including  those  destitute  of  fossil  organic  remains,  while  under  the  other  he 
arranged  all  those  containing  petrifactions  or  fossil  organic  remains.  The  first,  he  said, 
were  generally  in  highly  inclined  strata,  the  other  in  horizontal  strata.  Werner  first  dis- 
tinctly characterised  these  two  classes  of  rocks,  and  added  to  them  other  two  classes,  viz. 
the  Transition  and  Local,  or  what  are  now  called  the  Tertiary.  The  whole  rocks,  from 
the  oldest  to  the  newest,  were  arranged  by  Werner  under  the  following  names  and  in  the 
following  order : — 1.  Primitive.  2.  Transition.  3.  Secondary.  4.  Local,  the  Tertiary  of 
the  presen*  geology.  5.  Alluvial.  6.  Volcanic.  This  arrangement,  more  or  less  modifieil, 
still  remains,  being  adopted  by  the  principal  geologists  in  Europe  and  America. 

Primitive  rocks.  The  rocks  of  this  class  lie  under  those  of  the  succeeding  classes.  Coun- 
tries in  which  they  predominate  are  in  general  more  rugged  and  lolly  than  those  composed 
of  rocks  of  the  other  classes;  fiirther,  their  cliflB  are  more  extensive,  their  valleys  narrower 
and  deeper,  and  more  uneven,  than  those  in  secondary  countries.  The  strata  of  primitive 
mountains  are  very  frequently  highly  inclined ;  a  circumstance  which  contributes  in  an 
especial  manner  to  the  increase  of  the  ruggedness  and  inequalities  of  the  surface  of  primi- 
tive regions.  The  primitive  strata  in  many  countries  maintain  a  wonderful  uniformity  of 
direction.  Thus,  in  Scotland  the  general  direction  of  the  strata  of  primitive  mountains  is 
from  N.  E.  to  S.  W. ;  and  the  some  is  nearly  the  case  in  the  vast  alpine  regions  of  Norway, 
and  in  many  of  the  lofly  and  widely  extended  primitive  lands  of  other  parts  of  Europe.  The 
rocks  of  which  primitive  mountains  and  plains  are  composed  are  throughout  of  a  crystalline 
nature,  and  present  such  characters  as  intimate  their  formation  from  a  state  of  solution. 
These  characters  arc  the  intermixture  of  the  concretions  of  which  they  are  composed  at 
their  line  of  junction,  their  mutual  penetration  of  each  other,  their  considerable  lustre,  pure 
colours,  and  translucency.  Thus,  in  granite  the  concretions  of  felspar,  quartz,  and  mica  are 
joined  together  without  ony  basis  or  ground ;  and  at  their  line  of  juncture  are  either  closely 
attached  together,  or  are  intennixed ;  and  frequently  branches  of  the  one  concretion  shoot 
into  the  other,  tims  occasioning  a  mutual  interlacement,  as  is  observed  in  bodies  that  have 
been  formed  simultaneously  and  fi-om  a  state  of  solution.  These  characters  show  that  the 
concretions  of  granite  (and  the  same  applies  to  the  concretions  of  limestone,  gneiss,  micH 
slate,  and  other  rocks  of  the  primitive  cla.ss,)  are  of  a  crystalline  nature,  and  have  been 
formed  at  the  same  time.  The  strata  are  so  arranged  as  to  show  that  they  are  crystalline 
formations.  Primitive  rocks  contain  no  organic  remains,  hence  arc  inferred  to  have  been 
formed  before  onimals  and  vegetables  were  called  into  existence.    Primitive  rocks  abound 


UlT   II. 

When 
cment ; 


Book  II. 


GEOGNOSY. 


220 


d,  owing 
it  is  call- 


the  crust 


I  the  Crust 

,f  the  earth 
character?. 
Bir  arrangc- 
Secondary  ; 
fhe  other  he 
3t,  he  said, 
>r  first  dis- 
jlasses,  viz. 
I  rocks,  from 
and  in  tlie 
'ertiary  of 
modified. 


very  much  in  metalliferous  minerals,  and  hitherto  no  metol  has  been  met  with  which  does 
not  occur,  either  exclusively  or  occasionally,  in  this  class  of  rocks.  Tin,  wolfram,  lead,  cop- 
per, iron,  cobalt,  zinc,  iimntfanese,  arsenic,  and  mercury,  occur  either  disseminated,  in  beds 
and  veins,  or  imbedded  in  various  rocks  of  tliis  class,  and  many  primitive  distxicta  are  char- 
acterised by  the  metalliferous  deposits  they  contain. 

Tiie  most  beautiful  of  all  productions  ot  the  mineral  kingdom,  the  gems,  occur  in  great 
variety  in  primitive  rocks.  Nothinfr  can  be  more  beautiful  than  the  drussy  cavities  met  with 
in  primitive  mountains,  whose  walls  are  lined  with  pure  and  variously  tinted  and  crystallized 
topaz,  beryl,  rock  crystal,  fluor  spar,  and  calcareous  spar;  the  gneiss,  granite,  and  mica 
slate,  with  their  imbedded  crystals  and  grains  of  sapphire,  chrysolite,  and  garnet;  and  tlie 
vehis  in  granite,  clay  slate,  and  other  primitive  rocks,  with  their  emeralds,  axinites,  and 
spinel  rubies,  afford  to  the  mineralogist  highly  interesting  combinations. 

Species  of  primitive  rocks. — The  following  are  tlie  species  of  rocks  that  form  the  primi- 
tive parts  of  the  crust  of  the  earth : — 1.  Granite.  2.  Syenite.  3.  Protogine.  4.  Trap. 
5.  Serpentine.  6.  Porpliyry.  7.  Gneiss,  8.  Mica  slate.  9.  Clay  slate.  10.  Quartz  rock. 
11.  Limestone. 

Of  these  rocks  one  set,  consisting  of  certain  granites,  with  trap,  gneiss,  mica  slate,  clay 
slate,  quartz  rock,  and  limestone,  are  said  to  be  of  Neptunian  origin,  that  is,  have  been  de- 
posited from  a  liquid,  probably  water ;  the  other  set,  including  certain  granites,  with  syenite, 
porphyry,  protogine,  serpentine  and  diallage  rock,  are  named  Plutonic  or  igneous,  it  being 
probable  that  they  have  been  formed  from  a  state  of  igneous  solution.  We  shall  describe 
first  tiie  Neptunian,  and  next  the  Plutonian  primitive  rocks. 

SuBSECT.  1. — Neptunian  Primitive  Rocks, 

(1.)  Granite  is  a  granular  compound  of  felspar,  quartz,  and  mica.  It  occurs  in  beds  and 
in  imbedded  masses,  and  also  in  included  veins  in  gneiss,  mica  slate,  and  clay  slate.  From 
its  intimate  connexion  with  these  rocks,  it  is  inferred  to  be  a  Neptunian  deposit. 

(2.)  7Vfl/>.  Under  this  name  we  include  all  those  granular  primitive  rocks  in  which 
hornblende  is  the  sole  or  predominant  constituent  part  These  rocks  sometimes  ajjpear 
arranged  like  the  steps  of  a  stair ;  hence  the  name  trap,  from  the  Swedish  word  trappa,  a 
stair. 

(3.)  Gneiss  is  a  granular  slaty  compound  of  felspar,  mica,  and  quartz. 

(4.)  Mica  slate  is  a  slaty  compound  of  mica  and  quartz.  Talc  shte  and  micaceous  talc 
rocks  may  be  arranged  under  this  head. 

(iji.)  Clay  slate  is  a  slaty  rock,  frequently  entirely  composed  of  minute  scales  of  mica. 

(6.)  Quartz  rock.  This  rock  is  almost  entirely  composed  of  quartz,  either  in  granular 
concretions  or  in  the  compact  form;  and  grains  of  fclspar  and  scales  of  mica  not  unfrequently 
occur  in  it  When  the  felspar  increases  in  (piantity,  the  compound  at  length  passes  into 
granite.    When  the  scales  of  mica  increase  and  the  felspar  disappears,  mica  slate  is  formed. 

(7.)  Limestone.  This  rock  has  generally  a  white  or  gray  colour,  is  composed  of  shining 
granular  concretions,  and  is  more  or  less  translucent  It  frequently  contains  scales  of  mica 
and  grains  of  quartz,  seldom  or  never  grains  and  crystals  of  felspar. 

SuBSECT.  2. — Plutonian  or  Iffnigenous  Primitive  Rocks. 

(1.)  Granite.  The  structure  and  composition  of  this  granite  is  in  general  the  same  as 
that  of  the  Neptunian  kind  already  noticed.  It  differs  from  it  in  occurring  in  vast  and  often 
widely  extended  masses,  which  form  the  central  parts  of  mountain  groups,  and  appear  to 
have  come  from  below  after  the  deposition  of  the  Neptunian  rocks  that  rest  upon  them. 
The  highly  inclined  position  of  the  primitive  strata  is  considered  to  have  been  occasioned  by 
this  granite,  with  its  syenites  and  porphyries. 

(2.)  Syenite  is  a  compound  of  felspar,  hornblende,  and  quartz :  in  short  it  is  a  granite  in 
which  the  mica  is  replaced  by  hornblende.    Some  of  the  primitive  traps  belong  to  this  head. 

(3.)  Porphyry  is  a  rock  with  a  felspar  basis,  including  grains  and  crystals  of  felspar  and 
quartz,  and  s<imetimes  scales  of  mica.     This  porphyry  is  a  mere  modification  of  granite. 

(4.)  Protogine  is  a  granular  compound  of  felspar,  quartz,  and  chlorite.  It  differs  from 
granite  in  the  mica  being  replaced  by  chlorite. 

(f>.)  Serpentine  is  a  simple  green-coloured  rock,  with  a  compact  fracture,  feeble  trans- 
luccncy  on  the  edges,  which  yields  readily  to  the  knife,  and  feels  greasy. 

(6.)  Diallage  rock  is  a  compound  of  felspar  and  diallage.  It  belongs  probably  to  the 
primitive  trap  series. 

Sect.  VII. — Transition  Rocks. 

The  rocks  of  this  class,  in  the  reg\ilar  succession,  rest  immediately  upon  those  of  the 
primitive  class.  Most  of  the  rocks  are  distinctly  stratified,  and  the  strata  are  frequently 
vortical,  and,  like  those  of  the  primitive  class,  exhibit  the  same  general  direction  through- 
out iiTCut  tracts  of  country.  Some  of  the  deposits  are  of  a  chemical,  others  of  a  mechanical 
nature  :  limestone  is  an  example  of  a  chcmic-al,  groywacke  of  a  mechanical  deposit    They 

Vol..  I.  20 


.^11 


m 


1  i! 


■  I 


•  i  * 


030 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pabt  H. 


arc  (listin^'uishcd  from  primilivu  rocliH  by  tlio  proscnco  uf  fuatiil  or^jiinic  remains,  and  the 
poHitivc  characters  are  drawn  from  the  occurrcuco  of  corluin  (i)ssil  crustacnous  animals, 
sholls,  and  corals.  _  Tlio  extensive  dc|)osit8  of  limestone,  particularly  nf  tlic  viiriefjateil  kinds 
so  hijfhly  prized  for  ornamental  pur|)o^es,  which  they  contain;  tlu!  line  granites  and  por- 
phyries which  they  uUbrd ;  and  the  ores  of  lead  and  copper  distributtMl  anions  them,  arc 
priMifs  of  their  importance  in  tlic  arts.  In  this  class  there  arc  also  Neptunian  and  Plutonian 
rocks.  The  Neptunian  are  the  followuig,  viz.  1.  Groywacke.  2.  Transition  cluy  slate,  a. 
Gneiss  and  mica  slate.  4.  Quartz  rock.  0.  Red  sandstone.  6.  Limestone.  7.  Glance  coal. 
The  Plutonian  arc,  1.  Granite.    2.  Syenite.    3.  Porphyry.    4.  Trap.    5.  Serpentine. 

SvnsEOT.  1, — Neptunian  Tranrition  Rocks. 

(I.)  Greywacke  is  a  conglomerated  rock,  having  a  basis  of  clay  slate,  in  which  fragments 
of  various  primitive  rocks,  as  clay  slate,  quartz  rock,  &c.  occur  imbedded.  When  tlie 
imbedded  fragments  become  very  small,  and  the  quantity  of  the  basis  increases,  the  rock 
uciiuircs  a  slaty  fracture,  and  is  named  greywacke  slate. 

(2.)  Transition  clai/  slate.  This  is  tlie  rock  known  under  the  name  roofing  slate.  It 
soinotimcs  contains  trilobitcs. 

(3.)  Gneiss  and  mica  slate.  These  have  the  same  general  aspect  as  the  varieties  met 
with  in  primitive  regions. 

(4.)  (Quartz  rock.  This  rock  very  much  resembles  the  kinds  met  with  in  primitive  moun- 
tains. 

(.5.)  Limestone.  It  frequently  occurs  with  less  lustre  and  translucency  than  primitive 
jiniesloncs,  and  often  exhibits  in  the  same  bed  various  tints  and  shades  of  beautiful  colours. 
It  is  frequently  traversed  by  veins  of  calcareous  si)ar.  Some  varieties  are  conglomerated, 
forming  the  hrecciated  marble  of  artists ;  and  others  contain  fossil  shells  and  corals,  and  also 
the  characteristic  trilobite. 

(6.)  Glance  coal,  or  Anthracite.  Beds  of  this  coal,  known  by  its  metallic  lustre,  and 
burning  without  flame  or  smoke,  are  met  with  in  transition  districts. 

Si)B8EnT.  2. — Plutonian  TVansition  Rocks. 

(1.)  Granite.  This  rock  does  not  differ  inatorially  from  that  of  the  primitive  period.  It  is 
principally  distinguished  by  its  being  intermingled  with  greywacke  and  other  transition  rocks. 

(2.)  Syenite.  This  rock,  which  bus  the  same  mineralogical  characters  with  tlie  primi- 
tive varieties,  very  generally  contains  crystals  of  spheno. 

(3.)  Porphyry.  This  porphyry  has  sometimes  a  basis  of  felspar,  sometimes  of  clay  stone, 
und  as  usual  contains  imbedded  grains  nnd  crystals  of  felspar.  It  occurs  either  alone,  or 
associated  with  syenite  and  trap,  forming  mountains,  and  even  ranges  of  mountains. 

(1.)  'Prop.  In  this  as  in  the  ])rimitive  trap,  the  sole  or  predominating  mineral  is  horn 
blende.     It  passes  into  syenite 

(5.)  Serpentine.  This  rock  does  not  differ  materially  from  the  primitive  rock  of  the 
.sime  name :  geognostically  it  is  distinguished  from  it  by  its  altcnmting  with,  and  sometimes 
traversing  in  the  form  of  veins,  greywacke  and  other  characteristic  transition  rocks. 

Sect.  VIII. — Secondary  Rocks. 
This  very  interesting  class  of  rocks  rests,  in  the  regular  succession,  immediately  upon 
those  of  the  transition  ciass.  Much  of  the  mineral  matter  of  which  they  are  composed 
appears  to  have  been  deposited  from  a  state  of  mechanical  suspension,  a  circumstance  which 
may  be  considered  as  distinguishing  them,  in  some  measure,  from  the  transition  class,  where 
chemical  deposits  prevail  over  those  of  a  mechanical  nature.  They  abound  in  fossil  organic 
remains,  and  it  is  here  that  for  the  first  time  we  meet  with  remains  of  vertebrated  animals, 
as  lacertct  and  other  species  of  the  same  general  description.  Coal,  which  occurs  but  in 
small  quantity  in  transition  deposits,  is  profusely  distributed  among  secondary  formations. 
Of  ores,  by  far  the  most  abundant,  and  at  the  same  time  most  important  in  an  economical 
view,  are  those  of  iron  and  lead:  of  these  the  iron  (it  is  the  common  clay  ironstone,  the 
aluminous  carbonate  of  iron,)  is  the  most  abundant  and  most  widely  distributed.  In  tliis,  as 
ill  the  preceding  class,  there  are  Neptunian  and  Plutonian  rocks.  The  Neptunian  rocks  are 
the  following: — 1.  Sandstone.  2.  Slate.  3.  Limestone.  4.  Gypsum.  5.  Coal.  The 
I'lutonian  are,  1.  Granite.    2.  Porphyry.     3.  Trap. 

SuBSECT.  1. — Neptunian  Secondary  Rocks. 

In  the  primitive  and  transition  classes  geologists  have  not  hitherto  observed  any  very 
determinate  arrangement  among  the  Neptunian  deposits;  whereas  in  tlie  present  class  a 
detcrniinatn  order  has  lieeii  discovered  throughout  the  whole  series.  In  our  sketch  we 
shall  follow  tlio  order  of  succi's.sion,  beginning  with  the  oldest,  und  finishing  our  account 
witl".  a  description  of  the  newest  l()rmation.  The  whole  Neptunian  series  is  divided  into 
formations  of  sumlstone  an<i  formations  of  limestone ;  the  other  members  of  the  series,  as  the 
slate,  gypsum,  coiil,  nnd  ironstone,  occurring  subordinate  to  these. 

First  secondary  formal  inn  ;  or  the  old  red  sundslonr.     This  formation  is  a  sandstone  of  8 


T  :>■  1 


.* 


'ART  11. 

and  the 
aiiiiimlfl, 
oil  kinila 
mill  por- 
tion, urc 
•lutoniaii 
slate.  ^• 
nee  coul. 

0. 


Vogments 
Vhen  tlio 
,  the  rock 

slate.    It 

'ieticB  mot 

live  rnoun- 

i  primitive 
fui  colours. 
;lomerated, 
is,  and  also 

lustre,  and 


period.  It  is 
sition  rocke. 
h  Uie  primi- 

[f  clay  stone, 
,er  alone,  or 
tins. 
ra\  is  horn 

Irock  of  the 
sometimes 

!ks. 


any  very 
lent  class  a 
T  sketch  we 
lur  account 
livided  into 
tries,  as  the 

kdstone  of  a 


.f. 


Book  XL  GEOGNOSY.  SU 

red  colour,  and,  bfinff  tho  oldest  of  the  snndHtonoH,  is  named  the  old  red  >and»tonc.  It  is 
composed  of  iHirticios  of  qiiiirtz,  witli  iiccaHidriiil  Hcalcs  of  mica  and  fragments  of  felspar, 
held  tojr(!ihnr  by  an  iroii-Hliot  basin  or  fjroiiiid.  HometinicH  it  in  ORsuciated  with  a  conglome- 
rate uiailo  up  of  fniijineiits  of  trauHition  and  priinitivo  rocks. 

Second  xecnnilary  formation,  or  mountain  limriilonc,  or  mrtalliforous  limestone,  or  car- 
boniferoH.H  limestone  of  ffcMilojjistH.  'J'his  doixwit  rcHts,  (jcniorally  conformably,  sometimes 
also  uncoiiformably,  on  the  old  red  Kandstoue.  It  is  diNtiiictly  Htratiticd,  and  the  strata 
arc  fre(iiicntly  more  or  less  inclined.  \U  colours  are  generally  gray;  tlie  fracture  is 
compact.  .Sometimes  it  has  a  graimlar  foliated  structure,  particularly  where  it  occurs  in 
contact  with  tnip  rocks.  Some  varieties,  viz.  those  named  lucullite,  have  a  black  colour. 
It  contains  fossil  organic  remains  of  animals  of  various  descriptioiiH.  Of  these  the  most 
characteristic  are  genera  of  the  trilobite  tribe. 

Third  secondary  formation ;  or  the  second  seeondarij  sandstone,  or  the  great  coal  forma- 
tion. This  very  important  deposit  is  a  compound  formation,  therefore  consists  of  different 
rocks.  Of  these  rocks  the  predominating  one  is  sandstone.  The  rocks  of  the  formation 
are  the  following: — 1.  Sandstone.  2.  Slate.  3.  Clay.  4.  Limestone.  5.  Coal.  0.  Iron- 
stone. 1.  Sandstone.  Tlie  general  colours  are  white  and  gray ;  sometimes  also  it  is  reddish, 
and  then  it  much  resembles  the  old  red  sandstone.  Some  varieties  are  entirely  com- 
posed of  particles  of  quartz,  held  togetlier  by  a  very  inconsiderable  basis  or  ground ;  otiiers 
contain,  besides  quartz,  also  felspar  and  mica-,  those  are  by  some  geologists  named  arkose. 
It  frequently  contains  coaly  matter,  und  casts  and  impressions  of  plants. — 2.  Slate.  Of  the 
slate  there  are  two  kinds,  named  slate  clay  and  bituminous  shale,  both  of  which  are  mere 
modifications  of  clay  with  the  slaty  structure.  These  also  contain  fossil  organic  remains. — 
3.  Clay.  This  is  compact  clay  without  the  slaty  structure,  and  from  its  use  in  the  arts  is 
named  fire  clay. — 4.  Limestone.  This  limestone  very  much  rcsond)le8  the  mountain  lime- 
stone which  lies  below  the  coal ;  but  hitherto  no  trilobites  iiave  been  found  in  it  It  altcrnales 
in  beds  with  the  other  rocks  of  tliis  formation.  Some  gt^olngists  refer  it  to  the  mountain 
limestone,  and  consequently  that  limoslono  to  the  coal  formation;  an  opinion  which  may  be 
correct — 5.  Coal.  The  coal  in  this  formation  occurs  in  beds  that  alternate  with  tlie  slates, 
sandstone,  and  limestones.  The  coal  is  bitumin<>t;s  or  black  coal. — 0.  Ironstone.  This  iron- 
stone is  the  wnimon  gray  clay  ironstone  of  niinoralogirits.  It  is  an  aluminous  carlxmato  of 
iron,  and  is  the  species  of  ironstone  which  affords  most  of  the  iron  manufactunul  iii  (Jreat 
Britain.     It  occurs  in  beds  or  imbedded,  and  most  freciuontly  in  Ihi!  slate  of  this  liinnution. 

Fourth  secondary  formation ;  the  second  si  condary  limextonr ;  tUa  tnagne.iian  and  idpiw 
limestone  of  authors.  This  formation,  in  the  regular  succession,  rests  immediately  upon 
the  coal  formation.  It  contains  several  varieties  of  liinoslone.  One  of  these,  which  fre- 
quently occupies  the  lowest  part  of  the  deposit,  has  a  brownish  black  colour,  a  thick  slaty 
fracture,  and  emits  an  animal  bituminous  smell,  and  is  named  bituminous  marl  slate. 
Another  variety  has  a  yellowish  gray,  or  even  at  times  an  ochre  yellow  colour,  with  a 
compact  or  small  granular  foliated  structure,  with  a  low  degree  of  lustre,  and  is  named 
magnesian  limestone.  Another  variety  has  a  brownish  or  yellowish  colour,  is  sometimes 
compact,  sometimes  granular  or  cavernous,  impregnated  with  sparry  iron,  forms  the  upper 
part  of  the  deposit,  and  is  called  calcaire  ferrifere.  When  this  variety  becomes  chorged 
with  bitumen  and  cavernous,  it  is  named  by  German  miners  rauchwacke.  It  abounds 
in  the  fossil  shell  named  Produetus  aculeatus.  This  formation  does  not  abotmd  in  fossil 
organic  remains.  No  true  ferns,  but  fossil  fuci  and  iostera,  occur  in  it.  Remains  of 
the  monitor,  and  it  is  said  also  of  tiio  crocodile,  have  liccn  met  with  in  it.  Fishes  of  the 
genus  chietodon  and  of  other  tribes,  and  numerous  remains  of  shells  and  corals,  occur  more 
or  less  fre(juently  in  different  varieties  of  the  limestone.  The  trilobite  tribe,  so  abundant  in 
the  transition  period,  and  also  in  the  first  secondary  limestone,  occur  liere  along  with  ortho- 
ceratiles.  It  is  the  species  named  trilobites  bituminous.  Entrochi  and  pentacrini  of  great 
size  also  occur  in  it.  The  shells  are  not  distributed  througlioiit  the  whole  mass  of  the  beds, 
but  rather  occur  hi  particular  parts.     The  following  arc  the  shells; — 

Orthoceratites,  \eTy  rare.  Encrinns  racemosiis. 

Ammonites  gibbosus.  I'roductus  rugosus. 

Terebralida  paradoxa.  Mytilus  roslrntus. 

Terebratula  elongata.  Tcrehratula  ovata,  lacunosa,  trigonella. 

Spirifer  alatns. 

Fifth  secondary  formation ;  the  third  secondary  sandstone,  or  variegated  sandstone,  or 
new  red  sandstone.  In  this  formation,  liesidos  the  sandstone,  there  are,  when  the  deposit 
is  complete,  also  beds  of  marl,  with  gypsum  i:nd  rock-salt.  The  inferior  part  of  tliis  form- 
ation is  a  red  coloured  sandstime  conglomerate,  which  rarely  contains  subordinate  beds  of 
dolomite,  but  no  fossil  orgiinic  remains.  .Mmve  this  reiw)ses  what  may  be  called  the  middle 
part  of  the  deposit,  which  is  the  variegated  sandstone,  so  nanied  because  it  sometimes 
e.xliibits  diffl'rent  colours,  princi|villy  rod,  with  yellow  and  gray  blotches.  It  is  composed 
iif  fine  grain-  of  qunrtz,  witli  a  jitth'  mica,  and  sometimes  felspar,  held  together  by  a  base 


If^"  i; 


ii'      I 


t;; 


232 


SCIKNCK  OF  GEOGllAl'IIV. 


I'AKT  II. 


of  ferrii}jinous  cluy.  It  coiitnlntt  lint  low  orj^iiiic  roimiiii!*,  |iriiici|)iilly  i>f  vi'ffohililcH.  The 
upper  purl  of  llio  ilt'ixwit  is  )j;iMit'riilly  coiiiiKiscd  of  lifils  of  ii  cliiyi'y  marl,  iilwiiyM  inoro  or 
lusM  sliity,  iind  ^rt>iiurally  ulteriiiUiii^  in  llio  lowor  )>iirt  witli  ImmIh  of  tlit>  slMllltltolu^  U>* 
colours  iiro  roil,  j,miy,  iiiul  yellow;  tidinotiiuo!)  it  in  viiriepitfil  in  the  HiimiMiiiimier  as  thti 
sdiulsfoiio  with  which  it  allcniiiti-s.  It  cuiitaiiis  xiiUinliiialc  licds  of  fiyjiKiim,  and  riirk-iiiill, 
and  souiotinies  iilao  bods  of  ilolomilt'.  It  contains  littoral  shells  and  hones  of  siiiiriim  animals. 

Sixlk  mrimdiinj  formal  ion  ;  the  .s7(i7/  liiiic.iloiir,  or  mimrliii  kalkslihi.  'I'his  niterestiii^r 
ile|K)sit,  in  the  rojfular  succession,  rests  ininic'diat<;ly  on  the  varit^fjuted  or  new  red  sandstone 
ti)nnution.  This  limestone  is  of  a  ffray,  yellow,  or  reddish  tint  of  c(dmir. — It  is  conipact, 
hut  tlie  fracture  surthces  e.xhihit  numerous  shiuini;  liicets  from  animal  llissil  remains.  IkMJH 
of  marl,  which  are  souietunes  (K>litic,  alternate  with  it.  It  otVen  aliuunds  in  well  preserved 
!(issil  shells;  hence  the  nanu*  shell  limestone.  It  sometimes  contains /i,'^)iKi/m  an<l  rock-mill. 
It  contains  l)csides  numerous  s|K'cies  of  tiwsil  shells,  ollen  very  well  preserved,  lH>nes  of  (,'reat 
saurian  animals,  and  impressions  of  fuci  and  ti-rns.  Corals  and  echinites  are  rare,  but 
entrochiles  arc  sonictiincs  so  ahuiuUuit  that  in  some  |>arl.s  of  (iermany  it  is  nanuul  trocliital 
limestone  (trochiten  kalk).  The  encrinites  liliiliirmis,  very  common  in  this  formation,  is 
cons.rereil  to  bo  characteristic  of  it.  Of  the  tbssil  shells,  the  Atnmonitcn  nodniius  and  Avicultt 
nociar.s  are  considered  as  characteristic  of  the  shell  Innt^stone. 

Seventh  stconJnryJ'ormiilwn ;  the  third  secondary  sandstone,  red  f^round,  mnrnen  iriseef, 
Keuper.  This  depotiit  is  princi|)a!ly  com|x)s(Hl  of  sandstone,  marls,  and  dulomiti\s  with  mil 
and  ffifftsum.  It  liaa  been  divided  into  the  following  liinr  {frou|>s: — 1.  Keu|K!r  salt  and 
{fypsum.  2.  Inferior  keu|)er,  \\.  Variegated  marls.  4.  Up|)or  or  superior  keuper. — The 
xall  and  ffi/psum,  with  their  marls  and  beds  of  saline  clay,  tlie  most  im|X)rtant  members  of 
this  formation  in  an  economical  )X)int  of  view,  (X'cupy  the  lowest  ])iirt  of  tlie  series.  8cv»'ml 
e.xtonsivo  salt-mines  occupy  this  situation. — The  inferior  keuper,  that  which  rests  on  tlie 
<ry|)suni  and  salt,  is  a  sandstone  which  is  red  in  the  up|)er  strata,  but  {rradually  |iasses  into 
);ruy  in  tlio  lower.  This  sandstone  sometimes  alternates  with  marls,  slate  clay,  anci  dolomites, 
and  contains  ImxIs  of  pyjisum  and  coal.  The  slate  clay  ont4iiiis  bivalve  shells,  a  s|x;cic8  of 
Ophiura,  and  several  species  of  Euuisetum,  Filiccs,  ai  ilso  some  Cticuduce<e. — Tlie  vnrie- 
littlvd  marls  (marnesirisees),  restmij  upon  the  inferior  keu|)er,  exhibit  alternate  stri])es  of 
whi'e,  green,  violet,  red,  };•■•''>''  '""'  blue;  they  nre  Renenilly  comimct  or  slaty,  and  soft. 
They  eonfain  few  or  no  orffanic  remain.s,  very  little  {ryiwum,  and  no  rock-salt. — 'i'hc  upper 
kniprr  is  sandstone  of  a  ^'ray,  yellow,  or  variegated  colour.  It  is  eoiii|iose(l  principally  of 
irniiiis  of  ipmrt/,  jjenenilly  but  loosely  held  tofjether,  so  that  the  mass  can  fre(piently  be 
pressed  into  i;niins  between  tlie  tini;rers.  Contains  some  traces  of  coal,  and  a  few  tbssil  shells 
:ind  impressions  of  plants. 

Kiifhth  secondary  formation,  or /mirth  secondary  limestone,  contains  the  lias  and  oolite 
liinesloncs  and  Jura  limestone  of  authors.  This,  which  is  one  of  th(>  most  e.vtensive  and 
impdrtant  of  the  secondary  tiirmations,  n.ay  Iw  dividwl  into  the  followiiiff  members;  pro- 
ceedinir,  as  usual,  from  below  upwards: — 1.  Lias.  2.  Oolite.  <i.  O.xford  clay.  4.  ('oral  raff. 
.">.  Kimmeridjre  clay.   6.  I'ortlaiul  (xtlito. 

(1.)  Lias.  Lias  is  a  provincial  name  applic<l  to  limestone  shales,  and  marl  stones,  and 
s<ime  sandstones  that  (x;ciir  alongf  with  them.  The  marls  are  sometimes  very  bituminons, 
and  contain  beds  of  lignite  or  b.own  coal,  and  also  fiiesil  shells,  and  occasionally  beds  of 
<ryi)8um.  The  tbssil  vegetables  of  the  lias  are  lignites,  fossil  wood,  sometimes  siliceouB 
impressions  of  ferns,  cycadacea',  and  fnci.  The  animal  remains  are  numerous  and  interest- 
ing. It  is  in  this  dejiosit  that  Iwnes  and  skeletons  of  extinct  tribes  of  saurian  animals  are 
met  with ;  such  as  the  genera  fcensaiiriis,  ichlhyosaiinis,  and  pl< siosaurus.  DilVerent  species 
of  Jishcs  and  of  crabs  also  occur.  The  lias  contains  un  immense  quantity  of  fossil  shells,  of 
which  the  predominating  one  is  the  (iryphtrn  arciiata ;  hence  the  marl  stones  or  limestones 
of  the  lias  have  been  named  grj-phite  limestones.  Besides,  the  following  may  also  be 
mentioned  as  characteristic  fossils,  viz.  Ammonites  Hiiclandii,  Plagiostoma  ffifrantca, 
Beleinnitfs  paxillosu.s,  and  Belemnites  digitalis. 

(2.)  (Mile.  The  oolite  is  divided  into  inferior  oolite  and  great  oolite.  Inferior  oolite. 
This  is  a  limestone  coni[H)sed  of  round  granular  concretions,  resembling  the  roe  of  fishes; 
hence  the  name  oolite,  or  roestone,  given  to  it.  It  is  associat(.'d  with  compact  limestones 
and  marls,  and  sometimes  it  abounds  in  fossil  organic  remains.  It  contains,  as  at  Brora  in 
Sutherland,  Ix'ds  of  coal.  The  I'otisil  vegetables,  which  are  numerous  and  ofl(!n  well  pre- 
served, are  of  the  fern  and  cycas  tribes.  It  also  contains  bones  and  skeletons  of  greot 
e.Ttent,  saurian  animals,  also  tortoises  and  crabs.  Species  of  the  tribe  echinus,  which  makes 
its  first  app<'un\nce  in  the  eighth  secondary  formation,  are  not  iinonmmoii ;  the  crinoid  fiunily 
has  also  representatives  here,  .-■■ii  also  have  sevenil  genera  of  the  coral  tribe.  The  charac- 
teristic tiissil  shells  of  the  inferior  rnilite  are  the  lUkmnitis  aalensis  and  liel.  siilciiliis. — 
Great  oolite.  This  is  a  thick  de[X)sit,  com]x>sed  chielly  of  an  oolitic  limestone.  It  rontains 
beds  of  iloiomite,  and  .soinetiines  rests  uix)n  lie<ls  offiiflirs'  i  iirtli.  Resting  n|)oii  this  (udite 
is  the  Bradford  clay ;  next  t]\o  forest  inar/dr,  to  which  beimiirs  the  lilhoirriiplnc  limestones 
of  Ravuria.     This  forest  marble,  which  includos  also  the  Stonesjield  slate,  contains  remains 


"W 


'•'^''Twiw'it^nm^jl' 


Hook  II.  ^ 


(.•>.;  fimmeridge  clau     Th'  i    ""'^'''y  «xam  nod  ^lypem  are  mut  win, 


(2.)    »<,„ft.    TheffrcPnsan,?  ,«  r  •.   .  ■  — "t-nst.c  of  this  lower^een 

mmnifv^^r'^r"""""^-    The  lower  Dart^T''"*^*«^««'«*-  ^' ^""tams  a^. 

shells  aro  very  ..uinorons    s^'j!  °'  "°  °"""-  vcrtebmted  TnS  i    ''"'  P°"°fn«fo,l  with 

al«o  cords  of  vario,,.,  kLk^'""'  °'^""'  ff<'"«ra  cW„n,  a^U^^t^,;:";'"  '*•     ''''^^  «-S 

C4.)  r,,„  ..„,,  ,,„.  ,  ^^,,^^^,  J      ».       ..re  ...ot  w.h.  and 

20*       °^"  """'*=''™-^"'^tter,,,.I,.,v,nd.s„nd 


■     1 


234 


SCIKNCK  OF  ClROfiRAl'lIY. 


Part  H. 


Ill      I! 

Ill      •' 


w 


tt  in  khIVt  tliitu  clirtlk,  iiiiil  luwiircls  the  Ihwit  pint,  of  lli(>  miiH.-t  tlio  rlay  prnloiiiiimlt'H,  iiml 
hIiiIv  I'liiy  iii.nl  is  timiiil.  Wln'ii  tin-  hiiiiiI  |>n'(l(iiiiiimlrH,  ii  liHwcly  iifffjrc/ruic  jrmyiMh  hiiiiiI- 
Htoiii'  N  ruiNii'il.  No  llmts  iH'ciir  ill  lliis  tiillact'iiiis  clmlk,  their  pliifo  Immii^j  tiikni  liy  clicrt. 
FiwNil  vi'f,'(>t!ilili<H,  even  lifiiiilc,  urn  lluind  in  it.  KoMHiln  iirr  imwt  aliiiiiiliiiit  in  the  Inwor  part 
ot'tliis  iIi'|k>.mI.  'I'Iic  fliii'l'an-  hiliinnihii,  iiiiimoniUH,  naiilitiltn,  hiimidn,  hiirnlUin,  turri- 
liirs,  irliiiiiliK,  Willi  imiilripiirrii  luul  rnrrinilrg. 

(;■».)  'riic  iijipirnmiit  is  tlif  chalk  properly  «<>  I'alU'il,  of  wliicli  there  are  two  principal 
kimlf.  VIZ.  llie  »/7ifT  or  (iul>.  or  coinnioii  ulialk,  whieli  alHUiiiil.-i  in  llintn  in  IkmIs,  veins,  and 
iinliedcli'd  nias.-ieM;  and  tlie  lower  or  hard  idiiilk,  in  whieli  Dint  is  inortf  rarely  met  with, 
'riu'w  chalks  also  eontiiin  iron  pyrites  and  i-aleareons  s|>ar.  'I'lu!  fimsils  are  vrrUliTtr.  and 
triih  i>f  I'tKhi's ;  nunierons  vchinilvx  m\A  tvrrhrtiliilUrn  ix-cnr  tlironjjhonl  the  whole  niiiHa; 
and  In  the  de«H'iidin<;  onler,  ummnniUH  and  brhmuitm  lirist  niako  their  appearance  in  the 
lower  iKirt  of  the  chalk. 

HuiHKDT.  'i. — I'lutonian  ur  Ifcncniu  Scconilartj  Hoekt. 

Ifiuiium  rorks  app<<ar,  at  dilVeri'nt  deterniiiinte  periiMis,  to  have  hroken  in  anionj;  thu 
Neptunian  roek.s  of  this  elasit,  and  also  to  have  forced  np  thron^rji  them  older  HHrks  of  variuuH 
do.srriplions,  toriniii);  monntains,  mountain  ranges,  and  groups  of  niountuiii.M.  The  iirnoous 
rix'k.M  are  jNirphyry,  and  sonu'tinius  also  granite  and  syenite. 

Swrr.  IX.—Tertiari/  Itwkn. 
iivrnwr.  1. — Nrptuiiian  Tcrlinry  litwks. 

TliP  rocks  of  this  class  were  first  pointed  ont  by  Werner;  but  it  was  not  until  the  pulili- 
cotion  of  liu-  excellent  work  of  I'nvier  and  Itrun^niart  on  the  fjeolojjy  of  I'aris,  that  their 
iliilMirtaiice  wius  ftdt  and  acknowledp'd  by  ffeolojjists.  In  the  rt'^nliir  HUCcc.«sion  they  rest 
iniineilialidy  u|Hin  the  chalk  or  uppermost  memlH<r  of  liie  .secondary  class.  Allliou^r||  t,|m 
rocks  are  iiH>ser  in  texture  than  those  of  the  .H<<condarv  cla.ss,  yet  amoni;  them  beds  cK'cnr 
o<piallv  compact  with  tht;:^e  of  the  secondary  class,  'l^hey  aUnnid  in  tossil  remaiiiH  of  the 
animai  and  vi'fretjibh;  kinmhuiis;  alth(iiiy:li  many  .species  iire  dilVeront  from  the  pre.^i-nt  oneH, 
many  of  the  >renera  are  tlie  same.  'J'lie  lollowiiuj  np;  tlie  Neptunian  rocks  in  the  order  of 
their  occurrenct-,  tVoiii  lielow  upwards:  1.  Plastic  clay.  2.  ('alcairtf  ^rossier,  or  I,4indon 
clay.  •'!.  (ivpsiim  with  Imnes.  •!.  Superior  marine  sandstones  and  snnds,  siiiidslone  of  I'Vm- 
tninelileau.  5.   Upper  fresh-water  formation. 

(1.)  Pliiiilie  cliiij.  This  clay  is  freipiently  divided  into  two  beds  by  a  bed  of  snnd;  the 
upper  lied  is  more  or  h^ss  mi.xed  with  tlie  sand,  the  lower  bed  is  pure,  kneads  completely  witli 
water,  and  is  infusible  in  the  |)orcelain  furnace.  The  up|>cr  bed  abounds  in  fossil  remains; 
the  lower  bed  contains  none.  J<  I  and  brown  coiil,  which  are  fossilised  remains  o(  dicotyle- 
donous and  iiionocotyledonous  plants  occur,  in  it.  Remains  of  the  palm  trilic  are  very 
freipieiit ;  hut  ferns  have  not  been  met  with.  Jiisirtu  well  preserved  in  amber  are  also  met 
with.  'I'he  tossil  shells  are  partly  fresh-water,  jMirtly  marine,  whicli  ure  sometimes  separjite, 
sometimes  nii.\od  toffcther. 

(2.)  Calcuire  grossirr,  or  a  cerites  of  French  authors,  tho  London  clay  of  English 
peoloifistis.  This  dcix)sit  is  sometiniea  seimrated  from  the  plastic  chiy  by  n  bi;d  of  sand, 
wliich  occasioniUly  contains  pure  and  solid  sandstone,  but  lu;  petrifactions.  Kestiiiff  u|ioii 
this  sand  is  a  bed  of  .shelly  limestone,  alM>undin<;  in  fjreeii  coloured  {Trains  of  silicate  of 
iron,  and  which  sometimes  passes  into  a  kind  of  sand;  it  is  in  this  limestone  that  the  niim- 
mulite  shells  are  so  abundant,  and  which  are  mi.\ed  with  corals  and  numerous  shells  in  a 
liigh  slate  of  preservation.  Immediately  alxive  this  lies  the  great  bod  of  true  calciiirc 
grossior.  It  is  so  comimct,  that  in  tho  Paris  basin,  where  it  abounds,  it  is  used  extensively 
as  a  buildinof-stone.  It  is  the  common  buildinjr-stonc  in  Paris.  It  contains  marine  shells 
well  preserveil,  an<I  al.so  remains  of  plants.  In  some  districts  it  is  divided  into  two  beds 
by  an  interixwed  bed  ofliffnite  or  brown  coal,  which  is  intermixed  with  fresh-w;iter  shells. 
It  is  interestinff  to  notice,  that  here  a  limestone  alxiunding  in  marine  shells  is  separated 
into  two  beds  by  an  interposed  mass  of  coal,  filled  witli  tresli-watcr  shells.  Around  liOndon 
there  is  a  ifreat  de[X)sit  of  clay  abomidinji  in  the  same  shells  as  occur  in  the  c:ilcaire  fjrossier; 
thence,  for  this  and  other  reasons,  it  is  considered  as  tho  eciuivalent  of  the  Paris  calcaire 
prossier.  Tho  uppermost  part  of  this  tbnnation  consists  of  sand,  hornstone,  and  sandstone, 
with  nlternatinij  bods  of  limestone.     It  somotimcs  abounds  in  crritcs. 

(M.)  (ii/i>siim  ipilh  bones.  This  deposit  may  be  considered  as  consistinj^  of  three  stages ; 
a  lower,  a  middle,  and  an  upi>or.  The  hirer  part,  or  that  which  rests  immediately  upon 
the  caicaire  nrrassior,  consists  of  ijray  and  white  limestoi'e,  inore  or  less  compact,  penetrated 
in  all  directions  by  silica.  This  silica,  when  it  finds  its  way  into  cavities  in  the  limestone, 
lines  tiiem  with  chalcedony  or  with  cpKirtz  crystals.  It  contains  species  of  tlie  fresh-water 
peneni  I.i/mnru  am\  Plauorbis.  The  inidillc  part  is  com|X>sed  of  gypsum  which  alternates 
with  layers  of  marl.     Tt  is  in  this  gyiisum  that  remains  of  tho  genera  Pala-olhiriinii,  Anaplo- 


Bo«K  ir. 


0KO0\()sv. 


Iwo  principiil 

Ih,    VtMIIH,  lirill 

ly  riict  with. 
vvrlilinr.  and 
wliolo  nmn8; 
iraiiuu  in  tho 


I  iinion);  tlic 
:kHorvitriuuH 
'J'iiu  i^iiouus 


il  till!  imhli. 
«,  timt  thoir 
uii  llioy  roHt 
UtlKiiiifli  t.lm 
!)im1h  ocoiir 
iiiiiiH  of  tlio 

ll(V('llt  OIllW, 

tlin  order  of 
I  or  h)iid(m 
toni!  of  Fon- 

f  sfind;  tho 
pli'tcly  with 
<ii  rciniiins ; 
o(  dicotyle- 
w  an;  very 
iro  also  mot 
es  soparate, 

of  Enfjlish 
0(1  of  wuid, 
L'stinir  upon 
silicate  of 
t  th(>  ?j«;n- 
^^ll<'ll(^  in  a 
ii;  cnlcairo 
'xtonsivcly 
rino  sliells 

0  two  bods 
iter  shells. 

1  Hoparatod 
lid  Ijondon 
f  <jroHKier ; 
ris  calcaire 
»and8tunc, 

on  .Kfafjes ; 
Jitoly  upon 
[lonotrated 
limestone, 
•csh-watcr 
nltnrnatca 
I,  Anaplo- 


ll/(0. 


II  '■"''tHJivosv 


elv 
(il- 


It      f  .rth,..r  clmractoriHod'  by  t .    m  ;^::^"'"";>  ''/f''' A/<^  /W.L  r/h     ^  ''T  ''"""•"*" 


It .   f  rth,..r  charactoriHod  b- 

"f-^ir  iwiar  7a^;'''"-'"''"'t '-'''^i^rS^^^  «"«!'-.^'^':;;;:::!  s:^;- 

sigipsiiiiiisi 

Un.lor  thin  hea,l  wo  include  M.n  "''^■-  -^—'^"«"'«'  /iot-A*. 

"  ;.;-i'tr?r^  R^^  =-«  ■«-,  ™,„  ^ 

Those  are  rocky  maases  whieh ''"''  "^Z'" ^"''^'""c  «oc/l,. 

Dim  n,I  iiMfi r  ""'y  ™ve  sfreamerl      ti, .,    .^  country  where  tho, 


'^1 


330 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY, 


Pabt  II. 


BOOK   III. 

GENERAL    PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY  UNDER  ITS  RELATION  TO 
ORGANIZED  AND  LIVING  BEINGS. 

In  considering  tho  extensive  ran(;o  of  subjects  which  this  b(x)k  embraces,  wc  have  arranged 
them  as  they  successively  rise  above  the  scale  of  inanimate  nature. 

The  first  chapter  treats  of  geography,  in  its  relation  to  botany,  or  to  tho  distribution  of 
plants  over  tho  surface  of  tho  globe. 

The  second  chapter  considers  it  in  its  relation  to  zoology,  or  the  distribution  of  animals, 
including  man  viewed  simply  as  to  his  physical  condition. 

The  third  chapter  views  geography  in  reference  to  human  society,  to  man  in  his  political, 
moral,  and  social  condition. 


CHAPTER  L 

GEOGRAPHY  CONSIDERBD  IN  RELATION  TO  THE  DISTRIBUTION  OP  PLANTS. 

In  proportion  as  our  knowledge  increases  relative  to  any  of  the  sciences,  we  find  a  more 
intimate  relation  anii  connexion  between  them.  Formerly  geography  was  only  studied  as  it 
regarded  the  surface  of  the  earth  itself,  its  figure,  the  constitution  of  the  several  regions  and 
countries,  their  boundaries,  &c. ;  and  botany  has  had  too  many  votaries  who  devoted  their  atten- 
tion almost  exclusively  to  determining  the  generic  and  specific  names  of  plants,  neglecting  the 
more  beautiful  and  philosophical  parts  of  the  science.  Of  late  years,  indeed,  our  systems  of 
geography  have,  in  some  instances,  contained  a  meagre  catalogue  of  the  vegetable  produc- 
tions ot  the  diflerent  regions,  but  nothing  that  could  give  the  least  information  with  respect 
to  the  laws  of  their  general  distribution :  and  now  that  some  of  the  most  able  naturalists  and 
philosophers  of  our  nay  have,  by  their  labours,  thrown  new  light  upon  this  interesting  sub- 
ject, we  should  feel  that  our  work  would  ill  merit  the  character  which  we  hope  it  may  obtain 
with  the  public,  were  we  to  omit  a  notice  of  it.  At  the  same  time,  the  limits  of  our  publica- 
tion will  permit  us  to  give  only  a  sketch  of  what  indeed  must  be  considered  as  still  in  its 
infancy ;  and  those  who  have  most  devoted  their  attention  to  botanical  geography  will  most 
readily  join  with  Mirbel  in  declaring  that  "  we  are  even  yet  far  from  having  arrived  at  that 
period  when  it  will  be  possible  to  write  a  good  history  of  this  subject.  What  ws  do 
know  of  climates  and  of  vegetation,  is  little,  in  comparison  with  what  we  have  yet  to  learn ; 
and  hence  it  would  be  rash  in  us  to  form  an  estimate  of  what  we  do  not  know  by  what  we 
are  already  acquainted  with.  The  surest  way  is  to  confine  ourselves  to  collecting  and 
arranging  facts,  leaving,  to  those  who  muy  follow  us,  the  charge  of  discovering  and  de- 
veloping the  theory." 

To  exhibit  tho  present  state  of  botanical  science,  we  shall  endeavour  to  put  together  the 
more  interesting  facts,  collected  principally  from  the  writings  of  our  most  authentic  travel- 
lers and  naturalists;  and,  devoting  this  memoir  to  vegetable  geography  in  its  more  en- 
larged and  general  sense,  shall  afterwards,  in  the  different  countries,  under  the  head  of 
botany,  point  out  some  of  the  most  striking  and  important  productions  of  their  respective 
regions.  As  the  nature  of  the  present  work  docs  not  permit  us  to  enter  minutely  into  the 
subject  in  all  its  bearings,  we  shall  give  a  popular  view  of  it,  as  little  encumbered  as  possible 
with  technical  terms. 

That  certain  vegetables  are  confined  to  certain  districts  or  limits,  depending  in  a  great 
measure,  but  by  no  means  altogether,  upon  soil  and  climate,  must  be  familiar  to  the  most 
careless  inquirer  into  the  works  of  nature.  In  regard  to  climate,  the  two  extremes  are  re- 
presented by  the  country  within  the  tropics,  and  that  which  approaches  the  poles.  In  the 
one,  nature  exhibits  herself  in  her  most  lovely  and  her  most  magnifif  ent  and  exuberant  form, 
and  the  earth  is  covered  with  vegetables  which  indicate  a  never-ending  summer;  whilst  in 
the  others  a  brief  summer,  a  few  days  of  freedom  from  frost  and  snow,  call  into  existence  a 
thinly  scattered  vegetation  of  small  and  stunted  flowering  plants,  which  scarcely  rise  above 
the  mosses  and  lichens  that  surround  them ;  and  the  intermediate  zones  will  be  found  to  be 
occupied  by  other  racs,  gradually,  however,  increasing  in  difierence  as  they  approach  to 
one  or  other  of  these  extremities.  The  same  gradation  exists,  we  know,  upon  a  lofty  moun- 
tain, situated  within  the  tropics.  At  its  base  may  be  seen  those  plants  which  are  peculiar 
to  the  tropics ;  and  the  beauty,  the  grandeur  and  perpetual  verdure  will  gradually  diminish 
in  the  ascent,  until  a  soil  and  climate  be  found  on  the  higher  summits  similar  in  respect  to 
climate  and  productions  to  those  in  the  vicinity  of  tho  poles. 

In  regard  to  climate  and  vegetable  productions,  our  globe  has  been  aptly  compared,  in  it.= 
two  hemispheres,  to  two  immense  mountains,  ])lacod  base  to  base,  tne  circumference  ol 


Book  III. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  BOTANY. 


287 


a  great 
lie  moet 
are  re- 
in the 
nt  form, 
bilst  in 
itence  a 
e  above 
id  to  be 
•oach  to 
f  moun- 
iculiar 
iminieh 
Ispect  to 

in  itp 
cnco  ol 


whicii  nt  tiio  fuot  \»  cnnRtitiitcd  by  the  equator,  and  the  two  polci  roprcttrnt  the  minimits, 
crownotl  with  perp*  timl  (fluciorB. 

That  ahnotit  cvnry  country  poescHHOs  a  vogctatioii  peculiar  to  ifHolt',  in  also  well  known ;  and 
this  is  iNirticuIurly  the  case  with  countricH  whuse  natural  bciunilurloii  nrc  tbriiii'd  i)y  moun- 
tains, sens,  or  deserts,  even  in  the  same  or  dilTernnt  degroos  of  latitude.  F.nroix!  rxhibils  a 
widely  difljerent  class  of  plonts  from  that  part  of  North  America  whicli  lies  iuunrdiatoly  op- 
posite to  it.  The  botany  of  Southern  Africa  has  little  or  no  rescmbiunco  1o  that  of  Iho  same 
parallclH  in  South  America,  or  to  that  of  New  Holland.  In  Great  Britain,  snine  plautM  are 
confined  to  the  eastern  and  some  to  the  western  side  of  the  island.  !n  Scotland,  the  Tut' 
sane  and  the  hlv  nf  Man  Cabbage  are  never  foimd  but  on  the  western  side  of  the  rountry, 
and  the  same  is  the  case  with  the  pale  Butteruort  (Pinffuicula  Lusitanica),  Imth  in  Knjrland 
and  Scotland.  Nature  has  constituted  the  barrier,  for  by  art  they  may  be  cultivated  as  well 
on  one  as  the  other  side  of  the  island. 

Botanical  geography  is  constituted  by  cor.oidering  plants  in  relation  to  their  habitation, 
region,  or  the  country  m  which  they  grow,  and  'n  regard  to  their  locality  or  particular  ilation, 
ana  forming  a  collection  of  facts,  deduced  fron  these  circumstances,  from  which  general 
laws  may  be  derived:  nor  is  this  a  science  desiitute  of  advantages;  such,  we  mean,  as  are 
immediately  manifest;  for  there  are  few,  in  the  present  ugc,  who  will  be  disposed  to  deny 
that  the  study  of  the  works  of  nature,  like  every  tiling  that  cai>  nxnlt  and  renne  the  mind, 
is  highly  deserving  of  our  attention.  Vegetable  geography  is  intimately  connected  with  hor- 
ticulture. Our  gardens  will  be  better  stocked  with  vegetables  and  fruits,  our  forests  with 
trees,  our  fields  with  corn,  and  our  pastures  with  grasses,  in  proportion  to  our  knowledge  of 
the  relation  of  plants  with  the  e.xterior  elements.  Nay,  Schouw  has  justly  observed,  that  a 
good  chart  of  the  distribution  of  the  vegetable  forms  over  any  given  country  will  afford  a  far 
more  correct  idea  of  the  productive  strength  of  that  country  than  many  statistical  tables. 
The  systematic  botanist  may  thence  derive  benefit ;  for  by  it  he  will  be  better  able  to  deter- 
mine whether  certain  kinds  of  plants  are  species  or  varieties ;  he  will  consider  that  a  dif^ 
ferent  local  situation  produces  different  efTects  upon  them ;  that  those  growing  in  wet  places 
are  less  hairy  or  downy  than  those  growing  in  dry ;  that  at  great  elevations  plants  ore  more 
dwarf  in  their  stature,  with  fewer  leaves,  but  with  larger  and  more  brilliant  flowers  than 
those  found  at  lesser  heights.  The  station,  too,  of  certain  plants,  or  groups  of  plants,  fre- 
quently lead  to  a  discovery  of  characters  diverse  from  other  individuals  of  other  countries 
with  which  tiny  had  been  a&sociated.  Thus  the  Canadian  Strawberry  and  the  Canadian 
chickweed  Wintergreen  (Trientalis),  though  long  confounded  with  the  European  Strawber- 
ry and  Trientalis,  are  found  to  be  quite  distinct.  The  regions,  too,  and  the  limits  of  those 
regions,  of  very  important  medicinal  H'ugs,  are  determined  by  vegetable  geography. 

Sect.  I. — Progress  of  Botanical  Geography. 
This  branch  of  science  had  been,  hov'"ver,  for  a  long  time,  wholly  neglected.  Linna}us, 
indeed,  with  whom  originated  so  many  improvements  in  botany,  besides  what  related  to  sys- 
tematic arrangement,  was  the  first  writer  who  gave  stations  for  plants,  as  ho  called  them,  or 
rather  habitations,  or  frequently  both  combined,  and  this  plon  has  been  followed  by  every  suc- 
ceeding systematic  botanist.  Yet  although  these  stations  or  habitations  are  frequently  con- 
sulted in  the  geographical  arrangement  of  plants,  they  arc  too  vague  and  uncertain  to  be 
generally  depended  upon ;  and  they  must  be  employed  with  caution.  De  Saussure,  who  so 
assiduously  studied  vegetable  physiology,  was  particularly  attentive,  on  that  account,  to  the 
elevation  at  which  plants  grow  above  the  level  of  the  sea ;  and  appears  to  have  been  the 
first  to  ascertain  that  elevation  barometrically.  Mr.  Young,  the  celebrated  agriculturist,  in 
his  Travels  upon  the  Continent,  determined  with  considerable  accuracy  the  northern  boun- 
daries of  several  of  the  most  important  cultivated  plants,  the  Olive,  the  Vine,  and  the 
Maize ;  whilst  Soulavie,  in  the  south  of  France,  has  characterised  the  limits  of  them,  and 
of  the  Orange  and  Chestnut.  These,  and  other  authors  of  less  note,  prepared  the  way, 
during  the  last  century,  for  the  more  important  labours  of  the  present,  when  the  .study  has 
begun  to  rank  as  a  science.  Stromeyer  described,  to  a  certain  extent,  the  boundaries  of  the 
vegetable  kingdom,  in  a  work  entitled  "A  Specimen  of  the  History  of  Vegetable  Geogra- 
phy," Gottingen,  1800.  The  work  of  Kielmann,  entitled  "  A  Dissertation  concerning  Vege- 
tation in  the  Alpine  Regions,"  Tubingen,  1804,  was  followed  by  that  of  Treviranus,  named 
"  Biologic,"  which  seems  to  \ie  the  first  wherein  attention  was  paid  to  the  distribution  of 
plants  according  to  their  natural  families;  the  hitter  author  dividing  the  globe  into  regions 
or  distinct  Floras ;  and  De  Candolle,  about  the  same  time,  partitioned  France  into  regions  in 
the  same  way,  and  wrote  on  the  influence  of  height  upon  vegetation.  To  the  celebrated 
Humboldt,  however,  we  are  indebted  for  the  most  valuable  writings  on  vegetable  geography, 
which  have  first  given  it  the  true  character  of  a  science.  His  "  Essai  siir  la  Gt'ographie 
des  Plantes,"  in  1807,  and  his  beautiful  "  Tableaux  de  la  Nature,"  contained  his  first  ideas 
on  the  subject;  while  his  celebrated  "Prolegomena  de  distributione  geographica  Planta- 
'iim  secundum  cceli  temperiem  et  allitudinem  montium,"  forming  the  introductory  chapter 
'o  the  botanical  part  of  his  travels;  his  invaluable  "Memoir  on  Isothermal  Lines  and  the 


vi>, 


.  ,!•: » 


flu  J 


.?!.: 


^..11 


I 


988 


aCIKNCK  OF  fJK(K;RAPlIY, 


Part  II. 


IHiitrihutinn  nf  tlnil  over  the  dlohr,  |)til)liNli<>(l  in  tlic  MpinoirfH  (l'Arcii«iI,  nnil  trniiNlntiHl 
iiitii  lirinvritcr'H  mid  JiiiiicwiirH  I'liiloNopliicnl  Jdiirniil,  vol,  iii. ;  totfftlicr  witli  liin  Inter  work 
oil  tlid  Hiibjoct,  "  \ru>  KiuiuirifH  into  Ihr  l,iiw»  which  ore  ohnrrvrd  in  Ihe  I)i»trilmlinn  nj 
\'if(i lohlf  Forinii,"  likfwiiin  itwcrtcil  in  (Iki  Kdiii.  Phil.  Joiiriml,  vol.  vi.,  iniiy  Im'  (•ouHiiir 'cd 
UH  till'  inoHt  iiii|mrtuiit  diKst>rtiitionrt  on  ii  coiiipri'lii'iiHivc  hciiIi'  ti:iit.  Iinvo  yot  n|i|i<>iiri'il.  In  tlio 
nifiin  tiiiic',  otiior  oiniii'Mit  iiiilnritliMt.H,  liy  tlioir  wt'ji-dirrctcd  InlKHirH,  rontriitiiti'd  iiiiitrriiilly 
til  t'.\t(>iid  till!  NciiMico:  NViilileiilHTff,  liir  cxiiiiiiilo,  in  liiM  lulmiriililo  Flora  lidp/ionifii,  iiiul  in 
tliiit  lit'  11  iNirtioii  (if  Mwit/.criiind,  iind  of  the  ('iir|mtliiiLn  Alpn;  whilft  Von  Iliicli,  in  liiH  7V«- 
rils  in  .Xorwiiij,  dotiiiloil  nmny  curious  liicts  n'MpoctinK  the  diHtrihution  of  vexetiiblcM  in  that 
cliniiite,  mid  iiUi  in  his  int(>r<'stin({  Voyuffr  to  the  danarifg,  nmdo  in  cunipiiny  with  I'ro 
ti'.-isor  Smith.  Mr.  U.  Drown  Iiiih  iiiililinht'd  iiiciiioirH  which  riink  uinoiifr  tlm  iiioHt  viilnublo 
thiit  hiivt!  n()i)fiirud  on  thin  nnlijcct.  We  p:irticiiliirly  iillndo  to  his  "  Itrmarku,  (hoffniphical 
iind  Sijftrmiilir,  on  Ihr  ItoUimj  of  Trrrii  AiiKlriilis,  1H14,"  und  "  OhKrrviitioiiK  on  Ihv  Iter- 
biirinin  colli cti'd  hij  I'rofnmor  ('hrint.  Smith,  in  the  vicinity  of  i\e  (Smffo,  \hln."  I)r. 
Schoiiw  coinpiird,  iii  IH'24,  an  iidmiriiblo  luMtory  of  tho  Hcinticp,  of  which  Home  |>ortioiiM  have 
btMMi  translated  into  DruwHtur'H  nnd  Jiiineson's  Journal!).  TliiH  vuluiiblo  work  in  accompa- 
nied by  iin  Atlii8  of  several  iiiiipn  of  the  worhl;  ciicli  exliibitincr  the  geo(;rapliicni  extent  of 
cprtiiin  tribes  or  fiiniilies  of  vpfjotnblos,  iudicut(.>d  by  dilTeront  colours;  so  that  we  ."ee,  at  oii« 
viinv,  u|)on  a  i)!>in  of  the  world,  the  countries  in  which  those  pliintu  nro  found,  their  liounda- 
ries,  nnd  their  coin(>arativo  abundance,  indicated  by  the  greater  or  lens  depth  of  colour  em- 
ployed. Do  CiindoUc,  in  the  "  Nouveau  IHctiimtuiire  tics  Scirncr»  NatHrfllm,"  has  given 
an  admirable  rrsume  of  these  writorti,  and  huii  added  much  important  originul  information. 
A  somewhat  similar  plan  is  odojrted  by  M.  Drongniurt  in  the  "  Dictionnuire  Cla»»ique 
<rHiiitoire  Natnrclle.  Mr.  Allan  Cunningham,  both  in  Mr.  Biirron  Field'*  "  Memoirs  of 
New  South  Walm"  and  in  the  second  volume  of  "  Captain  King'*  Survry  of  the  Inter- 
tropical  Coasts  of  Australia,"  has  furnished  some  excellent  remarks  upon  tho  distribution 
of  vegctiibles,  especially  of  the  less  fre(iiu'nted  ])arts  of  New  Holland.  The  "  Mimoiris  du 
Museum  iPIIisloire  Ntiturille"  contain  some  iniportnnt  paix^rs  on  this  subject,  particularly 
that  of  Mirbel,  "  Sur  la  Uio^raphic  des  Conifcren,"  a  trilio  of  plants  valuable  for  its  eco- 
nomicul  uses;  and  his  "  Recherc.hts  sur  la  Distribution  Oiograpliiquc  des  Vegetaux  pha- 
nirogames  dans  fancicn  Monde,  depuis  rEquatrur  ji.squau  P6lc  Arctiquv :  aiid,  lastly, 
wo  shall  name  a  useful  little  manual,  entitled  u  "  Leclur".  un  the  Geography  of  Plants,"  by 
Mr.  J.  Barton. 

Sbct.  II. — On  the  lt\fluence  of  the  Elements  on  Plants. 
In  regarding  tho  limits  to  which  certain  plants  arc  circumscribed  upon  tho  surface  of  the 
globe,  we  shall  see  that  it  is  with  them  as  with  the  mighty  ocean ;  they  arc  equally  subject 
to  that  fiat  of  the  Almighty,  "  Thus  far  shall  thou  go.  nnd  no  fartlier."  The  Palms,  the 
Treo-Ferns,  tho  parasitical  (Jrchideo',  are  ever  confined  io  the  tropics;  the  Cruciferous  and 
Umbelliferous  plants  almost  exclusively  to  the  temperate  regions ;  while  tho  Coniferous 
plants,  and  many  of  the  Amentaceous  tribes  flourish  in  those  of  tho  north ;  and  since  these 
are  all  aflbcted  by  physical  agents,  we  must  consider,  before  proceeding  any  farther,  the 
influcncc.'i  which  the  elements  or  exterior  agents  exercise  upon  plants.  These  M.  do  Can- 
doUe  considers  to  be  Heat,  Light,  Moisture,  Soil,  Atmosphere, 

Si)B8ECT.  I. — On  the  Influence  of  Heat. 
Hc't  is  the  most  obvious  nnd  iwwerfiil  agent  in  aflecting  the  existence  nnd  growth  of 
plants :  and  of  this  we  have  continual  experience  before  our  oyes.  In  winter  all  vegetation 
is  at  a  stand,  and  we  can  only  cultivate  those  plonts  which  are  i.i  a  continued  state  of 
vegetation,  by  artificio.1  heat.  Plants  are  nourished  either  by  water  alone,  or  by  substances 
dissolved  or  suspended  in  the  water.  Hence  vegetation  is  arrested  when  the  temperature 
is  below  the  freezing  point;  for  the  water,  becoming  solid,  cannot  enter  the  vegetable 
tissue.  Again,  as  in  the  great  deserts  of  many  countries,  the  heat  may  be  so  great  thnt  the 
earth  is  dried  up,  and  cannot  part  with  its  nutritive  properties.  These  effects,  liowover,  ,1 
is  but  reasonable  to  suppose,  are  more  remarkable  iipin  the  surface  of  the  earth  than  nt  a 
considerable  depth :  hence  it  happens  that  trees  which  have  long  tap-roots  resist  both  the 
extremes  of  temperature  better  than  those  whose  roots  are  nearer  to  tne  surface ;  their  fibres 
penetrate  into  a  soil,  whoso  temperature  is  greater  in  winter  than  that  of  the  outer  air,  so 
that  the  fluids  imbibed  keep  the  interior  of  largo  trees,  as  has  been  ascertained  by  experi- 
ment, at  a  degree  of  heat  pretty  neorly  the  same  os  that  indicated  by  a  thermometer  placed 
nt  tlie  roots  of  such  trees.  Hence,  the  greater  tho  thickness  of  the  stem  or  branch,  and  the 
greater  the  number  of  layers  interposed  between  the  fith  (the  softest  part  being  the  moisleist 
and  the  r^ost  susceptible  of  cold)  and  the  exterior  air,  the  better  are  they  able  to  resist  the 
severity  ot  ihe  cold.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  a  shrub  or  tree  ns  it  grows  older  becomes 
more  hnrdoned  ngainst  frost.  Do  Candollo  relates  that  at  Montpellicr  the  Pride  of  India 
(Melia  Azedarach)  when  young  is  destroyed  by  a  moderate  degree  of  cold ;  but  tliat  when 


ciei 


^ 


m 


DttOK  III. 


IN  ITH  RKI-ATION  TO  BOTANY. 


330 


rowth  of 
bgotation 
Btate  of 
ubstanccB 
Lperature 
|C}][o  table 
that  the 
vever,  It. 
limn  at  a 
Iboth  the 
leir  fibres 
pr  air,  so 
expcri- 
[t  placed 
,  and  the 
I  moisiest 
jpsist  tiie 
I  becomes 
ff  India 
lat  when 


it  nttninrt  a  inoro  advani'i'd  ii[(n,  it  will  ondiiri*i  in  thf  (fiinli'ii  iit  Ornova,  np  intPtmity  of 
atmonplipro  fmir  liiiii's  hh  hi-vitu  an  that  wliicli  killiMJ  tlii>  yoiiriK  plant  in  llio  wiiith  of  h'rniicc, 

.Atfaiii,  ill  prii|Nirti(iii  uh  the  (<iit<>rior  laytTH  aro  di'privi^l  of  nap  or  wuti'ry  lliiiil,  iiiid  fiirtlHo«l 
liy  a  di'|K>HJt  of  rarlion  and  ri'HiiioiiH  iiiattrr,  tlio  iiioro  iN)W(<rthlly  thoy  withstand  Iho  cold. 
Lvt'ry  t;ardriic'r  and  (Miltivali>r  ih  acipiaintud  with  the  fact  (hat  in  cold  ami  wot  NiiiimiofM 
whiMi  tho  Niii)  aiicl  lioat  liavo  Ih'<-ii  iiiitiiMlciiMit  to  pnxliico  ^otxl  liark  iiiion  tho  now  .tJUHitH  of 
till)  tViiit-trci'-i,  tlioy  an;  liulih'  to  ho  alfoetod  liy  a  very  iiiiMlrratn  tVont  in  tlin  imihiiIii;;  viiitor. 
Sitcciiliiit  pliinlii  iiiui  Miiiwritltflriltmimt  jiliiiilii,'in  K<'ni'ral,  which  have  no  diKtiin't  '.mrk, 
are  highly  NiiHcoptlblo  of  colil ;  whilst  tlio  llirrh,  which  Ih  fnnuod  around  with  iiiiiiii'ioiii) 
layori*  of  olil  and  dry  Ixirk,  and  the  Fir,  whofit  liark  iilmiindH  with  rcHin,  ondiiro  an  iiitoi.m) 
dpRfco  of  it  without  injury.  ,\t  Fort  Kntorprini",  in  North  America,  lat.  dl"  ;10",  l)r, 
RichanlHon  liaM  BMCcrtainud  that  the  Hanktinn  Pine  (I'inuH  liiuikitiana),  tlin  inhitr,  tho  rtil, 
and  lilai'k  Spruce,  tho  tmall-frniled  Ijiirrh,  and  other  Aiiiontacormn  trocK,  hour  a  di'j'reo  of 
cold  oiiiial  to  44"  below  zero  of  Fahrcnhoit ;  and  in  Hilioria,  Int.  ♦W  28",  thocnmmo/i  Larch, 
tho  Sihirian  Stone  I'iiii;  tho  Aider,  Rirrh,  and  Juniw-r,  &c.  attain  their  (frniitUNt  itizu,  nrid 
uro  not  aifcctod  by  the  oxtremoHt  cold  of  that  Hovoro  cliniato. 

Powerful  mimmor  heats  are  capable  of  caunini;  trees  and  Hlirnbri  to  endure  the  moxt  tryinp 
offeetH  of  cold  in  tho  ensuinj;  winter,  as  wo  finiT  in  innnincrablo  inHtanccs;  and  vivu  virti, 
Hoiico,  in  Oroat  Britain,  so  many  vcffctahles,  tVuit-trecs  in  particular,  for  want  of  a  suflR- 
ciently  [Hiworfiil  sun  in  summer,  are  affected  by  our  comparatively  moderate  fronts  in  winter  j 
whilst  ujion  continenti)  in  tho  same  dnjfreo  of  latitude  tho  same  trees  arrive  at  the  highest 
(le((reo  of  perfection.  Kvon  in  the  climate  of  Paris  the  Pistucia  tree  and  tho  Olvandrr  will 
not  boar  tho  winter.  Yet  tho  winters  there  are  mild  in  coinparison  with  those  which  prevail 
in  the  envinms  of  Pekinff,  where  tho  Oleander  was  found  by  Lord  Macartney  to  remain 
abroad  tho  whole  year;  and  at  Casbin  in  Persia,  whore  Chardin  assures  us  that  the  Pistacia 
nuts,  produced  in  tho  open  air,  aro  larger  than  those  of  Syria.  On  tho  other  hand,  the 
hoat  of  these  two  countries  in  summer  is  infinitely  ^eater  than  that  at  Paris;  the  summer 
temperature  of  Peking  especially  nearly  eiiiials  that  of  Cairo,  and  siiriMHses  that  of  Alpriors. 
For  tho  same  reason,  too,  tho  \Veepinf(  Willow  liocomes  a  largo  tree  in  Finfrland  ;  while  in 
tScotlund,  whore  tho  winters  are  at  leist  as  mild,  but  where  tho  summer  afii'rds  much  less 
warmth,  this  beautiflil  tree  can  only  bo  cultivated  in  highly  favoured  situations,  and  even 
there  its  vegetation  is  exceedingly  languid :  its  young  snoots,  not  ripened  by  tho  summer 
sun,  are  destroyed  even  by  a  slight  frost 

Ilence  tho  influence  of  temperature  upon  the  geography  of  plants  !-■»  pointi^d  out  by  M. 
de  Candollo  under  three  points  of  view:— 1.  The  mean  temperature  of  tho  year.  2.  The 
extreme  of  temperature,  whether  in  regard  to  cold  or  heat.  3.  The  distribution  of  tempera- 
ture in  tho  different  months  of  the  year. 

The  mean  temperature,  that  point  which  it  has  for  a  long  time  been  the  great  object  to 
ascertain,  is  in  reality  what  is  of  tho  least  importance  in  regard  to  the  geography  of  plants. 
In  a  general  view,  it  may  be  usefiil  to  take  it  into  consideration ;  but  the  mean  teni|)erature 
is  often  determined  by  circumstances  so  widely  different,  that  the  consequences  and  the 
analogies  to  be  deduced  from  them  relative  to  vegetables  would  be  very  erroneous. 

By  attending  to  the  extreme  points  of  temperature,  results  more  limited,  hut  fur  more 
exact,  are  to  he  obtained.  Thus,  every  locality  which,  though  at  only  short  intervals,  affords 
a  degree  of  cold  or  heat  of  certain  int^onBity,  cannot  but  produce  plants  which  are  capable 
of  supporting  those  extreme  degrees.  When,  however,  these  widely  different  temperatures 
recur  at  very  long  intervals,  man  may  cultivate  in  such  a  country  a  vegctablo  which  cannot 
exist  in  a  wild  state;  either  because,  when  destroyed  by  tho  rigour  of  the  season,  ho  restores 
it  by  seeds  or  by  plants  derived  from  a  more  temperate  country  ;  or  because  he  shelters  it 
from  the  inclemency  of  the  air ;  or,  becauso  he  is  satisfied  with  the  product  of  the  plant, 
although  it  should  not  bring  its  seeds  to  perfection.  And  thus  it  is  that,  in  the  south  of 
Europe,  the  Vine,  Olive,  and  Oranpre  trees  often  vegetate  exceedingly  well  for  all  the  pur- 
poses for  which  they  are  required,  though,  if  left  to  themselves,  they  could  not  propagate 
themselves,  nor  sustain  the  winter.  Thus  we  see  a  wide  difference  in  the  geography  of 
plants,  between  those  in  a  state  of  nature,  and  those  individuals  whose  growth  is  artificially 
encouraged  by  man. 

This,  indeed,  is  a  subject  closely  connected  with  the  acclimatation  of  plant*,  or  the 
power  which  man  is  supposed  to  exert  over  them  in  inuring  them  by  degrees  to  a  climate 
not  originally  natural  to  them.  This  power  is,  however,  denied  by  very  able  vegetable 
physiologists.  Mirbel,  in  particular,  declares  that  ho  has  known  many  species  indeed 
whose  wants  have  been,  to  ii  certain  degree,  artificially  supplied  •  but  not  one  whose  con- 
stitution has  been  changed.  "If,"  he  says,  "from  time  to  time,  exotics  mingle  themselves 
with  our  indigenous  tribes,  propagate  as  they  do,  and  even  dispute  the  very  possession  of  the 
soil  with  tho  native  inhabitants ;  this,  assuredly,  is  not  the  work  of  man,  but  it  is  the 
climate  which  dispenses  this  faculty  of  naturalization."  ("Cultivators,  however,  maintain  that 
seedlings  from  Myrtles,  which  had  ripened  their  finiit  in  Pevonshire  in  the  open  nir,  are 
better  able  to  endure  the  cold  of  the  climate  than  those  seeds  perfected  by  artificial  heat,  or 


if'. 


VI'  1 


}V    'M 


I  M 


240 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  II. 


that  havo  como  from  the  warmer  parU  of  Europe.  It  is  true,  the  power  of  so  acclimatinpr 
itself  already  exislB  in  the  vejjetable  ;  but  it  ia  man  that  calls  it  into  action,  for  naturally  the 
myrtle  would  never  extend  itself  to  these  latitudes.  Nay,  something  of  the  same  kind 
M.  Mirbel  himself  allows,  where  he  says,  "  When  we  consider  that  the  Vine  is  cultivated 
in  tiie  plains  of  Hindostan  and  Arabia,  between  the  13tl»  and  15th  parallels ;  that  it  is  cul- 
tivated on  the  banks  of  the  Rhino  and  Maine,  in  lat.  51° ;  in  Thibet,  at  an  elevation  above 
the  level  of  the  sea  of  from  9,0(X)  to  nearly  11,000  feet,  under  the  32d  degree  of  latitude; 
what  astonislies  and  interests  us  the  most  is,  not  that  the  vine  inhabits  countries  so  remote 
I'roin  one  another,  or  that  it  grows  at  so  great  an  elevation  above  the  sea,  but  that  it  possesses 
in  so  eminent  a  degree  the  property  of  accommodating  itself  to  d\ff^erent  climates ;  a  pro- 
perty, indeed,  much  more  restricted  in  a  great  number  of  vegetables,  which  extend  firom  the 
equator  to  the  tropics  on  both  sides,  without  ever  crossing  them ;  for  notwithstanding  the 
greater  distance  between  the  23d  degree  of  south  latitude  and  the  I33d  degree  of  north  lati- 
tude, the  climatic  differences  are  much  less  from  one  tropic  to  the  other  than  from  the  plains 
of  Hindostan  to  the  banks  of  the  Maine." 

Tlie  distribution  of  heat  at  different  months  of  the  year  is  what  we  shall  find  to  be  of 
♦,ho  most  importance  in  regard  to  vegetable  geography.  Some  climates  are  eminently  uni- 
form ;  a  certain  mean  temperature  is  produced  by  a  mild  winter  and  a  moderate  degree  of 
warmth  in  summer.  This  is  frequently  the  case  on  the  sea-coasts,  because  the  extremes  of 
heat  are  continually  modified  by  the  sea ;  tiiat  vast  reservoir  of  nearly  equal  temperature, 
which  therefore  imparts  heat  in  winter  and  cold  in  summer,  and  enables  even  tropical  plants 
to  subsist  in  some  situations  of  the  temperate  zone.  Such  ore  the  western  shores  of  Europe 
and  America,  and  p.  great  portion  of  the  southern  hemisphere.  A  similar  mean  temperature 
may  indeed  be  produced  by  a  combination  of  very  severe  winters  and  very  hot  summers,  as 
in  the  great  continents  compared  with  islands,  or  tlie  shores  of  those  continents ;  or  the 
eastern  side  of  continents  as  compared  with  the  western ;  or  the  northern  with  the  southern 
hemisphere ;  but  these  two  climates,  as  may  be  expected,  will  produce  a  very  different 
vegetation. 

Annual  plants,  which  require  heat  during  the  summer  to  ripen  their  seeds,  and  which 
[mss  the  winter,  so  to  say,  in  torpidity,  in  the  state  of  grain,  indifferent  to  the  intensity  of 
cold,*  abound  most  in  those  regions  where  the  extremes  are  the  greatest ;  whilst  the  peren- 
nial plants,  which  can  better  dispense  with  the  maturing  of  their  seeds,  and  which  are 
injured  by  the  severities  of  winter,  affect  the  temperate  climates.  Of  these,  again,  those 
kinds  which  have  deciduous  leaves  accommodate  tliemselves  best  to  unequal  temperatures ; 
whilst  the  individuals  en  which  the  foliage  remains,  or  evergreens,  give  the  preference  to 
districts  where  the  temperature  is  more  constantly  equal. 

Mirbel  reckons  that  there  are  about  150  or  160  natural  groups  or  families  of  plants  in  the 
Old  World,  types  of  all  which  exist  in  the  tropical  parts  of  it.  Beyond  these  limits,  a  great 
number  become  gradually  extinct.  In  the  48th  degree  of  latitude,  scarcely  one  half  of 
that  number  appear ;  in  the  65th,  not  40 ;  and  but  17  in  the  vicinity  of  the  polar  regions. 
He  further  estnnates,  that  within  the  tropics  the  proportion  of  woody  species,  trees  and  shrubs, 
emials,  if  it  does  not  exceed,  that  of  herbaceous,  annual,  biennial,  and  perennial  plants. 
The  relative  number  of  the  woody  species  to  the  herbaceous,  annual,  biennial,  and  perennial, 
fiecreases  from  the  equator  to  the  poles ;  but,  as  an  equivalent,  the  proportion  of  perennial 
to  annual  or  biennial  plants  goes  on  increasing.  Near  the  extreme  limits  of  vegetation 
these  are,  at  least,  as  twenty  to  one. 

We  must,  however,  by  no  means  conclude  that  the  same  elevation  in  corresponding 
degrees  of  latitude  is  necessarily  suited  to  the  vegetation  of  the  same  plants.  A  number  of 
circumstances  may  exist  to  modify  the  degree  of  heat  at  the  same  elevation.  In  Switzer- 
land, for  example,  the  elevation  of  the  valley  of  Untersee  is  the  same  as  that  of  (iestein ; 
yet  the  tliermometer,  in  1822-3,  fell  only  to  6°  below  zero  in  the  former  spot;  whereas 
at  Gestein  it  foil  to  10i°,  and  ot  Berne  to  16°,  The  depth  of  tlie  valleys  influences 
vegetation ;  the  deeper  they  are,  the  more  intense  is  the  cold  on  the  summits  of  the 
surrounding  mountains.  Thus,  the  pine  does  not  thrive  on  the  Bragel,  at  a  height  of  5100 
feet;  whereas  it  succeeds  perfectly,  ot  the  same  elevation,  on  the  Rhetian  Alps,  the  valleys 
of  the  Linth,  the  Muotta,  and  Kloen  being  deeper  than  those  of  the  latter  districts.  In  like 
manner,  in  tiie  vnlley  of  the  Davos,  agricultural  produce  is  certain  in  places  much  more 
elevated  tli;\n  tlio  riornese  valleys,  because  the  latter  are  deeper.  The  warm  winds  from 
Italy  havo  n  porcoptible  power  over  the  vegetation  of  the  contiguous  jmrts  of  Switzerland ; 
hut  the  degrees  nf  that  influence  depend  upon  circumstances.  In  the  valley  of  the  Inn, 
Imrley  and  flax  are  cultivated  with  success  at  an  elevation  of  more  than  5400  foet ;  whereas 
at  I.aret,  in  the  valley  of  Davos,  though  the  height  is  only  4900  feet,  no  grain  will  thrive. 
Yet,  these  valleys  are  alike  in  most  respects,  and  are  surroui.dcd  by  mountains  of  simila- 
altitudes;  they  are  both  sheltered  from  the  north-east  wind;  their  soil  is  of  the  same  nature; 

•St'cds  blind,  in  t'cmriil,  rnrninliril  with  I't'W  nriinn.'<  wliirli  nbuiiiiil  in  mnistnre,  are  in  a  dcarre  in»''nsihlc  to 
rlic  pxlrunii's  i)f  hint  nml  rold ;  wiinnro  it  Hr:K('ii  lliat,  in  rcinvfjiny  llu  in  from  one  country  to  anotliur,  they  paM 
ilircingh  a  variuty  i>r  olininti'  uninjnrcil.  ' 


ants  in  the 

1,  a  {fTeftt 

half  of 

regions. 

ind  shrubs, 

plants. 

perennial, 

perennial 

egelation 

responding 
niimber  of 
Switzer- 
Gestein ; 
whereas 
influences 
lits  of  the 
lit  of  5100 
the  valleys 
...    In  like 
n\ich  more 
vinds  from 
itzerlond ; 
if  the  Tnn, 
;  whereas 
;ill  thrive, 
of  eimila- 
110  nature ; 

iiift^iiaiWe  to 
litr,  they  pR'l 


Book  III. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  To  BOTANY 


241 


hut  in  the  valley  of  tlic  Inn,  the  warm  winds  from  Italy  arc  intercepted  only  by  a  single 
chain  of  mountains,  whereas  two  chains  lie  between  Italy  and  the  valley  of  Davos:  and, 
besides,  the  latter  being  of  smaller  extent  than  the  former,  it  admits  of  tlio  reception  of  less 
solar  heat.  In  tlie  Oborland  of  Berne,  an  increase  in  height  of  2000  feet  diinini^iies  the 
crop  one  third.* 

SvDSGCT.  2. — On  the  Influence  of  Light. 

The  inlhicnce  of  the  solar  light  upon  vegetation  De  CandoUe  corsiders  to  be  as  imf  jrtant 
as  that  of  temperature ;  and  although  it  acts  less  powerfully  upon  the  geographical  distri- 
bution of  plants,  it  nevortlieless  merits  a  particular  notice. 

Light  is  that  agent  whicli  oi»erates  in  producing  tlie  greatest  number  of  phenomena  in 
vegetable  life.  It  determines,  in  a  great  measure,  tiie  absorption ;  for  plants  imbibe  less 
humidity  during  the  niglit  and  in  darkness.  It  completely  influences  the  watery  exhalations 
of  the  green  parts  of  plants ;  for  these  parts  do  not  exhale  during  the  night  or  in  obscurity, 
whilst  these  exhalations  are  very  considerable  during  the  day,  and  especially  under  the 
direct  influence  of  the  rays  of  the  sun.  The  light  aflects,  in  most  cases,  the  decomposition 
of  the  carbonic  acid ;  and  consequently  the  deposition  of  carbon  in  vegetables,  their  sub- 
stance and  tlieir  growth,  the  intensity  of  their  sensible  properties,  and  the  direction  of  many 
organs.  It  is  the  principal,  and  perhaps  tlic  only,  cause  of  tliose  singular  movements  known 
by  the  name  of  the  sleep  of  nlanls ;  and,  lastly,  during  tlie  absence  of  light  the  green  parts 
absorb  a  certain  quantity  ot  oxygen  gas.  Although  these  difierent  causes  afi'ect  all  vege- 
tables, yet  tiiey  are  not  affected  in  the  same  degree. 

liigiit  is  more  equally  distributed  tlian  heat  upon  the  surface  of  the  globe ;  but  its  mode 
of  diffusion  induces  some  very  important  consequences.  In  the  countries  situated  under  the 
eipiator,  an  intense  light,  since  it  acts  more  perpendicularly,  influences  vegetables  nearly 
equally,  during  twelve  hours  each  day,  throughout  the  whole  year.  In  prr^wrtion  as  we 
recede  from  the  equator  and  approach  the  poles,  the  intensity  of  the  more  oblique  rays  gra- 
dually diminisiics;  but  in  regard  to  the  distribution  of  these  rays,  tlie  light  is  completely 
wanting  during  the  winter,  when  the  absence  of  vegetation  indeed  renders  it  nearly  useless 
to  plants ;  ami  it  is  continued  during  almost  the  whole  period  of  vegetation,  in  such  a  man- 
ner that  its  Icngtiicned  influence  compensates  wholly  or  in  part  for  its  want  of  intensity. 
Thus  we  see  that,  independently  of  what  concerns  the  temperature,  plants  which  lose  their 
leaves  can  belter  exist  in  northern  countries,  and  that  those  whose  vegetation  is  continued 
have  need  of  the  southern  regions.  And  another  beautiful  and  just  remark  is  made  by  De 
CttudoUe,  in  reference  to  the  distribution  of  light;  namely,  that  those  plants  whose  foliage 
and  flowers  maintain  habitually  and  constantly  the  same  position,  can  live  in  northern  cli- 
mates, where  the  light  is  almost  continued  in  summer;  whilst  it  is  in  the  regions  of  the 
south  that  we  find,  as  might  naturally  be  expected,  those  species  whicii  are  remarkable  for 
the  alternate  closing  and  expanding,  or  sleeping  and  waking,  of  their  flowers,  a  motion 
which  has  an  intimate  connexion  with  the  alternation  of  days  and  nights.  Thus  we  see 
why  it  is  found  so  difficult  in  our  country  to  cultivate  many  of  tlie  tropical  vegetables,  or,  at 
any  rate,  to  brin^  them  to  perfection.  M.  de  Humboldt  has  proved  that  it  is  less  owing  to 
the  absence  of  heat  tlian  to  tlie  want  of  sufficient  solar  light  that  the  Vine  does  not  ripen 
its  fruit  beneatii  tiie  foggy  skies  of  Normandy  ;  and  M.  Mirbel  has  satisfied  himself  that  the 
uninterrupted  action  of  the  sun's  rnys,  during  a  great  number  of  days,  is  the  cause  of  the 
astonishingly  rapid  developement  of  alpine  plants  in  high  northern  regions.!  Dr.  Richard- 
son, too,  states  that  the  sugar-boilers  in  the  Canadian  forests  observe  that  tiie  flow  of  sap  in 
the  Suffar  Maple  (Negundo  fraxinifolium)  is  not  so  immediately  influenced  by  a  high  mean 
temperature  as  by  tiie  power  of  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun.  The  greatest  quantity  of  sap  is 
collected  wlien  a  smart  frost  during  night  is  succeeded  by  a  warm  sunshiny  day.  Again, 
Humboldt  assures  us,  that  in  all  places  where  the  moan  temperature  is  below  62°  6',  the 
revival  of  nature  takes  place  in  spring  in  that  month  whose  mean  temperature  reaches  42° 
8',  or  4Q°  4'.     At  Cumberland  Ilouse,  Dr.  Richardson  found  vernation  to  begin  in  May, 


•  We  limy  hurc  iniintinn  a  nirious  fact  of  vogniiilion  restiric  upon  a  hasis  of  icn.  The  glacier  of  Roccosecco, 
which  foriii!*  one  of  the  hfanrhi^s  of  tli«.'  Rerneria,  has  on  its  suiniiiit  a  valh?y  tilted  witli  ice  ;  aiiit  on  tills  the  ava- 
lanches have  lironsht  down  inasscs  of  earth.  This  earth  prodnces  a  number  of  alpino  plants,  that  nlHirrt  ahun- 
ilaiit  and  nourishing;  food  to  the  Ancks  of  tlie  inhabitants  of  Saniadeii.  Tliia  fingiilar  pasture  has  been  used  ever 
since  the  year  I5.1li. 

t  "  Vet'etaliles."  says  M.  Mirhcl,  in  his  FJtmtns  de  Phij.^ologic  ffgttah,  "  wlien  Kecluded  IVoni  the  light,  send  out 
lone,  thin,  and  whitish  shoots;  ll]"ir  substance  bccnnicH  lax,  and  without  ftrniness;  in  fact,  they  are  bleached. 
Tilt;  operation  of  the  Inniinoiis  iH'ains  on  these  orsaniscd  bodies  consifsts  chiefly  in  sepnratiiiK  the  constituent 
partH  of  water  and  carbonic  miil,  which  they  contain,  and  in  disen|!ai;iii|>thc  oxyeen  of  the  latter.  The  carbonic 
aeid,  with  the  hyiiroyen  and  oxiijeu  of  the  water,  produce  those  jjunis,  resins,  and  oils,  which  flow  in  the  vessels 
and  which  fill  tlie  cells.  These  juices  nourish  the  inenibrnnes.  anil  lirini;  Iheni  into  the  ligneous  state  ;  a  result 
whicli  becomes  more  marked  a^  the  )jj:ht  is  strnncest  and  its  action  most  protracted.  Darkness  and  light  produce, 
thi!refore,  diametrically  oppi'siie  edects  on  vegetation.  Darkness,  by  keeping  up  the  softness  of  tlie  vegetable 
parts,  favours  their  increas-'  in  length  :  light,  by  ministering  to  their  nourishment,  consolidates  them,  and  arrests 
their  growth.  Hence  it  follows  that  a  line  state  of  vegetation,  such  as  unites  in  just  pro)Kirtions  size  anil  strength, 
must  ilepend,  in  a  measure,  on  the  nicely  halauceil  alternation  of  day  and  night.  Now,  the  liy|)erhorenn  plants 
«pring  up  at  a  period  when  I  he  sun  is  constantly  above  the  horizon,  and  the  light  which  incessantly  acts  upon 
tlieni  coutirms  and  perfects  them  before  they  have  time  to  attain  a  censiderablc  degruc  of  length.  7*heir  vegetOr 
lion  is  active,  but  suuii  over ;  they  are  robust,  but  sniall.' 

Vol.  I  21  2  P 


^l=ii|l 

m 


im\ 


vi^ 


'  ,(■'• 


l¥: 


242 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY, 


Part  II. 


when  tlie  mean  temperature  was  only  49°,  nearly  3°  below  that  which  Baron  Humboldt 
consitlnrod  necessary  fur  the  evolution  of  deciduous  leaves;  but  he  atlds,  "the  influence  of 
the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  u,as  at  this  time  very  great,  and  the  hifjh  temperature  of  the  last 
decade  of  the  month  compensated  for  the  first."  We  can  imitate  tiie  native  climes  of  many 
of  the  delicate  exotics,  as  far  as  regards  temperature;  and  in  summer,  wiien  tiie  days  are 
long,  we  see  them  flourish  almost  as  if  they  were  in  tiieir  natural  situations ;  but  in  « inter 
they  languish,  and  often  die,  especially  the  more  tender  species,  such  as  the  Hettysaruni 
fryrnn.i,  and  the  humble  plant  (Slimosa  pudica).  It  is  evident  that  they  want  that  distribu- 
tion of  light  which  is  most  congenial  to  them. 

Plant*,  then,  are  arranged  in  their  different  localities,  according  to  the  certain  quantity  of 
light  which  they  may  require.  All  those  with  very  watery  leaves,  which  evaporate  much, 
which  are  of  a  succulent  nature,  which,  having  few  pores  or  organs  of  evaporation,  need  a 
stimulus  to  determine  their  action,  all  which  have  a  tissue  abounding  in  carbon,  or  which 
contain  very  resinous  or  oily  juices,  or  which  offer  a  great  extent  of  green  surface,  require 
much  light,  and  are  generally  found  in  exposed  places ;  the  rest,  according  as  they  are  more 
or  less  distinguished  by  these  properties,  exi.st  either  under  the  slight  shadow  of  bushes,  or 
beneath  the  more  powerful  Fheltcr  of  hedges  and  walls,  or  of  forests ;  or,  as  is  the  case  with 
many  Fungi,  in  caves  and  darkness.  These  lost  are,  indeed,  destitute  of  any  green  colour; 
but  Mosses,  Ferns,  and  even  some  evergreens,  such  as  the  Ivtj,  flourish  best  beneath  the 
shade  of  dense  forests,  if  the  trees  of  those  forests  have  deciduous  leaves ;  and  in  situations 
where  plants  that  vegetate  only  during  the  summer  could  scarcely  live. 

The  subject,  however,  of  the  action  of  light  upon  vegetation,  has  not  yet  received  the 
attention  which  it  deserves.  Many  more  observations  and  experiments  are  required  before 
we  can  employ  it  with  certainty  in  connexion  with  botanical  geography. 

SvBSECT.  3. — On  the  Influence  of  Moisture. 

Water  being  the  vehicle  by  means  of  which  nourishment  is  conveyed  into  the  plant,  and, 
indeed,  itself  yielding  a  large  proportion  or  even  the  whole  of  the  nutriment  of  many  ve- 
getables, it  follows  that  tiiis  clement  is  not  only  of  the  highest  importance  in  vegetable 
economy,  but  one  of  the  causes  which  affects  most  powerfully  tlie  geographical  distribution 
of  plants  upon  the  surface  of  the  globe. 

Those  vegetables,  in  partiimlar,  necessarily  absorb  a  great  quantity  of  water,  which  have 
a  large  and  spongy  cellular  tissue;  those  wliich  possess  broadly  expanded  soft  leaves,  fur- 
nished with  a  great  number  of  cortical  pores ;  those  having  few  or  no  hairs  on  their  surface ; 
those  whose  growth  is  very  rapid,  which  deposit  but  little  oily  or  resinous  matter ;  those  of 
which  the  texture  is  not  subject  to  ba  changed  or  cornipted  by  humidity;  those,  in  fine, 
whose  roots  are  very  numerous,  generally  need  to  absorb  much  moisture,  and  cannot  live 
but  in  places  where  they  find  naturally  a  largo  proportion  of  it.  On  the  other  hand,  those 
plants  which  are  of  a  firm  and  compact  cellular  tissue,  which  have  small  or  rigid  leaves, 
i'urnished  with  very  few  pores,  wliich  are  abundantly  clothed  with  hairs,  of  which  the 
growth  is  slow,  and  wiiich  deposit,  during  the  progress  of  their  vegetation,  much  oily  or 
resinous  matter ;  tliase  whoso  cciluliir  tissue  is  liable  to  be  changed  and  decayed  by  too  much 
moisture,  and  of  which  the  roob*  are  not  numerous,  require  little  water,  and  prefer,  for  their 
natural  situation,  dry  pl:icps.  Great  differences,  however,  are  produced,  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  water  tliat  is  absorbed ;  the  less  it  is  charged  with  the  nutritive  principle,  the 
more  necessary  is  it  that  the  vegetable  shall  absorb,  in  a  given  time,  enough  to  suffice  for  its 
support.  Again,  the  more  the  water  abounds  with  substances  which  alter  its  fluidity  or 
transparency,  and  which,  inasmuch  as  fhcy  are  solid  particles,  tend  to  obstruct  the  orifices 
of  tiie  pores,  or  to  impede  absorption  by  their  viscosity,  tlie  less  do  such  vegetables  imbibe  in 
a  given  time. 

The  very  nature  even  of  those  substances  dissolved  or  suspended  in  the  water  has  a  great 
influence  upon  the  topographical  distribution  or  the  locality  of  plants.  The  matters  so  dis- 
solved are,  1.  Cirboiiic  acid.  2.  Atmospheric  air.  '\.  Animal  and  vogctal)le  substances.  4. 
Alkaline  principles  or  earths.  Those  plants  wlioso  cellular  tissue  is  found  to  contain  much 
<arbon,  such  as  trees  producing  hard  wcxxl,  avoid,  more  than  others,  the  vicinity  of  waters 
whicli  are  extremely  pure,  and  which  contain  but  little  carbonic  acid  gas.  Plants  which 
exhibit  much  azote  in  their  chemical  composition,  such  as  the  Critciftrnus  Plants  and  the 
Fungi,  seek  tho«o  spots  where  there  is  much  animal  matter  in  solution.  Tlio.se,  again,  which 
present,  when  chemically  analyzed,  a  considerable  quantity  of  certain  earthy  substances, 
such  as  silica*  in  the  Monocolylrdnnous  Plants,  gypsum  in  the  Lrguminosa;,  &c.  will  re- 
quire it  in  a  greater  or  less  proixirtion  in  the  soil  where  they  grow;  and  if  it  does  not  exist 
there  naturally,  the  agriculturist  must  supply  it  artificially ;  and  those  species  which  yield, 

•  ThidBilirn.wi'  know,  ,ilimiiiil»  in  tin:  crnssi':",  na  well  risin  nlliTmonorniyli'ilmMMin  planti ;  nnd  M.  ilnCnnilnlle 
olwprvps.  tlint  it  if  in  rnwvi\w.mv  nf  iis  i\isli'nri'  in  tlie  LTiissfs,  &c  ;inili)f  the  rdniparntivi'  Inilissoliihilily  wiiicli 
is  Ihn  ro*nlt,  thnl  it  in  proferrril  by  nininst  nil  nntioii'!  r.f  the  vnrM  fnr  a  ri>verin;r  tn  ilu-ir  hnnsr-s.  The  («?np|p 
(if  the  Norlli  thiia  employ  straw  liir  that  pnrimsc,  nn  Ihn  same  princi[)le  that  Ihusc  I'f  llip  tropics  use  the  leaves  of 
Die  palma. 


if" 


111 


Book  IIL 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  BOTANY. 


243 


[has  a  great 

Iters  so  dic- 

jtjnccK.    4. 

Iitain  nmcli 

of  wntcrs 

lints  whicli 

(s  will  the 

iiin,  whicli 

iubstanccp, 

Ic.  will  re- 

]s  not  oxist 

fiich  yield, 


1.  (In  Canilollc 
[iliility  wliiili 

I  the  leaves  of 


when  burned,  a  more  abundant  'portion  of  alkaline  substances  than  usual,  can  only  flourish 
or  even  live  where  these  matters  abound.  The  specien  whicii  have  need  of  carbonate  of 
soda  will  only  grow  successful]/  near  the  sea  or  saline  lakes  or  springs.  Thus  the  different 
property  of  tlie  substances  dissolved  in  the  water  is  evidently  one  of  the  many  causes  which 
determine  the  stations  of  the  vegetable  species. 

SvBSECT.  4. — Chi  the  Influence  of  the  Soil. 

The  influence  of  soil  M.  de  Candolle  considers  as  perhaps  more  complicated  than  that  of 
the  preceding  agents.     He  reduces  it  to  the  following  heads : — 

(1.)  The  soil  serves  as  a  means  of  support  to  vegetables,  and  consequently  its  consistence 
or  tenacity  ought  to  possess,  in  tliis  point  of  view,  a  peculiar  fitness  for  sustaining,  in  a 
greater  or  less  degree,  plants  cvliibiting  very  various  foqjis.  Thus,  soils  composed  of  blow- 
ing sand  can  only  serve  as  a  support  to  vegetables  which  are  of  very  humble  stature  and 
prostrate  growth,  so  that  the  winds  may  not  overturn  them ;  or  to  trees,  furnished  with  very 
deep  and  branching  roots,  which  may  attach  them  into  this  moveable  matrix.  The  contrary 
holds  good  in  regard  to  very  compact  soils.  Small-rooted  plants  may  thus  be  firmly  enough 
fixed,  and  they  may  subsist ;  but  the  very  large  roots  are  incapable  of  penetrating  into  soils 
that  are  very  tenacious.  The  two  extremes  of  these  soils  present  an  equally  sterile  vege- 
tation. Sands  whicli  are  not  sufficiently  stationary  (as  those  very  remarkable  ones  on  the 
northern  shores  of  the  Moray  Frith),  water  which  is  subject  to  very  rapid  currents,  clay  of 
an  extremely  compact  nature,  or  rocks  of  great  hardness,  are  equally  unfriendly  to  the 
growth  of  plants. 

(2.)  The  chemical  nature  of  the  earths  or  stones  of  whicli  the  soil  is  composed,  affects 
the  choice  of  vegetables,  as  regirds  their  flourishing  in  such  situations.  But  this  subject, 
simple  as  it  appears  at  first  sight,  is  in  reality  very  complicated.  For  the  difl'erent  earths 
act  upon  vegetation  by  pliysical  circumstances ;  as,  for  example,  according  as  they  absorb 
the  surrounding  water  with  more  or  less  fiicility,  retain  it  with  more  or  less  force,  or  part 
with  't  r^orc  or  less  easily.  Now,  tlie  celebrated  Kirwan  ascertained  by  a  comparative 
anal  .'.-IS  ■  enrths  which  were  reckoned  excellent  for  the  growth  of  wheat  in  various  coun- 
tries, 'fii,'  -y  .'ontain  more  silica  if  the  climate  is  more  subject  to  rain,  more  alumine  if 
the  r  1  I  ;)c  ne  case;  in  short,  that  the  soil,  to  be  good  for  any  given  vegetable,  ought 
to  have  ;  n  ■  cr  of  absorbing  more  moisture  in  a  dry  climate,  less  in  an  humid  atmosphere : 
whence  it  is  plain  that  in  different  localities  the  same  species  of  vegetable  may  be  found  in 
diifcrent  soils. 

(3.)  Every  kind  of  rock  has  a  certain  degree  of  tenacity,  and  a  certain  disposition  to 
decomiKJse  or  become  pulverized :  whence  results  the  greater  or  less  fiicility  of  particular 
soils  to  be  forme<l  either  of  sand  or  gravel,  and  to  be  composed  of  fragments  of  a  nearly 
determined  form  and  size.  Certain  vegetables,  from  causes  which  we  sholl  presently  indicate, 
will  prefer  such  or  such  of  this  sand  or  gravel ;  bi'V  the  peculiar  nature  of  the  soil  does  not 
act  here  immediately;  thus,  when  we  find  cnlcaicous  rocks  which  decompose  like  argilla- 
ceous schist,  the  same  species  of  vegetation  is  observed.  These  two  considerations  are 
particularly  applicable  to  lichens. 

(4.)  Rocks,  according  to  their  colour  or  their  nature,  are  more  susceptible  of  being  heated 
by  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun ;  and  consequently  they  may,  in  some  degree,  modify  the 
temperature  of  a  given  place ;  and  influence  also,  tliough  slightly,  the  choice  of  plants 
capable  of  succeeding  upon  them. 

But,  independently  of  all  these  physical  causes,  it  may  be  asked,  whether  the  chemical 
nature  of  rocks  has  any  eflTect  upon  vegetables  1  It  is  generally  considered  to  be  so ;  hut  it 
must  be  allowed  that  this  action  has  been  frequently  very  much  exaggerated.  Bory  de  St. 
Vincent,  indeed,  has  assured  us  that  calamine,  or  native  carbonate  of  zinc,  in  the  vicinity  of 
Aix-la-Chapelle,  is  always  indicated,  to  a  certainty,  by  particular  plants ;  and  the  fact  is 
confirmed  by  a  little  work,  since  piiblishml,  oallod  A  Jiora  of  the  Enviro.ns  of  Spa.  The 
yellow  heartsease,  a  small  variety  of  tlie  cotnmon  eye.briffht  (Euphrasia  ofliicinaliM),  the  while 
Campion  (Sileno  inflata),  a  Santlwort  (Arcnaria),  a  shrubby  Lichen,  a  species  of  Bromiis 
(Brome-grass),  constitute  this  poor  but  constant  vegetation.  These,  however,  no  doubt, 
grow  in  greater  abundance  and  perfection  in  other  soils:  the  wonder  is  that  they  do  not 
altogether  perish  hero;  for  even  the  gallinaceous  binls,  -vhich  oat  gravel  to  triturate  their 
food,  (lie  from  swallowing  fragments  of  calamine.  It  must  be  remarked,  in  reality,  that  plants 
do  not  often  live  upon  pure  rook,  hut  ninmig  the  decomposed  matter  of  that  rock ;  that  the 
rocks,  even  thoiigli  very  (•irnmiFrribed,  often  present  very  different  natures ;  that  vegetable 
mould  i.s  not  only  formed  by  the  rocks  which  inimediately  surround  it,  but  also  by  the 
udmixture  of  earthy  substances  carried  by  the  waters,  and  transported  by  the  winds,  or  by 
the  remains  of  animals  and  vegetables  which  have  before  existed  there.  Hence  it  will  be 
inderstoixl  how  the  vegetable  earths  differ  much  less  in  themselves,  than  the  rorks  which 
produce  them  or  serve  to  support  them;  and  that  the  greater  numher  of  plants  yield,  in  most 
situations,  the  alimentary  earths  which  are  necessary  for  them.  Indeed,  after  various 
botanical  journeys  made  through  France,  M.  de  Candolle  has  found  nearly  the  same  plants 


i\. 


.!.!d 


•*,'■» 


iV 


244 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY, 


Part  II. 


i'i     «i' 


vagutating  spontaneously  in  almost  all  the  different  rocky  substances.  It  has  been  said  that 
the  Box  (Buxus  senipcrvirens)  grows  only  in  calcureous  soila,  and  it  certainly  prct'ors  them ; 
but  it  is  found  abundantly  in  the  argillaceous  calcareous  schistose  rocks  of  the_  Pyrenees; 
and  it  is  even  seen  among  the  granite  of  Britany  and  upon  the  volcanic  parts  of  Auvergne. 
The  Chestnut  has  been  said  to  avoid  a  calcareous  country ;  but  there  are  beautiful  chestnuts 
on  both  sides  of  tlio  Lake  of  Geneva,  at  the  foot  of  the  calcareous  mountains  of  Jura  and 
Chablais. 

Pure  magnesia,  M.  Carradori  has  found,  by  chemical  experiment,  acta  ns  a  poison  on  most 
plants :  yet  M.  Dunal,  in  visiting  a  portion  of  the  environs  of  Lunel,  where  the  soil  presents 
a  great  quantity  of  almost  pure  magnesia,  found  there  the  same  plants  as  in  the  surrounding 
calcareous  soil,  and  the  roots  flourishing  in  the  clefts  of  this  magnesian  rock.  Thus  we  must 
be  careful  not  to  attach  too  much  importance  to  the  nature  of  the  earth,  which  is  tlrequently 
acted  upon  by  causes  purely  physical.  •      ' 

SuBSEOT.  5. — Atmospheric  Influence. 

The  atmosphere,  taken  in  its  pure  state,  we  know  to  be  composed,  at  all  times,  of  the 
same  proportions  of  ozofe  and  oxygen;  and  in  such  cases  we  may  suppose  its  action  to  be 
similar  upon  all  vegetables.  But  tlie  atmosphere  also  is  of  different  degrees  of  transparency 
or  density ;  it  holds  in  solution  other  matters  or  substances,  which  mix  with  it  in  certain 
places,  and  render  it  more  or  less  suitable  to  certain  species  of  plants.  In  mines,  for  instance, 
the  quantity  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  or  of  hydrogen,  may  be  so  great  as  to  preclude  vegeta- 
tion altogether  :  or  to  allow  only  of  the  growth  of  such  individuals  as  are  very  strong  and 
vigorous,  or  particularly  absorbent  of  these  substances.  Then,  too,  the  air  charged  with 
saline  emanations  from  the  sea  injures  some  plants,  and  on  the  other  hand  encourages  the 
developement  of  such  as  require  carbonate  of  soda ;  as  may  be  seen  in  the  valleys  of  the 
south  of  Europe,  where  maritime  plants  affording  soda  may  be  cultivated  at  a  considerable 
distance  from  the  ocean,  provided  that  they  lie  open  towards  tlie  sea,  and  are  exposed  to  the 
winds  that  blow  from  it 

Wc  cultivate  in  our  inland  gardens,  languidly  and  but  for  a  year  or  two,  many  of  the 
maritime  plants,  such  as  the  Lithospermum.  The  Nitraria  Schoberi  is  improved  by  em- 
ploying salt  where  it  is  grown.  Many  of  the  Statices  may  be,  however,  easily  cultivated, 
and  one  of  them,  the  common  Thrift  (S.  Armeria)  even  succeeds  in  crowded  towns,  whence; 
its  English  name;  yet  its  native  country  is  either  on  the  shores  of  the  sea  or  .in  salt  marshes, 
or  upon  the  summits  of  the  highest  mountains. 

The  most  general  influence,  however,  exercisetl  by  the  atmosphere,  is  its  power  of  con- 
taining and  parting  witli  moisture,  or  its  hygroscopic  action.  The  atmosphere  is  habitually 
charged  with  moisture  ;  sometimes  in  such  a  manner  as  to  be  invisible,  and  then  only  ascer- 
tainable by  the  hygrometer;  at  other  times  visible  in  a  state  of  vapour  or  dew ;  and  we  find 
that  vegetables  m  general  succeed  better  in  a  climate  where,  at  a  given  degree  of  tem- 
perature, the  air  is  moderately  moist,  than  in  another  where  it  is  either  too  much  saturated 
with  moisture  or  too  dry.  This  is  a  circumstance  which  cannot  well  be  imitated  in  the  cul- 
tivation of  plants  in  the  open  air:  but  in  our  stoves,  and  especially  by  the  aid  of  steam,  the 
various  degrees  of  humidity  necessary  to  a  vigorous  vegetation  may  be  produced  to  the 
greatest  nicety. 

The  agitation  or  movement  of  the  air  by  winds  and  other  causes  exercises  some  power 
o\'er  vegetation;  but  we  are  too  little acipiainted  with  this  subject  to  be  able  to  deduce  any 
I>articular  theory  from  it. 

Of  all  the  atmospheric  influences,  the  most  difficult  to  reduce  to  its  proper  value  is  that  of 
density ;  or,  what  is  the  same  thing,  the  influence  of  height  or  elevation  above  the  level  of 
the  sea.  This  M.  de  Candolle  has  made  the  subject  of  a  memoir  in  the  volume  of  the  Soci- 
ety of  Arcueil,  and  we  shall  here  give  his  general  ideas  upon  it. 

In  proportion  as  we  are  elevated  in  the  air,  the  temperature  as  well  as  the  moisture  con- 
tinues to  diminish ;  a  circumstanoe  which  appears  to  depend  upon  this,  that  the  rare  air  has 
more  capacity  for  lieat  than  dense  air.  The  fiicts  that  go  to  prove  that  the  diminution  of 
the  temperature  upon  high  mountains  is  one  of  the  causes  which  most  oflect  the  distribution 
of  vegetables,  are  the  following : — 

(I.)  The  natural  situation  of  each  plant  at  a  determined  elevation  above  the  level  of  the 
sea  is  so  nmcli  the  greater  in  pro(K)rtion  as  the  country  is  nearer  the  equator,  and  lest  in 
more  temperate  regions  ;  that  is  to  say,  the  fiirther  we  recede  from  the  equator,  the  greater 
influence  has  the  exposure  upon  the  temperature. 

(2.)  In  temperate  climates,  as  France,  for  instance,  those  pl.ints  which  are  but  little  affect- 
ed by  temix!rature,  and  which  grow  in  all  its  latitudes,  are  found  also  at  all  those  elevations 
where  tlie  earth  is  not  covered  by  eternal  snows ;  from  the  level  of  the  sea  to  the  summits 
of  the  mountains.  M.  de  Candolle  has  detected  about  700  examples  of  this  law;  the  com- 
num  Heath,  tlie  Juniper,  the  Birch,  &c.  grown  indifferently  at  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  at 
a  height  of  10,000  feet 

(3.)  If  plants  which,  according  to  their  nature,  avoid  either  too  high  or  too  low  a  degree  oV 


Book  III. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  BOTANY. 


MR 


evcl  of  tlio 
and  lcB»  in 
the  greater 

littln  affcct- 
;  elevations 
lie  summits 
1 ;  the  com- 
Isen,  and  at 

,  degree  o» 


temperature,  yet  gmw  at  different  latitudes,  wo  may  observe  thiit  it  is  at  heigiits  where  the 
elluct  of  elevation  may  coinixMisale  that  of  latituiic ;  tlnia  the  native  plant*  of  tlie  nurtheni 
plains  will  bo  seen  to  jjfrow  upon  tlie  mountains  of  tlio  south. 

(4.)  Plants  which  are  cultivated  uiwn  a  larjfe  scale  are  guided  by  laws  whicli  entirely 
correspond  with  the  preceding ;  those  which  are  cultivated  in  various  latitudes  will  grow 
indiHorently  at  various  hcij^htH;  tho.se  wiiich  are  only  found  at  certain  latitudes  will  extend 
no  iiirther  than  to  proportional  elevations.  The  polator.,  wliich  succeoils  so  well  in  our 
plains,  is  cultivated  in  I'eru  at  an  elevation  of  10,(KK)  foot  above  tlie  level  of  the  sea :  the 
olu'e,  which  nowiiero  passes  44°  nortli  latitude,  will  not  grow  at  a  height  exceeding  125(1 
feet. 

(5.)  The  elevation  above  the  level  of  tlie  sea,  wlien  wo  compare  the  temperaturo  of  the 
seasons,  establisl  h  effects  very  analogous  to  those  which  result  from  the  distance  from  tlie 
equator ;  so  tliat  ..ere  is  the  more  analogy  between  the  results  on  vegetation  in  the  two 
cases.  Inproportion  us  we  rise  in  a  direct  line,  it  follows,  from  tiie  lessened  density  of  the 
air,  that  the  intenseness  of  the  solar  light  continues  to  increase ;  this  effect  is  re|)resent- 
ed  in  the  lino  of  distances  from  the  equator,  because  the  perpetuity  of  light  during  the 
continuance  of  vegetation  is  so  inucli  the  greater  in  proixirtion  as  the  latitude  is  more 
elevated. 

(6.)  In  proportion  to  tiie  greater  lieight  upon  the  mountains,  so  will  the  hygrometer  bo  seen 
to  indicate  a  less  degree  of  liumidity ;  tiie  same  general  eH'ect  takes  place  as  we  recede  from 
the  equator  towards  the  poles. 

On  mountains,  covered  with  perpetual  snow,  where  the  plants  are  constantly  moistened 
with  water  in  a  freezing  state,  those  species,  to  wiiich  a  warm  temperature  is  unfriendly, 
will  live  at  inferior  heights  to  those  which  they  brave  in  the  same  latitude,  wlien  they  are 
not  watered  from  those  cold  sources. 

It  would  appear  therefore,  from  all  these  considerations,  that  the  situation  or  fixed  locality 
of  plants  at  certain  heights  depends  mainly  on  the  fill  of  the  temperature  attributable  to 
that  elevation.  Now,  the  only  purely  theoretical  point  of  view,  says  M.  de  Candollo,  accord- 
ing to  which  we  can  comprehend  how  tho  rarefaction  of  the  air  bears  in  itself  a  direct  influ- 
ence upon  vegetation,  is  this ;  that  plants  require  to  absorb  a  greater  or  less  degree  of  oxy- 
gen gas  in  their  green  or  their  coloured  parts.  It  cannot  be  doubted  that  there  is  a  certain 
point  of  elevation  where  the  atmospiiere  becomes  Ux)  much  rarefied  to  supply  tlie  wants  of 
plants;  but  wiiere  this  is  the  case  the  mountains  are  always  clothed  with  snow.  M.  de 
Humboldt,  too,  inclines  to  think  that  the  pressure  of  the  air  rnay  act  in  encouraging  niid  in- 
creasing the  quantity  of  cvajwration.  But  wc  must  say  that  direct  experiment  is  still  want- 
ing to  confirm  these  opinions  (and  this  is  perhaps  unattainable  in  the  present  state  of 
science),  in  order  that  we  rnay  ibrm  a  conclusive  judgment  on  their  value. 

Sect.  III. — Station  and  Habitation  of  Plants. 

The  station  and  habitation  of  plants  must  next  engage  a  portion  of  our  attention.  They 
are  both  important:  the  former  implies  their  situation  as  regarding  local  circumstances,  and 
tlie  action  of  physical  causes  upon  vegetables;  tiie  latter  implies  the  goographicol  position. 
When  we  say  thot  such  a  plant  is  found  in  marshe.-j,  on  the  sea-siiore,  in  woods,  or  upon 
mountains,  in  England,  in  France,  in  North  America;  by  the  maishos,  shore,  woods,  or 
mountain.?,  we  mean  what  we  hero  term  the  station ;  and  by  England,  Franco,  or  North 
America,  the  habitation:  such  is  tlio  sense,  at  least,  in  which  we  shall  hero  use  the  terms; 
for  in  systematic  botanical  writings  the  meaning  is  by  no  means  always  thus  restricted. 

The  seeds  of  plant",  by  varied  and  beautiful  means,  are  icidely  dispersed  by  the  liberal 
hand  of  nature  ;  whilst  some,  however,  fall  upon  barren  ground,  or  a  soil  unfit  for  the  nature 
of  that  particular  vegetable,  others  take  root  in  situations,  both  with  regard  to  the  earth 
and  surrounding  medium,  which  are  in  harmony  with  their  growth,  and  produce,  "some 
thirty,  some  sixty,  and  some  an  hundred-fold."  There  are,  again,  tribes  which,  under  these 
circumstances,  increase  so  pro<ligiously  that  they  destroy  vegetables  of  a  less  vigorous 
growth,  and,  to  the  exclusion  of  others,  appropriate  to  themselves  a  great  extent  of  tho  surface 
of  the  earth.  Such  are  termed  by  Humboldt  social  plants.  In  this  way,  and  notwithstand- 
ing the  extreme  poverty  of  the  soil,  the  Seaside  Sedrre  (Carcx  arenaria),  the  npri/rht  Sea 
Lymegruss  (Elymus  arenarius),  and  the  Sea-reed  or  Marram*  (Arundo  arenaria),  occupy  a 
protligious  surface  of  tho  sandy  shores  of  Great  Britain,  almost  to  the  exclusion  of  otlior 
vegetation ;  their  long,  creeping,  and  entangled  rcxjts  serving  to  bind  the  sands  together,  and 
thus  foiming  a  barrier  to  the  encroachments  of  the  sea.  Thus  it  is  with  the  heoths  in  the 
eame  country,  where  the  sterile  moors  are  purple  witli  tho  blossoms  of  the  heath. 

The  flowers  of  tho  Gentians  cover,  as  with  a  carpet  of  the  most  brilliant  ultramarine 
blue,  the  sides  of  tin;  alpine  hills  in  Switzerland  and  tho  south  of  Europe.  In  England  the 
fields  are  too  often  rod  with  Poppies,  and  lh(>  mar.-hcs  are  whitonoil  with  the  "snowy  beard" 
of  the  Coltonirrass,  and  the  pastures  with  the  blossoms  of  the  Cardarnine  pratensis,  so  that 

•  Thf  Ci'ltic  nniiip  ^r  tlii-"  pl;int  is  Mnraim.  A  villnTP  iipim  the  siM  cnnat  of  Norfolk  is  ii.'iiii(<<l  Marliam,  fropi 
llio  err-!it  nt)iiiulii:id'  in  uhirli  llio  Aruniic  armaria  (.ToH-s  in  its  viriiiil)'. 


^■i''^i 


m 


246 


SCIENCK  OF  GEOGRAPHY, 


Pakt  II. 


J 

ifi'' 


m.. 


N. 


tlicy  appear  at  a  distance  as  if  covered  witli  linen  laid  out  for  bleaching,  whence  arises  the 
vulffar  English  name*  of  the  latter  plant.  Some  of  these  plantjt  thus  living  in  society  are 
continually  striving  with  their  neighbours,  till  tlie  strongest  oblJiin  tiie  victory.  Many  low 
perennial  and  herbaceous  vcg(!tables  are  over[x)wered  by  a  colony  of  taller  shrubs ;  such  as 
the  Whin  or  Fitrze  and  the  Broom:  and  these  in  their  turns  must  (x;casionally  give  place 
to  trees  and  shrubs  of  a  larger  and  stronger  growth.  Mr.  Brown  has,  however,  noticed  a 
curious  fact  in  regard  to  the  Field  Erynffo  (Eryngium  campestre,)  and  the  Starthisth 
(Centiiuroa  Calcitrapa),  which  cover  much  cultivated  ground  upon  the  continent;  viz.  that 
these  two  engrossers  are  never  mixed  together  indiscriminately,  but  that  each  forms  groups 
of  imrtial  masses,  placed  at  certain  distances  from  their  rivals. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  arc  plants,  which,  from  the  circumstance  of  their  not  increasing 
nuich  by  root,  or  bearing  few  seeds,  or  such  seeds  as  from  their  liglit  and  volatile  nature  arc 
much  dispersed,  and  which  arc  not  particular  in  their  choice  of  soil,  do  net  form  groups,  but 
lie  scattered  {Plantes  eparses,  Cffrenees,  or  rares,  of  the  French). 

The  former  kind,  or  "  social  plants,"  are  those  which  it  will  be  most  important  for  us  to 
con.'iider  in  relation  to  Botanical  Geography. 

The  stations  of  plants  being  thus,  as  we  have  already  mentioned,  liable  to  the  influence 
of  physical  agents,  it  becomes  necessary  to  define  them  by  terms  which  are  calculated  at 
once  to  point  out  the  places  and  the  circumstances  in  which  they  grow.  This,  however,  is 
n  tiisk  of  no  small  difficulty ;  for,  vvitliout  swelling  the  list  to  an  unmeasurableleii-jth,  it  will 
be  impossible  to  define  the  various  local  situations  of  plants.  There  are  many  situations 
which  produce  only  one  or  two  kinds :  for  example,  the  snow,  in  the  highest  arctic  regions 
to  wliich  travellers  have  attiiined,  has  been  found  to  nourish  and  to  bring  to  the  greatest  per- 
fection that  highly  curious  vegetable,  tjic  Red  Snow  (Protococcus  nivalis).  The  truffle 
(Tuber  cibariuni)  is  found  entirely  hid  beneath  the  surface  of  the  earth.  Some  fuiiffi  are 
detected  upon  the  dead  horns  and  hoofs  of  animals  (no  plant  exists  upon  living  bodies-t),  and 
upon  dead  chrysalides;  and  both /un/fi  and  mosses  grow  on  the  dung  of  animals.  Paper 
nourishes  the  minute  Conferva  dvmlroidea :  the  glass  of  window.^,  and  the  glass  table  of  the 
microscope,  if  laid  by  in  a  moist  state  for  a  certain  lengtli  of  time,  produce  the  Cmiferva 
feriestralis.  VVine-casks  in  damp  cellars  give  birth  to  the  Racodinm  cellare ;  and  Dutrochet 
has  detected  living  vegetables  in  lyfutleira  wine  and  in  Goulard  water,  (a  solution  of  Saturn). 
Those,  however,  and  many  others  that  might  be  noticed,  niay  be  numbered  among  the  extra- 
ordinary stations,  and  they  principally  affect  cryptogamic  vegetables.  In  a  popular  view  of 
the  subject,  though  we  cannot  altogether  omit  the  notice  of  such  minute  yet  curious  vege- 
table productions,  we  shall  mainly  direct  our  attention  to  the  more  conspicuous  plants ;  and 
they  may  be  thus  divided.  1.  Murilime  or  saline  plants.  Tiiese  are  terrestrial,  but  grow- 
ing upon  the  borders  of  the  ocean  or  near  salt  lakes ;  as  the  Saltworts  (Salsola;)  and  GlasS' 
worts  (Salicornia;),  &c.  Ilonce  these  plants  abound  in  the  interior  of  Africa  and  the  Rus- 
sian dominions,  where  there  are  saltpans,  as  well  as  on  the  shores.  2.  Marine  Plants. 
This  tril)c  is  indeed  mostly  cryptogamic,  and  comprises  the  Alffte,  Fuci,  Ulvee,  &c.  The 
phtenogamous,  or  ])crfect  marine  plants,  are  the  Sea-wracks  (Ruppia  and  Zostera),  and  a 
few  others  allied  to  them.  3.  Aquatic  plants.  Growing  in  fresh  water.  Both  stagnant 
pools  and  running  streams  in  various  situations,  abound  in  plants.  Some  are  entirely  sub- 
merged, but  in  tills  case,  with  tlie  rare  exception  of  the  little  Awlwort  (Subularia  aqoatica), 
the  flowers  rise  to  the  surface  of  the  water  for  the  purpose  of  fructification.^  4.  Marsh  or 
swamp  plants.  5.  Meadow  and  pasture  plants.  6.  Field  plants.  This  tribe  often  includes 
.such  as,  introduced  with  tiie  grain  sown  in  those  districts  are  equally  placed  there  by  the 
hand  of  man.  7.  Rock  plants,  which  may  include  the  natives  of  very  stony  spots,  and  such 
as  grow  upon  walls.  Walls,  although  artificial  structures,  are  knowit  to  produce  many  plants 
in  greater  perfection  than  natural  rock;  yet  we  must  not  supiwse  that  any  vegetable  is 
exclusively  confined  to  tliis  habitat.  The  Jlolosteum  umhellatum  and  Draha  muralis  may 
he  cited  as  examples  of  this  trilie  in  England  ;  and  amongst  mosses,  the  Grimmia  pulvinata, 
Torlula  murali-i,  &c.  8.  Sand  Plants.  9.  Plants  of  dry  moors,  where  heaths  (Erica;) 
abound.  10.  Plants  which  attach  themselves  to  the  vicinity  of  places  inhabited  by  man. 
Such  are  the  Dock,  Nettle,.  &c. ;  these  species  follow  everywhere  the  human  footsteps,  even 

•  /.ndij's  Smock.    Siirli  iiliinis  woro  in  nldpii  lime  iledicatRil  to  Our  I.ndy  thi!  Virgin  Mary. 

t  Minnw.  iiidfiMl.  hnsn  Iribfof  plants «hifh ho i"«IIh  *'  PtaJitte  F.pizoir,'"  aftaehedtoUt^iuf^  nnimnh.  TInrs. hftsnys. 
fVrr  nnfintlior  .^lir<r  nr*?  all.irtif^il  Id  wlialeR,  Miussola,  and  Ijarrinrlf-J.  Ilia  in  this  pum  Iht*  plants  inanifi'stly  adlit'rc 
III  a  iliiiil  portion  iif  the  animal ;  like  Ihnap  viiKrtaliles  wliich  exist  upon  the  nuti}r  aiiddead  part  of  the  hark  orireea 

1  Ravinond  certainly  nhservod,  in  (he  Pyrenees,  a  species  of  Croir/oo/,  the  Water  Crntr/oof  (Ranunciiliis  aqua- 
litis,)  prodiicinB  its  tloiver  and  fruit  wholly  under  water;  Inn  upon  a  closer  investigation  of  the  phenomi'iinn,  he 
found  Mint  in  these  cases  the  calyx  encloseil  a  eloliule  of  air.  with  which  this  ini|iortant  function  of  fertilizntinii 
was  perforined.  Th-'  curious  af|iintir.  VnUUnrria  Hpirath,  has  a  still  more  wonderful  contrivance  for  hrinijinf;  the 
male  .'ind  female  llmvers  in  contact.  The  plant  is  cliiecioiis.  Tin,'  female  flower  is  atlnehed  to  the  parent  plant 
hv  means  of  a  ver\'  10112  stnlk.  spirally  tv\isterl  like  a  corkscrew,  so  that  when  it  is  in  perfection,  it  rises  to  tile 
surface  bvthe  nntwisiinc  of  Ihe  sialic.  The  male  flowers,  upon  a  separate  plant,  are  almost  si'ssile,  honie  on  a 
very  short  straight  si, 'in.  which  never  could  reach  Hie  surface  without  deiachinitthenisi'lves  from  the  plant.  This 
they  do  at  Ihe  proper  season  ;  they  float  upon  the  top  of  the  water  alon-j  w  ith  the  female  flowers,  pcatter  their 
polieii.  and  die.  Tli'  fenmie  hlo».soms  on  the  contrary.  Iiy  the  spiral  twistini;  of  tln'ir  stalk«.  retire,  and  riiM-n 
their  seeds  under  wulir. 


Book  III. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  BOT.VNY. 


M7 


hinis.  hft  Rays, 
Iri'stly  ndlicro 
|h;irk  fiftreen 
nciiliii>  nqiia- 
linniiMion,  ho 
Ifcrtili/ntiim 
Ilirinu'iMgthr' 
li;iri'nt  pl.iiil 
1  rifca  to  thr 
J  hiirnn  on  n 
Iplant.  Tins 
JnttliT  tlmir 
le,  and  ri|ten 


to  the  lints  and  cubins  of  tho  liigliest  mountains ;  encouraged,  perhapa  by  the  presence  of 
unimal  substances,  and  tlic  azuto  which  in  sucii  BubstiinccH  in  known  to  abound,  11.  Fore*' 
plants,  consisting  of  Huch  trees  as  live  in  society.  12.  Plants  of  the  hedges,  as  are  many 
climbing  plants,  tho  Himeysnckle,  tho  Traveller's  joy,  tho  Bryony,  &.c.  13.  Subterranean 
plmUs.  Those  that  live  in  mines  and  caves,  and  which,  though  tolerably  numerous  and  ini- 
[wrtant,  are  yet  mostly  cryptogamous.  One  species,  a  fungus,  yields  a  pale  phosphoric  light 
of  considerable  intensity.  14.  Alpine  or  mountain  plants,  for  it  is  very  ditlicult  to  draw  tho 
limit,  and  indeed  they  will  depend  much  upon  latitude.  A  plant  which  grows  upon  a  hill  ot 
inconsiderable  elevation  in  Norway,  Lapland,  and  Iceland,  will  of  course  inhabit  the  loilicst 
Alps  of  the  south  of  Europe.  Again,  upon  mountains  that  have  no  perpetual  snow  lying  on 
them,  alpine  plants  will  be  found  much  higher  than  on  such  as  have  continued  streams  of 
cold  snow-water  descending,  which  affect  the  state  of  the  atmosphere  at  much  lower  regions. 
l.").  Parasitic  plants,  such  iis  the  Misseltoe,  the  various  species  of  Loranthus,  &c.,  and  the 
most  wonderful  of  all  vegetable  productions,  the  Rafflesia  Arnoldii :  these,  as  their  name 
implies,  derive  nourishment  from  a  living  portion  of  the  vegetable  to  which  they  attach 
themselves.  This  is  the  case,  too,  with  many  Fungi  which  subsist  upon  the  living  foliage 
of  plants ;  some  exclusively  on  tho  upper,  others  as  invariably  on  the  lower  side  of  these 
leaves ;  and,  lastly,  the  name  of  16.  Pseudo-parasites  has  been  given  to  a  very  extensive 
tribe,  which  subsists  upon  the  decayed  portions  of  the  trunk  or  branches  of  the  trees  to 
which  they  are  attached,  as  many  of  the  Lichens,  Mosses,  &c. ;  or  which  are  simply  attach- 
ed  by  the  surface  of  their  roots  to  tropical  trees,  obtaining  no  nourishment  from  them,  but 
from  the  surrounding  element.  Among  this  number  may  be  reckoned  that  numerous  and 
singular  family  of  the  Orchidca,  called,  from  their  nature  and  property,  "  air  plants." 
Greatly  as  this  list  might  be  swelled,  we  shall  find  that  even  here  there  is  a  gradation  and 
an  approximation  of  one  tribe  to  anoth     ,  but  these  are  amply  sufficient  for  our  purpose. 

We  have  been  able  to  account  in  some  measure  for  tho  stations  of  plants,  affected  as  these 
are  by  local  circumstances;  but  the  study  of  the  succeeding  part,  which  refers  to  their  habi- 
tations, considered  in  their  most  extensive  sciile,  for  instance,  as  belonging  to  certain  regions 
or  countries,  we  shall  find  to  be  mur'-.  more  difficult;  and  we  must  freciuently  be  content  to 
study  and  to  admire  the  amazing  variety  of  vegetable  forms  which  the  beneficent  hand  of 
nature  has  scattered  over  the  different  parts  ot'  our  world,  without  being  able  to  account  for 
these  important  phenomena.  In  Now  Holland  we  find  almot^t  exclusively,  all  the  species 
of  Banksia,  Goodenia,  and  Epacris,  and  tho  curious  Acacia,  without  leaves,  but  with  peti- 
oles so  much  enlarged  as  to  assume  the  shape  and  perform  the  functions  of  leaves.  At  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  the  Fi<^  Marigolds  (Mesembryantheniu),  the  Stapplitc,  the  numerous 
kinds  of  Ixia,  Gladiolus,  Pelargonium,  and  Protea  aliound.  The  Auranliacea;  the  family 
of  plants  to  which  the  Orange  and  Lemon  belong,  aro  of  Asiatic  origin ;  as  the  Camellia 
and  Thea  are  of  Chinese.  Those  curious  plants,  the  Mutisia^,  the  various  species  of  Fuch- 
sia, the  Cinchona:  or  medicinal  harks,  the  Cacti,  aro  all  peculiar  to  South  America.  If  a 
few  of  them  are  found  in  other  countries,  tuch  circumstances  aro  of  very  rare  occurrence, 
and  do  not  overturn  the  general  laws  for  the  exclusive  existence  of  many  plants  in  certain 
countries.  There  are  in  the  temperate  parts  of  Europe  one  species  of  Ixia,  one  of  Gladio- 
lus, and  in  the  north  of  Africa  and  south  of  Europe  a  few  kinds  of  Fig  Marigold.  Within 
the  tropics  the  genera  of  plants  throughout  Asia,  Africa,  and  Amrrica,  are  similar,  but  rare- 
ly arc  the  species  the  same.  This  rule  nearly  holds  good  on  the  op))osite  continents  in  tem- 
perate climates.  We  find  the  Oriental  Plane  (Platanus  orientalis)  in  the  old  world,  and 
the  Occidental  Plane  (P.  occidentalis)  in  tho  new.  Even  in  the  two  hemispheres,  in  simi- 
lar parallels  of  latitude,  the  genera  of  plants  have  a  great  affinity  :  tho  southern  extremity 
of  the  great  continent  of  America  has  many  in  common  with  tho  north  of  Europe ;  and  the 
plants  of  the  latter  region,  transported  thither,  succeed  extremely  well. 

To  what  extent  plants  migrate,  unaided  by  man,  it  is  not  easy  to  say ;  but  that  such  mi- 
gration is  going  on,  by  various  means  and  causes,  cannot  be  questioned.  Islands  which  lie 
near  to  continents,  .nnd  which  evidently  appear  at  one  period  to  have  been  joined  with  them, 
as  England  for  example,  altiioiii^'h  they  may  contain  a  vegetation  similar  to  that  of  the  neigli- 
Iwuring  continental  shores,  have  always  a  smaller  number  of  species;  and  this  can  only  be 
accounted  for  by  liie  .aterruption  which  straits  or  soas  occasion  to  the  progress  of  the  seeds. 

Tho  Field  Eryngo  (Eryngium  eampestre),  to  which  we  have  already  alluded,  the  Venus's 
looking-glii.''s  (Campanula  Speculum),  and  many  other  plants  of  France  and  Germany,  seem 
to  stop  at  the  lino  tbrmed  by  the  sea;  yet  these,  and  many  other  vegetables  of  France,  reach 
a  limit  upon  the  same  continent  more  northern  than  any  part  of  England. 

The  migration  of  plants  may  bo  reckoned  to  be  facilitated  by  the  following  causes.  1.  Th 
sea  and  its  currents,  tmt  to  a  very  limited  extent;  for  if  tho  seed  bo  of  such  a  nat'-re  tha 
tho  water  penetrates  its  iiitogumr'nis  anil  ronclios  the  embryo,  life  is  destroyed.  Yet  to  such 
a  distance  arc  tliey  carried  by  this  medium,  tliiit  uixin  tho  coiists  of  Britain,  of  Iceland,  and 
Norway,  tho  seeds  of  tlio  West  Indies  aro  frequently  cast,  and  it  is  said  sometimes  even  in 
a  fit  state  lor  vegetation.  2.  liivrrs,  by  tho  rontinunl  movement  of  tlieir  water.-i,  convey 
many  plants  to  a  considerable  distance  from  their  original  place  of  growth;  and  the  banks 


'■  fi 


im 


1  ■■si 


m 


»! 


1    i 


m  ■, 


ii  .1- 


248 


SCIENCE  OF  (JE(J0RAI'1IV, 


rAiiT  II. 


of  streams  are  (fcncriilly  udorned  witli  u  vrj^otiUidii  of  ii  iiHirc?  varied  kind  tliiiii  tin'  districts 
rcmoto  from  them.  TIiuh,  too,  tlie  dillurcnt  tiprcics  of  Saxifrii^<'  mid  oIIut  iil|)iiii!  jiliiiitti 
are,  in  niuuntuinoua  rojiioiis,  broiifrlit  down  from  llm  lii(flii'r  bitiuitioiis,  uik'  llourisli  in  the 
valleyd.  I).  Winds,  wliifli  wiitl  the  li;,'lit,  wiiiffnd,  and  imppont!  hi'imIh  lo  iiiinniiNc  distance!', 
and  by  nieaiiB  of  which  thi'y  iiro  \vi(U'ly  dispersed.  4.  Aiiiinulii,  wiiich,  in  wiMiih'riiijj'  from 
place  to  place,  often  carry  on  tlieir  coatH  those  seeds  wliicli  have  hooked  hn^tU's,  tVe.  5. 
Birds,  which,  swullowiii^;  lierries  and  other  Iriiifs,  pass  thi;  teeds  in  a  perleet  stale,  and,  it 
is  even  said,  soinctimeH  Ix^ter  fitted  for  ^crmiiiiition  tiian  before.  In  this  manner  the  seeds 
are  often  de|)ositcd  in  the  places  necessary  lor  tlieir  {rrowth,  and  to  wliicii  tiiey  coiihl  not 
otlierwiso  have  reached ;  of  wiiioli  a  tiiiniliar  instance  is  found  in  the  Missidlt>i\ 

Man  is  however  the  most  active  a;,'ent  in  the  dispersion  of  plants,  and  we  iimst  not  over- 
look tlio  important  conBeciucnccs  of  his  influence.  Sometimes,  indeed,  the  causes  are  acci- 
dental, but  more  frequently  intentional.  'I'he  shipwreck  of  a  vessel  on  the  island  of  (liiernsey, 
having  some  bulbs  on  board  from  the  Cape  of  Clixxl  Hope,  caused  a  plant  to  propa^'ate  in  tli« 
sanda  upon  the  shores  of  that  mild  climate,  to  which  has  been  since  given  tliu  name  of  Ama- 
ryllis Samiensis  or  Quernsey  Lily,  and  a  branch  of  trade  of  some  importance  is  carried  on 
in  the  sale  of  this  very  root.  At  lluenoa  Ayres,  a  species  of  ilr<jcAo<e  (Cynara  Carduii- 
culus)  has  increased  so  much  by  seeds  im|x>rte<l  from  Euro|)e,  that  Mr.  Head,  in  his  amusing 
"Sketches  of  a  Journey  across  tli"  l'ani|)us,"  Sic.  tells  us  that  "there  are  three  rrvrions  of 
vegetation  between  Buenos  Ayre.s  and  tlie  base  of  the  Cordilleras ;  a  .siKico  of  IHH)  miles : 
the  first  of  which  is  covered,  tor  180  miles,  with  clover  and  thistles.  This  region,"  the 
author  continues,  "varies  with  the  seasons  of  the  year  in  a  most  extraordinary  manner.  In 
winter,  the  leaves  of  the  thistles*  are  large  and  luxuriant,  and  the  whole  surfiice  of  the 
country  has  the  rough  appearance  of  a  turnip  field.  The  clover  in  this  season  is  extremely 
rich  and  strong;  and  the  sight  of  the  wild  cattle  grazing  in  full  liberty  on  such  pasture  is 
very  beautiftil.  In  spring  the  clover  ha.s  vanisiied,  the  leaves  of  the  thistles  have  e.xteiidcd 
along  the  ground,  and  the  country  still  looks  like  a  rough  crop  of  turnips.  In  less  than  n 
month  tlio  change  is  most  extraordinary;  the  whole  region  becomes  a  luxuriant  wooil  of 
'•normous  thistles,  which  have  suddenly  shot  up  to  a  height  of  ton  or  eleven  feet,  and  are  ail  in 
Hill  bloom.  The  road  or  path  is  hemmed  in  on  Nifh  sides;  the  view  is  completely  obstnictcii ; 
not  an  animal  is  to  be  seen;  and  the  stems  of  the  thistles  are  so  close  to  each  other,  and  so 
strong,  that,  independent  of  the  prickles  with  which  they  are  armed,  they  form  an  impene- 
trable barrier.  The  sudden  growth  of  these  plants  is  quite  astonishing ;  and  thonjrli  it 
would  be  on  unusual  misfortune  in  military  history,  yet  it  is  really  possible  that  an  invadinjr' 
iinny,  unacquainted  with  this  country,  might  bo  imprisoned  by  tluwe  thistles  betbro  it  iiad 
time  to  escape  from  them.  The  summer  is  not  over  before  the  scene  undergoes  aiiotlier 
rapid  change:  the  thistles  suddenly  lose  their  sap  and  verdure,  their  heads  dri«)P,  the  leavi's 
shrink  and  fade,  the  stems  become  black  and  dead;  and  they  remain  rattling  with  the 
breeze,  one  against  another,  until  the  violence  of  the  pampero  or  hurricane  levels  them  with 
llie  ground,  when  they  rapidly  decomjKJse  and  disappear,  the  clover  rushes  up,  and  the  sccno 
is  again  verdant." 

The  strong-scented  Everlasting  (Elichrysuin  foctidum),  a  native  of  the  Cape  of  Oo<k1  Hope, 
has  ibund  a  soil  and  climate  ecjually  suited  to  its  growth  on  the  shores  of  Brest,  where  it 
covers  a  great  portion  of  the  sands,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  almriginal  natives  of  the  soil. 
Wheat  is  supposed  to  be  indigenous  to  Barbary.  The  p<it<iloe,  first  finind  in  Soiitli  Anierica, 
is  now  cultivated  all  over  the  world.  liici;  from  .Asia,  is  grown  to  an  immense  extent  in 
America,  &c. ;  these,  and  many  other  plants  similarly  circumstanced,  which  wc  could  men- 
tion, together  with  those  that  adorn  our  gardens,  often  owe  tlieir  wide  diffusion  to  having 
escaped  into  uncultivated  places,  and  become  to  u  certain  degree  naturalised  there. 

But  there  are  limits  to  migration,  for  some  of  which  wo  can  account,  and  for  others  wo 
cannot.  Even  many  garden  plants,  which,  escaping  by  accident,  or  designedly  placed  in 
uncultivated  sjwf.s  so  as  to  appear  wild,  have  only  for  a  time  maintained  a  languid  existence, 
and  then  have  disappeared  altogether.  Thus  we  know  that  the  beautiful  (tmliandla  (fi.'ii- 
tiana  acaiilis)  cannot  have  a  title  to  a  place  in  the  British  Flora,  nor  can  some;  others,  wliirli 
are  more  outcasts  from  gardens.  Some  plants  arc  wholly  confined  to  particular  s|)ots,  and 
can  be  found  nowhere  else.  The  Tree-Pink  (Dianthiis  arboreus)  grows  still  on  tiie  single 
rock  in  the  island  of  Crete,  where  Prosper  Alpinus  first  detected  it;  and  the  Dnuldc  Cocou- 
nut  of  the  isle  Praslin,  one  of  the  little  group  of  islands  called  the  Seychelles,  notwith- 
standing the  annual  migration  of  its  nuts  for  many  thousands  of  miles,  has  never  established 
itself  in  any  other  place.  Nature  has  planted  the  cnrnmon  Thrift  (Statice  Arnieria),  the 
Scurvy  Grasses  (Cochlearia  nnglica  and  danica),  and  the  Rosi-ronl  (Rhodiola  rosea),  in 
rocky  and  stony  places,  upon  shores  and  on  the  tops  of  the  highest  moimtains;  yet  tliese 
plants  are  never  found  in  any  intermediate  places. 

The  vlsihli  oh.ilach's  to  the  iiiiifralion  of  plants  arc — 

(I.)  The  ura,  which,  tlioiifili  wo  have  intnjdiiced  it  as  a  means  of  extending  ti.e  Iiabitatioiw 

♦  Fnirii  npiTiiiii'ns  ril  mir  ltiTli:iri:liri   \y  liiivc  ii<rcrl'irnoil  Hint  Wualliisllt  is  Ihr  Carilixm  {i'\t\:\r:i  ('.■iriliinrillii!'). 
introdticeil  no  douNt  rniin  V.:n>-\f  ii>-  a:i  .irliclc  if  Hiol,  li-it  iimv  L'r.iH'iiin  wild,  U8uk>Fii,  niiil  prniiriciiis. 


•J'l 
of 


fe'" 


ll  f 


^ 


9"^ 


' 


TIopp, 
wliprn  it 
tin-  soil. 
Anicricii, 
'xtt'iit  in 
)iil(l  incn- 
ti)  Imving 

itliprs  we 
|)l;icp(l  in 
xistcnrp, 
//(/  (fion- 
rs,  wliirli 
|«)ts,  and 
10  siiii;lo 
e  Cocoii- 
nnt.witli- 
talilislind 
■riii),  tlie 
Dsca),  in 
I'ot  these 


l)itati<MH 

LltMUMlllt9), 


Book  III. 


IN  ITS  REI.ATION  TO  BOTANY. 


24U 


of  plants,  lit  yot  a  far  greater  inipcdimont,  by  tlio  injury  it  docs  to  the  sco(1h,  nml  tiio  diffi- 
culty of  liicii  hoini^  convoyed  to  distant  countries  in  a  Mulficicntly  .;liort  time  to  prevent  the 
natural  dentil  of  tlio  wnod.  It  iniiBt  bo  obiierved,  too,  that  the  (froutor  number  of  Hooda  have 
a  Hpccilic  pravily  hoiivif.T  than  tliiit  of  wutcr  when  in  a  livinjf  state,  Tlie  VouMe  Cocoa- 
nut,  w'leii  t'oiind  lloiitinjr,  Ims  always  hwt  iti;  vegetative  property.  TJio  livinjj  nut  is  im- 
mensely hoiivy,  iind  would  inevitably  tiiiik. 

(li.)  I)ri/  nml  Imraiiiff  ilesfrlg.  These,  in  spite  of  their  oases,  which  have  been  happily 
assimilated  to  llio  ish^s  of  tin;  ocean,  piovo  a  |)owerful  ol>stacle  to  tlio  transjMirt  of  nj(;ds. 
'J'lius,  those  districts  of  Africa  which  are  separated  from  one  another  by  the  scorching  Hi.nds 
of  Sahara  exhibit  a  groat  dissimilarity  in  their  vegetation.  The  plants  of  Morocco  and  the 
iiortliern  parts  of  Africa  have  little  rcsonibhinco  to  the  indigenous  growth  of  Senegul ;  whilst 
the  uiiinity  of  the  vegetables  brouglil  by  Caillaud  from  Upner  Egypt  to  those  collected  by 
I'alisot  do  Beauvois  in  Owarc  and  Benin  would  in  itself  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  no  very 
great  and  continued  deserts  intervene  between  these  far  distant  countries. 

(3.)  Mountain  ranges.  The  barriers  which  these  present  would  almost  bo  insurmountable, 
were  it  not  for  the  defiles  which  hero  and  there  occur,  fonning  passages  for  men  and  ani- 
rnals,  as  well  as  for  plants.  Thus,  the  plants  on  the  Italian  side  of  the  Alps  are  (piito  dill'or- 
ent  from  those  on  the  Switzerland  side ;  tlioso  of  the  Spanish  Pyrenees  from  those  of  the 
French  Pyrenees;  and  it  was  a  subject  of  peculiar  regret  to  the  enterprising  Dniniinoiid, 
when  he  readied  the  summits  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  in  North  America,  that  his  coniiiiis- 
aion  did  not  allow  liim  to  |)enetrato  farther  into  the  western  side  of  that  great  continent, 
where  he  found,  every  stop  ho  took,  a  vegetation  very  different  from  what  had  been  presentocl 
to  him  by  the  eastern  side. 

A  knowledge  of  the  Natural  Orders  of  plants  is  in  no  dopartmc;  of  botany  so  important 
as  in  treating  of  their  geographical  distribution.  The  system  of  Linneeus,  or  the  Artificial 
.\rrangement,  does  not,  as  we  know,  regard  the  habits  and  atfinitics  of  vegpu.'>'ef .  but  simply 
and  beautifully  points  out  to  us,  by  certain  characters,  the  means  of  arriving  Hi.  'ho  know- 
ledge of  any  given  species.  The  natural  method,  which  owes  so  much  to  tho  lalh,.-»s  of 
.lussieii,  Decandollc  and  Brown,  has  a  higher  object  in  view,  that  of  grouping  frlants  togetlier 
according  to  their  natural  affinities ;  and  by  such  an  arrangement  we  are  oflrn  led  to  other 
and  very  important  results.  The  primary  divisions  of  the  Natural  Method  are,  first,  acotv- 
i.EDoNKR,  or  plants  which  have  no  cotyledons  to  tlie  seed :  these  are  synonymous  to  the 
('ryptogamia,  and  include  the  Mosses,  Lichens,  Sea-weeds,  Punffi,  Ferns,  &c. ,  secondly, 
MONofiOTYi.KDONEs ;  tlioso  wliosc  scods  littvo  onc  cotyledon,  such  as  the  Grasses,  Idliareous 
I'Idiits,  the  Rushes,  Sedges,  tho  Palms,  <Sj;c. ;  and,  thirdly,  nicorvLEDONEs,  or  tho  ])lunta 
'.vliieli  have  two  or  rarely  more  cotyledons  to  the  seed,  such  a.s  our  Shrubs  and  Trees,  and 
'■!'ry  many  Herbacenus  Plants.  Eacli  of  these  possesses  external  characters  which,  though 
imt  very  easily  defined  in  words,  yet  cannot  fail  to  strike  the  observer  who  devotes  hisalt'-n- 
lion,  even  for  a  little  while,  to  tho  subject;  and  wo  find  that,  in  a  great  proportion  of 
instances,  they  have  not  only  a  peculiar  station,  but  that  their  geographical  distribution  is 
different. 

Tho  AcoTYLEDONous  plants  increase  in  number  in  proportion  to  the  other  great  classes,  as 
\vc  recede  from  the  equator  to  tho  poles ;  with  the  exception,  however,  of  the  Ferns.  Tho 
latter  abound  more  within  the  tropics  than  anywhere  else:  not,  however,  so  much  in  open 
plains  OS  in  the  sheltered,  moist,  and  hilly  countries;  so  that  their  maximum  is  in  the  moun- 
tainous part  of  the  tropics.  The  island  of  Martinique  atlbrdcd  to  the  Abbe  Plumicr  a  rich 
and  abundant  harvest  of  ferns ;  and  some  isles  of  small  extent  aro  said  to  have  one-third  of 
their  vegetation  composed  of  this  kind  of  plants. 

Among  the  monocotyledosoiis  Plants,  the  Palms  are  exclusively  confined  to  the  tropics : 
rhe  JAliacenus  plants  abound  there  and  in  the  warm  zones ;  the  three  fiimilies  of  Urasses, 
Sedffes  (Cyperacco-),  and  Rushes  (Junci),  present  some  important  differences  in  regard  to  s 
comparison  with  tho  pha-nogainous  or  flowering  plants.  The  disparity  between  these  latter 
and  the  grasses  is  not  great  in  each  of  tho  zones ;  whilst  the  two  other  families,  the  Cype- 
racea:  and  Jnnci,  diminish  near  tho  equator  and  increase  towards  the  north.  Nevertheless, 
there  are  exceptions  to  this  rule ;  for  the  grasses  aro  very  rare  upon  the  coasts  of  Greenland. 
In  what  we  have  now  said,  wo  allude  to  the  grasses,  &c.  in  a  wild  state ;  having  no  refer- 
ence to  those  regions  whore  so  many  of  the  grass  tribe,  as  the  Wheat,  Barley,  Oat,  Maize, 
Rye,  Rice,  &c.,  aro  found  simply  in  a  stite  of  cultivation. 

The  DicoTVLEDONous  plants  aro  the  most  extensively  distributed,  and  wo  must  ofTer  some 
further  remarks  upon  them.  Tho  Compound  or  Syngenesious  plants  (Compo.sitffi),  as  every 
one  knows,  form  a  very  extensive  natural  family.  They  are  diffiised  throughout  the  whole 
earth,  but  thoy  are  most  abundant  in  the  temperate  and  tropical  climates.  Fewer,  however, 
of  them  aro  found  in  the  warm  regions  of  equinoctial  America  than  in  the  sub-alpine  and 
temperate  districts  of  the  same  country.  At  the  Congo  and  Sierra  Leone  in  Africa,  in  tho 
East  Indies  and  New  Holland,  they  exist  in  comparatively  smaller  numbers  than  in  other 
regions  situated  in  similar  parallels,  but  which  afford  situations  more  congenial  to  their 

Vol.  1.  2G 


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SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY, 


paht  n. 


growth.  Aijiiin,  in  tlio  fVozrn  zone,  in  Knmtfichati<n  hihI  Lnpliinil,  fho  rolntivo  proijortion  of 
pliinbt  of  tiiis  tlimiiy  in  oiic-imif  \vhh  timn  in  the  tfiiiprriitc  rliinatr'H. 

Tlio  Iifffiiminowi  ylmilK  (to  wliicli  the  I'cu,  tho  Bi'un,  At.  iK'lonjf,  ami  wicli  nn  bciir  popi- 
lionnccdiis  /lnwcrs,)  aUiiiml  mo.it  in  tho  eqiiinoctiiil  rcifioiis;  tlicy  diininifih  pfrmiiiiilly  in  each 
lunnisphcrc  in  tllvcrifiny  from  tin;  ('([tiiitor,  except  indfcil  in  ccrtiiin  conntriPM  where  iVirticu- 
lur  jiciic'ivi,  h)'  the  nniitiplicity  of  their  Bpncies,  jriv<!  a  peculiar  featiiro  to  tho  vejf(^t«tion,  a» 
in  Hiherii  anil  tho  vast  provincea  of  RusHia,  where  bo  many  Anlragali  or  Bittcr-vetchrs  aro 
tunnd. 

Mr.  I'.riiwn  hiw  judicioualy  separated  the  natural  order  of  Ruhiacfte  into  two  (.'roups: 
those  w  ilh  verticillato  leaves  and  no  Htipulcs  (the  Stellatte  of  Linno!u»),  to  which  hclonjf  tho 
(ttmgrni-tinii  ((Jaliuni),  MaiUler  (Uubia),  &c.,  and  which  are  almost  peculiar  to  tho  temperate 
zonen;  iiml  the  true  Ruhutcriv,  with  oppotiito  pairH  of  leaven,  and  two  opposite  istipulcs 
(which  are  in  fact  abortive  leaves,  and  thus  show  their  affinity  with  the  Stflf<il<v),  to  which 
belong'  tiie  real  medicinal  barhs  (or  Cinchona'),  ami  son\e  otiier  nearly  related  pluntfl  pos- 
sessinif  similar  virtues:  those  hitter  are  almost  wholly  confined  to  the  equinoctial  rc|;ionB. 

The  two  well-known  and  extensive  natural  families,  the  I'mMliJermm  and  Cnicifrroux 
planln,  aro  very  rare  in  the  tropics,  if  we  except  the  mountains.  1  hey  abound  in  the  south 
of  Europe,  and  especially  about  tho  valley  or  basin  of  the  Mediterranean. 

Sbot.  IV. — View  of  lintanical  Regions. 

To  divide  tho  globe  into  botanical  rejrions  or  districts  will  not  be  difficult,  seeing  that  cer- 
tain eduntries  possess  a  peculiar  vegetation,  ond  that  numerous  impediments  prevent  emi- 
gration ;  seeing,  too,  that  certain  forms  or  tribes  are  incompatible  with  certain  climates. 
M.  Do  C^aiidollo  has  constituted  twenty  of  those  regions  ;  but  although  each  is,  to  a  certain 
degree,  peculiar  in  its  vegetable  productions,  it  would  rc(|uire  more  space  than  we  ran  devote 
to  such  a  subject  to  characterise  them.  Wo  must,  therefore,  content  ourselves  with  giving 
a  bare  list.  1.  Hyperhnrcan  region.  This  district  includes  tho  northern  extremity  of  Asia, 
Europe,  and  America;  and  gradually  merges  into  the  following.  2.  European  region; 
comprising  all  Euro|)o,  except  the  part  bordering  upon  the  (xilo,  and  tho  southern  districts 
approaching  the  Mediterranean.  To  the  east  it  extends  to  the  Altaic  mountains.  3.  Sibe- 
riiin  region,  comprehending  the  great  plains  of  Siberia  and  Tartary.  4.  Mfililerranran 
region;  comprising  all  tho  ba.«in  of  this  great  inland  sea;  that  is,  Africa  on  this  side  the 
Sahara,  and  tliat  part  of  Europe  which  is  sheltered  from  the  north  by  a  more  or  less  conti- 
nued range  of  mountains.  5.  Oriental  region ;  thus  called  relatively  to  southern  Europe, 
and  containing  the  countries  bordering  u|)on  the  Black  and  Caspian  Seas.  0.  India,  with 
its  archipelago.  7.  China,  (.^ochinchina,  and  Japan.  8.  New  Holland.  9.  The  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  or  southern  extremity  of  Africa,  beyond  tho  tropics.  10.  Abyssinia,  Nubia,  and 
the  Moz,imbi<]uo  Coast  (imperfectly  known).  11.  Eqninnclial  Africa ;  viz.  the  neighbour- 
hood of  tho  (-^ongo,  the  Senegal,  and  Niger.  12.  The  Canary  Isles.  ID.  Tlw  United 
Stales  of  .\orth  America.  14.  The  Western  and  Tempertfle  (Joasts  of  North  America. 
ir).  The  West  Indian  Isles.  10.  Mexico.  17.  Tropi-al  South  America.  18.  Chili.  19. 
Southern  Brazil  and  Buenos  Ayres.    20.  The  Straits  of  Magellan. 

Many  of  the  productions  of  those  regions  will  be  considered  somewhat  at  large  in  other 
parts  of  this  work;  and  we  shall  conclude  our  introductory  sketch  of  Botanical  Geography 
by  a  notice  of  Professor  Schouw's  Phyto-Geographics  or  General  Botanical  Division  of  the 
Globe.  This  is  illustrated  by  a  map,  which  accoinimnies  this  memoir.  Unlike  M.  Do  Can- 
dolle.  Professor  Schouw  characterises  tho  regions  by  the  most  remarkable  feature  of  theii 
vegetation,  adopting  commonly  used  geographical  terms  only  where  he  conceives  that  a  cer- 
tain division  of  the  eartii  ought  to  constitute  a  distinct  region,  but  is  not  sufficiently  Jccquainted 
with  its  productions  to  determine  and  define  their  forms.  He  makes  tho  characteristic  fea- 
ture of  his  regions  to  depend  on  these  fiicts :  first,  that  at  least  one-half  of  tho  species  should 
be  peculiar  to  that  region;  secondly,  that  at  least  a  quarter  of  the  genera  sliould  belong 
exclusively  to  it,  or  at  least  have  there  a  decided  maximum,  so  that  their  species  in  other 
districts  might  merely  be  considered  as  their  representatives;  and,  thirdlj',  that  individual 
families  of  plants  be  either  peculiar  to  the  region,  or  e!.-e  have  their  maxima  there ;  never- 
theless, when  this  last  characteristic  is  wanting,  while  tho  differonce  in  genera  and  species 
is  very  considerable,  it  may  yet  bo  admitted  as  a  region. 

Professor  Schouw  in  this  manner  reckons  twenty-two  regions : — 

(1.)  Reixion  of  Saxifrages  and  Mos,if:s,  or  tho  Alpine  Arctic  Flora. — This  corresponds 
with  De  Candollo's  first  region,  and  comprehends  all  the  roiintries  within  the  polar  circle; 
namely,  Ijipland,  the  north  part  of  Rus>ia  and  Siberia,  Kniiitsehatka,  Russian  America,  part 
of  British  Anioricn,  Greenland,  and  Iceland;  hut  I'rofessor  Schouw  adds  to  it,  with  much 
propriety,  part  of  the  Scottish  and  Scandinavian  mountains,  as  llir  as  they  tail  within  the 
alpine  region,  as  also  the  mouotains  in  the  southern  and  central  parts  of  Europe,  inasmuch 
us  they  are  related  to  the  alpine  reirions.  It  is  characterised  by  the  abundance  of  mosses 
and  lichens,  the  presence  of  tlie  Saxifrages,  Geiilians,  Chickwecd  tribe  (Alsincie).  Sedges, 
and  Willoios;  an  entire  absence  of  tropical  familic*,  a  considerable  decrease  of  the  peculiar 


Book  III. 


IN  ITS  RKLATION  TO  BOTANY 


251 


Cormn  of  the  tumpcruto  zorin;  by  tlio  forfnUi  of  Iterch  or  fir,  or  olno  tfM>  total  want  of  trco»; 
tlio  scarcity  of  uniiiiiilH,  iiiiil  tlit<  provitleiicu  of  cuvspitonu  plitntM,  wliosn  lilo-'HniiiH  uic  lar^c  in 
pro|itirlliin,  and  ^riMu^riilly  of  ii  piilo  colour. 

I^i.)  ItiKionoJ' the  VinhelliJ'erons  und  (,'nififrrniiH  plnnin. — Tliin  Irilic  tMkrs  in  tlic  wliolc 
ol'  Europe,  oxci'ul  what  b«'lon(((t  to  tlie  pn'W'diri);  division,  I'rotn  tlio  Pyii'inc.-',  tin-  iiioniituinn 
of  tlio  Niulli  of  I'Vuiico,  of  Switzorliiud,  und  tliu  north  oftiruocc,  tlif  Krciicr  piirt  ol'  Silirrin, 
und  tho  toiinlry  about  Mount  Cuucuhuh.  Hchouw  hiw  clmrneteri/od  it  liy  iho  tnirifirouii 
and  iiinlitltiftrmis  plimtx,  bncuiwo  thuy  form  a  latyn'.r  ixirtion  of  tliu  totiil  nnpiliTr  llrin  iiny 
otlior  kindM,  and  bc'cuuHU  it  may  thus  bo  host  Hopiirntod  from  the  voj,"'tation  of  North  Atncrica 
ill  thu  Nam<!  pariiUul.  It  m  nut  ttaiiily  distin(;uiHhud  fruni  tliu  next  ri  jrion  :  but  it  may  Ik;  Huid 
of  it,  thai  Fuiiffi  abound  more,  that  tlio  Ronuccous  family  nnd  thu  CVouj/(«)/.«(Uaninu'iilacon!)» 
tho  AiiiriitaccdiiK  und  Conifvrous  tribus  (I'incs),  form  rutlior  a  larpo  projiortioii ;  that  it  hoars 
u  ruHombliincu  to  many  of  the  pidar  fnriiiH,  CKpucially  in  thu  ubundunco  of  itN  SviJ^m  (Cypo- 
rucou.');  Ihut  itM  muudows  arc  niofit  flouriHliing,  and  that  almost  all  thu  tree's  nro  (Icciduouti  in 
winter.  In  tho  northern  part  of  thiu  rojfion,  thu  Cidwracctc  (u  tribe  of  the  CcimiHwitB!  or 
Hyn);onuriionM  pluntH,  including  tho  Eiuliw,  Li:tluce,  Dandelion,  &.C.)  much  prevail;  while 
in  itrt  soulhern  division,  or  in  northern  Awio,  the  Cynarovephul(B  (Artichoke  and  Thistle 
tribus),  tojretliur  with  the  Uuttcr-vetchet  (Astragali),  und  Siil'ue  plants  (Sea-worts  and  Glusd- 
worts),  seem  to  have  their  maximum. 

(3.)  UefrUm  of  the  Labiate  flowers  and  CaryophylletB  (to  which  the  Pink,  the  Ciitclfly, 
the  Suiidworts,  &.c.  belong);  or  the  Mvditerraneun  Flora. — This  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
the  Pyrenees,  tho  Alp.s  of  Switzerland  and  of  the  south  of  France,  and  the  north  of  Greece, 
and  thus  includiM  the  three  peninsulas  of  southern  Europe,  namely,  Smin,  Italy,  and  Orcece; 
on  the  east  by  Asia  Minor  and  its  islands;  on  the  south  it  takes  in  Egypt  and  all  the  north 
of  Africa  us  fur  us  the  deserts;  and,  lastly,  it  includes  the  Canary  Islands,  Madeira,  and  tho 
Azores.  It  is  marked  especially  by  the  two  families  atiove  mentioned,  which  are  much  rarer 
both  to  tho  north  and  south  of  the  countries  just  enumerated,  and  in  tho  corres|K)nding 
parallels  in  North  America.  The  Co7npnsiltf,  tlie  Stellata  (Goosigrass,  Maddrr,  &c.),  and 
the  rougli-leaved  plants  {Asperij'oUai),  are  here  in  considerable  numbers,  as  well  as  in  the 
similar  latitudes.  A  few  tropical  plants,  or  individuals  allied  to  them,  now  appear;  one  or 
two  Palms,  the  Laurels,  the  Arum  tribe,  the  Terrhinthacea:  (Pistacia,  &c.),  .some  trojiicttl 
grussti.s  und  true  Cyperacca.  Nifrhtshadrn  (Solaneie),  Lefriiminous  plants,  tlii;  Mallow  and 
Nettle  tribes,  and  the  Spurffcs  (KupliorbiuceaO,  increase;  Everifrci ns  are  numerous;  vege- 
tation never  entirely  ceases,  but  verdant  inoadows  arc  more  rare.  This  region  may  bo  sub- 
divided into  provinces:  of  the  Cisti,  Spain  and  Portugal;  of  the  iSn^t,'-*;  and  SeaMiuts,  the 
south  of  France,  Italy,  and  Sicily;  of  the  shrubby  Itiihiata;,  the  Levant,  Greece,  Asia  Minor, 
and  the  southern  part  of  the  Cuucusiun  country;  andof //oi(»f/'f7i»(Semperviva),  the  Canary 
Isles,  probably  also  tho  Azores,  Madeira,  and  tho  north-west  coast  of  Africa.  Many  Sem- 
pcrviva;,  some  succulent  plants.  Spurges  nnd  Caralitf,  characterise  especially  this  province. 

(4.)  The  Japanese  region. — The  eastern  temperate  part  of  the  old  continent,  namely, 
Japan,  the  north  of  China,  and  Chinese  Tartury,  probably  forms  a  peculiar  region  ;  but  we  are 
too  little  acquainted  with  the  botany  of  these  countries  to  admit  it  with  certainty,  and  still 
less  are  we  able  to  define  correctly  the  characteristics  of  its  Flora.  Of  tho  ft58  generu  found 
in  Japan,  270  occur  in  Eerope  and  the  north  of  Africa,  and  about  the  same  number  in  North 
America;  so  that  its  Flora  seems  to  occupy  a  middle  place  between  those  of  tho  old  and  new 
worlds.  Its  vegetation,  indeed,  approaches  more  to  tho  tropical  than  to  the  European ;  for 
we  meet  with  the  Cycas  family,  the  Scitamineet!  (to  which  belong  the  Ginger,  Cardammn, 
&,c.),  the  Bananas,  the  Palms,  the  Anonm  or  Custard-applrs,  and  the  Sapindacete ;  so  that 
there  is  a  considerable  affinity,  as  might  bo  expected  from  its  situation,  to  the  flora  of  India. 
The  families  of  the  Buckthorns  (Rliamni)  and  Honeysuckles  are  (bund  in  a  relatively  con- 
siderable miinbcr,  nnd  they  exhibit  some  ptculiar  genera;  thus,  perhaps,  this  region  might 
be  correctly  termed  that  of  the  Rhamni  and  the  Cuprifoliacece. 

(.5.)  Region  of  the  Asters  and  Solidagns  (Michaelmas-daisies  and  golden-rods.) — The 
eastern  part  of  North  America,  with  the  exception  cf  such  as  belongs  to  tho  first  or  arctic 
district,  comprehends  without  doubt  two  regions;  for  amongst  417  genera  in  Walter's  Flora 
of  Carolina,  117  are  wanting  in  Barton's  Flora  of  Philadelphia.  The  northern  divisions  of 
the  United  States  have,  indeed,  but  few  genera  which  do  not  occur  also  in  the  southern ;  but 
this  only  shows  that  a  similar  relation  exist.,  here  to  what  takes  place  between  tho  north  and 
south  of  Europe.  The  southern  region  will  include  Florida,  Georgia,  Alabama,  Mississippi, 
liouisiana,  and  Carolina;  the  northern  contains  tho  other  states  of  North  America.  What 
cha'ucterisos  this  region  is  (be.sides  the  number  ofspecios  of  the  genera  A.s/er  and  Solidago), 
the  gnnit  variety  of  (Daks  and  Firs ;  the  very  few  Crurifrrcp  and  llmheUiferte,  Cichoracea 
and  Cynuroci  phalw  ;  the  total  ab.senco  of  the  genus  Erica,  and  the  presence  of  more  nume- 
rous s|>ecics  of  the  allied  family  of  Vaccinium  (Whortleberries)  than  are  to  be  met  with  in 
Kurono. 

(0.)  Region  of  Magnolia'. — This,  which  comprises  the  southern  parts  of  North  America, 
is  separated  troin  the  preceding  region  by  the  number  of  tropical  forms  which  here  appeal 


u':' 


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It 

1 

:  :^i  m 

i 

; 

■Mi! 

R 

i 

1 

SCIKNCK  OP  (IKiMJllAI'HY, 


Paht  II 


and  wliidi 


t  tlifiniiRlve*  iiioro  lri'<|iin[itly  tliiiii  on  tlin  f<iiiiilar|>nrnll('l!<i>t'tlii' cilil  ciiiitinont 
(hiu'Ii,  t(ir  liitit<iiici>,  itM  tlio  Nriliimintfr,  Cijfwliir,  .\iit>n<iri<r,  Najtiniliiiiii,  Milimlnmea, 
Carli,  ikv.)  Frniii  tiko  old  wurld,  U»>,  in  i'(irri'M|Niiiiliii^  liititudi'M,  it  iri  xtill  tlirtlicr  dmtiii- 
ffuisliiHl  by  II  (iinitlliT  priiportioii  oC  hatiialir  iiii.l  ('nnjujjlii/lli ir  ;  iiiid  liy  Imviu^r  iimri'  Iituh  of 
Driiiid-iiliiiiiii;r  loliiti;*)  and  HpltMidiil  hliiHMrnin,  (tlic  Slnifiioliiin,  tlic  Tidi/t  Irvr,  thi.'  Ilnrie' 
ckestniil,  6ic,)  iind  with  iiinniiind  lt>avi'!<  (tlin  (ilnliliirliiir,  liiilniiiw,  Araciu ,  &('.) 

(7.)  Hi'giim  i>f  Ihr  ('acli,  l'vpinr»,  iind  Mi Itinttiiniin ;  ii  very  fxti'iinivi'  n%'i(iii,  incliitlinf; 
the  lower  dislriclM  of  Mfxieo,  (iiiiitciiiiiln,  llio  NVcitt  Indii'i',  New  (ircninla,  Vi'iiczuolii, 
Ciniunii,  unj  IVru,  perlmpii  hIho,  u  |utrt  of  Hiii/.il ;  in  iiliort,  all  iiitortro|iieiil  Aiiu'i-k  m,  TIiu 
tlireo  tiiiMiliea  liuro  inuntioncd  iip|K<iir  piMMiliiirly  to  clmrnctoriHo  tliciiu  couiitriiri  ;  l()r  tlin  lint 
buloiiKH  oxuliiHividy  to  Anirricii,  and  of  tlic  other  two  tlieru  I'xiHt  ('oiii|)urutively  lew  mM'cicH 
out  ul  tlit'Ho  (liMlriclM.  I'dliim,  tlio  Itnliiarrn;  the  Solaiiva;  (in  wliicli  are  ehiNHed  the  i\if(hl- 
nhiidrn  uiid  I'otatoe),  tliu  rmiffh-Uiiwil  nliiiiln  (l)iirn|,niieii>),  tlio  Pamiion-Jliiwi  m  ut\il  Cnmpo- 
•tVcr,  arc  hero  very  coininon.  It  may  iidinit  of  nt-veral  pruvinceH,  an  that  of  the  i'Vrna  and 
Orcliulfm  (in  the  VVeHt  India  iidaiulH);  of  tlio  I'olins  (the  continent  of  South  America.) 
Drazil  (iii^rht  cortiiinly  to  conHtitute  a  peculiar  provinco,  if  indeed  it  lie  not  a  iliHiinct  roKiun; 
and  llu>  worliH  of  8pix  and  Marliiiri,  St.  Ililaire,  the  I'riiicodi!  Neuwied,  Ac,  will  noon  etiablo 
us  to  cliHracteriBO  itH  voffetalile  loriiiH.  Tho  .yftltislimnc  and  I'liliiu  ap|M-ar  to  helonif  to  the 
more  iiiiiiierous  iimuiteii  of  tluH  re^fion. 

(8.)  i<*x*"" '{/"'Af  f'inrA«H<B  (or  Medicinal  IJarkH.) — It  apjioarH  fVont  lIutnbuldt'H  worliH 
that  the  middle  diiitrictH  (such  at  leant  in  reM|M>ct  to  their  altitude)  of  South  America  ehould 
form  a  dintinct  re^fion  from  that  laxt  mentioned,  as  they  ditler  coiiitideralily  from  the  low 
landH;  and  the  name  now  pro[M)8ed  seems  to  be  cliiiractorihtic  of  their  vej;etation,  at  leuist  of 
Peru  and  New  Grenada,  thoii^^h  certainly  not  of  Mexico,  where  the  species  of  (,'i)icA(»«a  are 
wantiiifr. 

(9.)  Krgion  of  EKcalloni<e,  Vaccinia  (Whortleberries),  and  Winterte  (Winter's  Barks). 
— These,  accordinjf  to  Hnmlnddt,  occupy  the  hi^rhest  parts  of  South  America.  Benides  tho 
plants  inentiiincd,  there  bi'loiifj  to  this  ro|j[ion  many  H|)ecies  of  I^thilin,  Onilian,  Slijmer- 
toorl  (Calceolaria),  Sai(c,  several  Euro|H'an  genera  of  OramirK,  lirainr,  Fesluca  and  I'ou, 
the  CichoracinF,  as  Jfi/vocharis  and  Ajtur^in ;  as  well  as  the  more  strictly  sneakiiij;  aljiine 
plants  (.S'(ix{/r«ic«»,  VV/ji7/ou)-<crrt»»c»,  Sundworln,  and  Srilffi^,)  Perhaps  aUu  those  ])arts 
of  tho  hijfh  lands  where  the  s|)ecies  of  Oak  and  Fir  Houri.sh  beloiiff  to  the  same  refjion,  thou(;ii 
in  all  proliability  they  constitute  a  peculiar  nrovince. 

(lit.)  Chilian  TCffion. — It  appears  that  ('liili  should  form  a  distinct  region ;  fur  amonj^st 
the  (f'nera  which  appear  there,  not  one  half  are  fiiund  in  the  low  districts  of  South  America. 
Its  character,  perhaps,  most  resembles  that  of  the  mountainous  country  in  its  Slippirwortii, 
Escalhmicp,  Wiinmaiinio',  Ha-a,  neUflowim,  and  liuddlra ;  but  yet  tli(?  dilference  is 
scarcely  siilUcient  to  constitute  it  a  province.  The  Flora  of  this  country  appears  to  be  essen- 
tially distinct  from  that  of  New  Holland,  the  C'ape,  and  New  Zealand;  though  an  approach 
to  them  is  observable  in  Ctoodtnia,  Araiiciiria  (('hilian  pine,)  the  I'rolia  family,  Gunniru, 
and  Ancixlnim. 

(II.)  Ri'ifion  of  arhoresccnt  Cnmj)osila;  (syngcnesious  plants  with  tren-liko  stems.) — 
This  takes  in  Buenos  Ay  res,  and  in  jfenernl  the  eastern  side  of  the  temperate  part  of  South 
America.  It  has  t)een  already  renmrkod,  that  the  Flora  of  this  district  of  tho  world  agrees 
to  a  considerable  degree  with  that  of  Europe ;  amongst  109  genera,  70  are  likewise  Euroijoan, 
and  85  in  the  north  temperate  zone.  On  tho  other  hand,  it  dili'ers  considerably  from  the 
Floras  of  tho  Cape  and  of  New  Holland,  for  the  I'roteag,  the  Myrtle  tribe,  and  tho  Mimosas 
are  either  wholly  wanting,  or  are  seen  but  sparingly;  and  there  are  no  Epacrida;  Ikathii, 
Iridr<v,  Mfntmhryanthrma,  or  ISiraninms.  Nor  can  it  be  compared  with  tho  Flora  of  the 
north-west  coast  of  America;  for  amongst  180  goneni  mentioned,  only  M5  are  found  in  Chili. 
The  characti'ristics  of  this  region  seem  to  lie  in  the  great  number  of  Arborescent  Syni(<'nt:si(B, 
(particularly  of  the  sub-family  Boopidio"),  which,  however,  do  not  excluBively  appertain  l^) 
it,  but  are  also  seen  at  the  Cape. 

(12.)  Antarctic  rcffion. — This  includes  the  countries  near  the  Straits  of  Magellan.  There 
is  a  considerable  affinity  between  the  vegetation  here  and  wluit  is  seen  in  the  north  temperate 
zone ;  for,  amongst  82  known  genera  from  thence,  there  are  59  of  them  which  have  species 
in  the  northern  hemisphere.  The  arctic  [jolar  forms  also  appear,  such  as  Sedffcs  (Carices), 
Saxifrages,  Gentians,  Arbutus,  and  Primroses.  Some  resemblance  to  the  highlands  of 
South  America  and  to  Chili  is  olso  shown  in  tho  Slipperworts,  Ourisia,  Baa,  Bolax,  Win- 
tera,  Esrallonia ;  to  the  Cape,  in  the  genera  Gladiolus,  Witsenia,  Gunnera,  Ancistrum, 
Oxalis ;  and  to  Now  Holland,  in  Proteacta;  and  Mniarum, 

(13.)  Rcffion  of  New  Zealand. — This  well  deserves  to  t)c  characterised  as  a  separate 
region,  although  its  vegetation  bo  a  mixture  of  what  prevails  on  the  nearest  continents,  as 
South  America,  Southern  Africa,  ami  New  Holland.  It  has,  in  common  with  Sotith  Ame- 
rica, Ancistrum,  Wrinmannia,  Wiutrra ;  with  Southern  Africa,  the  Fig  Marigolds,  Gna- 
phidium  Xerauthema  (Everlastings),  Trlragnnia  (tho  fiiinous  Now  Zealand  Spinach),  Wood- 
torrel,  and  Passerina;  and' with  New  Holland,  the  Epacris,  Melaleuca,  Mi/oporum;  with 


DooK  II 

both  th 

l)ulli  to 

loriilis, 

(H.) 

Ilollilllii 

Staikh 

I'rotrai- 

genera 

IHainu 

Brown, 

rosembi 

(15.) 
tho  soul 
peculiar 
Imj  recoj 
two  mm 
is  hero  I 
found  in 
pimiic. 
thojiO  pe 
ceti-,  I'll 

(1«.) 
vogetati 
mixftire 
rican  tro 
or  they 
two  thii 
Indies. 


^i^ 


II 


Book  III. 


IN  ITS  IIKLATION  TO  HoTANY. 


bi>th  till!  Irtttcr,  till!  tUiiiilicit  of  /V»/<(/('''<i' mill  li<nliiiri(f :  hiiiiii>  i<|ircii'M  iiImi  iiri>  rDiniiiou 
butll  to  NrW  lliilliiiiil  uilil  Villi  jliriiii'il'x  liillil,  l!>r  limtiiliri'  Miiiiiriiiii  liijliinim,  Snitiiiliin  tit. 
Inrulin,  (iruliitiia  monlitna  ;  tint  lirHt  iiImi  ii  iiulivr  of  tlif  HtriiilN  nt'  Mii|{i'llnii. 

(14.)  Ufffion  iijr.piiiriiliH  iinil  Hinulyiili :  i.oni|ir<'lii'iiiliii)(  tlii'  li'ni|M'nili'  piirtH  of  New 
IltilUiiil,  loKJftliiT  with  Vuii  l>it!iiiiMi'i4  Ijiiiil, — 'I'lii*  rcffiiin  Im  vi'ry  iiiiirkcil.  Tin'  tinnilii'M  of 
Slarlilimiiicti:  anil  Tnmaiiilrra:  iiri-  niiito  |ir>'iiliiir  to  Now  ilolliuiil,  tlir  r./imriilur  iiinrly  ho, 
I'rolciitrn;  Anicia,  Ajihylltr,  uiul  llit'Kri'atcr  nimiber  oftlio  .Wyrf/«'liiiiiily  (''Hpcriiiily  nl'tlio 
tfi'iiiTil  I'liviilypliin,  1,1  fititupirmiim,  MiUiUucii) :  tli"  Slylidrtr,  Uinlimin,  ('inimriiii'ir, 
J)io»initr,  Hi^immto  it  rniiii  otlicr  ri^uions.  Tim  tropical  [Hirt  of  Ninv  llolliiiul,  iiri'unlinif  to 
Drown,  I'ltn  iiiinlly  Ix'  nniliil  to  tliiH,  liiit  iiiiir't  Imi  nitlicr  a  |iarticular  r(>(riiiii,  wlnnf  Flum 
rDHoiiiliiiiH  tliiit  of  Iniiiii,  or  risn  a  provinri)  of  tliiit  latter  rc|fion. 

(ir».)  Ufffioii  of  l-'iff-Miirigiilih  (Mrwiiiliryantlminii)  nnil  Staprlian. — TIiIh  i-oniprclinndi 
till!  Hiiiitiicrn  cxtri'iiiily  of  Alricii,  liic  Flora  of  which  Ih  iliMtiiiiriiiHlii-il  by  u  lii(,'li  ilc^rro  of 
pociilinrity.  Uy  tliofuniiliri*  PrnUncviF,  Itmlinrrtr,  Polyifiiltr.  (NlilkwortM),  IHnnninr,  it  may 
DO  ri'coKniiicil  Iroiii  inoNt  otlmrH,  nxcrpt  Now  llollanil,  nnil  (Voni  thin  it  Im  ili!<tin);iiiHlii>il  liy  tlio 
two  niiiiiorouM  Kfiwra  Mrsi mhri/iiiilhtiiiiim  ami  Slmtrlin,  anil  liy  tlio  timiily  Erirrir,  which 
18  lioro  iiioro  aminilant  tiiaii  miywhoro  >'Imi\  Furthor  cliaractoriHticM  of  tliix  ri't;iiiii  may  bn 
fimiiil  in  tlio  muiiy  Iriilitr,  (iiruniir,  ()xaliilr<r,  ami  tlio  i-xtrcmely  largo  projxirtion  of  t'tmi' 
poiilir.  On  tlio  other  liaml,  then)  oxiMt  in  thin  liintrict,  an  in  Now  Hollanil,  Init  'cry  Hparin^ly, 
tlio-ic  pi'culiar  tbrnia  of  tlio  northi-rn  toiiiiM-rato  zones,  tho  Cruc\fera,Runum  luvva;,  liuiO' 
Cf<i;  I'liilitiliftra',  Caryophylka: 

(10.)  Urtfion  ojf  WrHlirii  Africa. — Wo  am  only  acquaintcil  with  Guinna  aid  Conff".  the 
vojfotatioii  of  which,  as  we  havo  alroady  roiiiarknd,  ponHi-ssos  but  finv  peculiar  tii's,  iinil  is  a 
niixtiiri!  of  tho  Floras  of  Asia  anil  Atiiorica,  thoiiffh  nioHt  roHi'mblinjj  tho  fornior.  Tho  '  'uc- 
rican  tropical  farnilicN  of  Cacti,  I'rppcru,  Palm*,  Viiniiionfliiwcrii,  iiro  oither  ubHoiit  nitiroly, 
or  thi'V  occur  in  small  niiinborH.  Lcguminnme  arc  nmro  numorous  than  in  Ainini  'a.  Aliovo 
two  thiril.i  of  till!  t'onora  ami  Homu  of  tho  (ipouics  of  (Juinoa  arc  foiinil  uIno  in  tho  Fast 
IndicH.  On  tho  otlior  hand,  this  rogion  iipproximatos  to  Ainoricn,  in  jKWHcs.sinfr  inmiy  Rn- 
biacrn;  iw  also  in  tho  gonrra  Schwrnkia,  lUain  (ii  piiliii),  I'uiilliiiia,  yfttlpi^hiit,  iiiid  Hovrral 
iiion;  which  arc  wanting  in  A.-<ia,  and  in  Hovural  niMJcicH  which  it  lmn  in  cdiiiiiioii  with  Amu- 
rica.  ,\  coiisidoriihlo  proportion  of  UranscH  and  Sctlgis  (Cyporacon;),  with  tho  prcnliar  gon  .■ 
AilaiiHoiiia  (tho  Baobab,  which  in  tho  largo«t  known  tree  in  tlio  world),  belong  to  Iho  cli  r- 
nctoristicH  of  this  country.     Tlin  interior  of  Africa  is  unknown  to  uh. 

(17.)  Ucf(iim  (f  FMstrrn  Africa. — Of  tho  coast  of  this  side  of  Africa  and  tho  adjnccnt 
islands  our  know  lodge  is  iniporfect.  We  are  tolerably  aci|uaintod  with  the  i.-<laii(!s  of  Hour- 
Ixiii  and  France;  of  Madagascar  we  know  but  little;  and  of  the  oast  coast  itself  scarcely 
unythiiig,  The  Flora  of  tlio  two  first-named  islands  has  a  considerable  respinblunce  to  thu* 
of  India.  Amongst  'J\h)  known  genera,  llKl  of  them  (cipial  to  two  thirds)  are  found  also  in 
India;  and  of  tho  species,  not  a  few  aro  likewise  Indian;  many  of  these,  however,  may  liavo 
Ih'I'h  introduced  by  tho  constant  intercourse  that  takes  place  between  these  two  parts  of  tl<(i 
globe.  The  gvnvra  Euifunia,  Ficim  (tig),  Vrlica  (nettle),  Kuphorhia  (simrge).  Ihilynarn,  , 
I'anicum,  Andri>])nfrnn,  Sida,  Pandauus  (scrow-pine),  Dnicernn  (ilrugon-wrKid),  <'nnyza 
are  very  numerous  in  species,  us  aro  tho  same  genera  in  India.  In  fmis,  these  islamlB  aro 
pi!Ciiliarly  rich.  Again,  their  flora  diflt'rs  considerably  from  the  South  African;  an  analogy 
existing,  however,  in  their  (HLssessing  single  reprosentiitivesof  the  f'ii|)o  genera  F.rica,  Ixia, 
(iladiotus,  Bhria,  Mvsvinttrynnthnnuin,  Scriphium,  and  several  arborescent  Syiifiriu'siec, 
Still  losa  is  tho  uflinity  to  the  extra -tropical  jmrta  of  New  Ilidland.  The  similarity  la 
stronger  to  tho  tropical  portion  of  that  country,  of  which  the  flora  also  approaches  that  of 
India.  Single  genera  are  all  that  it  seems  to  pos.sess  in  common  with  An^ricp  ;  for  instance, 
Mdicncca,  Ritiziu,  Dodono'a,  Dichondrii.  The  following  are,  perlia,..  .i-culiar  to  this 
ri.'gion,  Latania,  Ilubcrtia,  Poupartia,  Tristrmma,  Fiii)iilia,C<trdyUn- ,  nia,  Firnalia, 

Luhinia,  ami  others.  Tho  flora  of  Madagascar  seems  very  |>eculiar.  It  agrees  with  the 
islands  lost  mentioned ;  and  several  genera  are  seen  nowhere  else  than  in  them  and  Mada- 
gascar ;  for  example,  Danais,  Ambora,  Ihmdiryn,  Dnfniirra,  Didymom  /".t,  Snuicra ;  several 
species  also  are  common  to  both;  as  Didymiimrlen  MiuUignxcr  ■'  -ms,  Dannin  fraprann, 
Cinchona  \frn-inda.  Still,  among  the  101  known  genera  fri>  Madagascar,")'!  only  are 
tinind  in  the  Isles  of  Franco  and  Bourbon  ;  so  that  there  n.'gl  ..'  gcHKl  grounds  tiir  forming^ 
a  separate  region  of  the  first;  unless,  perlia|>s,  the  east  cimst  of  Africa  should  come  nnder 
the  same.  With  New  Holland  and  the  Cape,  Madagascar  lias  prolmbly  still  less  in  common 
than  the  two  other  i-slamls. 

(18.)  Scitamiiivnn  rvifion  (of  tile  Tiirinrrir,  Zcdnnry,  Ctirdamtiin,  Indiati-slini,  &c.),  or 
the  Indian  Flora. — To  this  appertain  Iiiiiia,  east  and  west  of"  the  riaiines,  together  with  the 
islands  between  India  and  New  Ihdbiiid;  perhaps,  also,  that  division  of  New  llolbind  whi  h 
falls  within  the  tropics.  The  Scilainincai  are  here  in  far  greater  numbers  Ihnn  in  America; 
also,  though  to  a  less  degree,  the  Lririiminoinr,  Ciirurbilaccfr,  Tiliacrtr.  The  previously 
mentioned  South  American  fonns  are  rare,  or  else  wanting.  This  region  tihoiild  be-  seiNtratcd 

Vol.  I.  22 


I   I 


■  '.,1 


Ji 


Tg, 


'^ 


954 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY, 


Part  II. 


into  several  provinces;  but  as  yet  we  know  too  little  to  undertake  such  a  division  with  any 
deij^reo  of  certainty. 

(19.)  The  Indian  highlands  ought  to  form  one  or  perhaps  two  regions,  their  vegetation 
being  very  dissimilar  to  that  of  the  lowlands:  in  the  middle  region,  Melastomtc,  Orchide<c, 
and  Filicrs,  appear  to  prevail ;  in  the  higher,  the  vegetation  is  more  like  the  European  and 
Nortii  Asiatic,  and  proliably  the  Japanese :  these  districts  perhaps  constitute  one  region  with 
tlje  w  iiolo  of  Central  Asia ;  but  of  all  these  countries  we  shall  know  much  more  when  the 
Flora  of  India  by  Roxburgh  and  Wallich  is  completed. 

(tiO.)  The  Flora  of  the  South  of  China  and  of  Cochinchina  partly  resembles  that  of  India, 
especially  in  regard  to  families  ;  but  still  Loureiro's  Flora  contains  a  great  many  peculiar 
genera.  It  is  true  tliat  perliaps  the  number  of  these  genera  might  be  reduced;  but  even 
then,  the  vegetation  of  this  tract  will  probably  prove  sufficiently  peculiar  to  constitute  a 
distinct  region. 

(21.)  The  region  of  the  Cassia  and  Mimosa:,  which  prevail  particularly  in  Arabia  and 
Persia,  seems  likewise  to  have  a  good  right  to  be  separated  from  India,  as  it  is  already 
sufficiently  distinct  from  the  Mediterranean  region  (No.  3.)  ;  for,  of  281  genera  mentioned 
by  For.sk:il,  109  only  are  found  in  the  south  of  Europe.  It  is  more  proboble  that  the  Flora 
of  Nubia  and  part  of  Central  Africa  appertains  to  this  region.  Abyssinia  perhaps  forms  a 
distinct  region,  its  elevated  parts  possessing  such  a  different  climate. 

(22.)  The  islands  in  the  South  Sea  wliicli  lie  witliin  the  tropics  form  perhaps  a  separate 
region ;  though  witli  but  a  slender  degree  of  peculiarity.  Among  214  genera,  173  are 
found  in  India ;  most  of  the  remainder  are  in  common  with  America ;  for  instance,  Chio- 
cncca,  Weinmannia.  Gnajacttm.  Of  the  ppecies  which  exist  equally  in  them  and  Asia,  are 
Zapania  nodijlora,  Kyllingia  monocephala,  Fimbristylis  dichotoma,  Toumefartia  argentea, 
Plumbago  zeylanira,  Morinda  umhellata,  Sophora  tomentosa.  In  common  with  America, 
I)od(m<ca  viscosa,  Sapindus  saponaria  (soap-berry) :  with  both  Rhizophora  Mangle  (man- 
grove tree) :  it  has  also  some  in  common  witii  New  Holland,  as  Daphne  indica  (a  species 
of  Spurge  Laurel),  Peculiar  families,  or  such  as  have  there  a  decided  maximum,  can 
scarcely  be  cited ;  tiiough,  on  the  other  hand,  most  of  the  species  are  peculiar.  The  Bread- 
fruit  is  among  the  characteristics  of  these  islands ;  though  this  tree  is  not  confined  to  the 
South  Seas. 

Tlie  limit  of  the  present  es.say  does  not  allow  of  the  intended  introduction  of  the  geo- 
graphical situation  of  many  of  the  more  useful  and  important  plants,  which  Professor  Schouw 
has  so  ably  delineated  ;  such  as  tliat  of  the  Beech,  the  Vine,  the  Fir  tribes,  the  Heaths, 
Corn,  and  such  fruits  or  vegetables  as  are  employed  as  bread :  the  Palms,  the  Proteaca, 
which  form  so  remarkably  striking  a  feature  in  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  in  New  Holland ; 
the  CompositeB,  which  are  perhaps  more  universally  diffused  than  any  other  kind  of  plant; 
the  Crucifer<e,  to  which  the  Cabbage,  Turnip,  Mustard,  Scurvy-grass,  &c.  appertain ; 
and  the  leguminous  tribes,  whose  seeds  (as  the  Pea  ond  Bean)  are  so  valuable  for  man, 
and  whoso  foliage,  as  the  Lupine  and  Trefoil,  &c.  affords  most  of  the  nourishment  to  cattle. 
We  must  endeavour  to  incorporate  these  with  the  vegetation  of  the  various  regions  where 
they  are  found  in  the  greatest  abundance. 


Doo 

Plai 
thei 

(•it)ii 
!r:in 
).iwi 
Imv( 
r.'iii 
but, 
(if  n 
.si;v« 


CHAPTER  II. 

GKOGRAPHY  CONSIDEHED  IN  RELATION  TO  THE  DISTRIBUTION  OP  MAN  AND  ANIMALS. 

The  geographic  distribution  of  animated  beings  is  a  branch  of  natural  history  which  only 
of  late  years  lias  engaged  the  attention  of  philosophers.  The  celebrated  Blumcnbach  was 
the  first,  we  believe,  who  generalized  the  numerous  iacts  connected  with  the  physiology  of 
man,  and  proved  that  all  the  varieties  may  be  referred  to  certain  types  of  form,  equally 
distinct  in  their  physical  structure  and  in  their  geographic  distribution.  But  whether  from 
prejudice,  or  from  the  varied  and  comprehensive  sphere  of  zoology,  which  renders  the  subject 
too  vast  for  the  power  of  any  one  mind,  certain  it  is  that  animal  geography  has  been  almost 
neglected.  Isolated  details,  relative  to  particular  coimtrief,  classes,  or  families,  have  been  suc- 
cessfully investigated ;  but  no  one  has  yet  attempted  to  generalize  these  materials,  and  use  them 
towards  the  discovery  of  tlie  laws  of  creation.  An  attempt  to  ascertain  the  range  of  par- 
ticular species  simply  within  a  fcrtain  district  or  kingdom,  is  merely  an  inquiry  into  their 
local  distribution ;  but  if  our  views  are  extended  beyond  such  confines,  and  we  embrace  a 
large  portion  of  the  globe,  tracing  the  relations  of  it^  animals,  with  those  of  the  remaining 
portions,  it  is  then  only  that  we  enter  upon  the  comprehensive  subject  of  geographic  dis- 
tribution. 

The  inquiries  relative  to  physical  distribution,  when  directed  to  the  animal  world,  assume 
a  higher  importonce  than  those,  however  interesting,  which  regard  plants:  for  not  only  do 
animals  appear  incalculably  more  numerous  than  vegetables,  but  their  natural  range,  depen- 
dent in  a  multiplicity  of  concurrent  causes,  appears  to  be  much  more  distinctly  marked. 


T 


Hook  III. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  MAN. 


ZbT) 


assume 
.  only  do 
!,  depen- 
marked. 


Plants,  indoivl,  in  a  groat  dcprrep,  are  stationary  beings;  but  nature  has  wisely  provida.  for 
tlieir  rciiKival  and  dispersion  to  tlie  most  distant  regions,  by  the  diversified  structure  or  tena- 
ciiius  vitality  with  which  the  seeds  of  numerous  families  are  endowed  ;  liencc  they  become 
!r:ins|>(nto(l  by  various  natnnil  causes  to  distant  shores,  and,  without  any  assistance  from 
l.iiiiiaii  aid,  take  root,  flourisli,  and  increase,  in  lands  far  distant  from  those  which  appear  to 
!i  1  vc  lii'nn  their  native  regions.  It  is  otherwise  with  animals :  they  may,  it  is  true,  be 
rcin()V(!(l  from  tiieir  birth-nlaco,  and  even  become  domesticated  and  naturalized  elsewhere; 
hut,  with  tiie  exception  ot  those  which  seem  to  have  been  originally  destined  for  the  service 
of  man,  such  naturalization  ia  only  effected  by  artificial  means,  and  by  slow  degrees,  through 
several  generations.  If  such  transported  animals  be  left  to  themselves,  or  rather  to  the 
natural  resources  for  supporting  life  peculiar  to  their  new  abode,  they  almost  invariably  pine 
and  die.  Again,  plants,  from  being  mferior  to  animals  in  the  complexity  of  tlieir  structure, 
are,  perhaps,  necessarily  dependent  on  fewer  causes  for  retaining  the  vital  energy;  their 
dispersion  is,  consequently,  upon  the  whole,  much  more  extensive.  It  may  be  mentioned, 
in  support  of  this  remark,  that  out  of  600  plants  discovered  in  tropical  Africa  by  Professor 
Smith,  one-twelfth  have  been  ascertained,  by  Robert  Brown,  to  be  natives  also  of  India  and 
South  America.  Now,  if  either  the  vertebrated  or  invertebrated  animals,  not  aquatic,  of 
Western  Africa,  were  compared  in  a  similar  way  with  those  of  the  parallel  latitudes  in 
America  and  India,  the  proportion  collectively  would  hardly  amount  to  one  in  a  hundred : 
indeed,  with  regard  to  the  vertebrated  orders,  it  is  very  questionable  whether  even  one  spe- 
cies is  truly  indigenous  to  tropical  Africa  and  to  America;  so  totally  different  are  the  zoolo- 
gical features  of  these  continents,  even  at  their  nearest  approximation :  and  yet,  in  the 
above  number  of  plants,  no  less  than  twenty-two  species  are  enumerated,  as  common  to  equi- 
noctial Africa,  India,  and  America.  These  facts,  while  they  strengthen  the  belief  that 
zoology  is  a  more  fiivourable  field  than  botany  for  discovering  the  laws  of  natural  distribu- 
tion, lead  US  to  consider  the  modes  by  which  such  inquiries  are  most  beneficially  prosecuted. 

Sect.  I. — Modes  of  investigating  the  Subject. 

The  powerful  effect  produced  on  animals  by  temperature,  food,  and  locality,  are  known  to 
all :  whether  as  regards  the  range  of  any  particular  species,  or  the  numbers  of  which  it  may 
be  composed.  The  effect  of  these  agencies  is  indeed  so  great,  that  some  writers  have  looked 
upon  them  as  primary  causes,  and  have  imagined  that  by  such  laws  alone  has  nature  regu- 
lated the  distribution  of  the  whole  animal  creation.  Very  many  instances,  no  doubt,  from 
among  the  diversities  of  animal  structure,  may  be  urged  in  support  of  this  theorj' ;  but  how 
far  it  can  be  reconciled  with  other  and  more  general  facts,  which  will  bo  apparent  on  a 
wider  view  of  the  subject,  we  shall  hereafter  mvestigate.  It  is  clear  that,  by  whatever 
laws  Nature  may  have  been  guided,  numerous  exceptions  will  be  found,  proportionate  to  the 
vast  and  almost  infinite  variety  she  has  displayed  in  her  productions.  There  is,  perhaps,  no 
theory  professing  to  explain  the  laws  of  Nature,  whether  on  animal  distribution  or  natural 
affinities,  which  the  wit  of  man  could  possibly  devise,  that  might  not  be  supported  with  great 
plausibility,  by  certain  facta,  presented  by  those  radiating  threads  of  connexion,  and  Uioso 
apparent  deviations  from  her  general  laws,  which  are  everywhere  apparent :  yet  these  will 
frequently  be  opposed  to  other  facts ;  and  thus  it  becomes  necessary,  before  determining  on 
which  side  the  preponderance  of  evidence  Ilea,  that  we  take  as  wide  a  survey  of  the  general 
distribution  of  animals  as  the  existing  state  of  knowledge  will  admit.  To  set  out  with  the 
belief  that  the  laws  of  geographic  distribution  are  fully  ascertained,  and  that  nothing  remains 
but  to  make  ourselves  acquainted  with  the  rttnge  of  individual  species,  is  a  doctrine  which 
can  only  be  compared  to  those  principles  of  classification  insisted  upon  by  the  methodists  of 
the  last  age  in  natural  history,  who  considered  that  all  the  generic  groups  had  been  discovered, 
and  that  future  naturalists  had  nothing  left  but  to  appropriate  to  them  the  newly  discovered 
species,  in  the  best  manner  they  could. 

Towards  the  discovery  of  the  natural  geography  of  animals  there  is,  however,  another 
mode  of  investigation,  analogous  to  what  we  now  pursue,  in  searching  after  the  true  series 
of  their  affinities :  this  is,  to  lay  aside  all  preconceived  theories,  and  to  begin  with  considerinpr 
the  primary  causes  of  geographic  distribution  to  be,  what  in  truth  tliey  really  arc,  totally 
unknown.  We  are  thus  compelled  to  take  a  general  survey  of  all  the  existing  animals  yd 
discovered,  and  now  dispersed  over  the  globe ;  and,  from  the  facts  so  elicited,  endeavour  to 
attain  such  general  inferences  as  are  supported  by  a  preponderance  of  evidence,  furnished 
by  nature  herself.  By  the  first  method,  as  it  has  been  truly  said,  wo  make  nature  bend  to 
our  own  arbitrary  theories;  while  by  the  secind  wo  humbly  endeavour  to  receive  her 
instructions;  striving  to  obtain  a  glimpse  of  that  stupendous  plan  which  can  never  be  fiilly 
undcrstcml  by  fallible  and  imperfect  mortals. 

The  geographic  distribution  of  man  is  connected  in  our  survey  with  that  of  animals ;  not 
so  much  in  compliance  with  the  popular  notion,  by  which  the  noblest  work  of  God  is  classed 
as  a  genus  next  to  the  brute,  but  because  we  may  fhirly  presume,  from  the  great  diversity 


d 


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iii- 1 


IP;  5! 


!    '  »f 


'>'.:\- 


"'^-^.f 


n 


250 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY, 


PaktII. 


observed  nmong  the  human  species,  tliiit  ttieir  variation  nnd  dispersion  is  regulated  by  some 

feneral  plan ;  and  that  such  plan  may  bo  analoirous  to  tliat  wliich  is  apparent  in  the  distri- 
ution  of  animals.  It  may  be  urged,  indeed,  that  sucli  a  remarkable  coincidence,  if  proved, 
miglit  tend  to  sanction  the  modern  theory  of  classing  man  and  brutes  together ;  but  the  only 
legitimate  construction  which  we  think  could  be  fairly  drawn  from  sdch  a  fact  would  be, 
that  there  is  but  one  plan  of  geographic  distribution  and  of  creation  throughout  nature. 

Against  classing  man  with  quadrupeds  we  must  enter  our  decided  protest.  And  here  we 
cannot  refrain  from  expressing  regret  that  a  naturalist  of  no  ordinary  talent  has  rrcently 
adopted  this  degrading  theory,  m  apparent  opposition  to  hin  former  most  just  and  philosophic 
views  of  the  subject.  He  admits  "  the  greatness  of  the  gulf  between  man  and  the  orang 
outang ;"  yet,  because  they  possess  certain  analogies  of  physical  structure,  is  it  a  necessary 
conclusion  that  they  form  one  group]  (Linn.  Traru.  xvi.  1.  p.  22.)  This,  at  least,  was  not 
tlie  opinion  (as  this  philosopher  candidly  admits)  of  either  Aristotle  or  Ray,  whom  he  justly 
considers  the  two  greatest  zoologists  that  have  ever  existed.  It  has  been  argued  that  the 
natural  pride  of  philosophy  withheld  such  men  from  classing  themselves  with  brutes ;  but 
we  arc  more  disposed  to  think  they  were  influenced  by  higher  considerations.  However 
this  may  be,  there  is  an  innate  repugnance,  or  rather  a  disgust  and  abhorrence,  in  every 
human  mind,  enlightened  or  illiterate,  against  the  admission  of  such  a  relationship.  Reve- 
lation everywhere  places  man,  even  in  his  fallen  state,  in  absolute  contrast  and  contradiction 
with  "  the  beasts  that  perish."  It  is  not  merely  a  feeling  of  pride ;  it  is  an  innate  loathing, 
engrafted  in  our  nature,  apparently  for  the  very  purpose  of  teaching  us  how  immeasurably 
far  wc  are  removed  from  the  brutes  that  have  no  understanding.  Man  has  fallen,  miserably 
fallen,  but  this  is  from  the  corruption  of  that  pure  spirit  with  which  he  was  created :  his 
form  was  tlion,  as  it  is  now ;  nor  are  we  to  suppose  that  man,  as  he  came  fiishioned  by  hie 
Creator,  without  sin,  was  clothed  in  a  different  form  to  that  which  he  now,  in  a  sinful  state, 
exhibits.  Are  we  then  to  place  such  a  being  in  a  zoological  circle,  surrounded  with  apes 
and  baboons  ?  or  are  material  and  immaterial  natures  so  closely  allied,  that  they  may  be 
classed  together! 

Tliere  is  another  argument  against  including  man  in  the  zoological  circle,  furni.shed  by 
tlie  very  theory  upon  wiiicii  that  iiypothesis  is  built.  If  the  circular  system  i.*  part  of  the 
system  of  nature,  which  at  this  time  of  day  is  perfectly  demonstrable,  every  being  has  two 
alHnities :  by  the  one,  it  is  connected  to  that  which  precedes  it ;  by  the  other,  to  that  by 
which  it  is  succeeded.  Now,  before  we  can  bring  man  witliin  the  circle  of  the  Quadruma- 
na,  on  the  strength  of  his  affinity  (wiiether  near  or  remote)  to  the  ornng  outang,  we  must 
show  to  wiiat  cla&s  of  animals  lie  is  connected  on  tlie  other  hand.  Wiiat  then  are  our  dou- 
ble affinities  in  tlie  vertebrate  circled  We  may  be  allied  distantly,  perhaps,  to  Simia.  But 
where  is  the  second  affinity!  If  this  cannot  be  pointed  out,  tlie  whole  theory,  in  our  esti- 
mation, falls  to  the  ground,  since  the  presi'^ied  type  of  the  animal  kingdom  contradicts  the 
laws  by  which  creation  is  supposed  to  be  /eguiated ;  man  exhibiting  a  single  affinity,  and 
the  rest  of  organised  matter  a  double  one.  Take  him  frmn  the  animal  circle, — place  him 
between  matter  and  spirit ; — and  his  double  affinities  become  at  once  apparent. 

A  general  sketch  of  the  physical  peculiarities  of  man  in  all  his  variations  will  first  claim 
our  attention ;  the  regions  inhabited  by  the  different  races,  and  the  affinities  by  which  they 
appear  connected,  will  also  be  briefly  noticed.  This  part  of  our  subject  will  be  conducted 
on  a  somewhat  different  plan  from  that  which  we  shall  pursue  in  the  sequel.  The  profound 
researches  of  Blumenbach  and  Cuvier,  and  the  acute  and  patient  investigations  of  Lawrence 
and  Pritchard,  have  all  conspired  to  produce  nearly  the  same  general  conclusions  on  those 
points  to  which  wo  shall  particularly  draw  the  reader's  attention.  These  conclusions,  more- 
over, demand  our  fullest  confidence,  from  being  founded  on  as  rigid  analysis  as  the  nature 
of  the  subject  will  admit.  Hence,  we  have  no  need,  in  this  place,  of  entering  into  details, 
or  of  pursuing  the  same  mode  of  invi'jitigation  to  which  we  shall  have  recourse  when  sub- 
sequently treating  of  animal  distribution. 

Sbct  TI. —  Varieties  of  the  Human  Race. 

The  varieties  of  the  human  race,  according  In  the  ojiiiiion  of  the  greatest  comparative 
anatomist,  may  all  be  included  under  three  priin:iry  divisions,  between  which,  in  their  typi- 
cal e.vamples,  a  very  marked  difference  is  observed.  Those  M.  Cuvier  has  termed,  1.  the 
fair  or  Caucasian  variety;  2.  the  yellow  or  Montrolian;  3.  the  black  or  Ethiopian. 

The  eliissifination  proposed  by  the  celebrated  Blumenbach.  although  apparently  different, 
is  but  a  modification  of  that  promulgated  by  Baron  (!Juvier.  The  former  considers  the  Ethio. 
pian  type  as  .livisible  into  tliree,  1.  the  American ;  2.  the  Negro;  and  II.  the  Malay,  Tlie  latter 
indicates  tliesi!  additional  races,  but  considers  their  peculiarities  as  less  prominent  than  those 
of  the  two  former ;  ho  does  not  therefore  admit  them  among  the  primary  divisions  of  the 
human  race.  Without,  at  present,  offering  any  opinion  U|Kin  this  question,  we  shall  first 
take  a  rapid  survey  of  the  peculiarities,  physical  and  moral,  of  all  these  groups. 


■^: 


,-^.. 


Book  III. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  MAN. 


8517 


(1)  The  Caucasian  race  (Jig.  70.)  is  typically  characterised  by  a  white  skin ;  red  cheeka; 

70 


copious,  soft,  flowing  hair,  generally  curled  or  waving;  ample  beard;  small,  oval,  and 
straight  face,  with  tlie  features  very  distinct ;  expanded  forehead ;  large  and  elevated  crani- 
um ;  narrow  nose ;  and  small  moutli. 

The  moral  feelings  and  intellectual  powers  of  this  race  have  been  developed  in  the  highest 
degree  of  perfection  which  human  nature  has  ever  exhibited.  The  Caucasian  has  given 
birth  to  the  most  civilized  nations,  both  in  ancient  and  modem  times,  and  has  always  exer- 
cised dominion  over  tiie  rest  of  mankind,  when  not  opposed  by  a  vast  superiority  of  physical 
strength.  The  mighty  nations  of  antiquity,  and  the  no  less  resistless  powers  concentrated 
in  molern  Europe,  evince  the  superiority  of  this  race  in  all  that  ennobles  the  immaterial 
part  of  man,  and  all  that  renders  him  formidable  to  his  fellow-creatures ;  while  every  age 
witnesses  a  progressive  but  a  surprising  advance  in  all  those  qualities  which  indicate  intel- 
lectual endowment. 

The  original  scat  of  the  Caucasian  race  is  supposed,  as  the  name  implies,  to  have  been 
that  lofty  chain  of  mountains  between  the  Black  and  Caspian  Seas.  This  supposition,  as 
Jjawrence  observes,  is  in  uni.son  with  all  that  can  be  traced  of  the  original  abode  of  our  first 
parents ;  and  is  further  confirmed  by  the  natives  of  these  regions  being,  to  this  day,  the  most 
beautifully  formed  of  all  the  ir'iabitants  of  the  earth.  From  the  Caucasian  Alps  different 
branches  of  this  race  diverge  in  every  direction,  as  from  a  common  centre ;  the  peculiarities 
of  each  being  modified,  altered,  and  finally  lost,  in  proportion  as  they  recede  from  the  ori- 
ginal seat  of  their  tribe. 

Of  the  branches  of  the  Caucasian  race,  the  most  powerful  is  the  Pelasgic,  which  spreads 
o^er  the  greater  part  of  Europe  and  Western  Asia  at  its  most  northern  limits,  while  it  blends 
with  the  Jlongolian  race  by  means  of  the  Fins  and  Laplanders.  From  this  branch  sprang 
the  powerful  nations  of  Greece  and  Rome,  which  have  been  succeeded  by  the  mighty  king- 
doms of  modern  Europe.  Tiie  next  is  tlie  Syrian,  which  takes  a  southerly  direction ;  and 
includes  that  portion  of  Asia  formerly  inhabited  by  the  Assyrians,  Chaldeans,  and  the  ancient 
Egyptians.  The  Indian  branch,  by  some  thought  to  be  the  same  with  the  Pelasgic,  passes 
to  the  East,  and  loses  itself  among  tlie  inferior  casts  of  Hindostan.  A  fourth  branch  is  the 
Scythian  or  Tartaric,  which  spread  over  the  more  northern  parts  of  Asia ;  and  gave  birth  to 
those  wandering  and  ruthless  hordes  who,  by  the  physical  power  of  numbers,  devastated  and 
fmally  overthrew  the  polished  empires  of  Greece  and  Rome.  The  wandering  and  pastoral 
habits  of  this  tribe  have  conspired  to  preserve  their  peculiarities  unmixed  with  those  of  the 
neighbouring  nations;  except,  indeed,  in  Lesser  Tartary,  whore  this  branch  of  the  Caucasian 
race  loses  itself  in  the  Mongolian. 

(2.)  The  Mongolian  variety  (Jig.  71.)  has  these  characteristics : — The  skin,  instead  of 


white  or  fair,  is  olive  yellow ;  the  hair  thin,  coarse,  and  straight ;  little  or  no  beard ;  broad 
flattened  face,  witii  the  features  running  together ;  small  and  low  forehead ;  s<]uare-shaped 
croniuni;  wide  and  small  nose;  very  oblique  eyes;  and  thick  lips.  Stature  interior  to  the 
Caucasian.  In  this  race  the  moral  and  intellectual  energies  have  been  developed  in  an  inferior 
degree.  Tradition,  indeed,  has  assigned  to  the  most  powerful  nation,  the  Chinese,  a  high 
degree  of  civilization,  at  a  period  when  Europe  was  in  a  state  of  barbarism.  Yet  there  are 
many  circumstances  which  throw  considerable  suspicion  on  this  fact :  and  even  if  it  be  allowed, 
a  stronger  proof  could  not  possibly  be  produced  to  show  the  limited  intellectual  powers  of  tliis 
Vol.  I.  22*  2H 


!t,i 


i^'B 


m 


S' 


id 


Jm 

fjllj 

'f 

ii 

M 

^1 


258 


t 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY, 


Part  II, 


race ;  for  while  tlie  European  Caucasian  nations  have  advanced  from  rude  savages  to  bccunie 
masters  of  the  world,  the  Cliinese,  after  reaching  a  certain  state  of  civilization,  liave  remain- 
ed stationary,  in  every  respect,  through  a  long  series  of  ages.  Solit^iry  e.vceptions  cannot 
invnlidati^  the  fact;  and  while  we  know  that,  not  only  in  our  own  times,  but  so  tiir  back  as 
history  informs  us,  neither  the  sciences,  the  inventions,  nor  tiie  improvements  of  the  last 
three  centuries  have  changed  the  Mongolian  nations  from  what  they  then  were,  we  can  conio 
to  no  other  conclusion  tbim  that  they  are  nationally  incapacitated  from  further  improve- 
ment. Cuvier  supposes  that  the  origin  of  the  Mongolian  race  may  have  been  in  the  moun- 
tains of  Altai'.  Prom  tlicnco  it  has  spread  over  the  whole  of  central  and  northern  Asia, 
where  it  is  lost  among  the  Esquimaux  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  Caucasian  Tartars  on  the 
other.  It  further  extends  to  the  Eastern  Ocean,  and  includes  the  Japanese,  the  Coicans, 
and  a  large  [xirtion  of  the  Siberians.  Its  limits  to  the  south  appear  to  extend  no 
farther  than  to  that  part  of  Ilindostan  north  of  the  Ganges,  while  the  Mongolian  fea- 
tures only  predominate  over  those  of  the  Indo-Caucasian  in  the  lower  casts  of  the  Eastern 
Peninsula. 

The  origin  of  the  Esquimaux  and  other  polaric  nations  found  on  the  most  northern  limits 
of  Europe  and  America,  has  given  rise  to  great  diversity  of  opinion.  Arguments  of  nearly 
equal  weight,  but  of  opposite  tendency,  have  been  employed  to  show,  on  the  one  hand,  that 
the  Esquimaux  belong  to  the  American  variety ;  and  on  the  other,  to  prove  their  structure 
more  in  unison  with  that  of  the  Mongolian.  The  latter  opinion  has  been  supported  by  Mr. 
Lawrence ;  and  although  we  consider  the  weight  of  argument  to  be  on  this  side,  it  appears 
not  at  all  improbable  that  both  these  suppositions  are  in  part  correct  We  have  Ixiforc 
observed,  that  the  characters  of  each  race  become  less  and  less  a))parent,  the  farther  they 
arc  removed  from  their  particular  type.  The  proximity  of  the  northern  regions  of  Asia  to 
those  of  America,  renders  it  highly  probable  either  that  their  respective  inhabitants  mingled 
their  races  at  a  remote  period,  or  that  the  northern  Mongolians,  whose  civilization  is  sup- 
posed to  be  of  so  great  antiquity,  were  the  first  to  emigrate,  and  peoi)le  the  northern  regions 
of  America.  At  all  events,  it  appears  certain  that  the  Esquimaux  nations  unite  in  themselves 
many  of  the  characters  of  two  distinct  races ;  and  the  only  theory  by  which  wc  can  recon- 
cile these  doubts  on  their  true  origin,  is  that  of  supposing  them  to  form  the  link  of  connex- 
ion between  the  Mongolian  and  that  race  which  spreads  over  the  remaining  jwrtion  of  the 
new  world.  Tl  .  brief  notice  we  have  now  taken  of  the  two  most  powerful  races  or  varie- 
ties of  the  human  form  is  sufficient  to  show  their  marked  superiority  over  all  others,  whether 
as  regards  the  symmetry  or  beauty  of  their  physical  structure,  or  the  still  more  striking 
developoment  of  their  moral  jwwers.  Hence  they  both  become  typical,  although  in  ditferent 
degrees,  of  that  jwrfeotion  which  the  Creator  has  bestowed  upon  man,  in  this  his  probatory 
stain  of  existence. 

The  third  i)rimary  division  or  leading  variety  of  the  human  race,  according  to  the  views 
of  the  illustrious  Cuvier,  is  the  negro  or  Ethiopian.  This,  again,  presents  three  variations, 
considered  by  Cuvier  as  secondary,  and  by  Blumenbach  as  primary.  Although  these  varia- 
tions are  not  so  great  as  those  l)etween  either  the  Caucasian,  the  Mongolian,  or  the  African 
(the  letter  being  considered  the  type  of  the  Ethiopian  variety),  still  they  are  sufficiently  im- 
portant to  merit  a  particular  pnecification  under  distinct  names;  and  they  are  accordingly 
termed  the  American,  the  Ethiopian,  and  the  Malay  varieties. 

In  the  American  variety  iJia.  72.)  the  skin  is  dark,  and  more  or  less  red  ■  the  hair  black, 

72 


05''^^;   A 


straight,  and  strong,  with  the  beard  small ;  fiice  and  skull  very  similar  to  the  Mongolian, 
but  the  former  not  so  flattened ;  eyes  stmk ;  foreliead  low ;  the  noso  and  other  features  being 
somewhat  projecting.  The  moral  and  intellectual  character  of  this  race  is  in  unison  with 
the  great  diffi.Tenco  it  presents  in  outward  form  from  the  Caucasian.  Likn  the  Mongolian, 
it  has  remained  stationary;  but  stopped  at  a  point  very  much  below  that  to  which  the 
Asiatics  have  reai^hed.  The  ancient  and  now  extinct  empires  of  Mexico  and  tii(!  Incas 
may  he  cotisidtrerl  analogous  to  those  of  Cliina  and  India,  exhibiting  the  highest  \mnt  of 
civilization  to  wliich  the  two  races  have  ever  reached;  but  farther  than  this  the  comparison 
ronnot  be  carried.    Arts,  sciences,  and  all  those  intellectual  endowments  which  have  fol- 


9^ 


Paht  II. 


Book  m. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  MAN. 


259 


lowed  the  progress  of  the  Caucasian  race,  and  to  a  certain  extent  belong  also  to  the  Asiatics, 
appear  to  have  made  little  or  no  progress  among  tlie  Americans,  even  m  the  gorgeous  court 
nf  Montezuma.  When  that  monarch  despatched  messengers  to  bring  him  an  account  of  the 
first  Spaniards  who  landed  on  his  territories,  so  ignorant  were  the  Mexicans  of  figures  or 
of  writing,  that  their  report  was  made  in  complicated  hieroglyphics,  mixed  with  rude  figures 
of  the  horses  and  persons  of  these  unknown  invaders.  Their  idolatrous  worship  enjoined 
no  moral  duties,  like  tliose  of  the  superstition  of  Fo;  and  its  rites  were  celebrated  by  human 
sacrifioes  of  such  a  revolting  nature  as  to  bo  wortliy  only  of  demons.  It  deserves  attention, 
that  while  the  central  portion  of  America  presented  in  its  original  inhabitants  such  a  de- 
graded picture  of  the  human  mind,  the  northern  nations  of  the  new  world,  partaking  more 
of  the  Mongolian  aspect,  evinced  a  higher  degree  of  intellect.  It  is  true  they  were  only 
wandering  tribes  of  hunters,  yet  they  appear  to  have  had  a  full  belief  in  the  existence  of 
one  "  Great  Spirit,"  and  in  a  blissful  immortality  for  themselves.  The  American  race, 
blending  with  the  Mongolian  to  the  north,  spreads  over  the  whole  of  the  new  world ;  but 
whether  any  traces  of  this  type  exist  beyond  these  limits,  is  a  question  which  has  not  hitherto 
been  investigated. 
In  tlie  Ethiopian  variety  (fig.  73.),  the  skin  is  black ;  hair  short,  black,  and  woolly ;  skulJ 


compressed  on  the  sides,  and  elongated  towards  the  front ;  forehead  low,  narrow,  ard  slant- 
ing ;  cheekbones  very  prominent ;  jaws  projecting,  so  as  to  render  the  upper  front  teeth 
oblique;  eyes  prominent;  nose  broad  and  flat;  lips  (especially  the  upper  one)  particularly 
thick.  The  African  or  Ethiopian  race  has  ever  remainetl  in  a  rude  and  comparatively  bar- 
barous state.  Their  cities  are  but  congregations  of  huts;  their  laws,  the  despotic  whim  of 
the  reigning  chief.  Incessantly  occupied  in  war  or  in  tlie  chase,  they  seek  not  to  perpetuate 
their  ideas.  They  have  no  written  language,  nor  even  a  code  of  hieroglyphics.  Abundantly 
supplied  by  nature  with  every  necessary  of  life,  they  have  retained  their  character  un- 
chanwfid,  after  centuries  of  intercourse  with  thu  most  enlightened  nations.  DifTerent  branches 
of  this  type  spread  over  the  whole  of  the  African  continent,  excepting  those  parts  bordering 
ihe  north  and  east  of  the  Great  Desert,  which  are  occupied  by  the  Caucasian  Syrians,  and 
wiiere  all  traces  of  the  npijro  formation  disappear. 
Tlio  Malay  variety  {fig.  74.)  varies  in  the  colour  of  the  skin  from  a  light  tawny  to  a  deep 

74 


-(■ 


brown,  approaching  to  black ;  hair  black,  more  or  less  curled,  and  abundant ;  head  rather 
narrow;  bones  of  the  fiice  large  and  prominent;  nose  full  and  broad  towards  the  tip.  Under 
this  variety,  observes  Mr.  LaATence,  are  included  races  of  men  very  difterent  in  organiza- 
tion and  qualities.  They  nevertheless  present  certain  general  points  of  resemblance,  which 
forbid  tiicir  association  with  either  of  the  foregoing  varieties.  Under  this  head  are,  there- 
fore, included  the  inhabitants  of  Malacca,  of  Sumatra,  and  of  the  innumerable  islands  of  the 
Indian  Archipelago  and  the  groat  Pacific  Ocean.  Most  of  these  tribes  are  stated  to  speak 
the  Malay  language,  which  may  be  traced,  in  the  various  ramifications  of  this  diversifie<l 
race,  from  Madagascar  to  Easter  Island.    Their  moral  character  is  no  less  various  than  their 


%. 


260 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY, 


Pakt  II 


\ 

if 
jl 
ft  . 


outward  funn.  In  such  as,  by  the  colour  of  their  Bkin  and  their  woolly  hair,  show  a  general 
approximation  to  the  African  type,  the  mental  powers  are  little  developed.  Their  language, 
however,  is  stated  to  be  peculiar,  and  they  appear  to  have  a  copious  bushy  beard.  (IjOW- 
rence,  489.)  Branches  of  this  division  of  the  Malay  race  spread  over  the  great  islands  ot' 
Sumatra,  Borneo,  and  Andaman ;  and  they  appear  also  to  occupy  the  Molucca  and  Philippine 
Islands.  They  are  described  as  living  in  the  same  state  of  wild  and  savage  barbarity  as  do 
the  Bushmen  of  Southern  Africa,  and  such  other  branches  of  the  Ethiopian  variety  as  appear 
the  lowest  in  the  scale  of  form  and  intellect.  There  is,  however,  u  lighter-coloured  and 
superior  race,  inhabiting  some  of  tlie  Indian  islands,  where  an  oval  countenance,  longer  hair, 
and  finer  form,  evince  a  much  greater  affinity  with  the  Indo-Caucasian  type  on  one  side, 
and  a  strong  analogy  to  the  New  Zealanders  and  Pacific  tribes  on  the  other.  Proceeding 
along  the  same  insular  chain,  we  meet  with  "  negro-like  men "  having  curly  hair,  in  the 
immense  island  of  New  Guinea,  and  in  those  south-western  groups  denominated  New  Ire- 
land, New  Hebrides,  and  New  Caledonia.  The  natives  of  tlie  vast  continent  of  New  Hol- 
land show  strong  indications  of  the  same  origin,  and  of  the  same  untameable  barbarism ; 
yet  their  features  are  described  as  not  unpleasant,  their  skin  is  rather  copper-coloured  than 
black,  and  their  hair  either  curling  or  straight.  The  natives  of  the  interior  liave  been 
described  aa  somewhat  more  civilized,  and  as  speaking  a  language  different  fi-om  that  used 
on  the  codst  In  the  neighbouring  island  of  Nevv  Zealand  a  considerable  change  from  tlie 
black  Malayan  tribes  takes  place.  The  superior  castes  of  these  islanders  in  their  persons 
are  tall,  active,  and  well  made ;  their  skin  is  brown,  and  their  long  black  hair  is  sometimes 
straight,  sometimes  curling.  A  degree  of  intellect,  superior  to  all  the  tribes  we  have 
enumerated,  accompanies  these  personal  advantages.  Retaining  many  of  the  barbarous 
customs  of  their  neighbours,  the  New  Zealanders  have,  nevertheless,  made  some  progress 
in  the  arts  of  life  smce  their  intercourse  with  Europeans :  they  believe  in  a  Supreme  Being, 
and  in  a  happy  immortality ;  and  evince,  in  various  ways,  a  desire  to  improve  their  condition. 
The  natives  of  the  Friendly  Islands  have  the  dark  complexion  of  the  New  Zealanders,  but  are 
a  much  superior  race.  They  are  of  the  ordinary  European  stature,  though  some  are  above 
six  feet  high;  their  colour  is  a  deep  brown,  verging  in  the  better  classes  on  a  light  olive; 
their  features,  like  those  of  the  Now  Zealanders,  are  various,  approximating  in  some  respects 
to  them,  and  also  to  the  true  Europeans.  Their  progress  in  civilization  and  in  intellectual 
developement  is  considerable ;  as  a  pnxif  of  which,  it  is  mentioned  that  they  have  terms  to 
express  numbers  up  to  100,000.  The  Otaheitians  have  long  been  celebrated  for  their  per- 
sonal beauty :  the  lower  orders,  indeed,  are  of  tlio  same  brown  tint  so  generally  prevalent 
in  the  Friendly  Islands,  but  in  those  of  a  superior  caste  this  is  gradually  lost,  until  we  find 
in  the  higher  ranks  a  skin  nearly  white,  or  at  least  but  slightly  tinged  with  brown;  and 
although  the  usual  colour  of  their  hair  is  black,  yet  it  is  of  a  tine  texture,  and  frequent 
instances  occur  in  which  it  is  brown,  flaxen,  and  even  red.  Their  persons  are  well  made, 
their  features  sometimes  even  beautiful,  and  a  blush  may  be  readily  observed  on  the  check 
of  the  women.  The  harmony  of  their  language,  and  their  simple  though  refined  mannor.<i, 
have  been  universally  remarked.  These  nationnl  characteristics  extend  to  the  Society 
Islands.  Lastly,  The  nativi.-s  of  tiie  Marquesos  have  been  described  as  the  finest  race  in  the 
Southern  Ocean:  "in  form  they  are,  perhaps,  the  finest  in  the  world."  Their  skin  is 
naturally  "  very  fair,"  and  the  colour  of  tlicir  hair  exliibits  all  the  varied  shades,  (excepting 
red),  which  are  found  in  the  difieront  tribes  of  the  Caucasian  race. 

Sect.  III. — (hi  the  Caimes  of  these  Varieties. 

The  following  questions  naturally  arise  fi-om  considering  these  characteristics  of  the  most 
prominent  varieties  of  the  human  race ;  founded  as  they  are  on  the  concurrent  testimony  of 
travellers,  and  generalised  by  the  most  eminent  physiologists : — 1.  Whether  these  races,  so 
dissimilar  in  their  typical  peculiarities,  have  originally  proceeded  from  one,  or  from  distinct 
stocks?  2.  Are  they  so  strongly  m'^rked  as  not  to  present  many  and  great  deviations'!  and, 
3.  To  what  causes  are  they  to  be  attributed  ] 

In  regard  to  the  origin  of  the  human  race,  there  have  not  been  wanting  those,  who, 
disbelieving  the  evidences  of  the  Mosaic  history,  have  attempted  to  establish  the  hypothesis 
that  these  races  have  each  sprung  from  different  stocks ;  or,  that  they  are,  in  fact,  so  many 
species.  Now,  this,  at  the  host,  is  but  an  assumption  perfectly  gratuitous;  not  only  because 
every  record  from  which  it  could  receive  any  support  is  expressly  opposed  to  it,  but  because 
it  is  in  direct  violation  of  a  primary  and  universal  law  of  nature :  a  law  by  which  the  lowest 
being  of  the  animal  creation  shrinks  instinctively  from  intermixing  its  species  with  that  of 
another.  It  has,  moreover,  been  fully  ascertained  that,  however  great  the  variations  of  the 
human  form  may  be,  such  variations  amon^r  different  breeds  of  the  same  species  of  animal 
are  even  greater.  Unless,  therefore,  it  can  be  proved  that  the  laws  of  nature  with  respect 
to  man  and  animals  are  ccintradictory,  we  shall,  by  attaching  the  least  weight  to  the  alwve 
theory,  openly  violate  every  principle  of  philosophic  reasoning,  as  well  as  renounce  all  belief 
in  revealed  religion.  On  this  head  the  Mosaic  records  are  clear  and  explicit;  nnd  however 
the  bceptic  may  deny  their  inspiration,  he  cannot  bring  forward,  on  his  side,  any  testimony 


•»*' 


i'f  \ 


Pabt  II 

a  general 
language, 

1.      (/ifltC- 

islands  of 
Philippine 
.rily  as  do 
as  appear 
oured  and 
nger  hair, 
one  side, 
•roceeding 
lir,  in  the 
1  New  Ire- 
New  Hol- 
barbarism ; 
Burcd  than 
)iave  been 
(1  that  used 
[c  from  the 
leir  persons 
1  Bometimcs 
s  we  have 
•  barbarous 
ne  progress 
eme  Being, 
ir  condition, 
lers,  but  are 
le  are  above 
light  olive ; 
ime  respects 
intellectual 
ave  terms  to 
)r  their  per- 
lly  prevalent 
mtil  we  find 
brown;  and 
ind  frequent 
J  well  made, 
m  the  cheek 
led  manners, 
the  Society 
It  race  in  tho 
Iheir  skin  is 
(excepting 


of  the  most 
[testimony  of 
lese  races,  so 
[from  distinct 
Jations'!  and, 

p,  those,  who, 
le  hypothesis 
fiict,  so  many 
lonly  because 
1  but  because 
th  the  lowest 
[with  that  of 
litions  of  the 
Irs  of  animal 
1  with  respect 
Vo  the  above 
Jice  nil  belief 
land  however 
Iny  testimony 


DooK  m. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  MAN. 


261 


of  such  remote  antiquity,  or  of  such  generally  admitted  credibility.  As  to  the  second  quet- 
tion,  it  must  not  be  understood  that,  iu  arranging  tho  varieties  uf  man  uiv.ler  a  certain  num- 
ber of  divisions,  and  assigning  to  each  a  peculiar  ciiaructer,  there  does  not  occur  many  and 
very  remarkable  exceptions  in  each.  So  much,  indeed,  is  this  tho  case,  that  there  arc  not 
wanting  instances  of  native  African  tribes  having  the  light  skin  of  Europeans,  Caucasians 
combinmg  tho  Mongolian  witli  the  Malay  structure,  Americans  resembling  whites,  and  Afri- 
cans with  the  copper-coloured  skin  of  tho  American;  nay,  even  in  the  sumo  island  or  \m- 
vince,  a  groat  diversity  Inith  in  language  and  in  physical  structure,  is  sometimes  apparent,  unii 
this  between  tribes  Iwrdering  close  upon  each  other;  so  that,  witli  tho  exception  of  a  com- 
paratively small  portion  of  each  principal  race,  we  find  so  much  diversify  in  the  rcniainiufr 
or  aberrant  branches — the  typiciil  peculiarities  become  so  modified,  altered,  or  evanescent, 
that  it  is  totally  impossible  to  draw  an  absolute  line  of  demarcation  between  them. 

This  point  has  frequently  been  adverted  to  by  a  well-known  physiologist,  who  says. "  there 
is  no  circumstance,  whether  of  corporeal  structure  or  of  mental  endowment,  which  does  not 
pass  by  imperceptible  gradations  into  the  opposite  character,  rendering  all  those  dictinctions 
merely  relative,  and  reducing  them  to  differences  in  degree.  It  is  concluded,  tlierefbre,  that 
every  arrangement  of  these  varieties  must  be  in  a  great  meas\ire  arbitrary."  (Lawrence^ x 
Led.  p.  472.)  Yet,  admitting  this  variation  to  the  fullest  extent,  it  caimut  alter  the  correct- 
ness of  the  principle  on  which  these  distinctions  are  founded.  Whatever  might  have  been 
formerly  thought  as  to  the  nature  of  terms  employed  by  naturalists  to  designate  the  parlic\i- 
lar  groups  of  animals,  it  is  now  generally  admitted  that,  throughout  nature,  there  are  no 
isolating  distinctions,  save  such  as  separate  species.  The  characters  of  every  zoological 
group,  of  whatever  magnitude  or  denomination,  are  subject  to  exceptions  equally  mimerouf. 
The  typical  peculiarities  may,  indeed,  be  prominent;  but  in  pro|)ortion  to  the  number  of 
objects  which  are  embraced  under  any  definition,  will  be  the  diversity  of  those  imperceptible 
gradations,  those  threads  of  connexion,  which  shoot  out  in  all  directions,  and  unite  not  only 
genera  and  orders,  but  the  primary  kingdoms  of  the  animal  and  the  vegetable  worlds.  It 
is,  therefore,  irrelevant  to  argue  that,  because  those  divisions  are  liable  to  mnncrous  excep- 
tions, and  are  not  always  uniform  and  constant,  they  arc  either  artificial  or  objectionable : 
for  as  we  find  that  all  natural  groups,  both  in  the  animal  and  vegetable  worlds,  are  suhjcct 
to  tho  same  variations,  they  are  therefore  liable  to  the  suinc  objections.  In  sliort,  if  such 
reasoning  is  valid,  the  distinction  between  plants  and  animals  can  no  longer  bo  niainlainod  ; 
for  it  is  to  this  day  unsettled  at  what  point  the  peculiarities  of  one  are  lost,  and  those  of  the 
other  assumed. 

The  causes  that  may  have  led  to  these  variations  in  the  human  species,  form  the  only 
question  of  a  general  nature  remaining  to  he  discussed.  It  has  been  argued  by  some  writers, 
that  particular  climates,  food,  and  modes  of  life,  have  gradually  operated,  through  a  succes- 
sion of  ages,  to  produce  these  effects  on  the  colour,  stature,  and  intellect  of  different  nation.". 
But,  however  greatly  these  causes  may  aft'ect  individuals,  or  even  to  a  certain  extent  a  whole 
people,  they  entirely  fail  when  bro\ight  to  solve  our  present  question  ;  were  it  otherwise,  the 
same  causes  would  naturally  have  the  same  effect  on  all  the  iniiabitants  of  a  particular 
region ;  but  such,  as  is  well  known,  is  far  from  being  the  case.  The  negro,  under  a  tropical 
sun,  is  black;  while  an  Indian  of  Para,  in  the  same  degree  of  latitude,  is  reddish  brown.  No 
race  produces  men  more  athletic,  or  more  finely  formed,  than  arc  witnessed  among  the  Gold 
Coast  negroes ;  yet  they  inhabit,  proverbially,  some  of  the  most  pestilential  districts  of  Africa. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  New  Ilollanders,  and  the  Soutli  African  Bushmen,  living  in  a  salu- 
brious climate,  are  described  as  lean,  s<iualid,  and  with  an  appearance  scarcely  human.  It 
is  therefore  obvious,  that  neither  the  physical  nor  the  moral  condition  of  man  can  be  so 
affected  by  climate,  or  other  external  agencies,  as  to  produce  any  great  or  permanent  varia- 
tion in  his  forjn.  Indeed,  when  we  consider  that  such  agencies  have  not  produced  any 
physical  change  in  any  one  nation,  within  the  memory  or  tho  records  of  man,  we  are  tempted 
to  believe  that  in  a  general  point  of  view,  their  influence  has  boon  very  slight ;  otherwise, 
there  is  no  mason  to  doubt  but  that  the  same  natural  causes  which  operated  at  one  period 
of  time,  would  still  continue  to  do  so  at  another ;  and  that  we  siiould  find  the  descendants 
of  Europeans  long  since  settled  in  the  New  World,  and  in  Southern  Africa,  beginning  to 
assume  the  red  tinge  of  tho  American,  or  the  black  skin  of  the  Ethiopian.  Still  lo.=s  can  it 
be  supposed  that  this  departure  from  one  common  standard  has  been  effected  by  civilization, 
a  consequent  devolopcment  of  tlie  mental  faculties,  or  even  by  diversified  mo<les  of  1  ife.  Man, 
in  remote  ages,  must  have  lived  pretty  nearly  the  .same  life  in  every  region;  whether  as 
shepherds,  hunters,  or  tillers  of  the  field,  their  food,  habits  and  modes  of  life,  must  have  been 
simple  and  regular.  Whence  comes  it,  then,  that  nations  wiiich  still  retain  a  great  portion 
of  what  may  bo  conceived  their  primitive  simplicity,  do  nut  exliibit  a  corresponding  resem- 
blance in  physical  structure  1  If  food,  raiment,  and  moral  improvement  have  ."uch  a  powerful 
effect  in  modifying  the  human  frame,  it  would  naturally  follow  that  tribes  living  nearly  in  a 
state  of  nature  would  all  show  a  close  approximation  to  one  common  type;  that  they  would, 
in  siiort.  rotiiiii  iiioro  of  tiio  lineaments  and  characters  which  must  have  belonged  to  our  first 
IMtronts,  than  if  they  )i;ul  deviated  from  their  primitive  simplicity;  yet  the  very  revers'"  of 


-1: 


na 


i<'  :-l;' 


k!J 


{•^ 


u 


262 


SCIENCK  OF  GEOGIlAI'Hy, 


Part  II. 


i: 


£'  '\ 


it 


this  is  the  fiict.  Tlio  apparent  iibori^jinort  of  every  nution  arc  flioso  in  wliicli  tlio  leading; 
chariictors  ot'tlioir  own  Iribu  arc  most  conspicuous;  and  wliicli  c.xliihit  tliostron(fe«t  contruHl 
to  those  of  ollinrs.  It  is  only  wlii'n  tlioy  iiavo  nuicln  sonio  projf  ross  in  tlio  arts  of  lifo,  wiien 
conquest  ur  comniorue  lias  li;il  to  a  iniiun  with  otiier  races,  that  tlie  national  cliaracteristicH, 
both  personal  and  mental,  give  way,  and  bcffin  cither  to  blend  or  tobi;  lost  in  other  imxlitica- 
tions.  These  reasons,  did  they  more  inimediatnly  conourn  the  piir|>oses  of  tliis  essay,  nii|{ht 
be  niucli  enlarjjed  uiwn,  more  particularly  as  they  have  been  ottered  by  some  (h'setveilly 
eminent  writers  as  a  satisfactory  dilution  of  the  question  we  are  now  diseussinjf.  Vet,  allow- 
ing' to  all  these  causes  the  full  ott'ect  they  are  known  to  have  protluced,  we  nuist  yet  confess 
they  appear  to  us  totally  inade(|uate  to  explain  the  origin  of  the  races  of  man.  A  writiM' 
intimately  versed  on  this  subject  luw  well  observed,  that  '*  external  agencies,  whether  phy- 
sical or  moral,  will  not  account  for  the  bodily  and  mental  differences  which  cliaractcrise  tin- 
several  tribes  of  mankind."  {Lawrence's  Lectures,  p.  431.)  We  liave,  in  short,  now  lirou^'ht 
the  inquiry  to  a  point  where  human  reason  is  baffled  :  there  is  neither  history  nor  tradition  to 
guide  us  in  a  research  which  carries  us  back  to  the  obscurity  of  ages ;  to  that  remote  period 
when  the  earth,  for  a  second  time,  was  again  peopled,  if  not  by  a  single  pair,  yet  by  the  lltret; 
sons  of  a  single  family. 

We  are  now  to  view  the  question  in  another  light.  It  has  been  generally  admitted,  oven 
by  those  who  reject  the  Mosaic  testimony,  that  the  diversity  in  the  human  structure  can  in 
no  way  bo  accounted  for  by  any  known  combination  of  naturitl  causes :  arc  we,  thert'lbrc 
to  suppose,  in  a  quc^stion  which  concerns  the  most  perfect  earthly  being  made  by  Oiniii[Hi- 
tenco,  that  nothing  .iiiprrnatHnil  is  to  enter !  that  causes  which  cflect  tlie  developemeiit  nut 
only  of  the  material  but  of  the  spiritual  essence  of  man,  have  been  left  to  chance !  Is  it.  not 
more  reasonable  to  conclude,  that,  tor  purposes  unknown  to  us,  a  supornaturnl  agency  was 
employed  ?  and  tiiat  the  immediate  descendants  of  the  sons  of  Noah  wore  as  distinctly  nwrl;- 
ed  m  their  outward  form  as  they  were  in  their  moral  character  !  The  sacred  writings,  it  is 
true,  are  not  written  to  answer  philosophic  in(|uiries.  Those  who,  in  tlie  pre,<ciit  age,  Iimvc 
been  the  most  profound  investigators  of  nature,  discover  in  every  part  of  creation  a  symbolic 
relationship;  a  mysterious  system  of  types  and  symbols,  which  extends  from  the  most  com- 
plex to  the  most  simple  of  organized  beings:  and  when  we  know,  lor  instance,  that  oven  the 
colours  of  a  bird  or  an  insect  have  a  direct  reference  to  such  a  system,  and  are  eiiiployod  as 
typical  in.lications  of  its  station  in  nature,  can  it  be  supposed  that  such  a  system  does  not 
extend  to  man  ?  That  this  will  not,  in  the  present  infancy  of  our  inqnirios,  admit  of  such 
direct  and  unanswerable  proof  as  amounts  to  mathematical  demonstration,  wo  do  not  attempt 
to  deny ;  but  that  such  a  supposition  is  in  harmony  with  that  perfection  which  belongs  to 
the  works  of  Omnipotence,  every  reasonable  ptirson  must  admit.  Nor  are  there  wanting 
circumstances  which  give  some  degree  of  sanction  to  this  belief  The  curse  pronounced 
upon  Canaan  as  the  son  of  Ham  has  unquestionably  been  fulhllod.  Learned  commentators 
agree  in  considering  that  central  Africa  was  peopled  by  his  descendants,  and  the.se  have  been 
for  ages,  and  still  continue  to  be,  "  a  servant  of  servants,"  to  their  more  favoured  brethren. 
Even  their  own  despotic  governments  render  the  subjects  but  slaves.  In  them  the  human 
form  i.s  most  debased,  tlie  divinity  of  mind  least  developed.  They  still  exhibit  those  leading 
resemblances  which  rendered  Cain  a  type  of  Canaan:  with  few  exceptions,  they  are,  to  this 
day,  but  "  wanderers  and  vagatwnd.s"  on  the  earth.  The  blessings  pronounced  on  the  two 
remaining  sons  of  Noah,  it  has  been  well  observed,  are  of  a  very  different  nature :  Sliem  was 
more  peculiarly  favoured  than  his  brother;  from  his  race  not  only  the  great  ]mtriarchs  who 
typified  Christ,  bnt  even  Christ  himself,  descended.  The  peculiarity  of  the  Jewish  polity, 
which  preserved  the  physical  peculiarities  of  their  race  pure  and  unmixed  through  successive 
generations,  leaves  us  in  no  doubt  that  they  belong  to  the  Caucasian  type,  in  which,  both 
in  structure  and  intellect,  a  marked  superiority  over  all  the  nations  of  the  earth  has  been 
universally  admitted.  The  early  descendants  of  Japheth,  as  is  plainly  intimated  by  Moses, 
were  eminently  warlike.  All  writers  agree  in  considering  that  from  the  Mongolian  race 
descended  those  vast  and  overpowering  hordes  of  barbaric  warriors  who,  at  remote  periods 
of  time,  conquered  all  Asia,  and  devastated  Europe  under  Attila,  Zingis  Khan,  and  Tamer- 
lane. "  It  is  remarkable,"  says  Dr.  Scott,  "  that  the  first  king  of  whom  we  read  in  authentic 
history,  is  Nimrod,  the  mighty  hunter."  The  same  learned  writer  mentions  that  there  is 
some  ground  for  believing  that  the  greatest  part  of  Asia  (now  peopled  by  the  Mongolian  race) 
de.'ceiidcd  from  Japheth.  The  popidation  of  Asia  has  been  frequently  mentioned  as  in  an 
e(pial  ratio  to  the  superiority  of  its  size  over  Europe,  or  rather  of  those  countries  over  which 
the  Caucasian  variety  has  spread.  Thus,  in  every  sense,  it  appears,  that  the  promise  to 
Xoali's  fir.<t  soil,  "G(xl  shall  enlarge  Japheth,  and  Canaan  shall  be  his  servant,"  has  literally 
and  figuratively  been  fulfilled. 

That  the  three  sons  of  Noah  overspread  and  peopled  the  whole  earth,  is  so  expressly 
staterl  in  Scripture,  that,  if  wo  had  not  to  argue  against  those  who  unfortunately  disbelieve 
such  eviileiiei',  wi>  miirht  here  stop:  let  us,  however,  inquire  how  far  the  truth  of  this  decla- 
ration is  s'lhstuitiatod  by  other  considerations.  Enough  has  been  said  to  show  that  there  is  a 
curious,  if  not  a  rcrinrkilili',  analogy  between  the  predictions  of  Noah,  on  the  future  descend 


Part  II. 


Book  III. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  MAN. 


263 


ants  of  his  three  sons,  nnd  the  ac'iml  state  of  tlioso  mcoa  which  arc  ffencrally  Biippnscd  to 
hnve  Hprmifj  from  thpin.  It  miiy  hi^ro  bo  offiiiii  rciimriioii,  thiit  alttiou(;h,  to  render  the 
Hiibject  more  cloar,  we  have  uJoptuil  the  <)uirmry  arrunj^nmcnt  of  Blumcnluch,  yet  that 
Ciivier  and  other  learned  phyHiohp(,'istH  are  of  opinion  that  the  nrimarw  varieticH  of  tlio  human 
form  are  more  projierly  but  thrve ;  namely,  Caucasian,  the  Mon(;olian,  and  the  Ethiopian. 
This  numlicr  corrcspondH  with  tliat  of  Noah's  houh  :  atwipninpi  therefore,  the  Mongolian  race  to 
Juphcth,  and  the  Ethiopian  to  Ham,  the  Cauciisian,  the  noblest  race,  will  belonjj  to  Shem 
the  third  son  of  Noah,  himself  descended  from  Scth  tho  third  son  of  Adam.  That  the 
primary  distinctions  of  tho  human  varieties  aro  but  thrre,  has  been  further  maintained  by  the 
erudite  Fritchard,  who,  while  ho  rejects  tho  nomenclature  both  of  BlumcnliaRh  and  Cuvier, 
as  implying  absolute  divisions,  arran^res  tho  Icadinfr  varieties  of  the  human  skull  under  throe 
sections,  dift'erinfr  from  those  of  Cuvier  only  by  name.  That  the  three  sons  of  Noah,  who 
were  to  "  replenish  the  earth,"  and  on  whose  propeny  very  opposite  destinies  were  pro- 
nounced, should  privo  birth  to  different  races,  is  wiiat  mi^rht  reasonably  be  coniccturcd.  But 
that  the  observations  of  those  who  do,  and  of  those  who  do  not  believe  the  Mosaic  history 
should  tend  to  confirm  its  truth,  by  pointin>T  out  in  what  respect  these  three  races  do  actually 
ditfer,  both  physically  and  morally,  is,  to  say  the  least,  a  singular  coincidence.  It  amounts, 
in  short,  to  presumptive  evidence  that  a  mysterious,  but  a  very  beautiftil  analojfy  pervades 
throughout ;  and  teaches  us  to  look  beyond  natural  causes,  in  attempting  to  account  for 
etfcctd  apparently  interwoven  in  the  plans  of  Omnipotence. 

To  reconcile  the  different  theories  regarding  the  numlwr  of  primary  variations  in  the 
human  form  is  our  next  object.  The  greatest  authorities  on  this  subject  are  Blumenbach 
and  Jjawronce,  Cuvier  and  I'ritchird.  'J'he  first  two,  as  already  observed,  maintain  that  the 
primary  divisions  are  five  ;  while  tiio  latter,  with  more  she"  of  reason,  contend  that  there 
are  but  three,  although  they  readily  admit  the  distinctions  rssigned  to  the  other  two.  In 
what  manner,  therefore,  can  these  opposite  theories  be  recoi  ciled  !  To  do  this,  we  must 
revert  to  a  third  and  very  remarkable  one,  which,  although  u  I'as  hitherto  been  solely  di- 
rected to  the  animal  kingdom,  will  yet  be  found  to  exercise  a  v.^ry  imrortant  influence  on 
tho  present  question  :  wo  allude  to  the  circular  theory  of  Macl^.ay.  It  is  the  opinion  of 
this  learned  naturalist  that  every  groui»  of  organised  beings  div'des  itself,  as  it  were,  into 
two  branches  of  affinities,  which  finally  uniting  again  at  their  >pposite  extremities,  form  a 
circle;  and  that  this  disposition  of  affinities  holds  good,  not  or  ly  in  every  group,  of  what- 
ever magnitude  or  denomination,  but  throughout  the  animal  a  v\  tho  vegetable  world.  It 
has  been  further  shown  that  as  such  a  circular  arrangement  of  beings  cannot,  of  necessity, 
present  any  absolute  or  isolated  divisions,  (tor  it  could  not  then  ue  continuous  nnd  circular), 
yet,  that  there  may  be  traced,  in  each  circle,  five  deviations  or  varieties  of  structure ;  which, 
however  conspicuous  in  their  typical  examples,  are  blended  and  lost  the  nearer  they  approx- 
imate to  each  other.  Now,  so  tiir  as  regards  the  affinities  of  animals,  this  circular  theory 
lias  been  demonstrated ;  but  it  long  remained  a  matter  of  doubt  what  number  of  primary 
divisions  every  group  contained.  Mr.  MacLeay  considers  there  are  five  ;  and  this  accords 
with  Blumenbach's  arrangement  of  the  human  species.  M.  Cuvier,  and  Dr.  Pritchard,  as 
we  have  before  stated,  limit  tho  leading  varieties  of  man  to  three.  In  our  arrangement  of 
the  order  Insessores  (North.  Zoology,  vol.  ii.),  one  of  the  most  comprehensive  divisions  in 
ornithology,  we  have  shown  that  the  primary  divisions  of  every  natural  group  are  only  three  ; 
nno  of  which,  by  forming  a  circle  of  its  own,  includes  three  of  those  pointed  out  by  Mr. 
MacLcay, — thus  making  the  number  five.  Now,  this  theory,  on  the  natural  divisions  of 
birds,  rests  upon  no  speculative  assumption ;  it  is  founded  on  the  most  rigorous  and  minute 
analysis,  and  has  thus  been  capable  of  mathematic  demonstration.  The  question,  whether 
this  theory  is  applicable  to  one  part  only  of  the  animal  creation,  or  whether  there  is  pre- 
sumptive evidence  to  conclude  that  it  pervades  all  nature,  has  been  discussed  at  some 
length  in  the  "  Introductory  Observations  on  the  Natural  System,"  prefixed  to  the  same 
work.  .  In  some  respects  the  trinary  and  the  quinary  theory  of  divisions  may  be  thought 
virtually  the  same ;  and  so  far  as  regards  our  present  subject,  considered  abstractly,  this 
observation  may  be  true.  We  can  analyze  a  group  of  insects,  of  birds,  or  of  other  animals, 
hut  how  aro  we  to  analyze  the  different  modifications  of  man  I  The  thing  is  utterly  impos- 
sible. Now,  as  every  true  theory  must  rest  upon  analysis,  our  present  views  on  this 
subject  would  be  purely  speculative,  did  they  not  so  strikingly  and  wonderfully  coincide 
with  those  in  other  departments  of  nature,  into  which  we  can  prosecute  minute  re.search, 
and  attain  logical  demonstration.  Besides,  by  supposing  tliat  there;  axe  five  principal  varia- 
tions in  man,  e.'ch  etpiiiUy  important  with  the  pther,  we  entirely  destroy  the  beatitifiil 
analogy  betweer.  those  variations  and  the  sacred  writings.  But  without  entoring  farther 
upon  this  (|uestion,  it  will  be  sufficient  for  our  pio.«eiit  pur))ose  to  repeat,  that,  in  regard  to 
man,  the  views  of  Blumenbach  and  Cuvier  are  virtually  the  same ;  for  if,  with  the  fi)rmer, 
we  reckon  five,  there  will  he  two  groups  more  conispicuoiisly  typical  of  perfection,  nnd  three 
others,  which,  however  distinct  in  many  respects,  jjossess  spvenil  characters  in  common.  If, 
on  the  other  hand,  we  follow  Cuvier  and  Pritchard.  and  restrict  the  number  to  three,  we  have 
the  Caucasian  and  the  Mongolian  as  the  two  principal  groups,  while  there  is  a  third,  typi- 


'IJ 


h;; 


i)  tl 


•J<V 


.M4 


SCTENCK  OF  GEOGRAPHY, 


Part  II 


4r' 


(•ally  roprcHcnttul  inJi-cd  liy  tlu<  Kthiopiiin,  Imt  htiU  so  divnrHifintl  iw  to  wimit  at'a  thrfclblu 
ilivisinn,  into  llii>  Auiorinin,  the  AlViciin,  iiiid  tin-  Miiiiiy  varictioB. 

'I'll  It  the  variation  of  mini  Ii.ih  licoii  rojruliiti'd  hy  Hiiniliir  Iiiwh  to  tiioso  which  hiivn  licrn 
tnii'i'd  throiiifhoKt  nnturo,  is)  ii  roiifUiHioii  Hii|ip(irtiMl  by  stronjf  and  prosiiinptivp  rvidnnce  ; 
Iniwn  bith  Croiii  thi!  Hurrcd  writini'H,  iind  froui  infcrencoH  in  z<N)l(i(;ieiil  Hcii'ncn,  which  no 
nut'  h;iH  vi-nturrd  to  dinputo.  In  n»tnbliBhinj;  this  point,  I  liuvo  studionfiy  conlinod  niysolf 
tdsiicli  tlirtii,  connected  with  tho  pliyxifiil  hiistory  of  iiinn,  ns  rcHt  on  hifrli  nnd  indiMpiifable 
iiiitlu'rity.  On  a  Mibjoct  so  viist  nnd  intrirnto,  illuNtrntod  by  tho  united  liilMinrs  of  the  most 
acute  philosopherH  now  livinp,  little  that  is  new  could  bo  said,  and  that  little  iniifht  have 
been  Huspected  of  being  brought  forward  to  favour  a  particular  theory.  In  the  prncedin}; 
nketch  ot  tho  principal  diirerencos  in  man,  wo  have,  therefore,  merely  condensed  tlie  obner- 
vations  and  facts  detailed  in  tho  writingn  of  Bluincnbach,  Cuvier,  Pritchnrd,  I^iwrence,  and 
Humner  ;  rather  wishing,  that,  whatever  inferences  aro  drawn  from  such  sourcen,  the  iiictM 
themselve:.  should  rest  on  testimonies  of  so  much  weight. 

The  order  in  which  these  races  are  here  placed  leads  us  to  otiier  considerations,  Blumon- 
bach  is  of  opinion  that  the  American  form  is  intermediate  between  tho  Caucasian  and  Mon- 
golian; but  wo  have  failed  to  discover  any  assigned  reason  for  such  a  disposition,  wliirli 
also  seems  at  varianco  with  tho  progression  of  dcrelopement.  Tiie  geographical  HJtuation 
of  tho  two  continents,  as  wo  have  before  observed,  renders  it  highly  probable  timt  flic 
American  variety  is  more  immediately  connected  with  the  Mongolian ;  ond  the  simple  liirt. 
that  tho  Esquimaux  have  been  by  somo  considered  as  of  Asiatic  origin,  while  by  others  thr'y 
are  thouglit  to  exhibit  more  of  the  American  type,  is,  perhaps,  the  strongest  proof  of  their 
intimate  relationship  to  both.  Neither  does  the  American  race  exhibit  any  direct  affinity 
to  the  Caucasian ;  while,  on  the  contrary,  both  their  physical  structure  and  mental  developo- 
ment  seem  to  place  them  in  close  approximation  to  tno  Africans.  For  these  and  sul).<e(|ueiit 
reasons,  we  have  felt  no  hesitation  m  adopting  the  series  intimated  in  the  Rrifiir  Animal. 
Wo  must  now  advert  to  another  peculiarity  in  this  arrangement,  which  renders  itH  Hiniili- 
tude  to  tho  zoological  scries  still  more  remarkable.  This  is  tho  progressive  series  of  uffinitirs, 
resulting  from  placing  the  five  leading  varieties  in  the  order  in  which  they  have  been  hero 
noticed.  The  Caucasian  and  the  Mongolian  races  present  tho  highest  degree  of  civiliza- 
tion, although  in  very  diffl'rent  degrees  when  compared  with  each  other:  the  regions  they 
respectively  inhabit,  in  liki'  manner,  npproximntf!  so  closely  as  not  to  be  divided  by  water. 
Yet  tho  confignration  of  tlx  so  races  is  so  remarkable,  that  they  cannot  bo  mistaken  or  con- 
tbnnded.  In  the  third  race,  comprehending  the  American,  the  Malay,  nnd  the  Ethiopian, 
very  marked  deviations  from  the  typical  endowments  of  the  two  former  are  manifest.  This 
inferiority  is  first  shown  in  the  American,  whoso  outward  form  and  moral  capacity  is  never- 
theless superior  to  the  African.  Yet,  ns  nattin^  in  the  animal  kingdom  is  ever  prone  to 
retrace  her  steps,  and  \n  return  again  to  her  orijrinal  typo ;  so  we  oKserve  that,  after  exhibit- 
ing, in  some  of  the  African  hordes,  tho  lowest  debasement  of  tho  human  form,  and  tlie  least 
eiipacity  for  mental  improvement,  she  begins,  as  Blumenbach  observes,  in  the  diversified 
races  of  the  Malay  variety,  to  show  a  progressive  but  a  very  marked  inclination  to  return 
through  them  to  the  Coucasian  type.  So  strong,  indeed,  does  this  appear  in  many  tribes  of 
tho  South  Rca  Islanders,  not  only  in  the  beauty  of  their  forms,  but  in  the  advance  they  are 
continually  making  towar^ls  intellectual  improvement,  that  every  voyager,  who  has  visited 
their  shores,  concurs  in  likening  them  to  Europeans. 

The  inferences  to  be  drawn  from  this  circular  disposition  are  important,  if  merely  con- 
sidered in  relation  to  those  systems,  which,  by  presupposing  a  lineal  scale  in  creation,  would 
place  the  negro  in  immediate  contact  with  the  monkey.  Now,  without  laying  any  stress 
upon  that  primary  characteristic  of  man,  a  reasoning,  thinking,  and  immaterial  soul,  of 
which  the  Ixidy  is  but  a  temporary  receptacle,  we  must,  before  we  consent  to  this  hypothesis, 
got  over  difficulties  which  appear  insurmountable.  That  tho  Ethiopian  holds  the  lowest  station 
among  the  vorieties  of  his  species,  is  fully  gn nted;  but  that  this  admission  implies  un 
affinity  to  tho  ape,  does  by  no  means  follow.  Tliero  may  be  an  approximation:  but  it  is 
necessary,  before  we  decide  on  the  dr/rree  of  such  approximation,  that  we  should  examine 
the  relative  affinity  which  tho  Ethiopian  bears  to  the  Cauca.«ian.  For  if  it  should  appear 
that  the  difference  between  tho  most  perfect  and  the  most  imperfect  of  the  human  rates  is 
unquestionably  leas  than  l)etween  the  latter  nnd  the  brutes;  or,  in  other  words,  that  the 
similarities  between  the  negro  nnd  the  Caucasian  are  decidedly  greater  f.hiin  those  between 
the  negro  and  the  ape;  we  must  admit  that  this  latter  approximation  is  tfx)  slight  to  be 
termed  an  affinity.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  we  consider  man  only  as  a  material  being,  ho 
stands  so  far  removed  from  brutes — tho  interval  lietween  him  and  them  i.s  so  great — that  it 
would  be  a  violation  of  natural  ailinities,  ami  certainly  an  insult  on  his  better  nature,  to  class 
him  in  the  same  system.  To  arrive  at  ;  just  conclnsitm  on  this  subject,  we  must  not  look  so 
much  to  any  one  point  of  comparison,  or  to  mere  anntomiral  analogii!S,  but  bring  the  di.s- 
linguishing  characters  of  each  into  direct  comparistm.  Does  tlin  negro,  it  may  then  be  asked, 
itvinro  a  deficiency  of  those  i|nalities  which  lit'loiii;  to  the  Caiicasinnsl  we  nihide  not  to  the 
natural  atrcctions,  for  these  nre,  in  some  (Ifjrrfo,  fomnioii  to  brutes;  l)nt  in  solf-orivation, 


I     ■! 


Book  III. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  MAN. 


S6S 


pst  statifin 

niplit's  un 

but  it  ia 

pxnrnine 

1(1  iippear 

riiics  is 

tliiif   fhf 

betwpfln 

irrht  to  ho 

lioing-.  ho 

-tiiiit  it 

R,  to  rlasH 

ot  look  w 

the  (lis- 

bc  asked, 

not  to  the 

Drivation, 


rompiiHMion,  and  linroir  lovo  of  their  country.  Are  thny  incajwiWo  of  learninff  European 
nrtH,  or  of  iiivciitinj.'  olherH  Huitahlt!  to  tiioir  wuntu  or  habitH  !  To  deny  tliom  mirli  qiinlitica 
would  1m>  prcpnstcrouH ;  they  po^noHH  tln^  jfiTinx  of  othorrt  infinitely  niphor,  which,  under 
fiivourahlo  cireiiiristaiires,  Imvo  produced  exiMrt  urtiganH,  Bkill\il  phyHJciunx,  piouH  divinen, 
and  nIeaKiiii,'  (Mietc  "I  protest  eH|M'cially,"  oltHBrves  Mr.  I Jiwroncc,  " ftj^iiuNt  the  opinion 
whicli  either  deniew  to  the  Atricims  tlio  enjovnient  of  reaHon,  or  ascriliew  to  tho  whoh'  race 
propnnsities  which  would  de;;rad(,'  thcrn  even  Indow  tho  level  of  the  brute.  It  can  he  proved 
inoMt  clearly,  that  theru  is  no  circuuintance  of  b(¥lily  Htructuro  no  peculiar  tij  the  ue^ro,  a« 
not  to  he  found  also  iti  other  far  diHttiiit  imtiouH;  no  character  whicli  d(x*H  not  run  into  thoNu 
of  other  races,  hy  lis  iiiseiisihle  ifrulations  as  tliOHO  which  connect  together  all  the  varieties 
of  mankind."  (p.  4viM.)  To  pursue  this  comiMiriBon  (hrllior  Ih  needlewH;  and  to  ask  whether 
the  leant  inilieation  of  hiicIi  |)f)\verH  hiiH  over  l)ecn  ninnifeoted  by  the  quadrumanons  annnulri 
would  be  ridiciiloiiH.  The  learned  and  eIo(iuent  Bishop  Hunincr  fiircibly  oIimtvl's,  "Thero 
i«  nothing  philosophical  in  tho  comparison  of  a  being  |)osHesHcd  of  improvublo  reason  witli 
one  that  ih  ;roverned  by  natural  instinct,  because  thero  is  no  just  affinity  between  the  talents 
which  are  coinjmred."  (Recorrf/i  of  Creation,  vol,  i,  p.  ij.3.)  Wo  consider  this  urjfument  as 
conclusive.  To  class  man,  lheref!)re,  in  tho  same  zoological  division  with  apes,  merely 
because  lx)th  have  n  hyoid  Ixine,  is,  to  our  apprehension,  as  glaring  a  violation  of  natural 
affinities  as  to  arrange  liiita  with  birds,  because  Doth  Hy  in  the  air,  and  possess  a  crest  to  their 
sternum.  So  far,  indeed,  iVom  considering  man  as  tho  typo  of  a  zoological  order  of  brutes, 
wo  cannot  allow  that  ho  oven  belongs  to  the  same  system  in  which  they  are  arranged.  It 
may  bo,  that  tho  deviations  of  his  structure  are  regulated  by  those  laws  which  govern  the 
universe ;  yet,  nevortheless,  hy  his  nobler  qualities  (which  in  fact  are  his  truo  distinctions) 
ho  belongs  to  a  hiplier  order  of  beings:  that  ho  is,  in  short,  a  link  between  matter  and 
spirit;  that  he  carries  this  evidence,  through  revelation,  within  himself;  and  will  heroafler 
bo  most  assuredly  rewarded  or  punished,  according  as  he  suffers  hia  spiritual  or  his  earthly 
nature  to  prcpondorato. 

Seer.  IV. — On  '.he  Oeographic  Dutribution  of  Animah. 

The  geographic  distribution  of  animals  over  the  globe,  ia  tho  next  subject  of  inquiry.  In 
tho  general  outline  of  tho  variations  in  man  whicli  has  hccn  given  above,  wo  liave  deemed 
it  more  im[Kirtant  to  sock  after  general  results  than  to  enter  upon  minute  details,  Our  atten- 
tion has  been  (i.\ed,  not  so  much  on  those  ramifications  which  shoot  out  near  the  extremities 
of  every  branch,  and  become  too  indistinct  for  clear  elucidation,  but  rather  to  the  leading 
branches  themselves,  on  the  nature  of  which  there  has  been  little  diversity  of  opinion. 

In  the  inquiry  regarding  tho  geographic  distribution  of  animals,  on  which  v,e  now  enter, 
tho  same  mode  will  be  adopted,  but  with  this  diff'erence,  that  whereas  we  have  hitherto 
drawn  our  inl'ereii(;es  solely  from  the  facts  and  general  opinions  of  otlirTs,  wo  shall  now  put 
aside  all  theories  lieretotbre  promulgated  on  the  distribution  of  animals,  and  merely  depend 
on  simple  fiicts  for  tho  support  of  those  inferences  which  thoy  may  appear  to  sanction.  Wo 
shall  first  briefly  notice  those  principles  which  have  been  applied  to  elucidate  the  phenoinena 
of  animal  distribution,  and  then  in(iuire  how  far  they  appear  conducive  to  that  end, 

,  That  climate,  temperature,  s<iil,  and  food,  exercise  a  paramount  influence  on  the  distribu- 
tion of  animals,  has  been  generally  believed;  and  on  this  assumption  naturalists  have  divided 
the  world  into  climates,  zones,  or  provinces  regulated  by  degrees  of  longitude  or  latitude. 
Such  has  been  tho  favourite  theory  not  only  of  physiologists,  but  of  profosse<l  naturalists, 
whose  knowledge  of  details  might  have  furnished  them  with  insuperable  objections  against 
such  views.  Thus,  t\\e.  celebrated  entomologist  Fabricius  conceived  that  the  insect  world 
could  be  naturally  divided  into  eight  climates  :  one  of  which  is  made  to  comprehend  all  those 
mountains,  in  every  part  of  the  world,  whose  summits  ore  covered  by  eternal  snow.  It  is, 
therefore,  not  surprising  that  M.  Latreille  should  consider  such  a  theory  as  altogether  vague 
in  some. respects,  and  arbitrary  in  others.  But  will  not  the  latter  objection  be  equally  appli- 
cable to  the  distribution  which  this  eminent  naturalist  has  himself  proposed  for  this  part  of 
the  creation  !  At  least,  such  is  the  ofilnion  of  one  fully  competent  to  judge  tho  que.stion. 
"A  chart  of  animal  geography,"  says  Mr.  Kirby,  "which  is  divided  into  climates  of  24°  of 
longitude  and  12°  of  latitude,  wears  upf)n  its  face  the  stamp  of  an  artificial  and  orbitrory 
systom,  rothcr  than  of  one  according  with  nature."  On  much  the  same  principles  another 
theory  has  been  built,  by  which  the  earth  is  divided  into  seven  zoological  provinces,  or  zones, 
mainly  dependent  on  the  respective  degrees  of  latitude  they  occupy.  Now,  so  far  as  regards 
one  of  these  provinces — that  comprehended  within  the  arctic  circle — this  view  of  the  subject, 
at  first  sight,  appears  perfectly  just :  for  thero  is  not  only  a  strong  analogy  between  the  groups 
of  animals  inhabiting  such  parts  of  the  two  continents  as  enter  into  this  circle,  but  there  is  also 
an  absolute  attinity  between  them  ;  inasmuch  as  the  arctic  regions  contain  not  only  genera, 
but  numerous  species,  common  to  both  continents.  This  theory,  however,  loses  all  its  force 
when  applied  to  such  divisions  as  are  made  to  include  the  tropical  regions  of  Africa,  Ame- 
rica, and  Asia,  in  one  province,  and  the  southern  extremities  of  America  and  Africa  in 
another.     The  zoologist  immediately  perceives  that  the  only  relation  which  these  countries 

Vol.  I.  23  21 


m 


■'i 


''■    .'<! 


MO 


HriKNCK  OF  r,E()(.llAIMIY, 


Part  11. 


Iwnr  til  iMirh  (itlicr  in  tlmir  nriliii.il  |inNliii'tiiiiiis  in  piin-ly  nnnloirirnl ;  Miil  wo  nro  t'lim  nim- 
pnllnd  111  r''lm.|iiihli  ii'tliniry  wliicli  iipiM'nrii  ri)rr<H:t  mily  in  mii'  [mint  ol"  vii'w.  TIhho  mid 
otlitT  li'-i"  riniiii'iit  wriU-rH  ii))|icMr  tii  liiivi'  crml  in  llu-  v<'ry  (Ipiinilalinn  nt'  tlii'ir  inrtluMl*. 

Tlicy  II  -I '  UN  ({riiiitcd,  whiil  liii.t  iii'vcr  yet  Ihtii  pnivi'il,  tlmt  ti'iiipi-niliiri'  rxiTrisi-H  it  pri- 

iriiiry  inlliuMici'  on  iuiiimiiI  (li.<*triliiitioii.  Vvi<ri>  sucli  lliii  (-iim>,  it  woiilil  niitiiriilly  liillow  lluit 
till'  iiiiiiiiiU  III  Niicli  partN  III'  Aiiitiricu,  AIVIlm,  uiiiI  Ahwi,  a.s  nri'  pliicril  iii  riirri'H|Kitiilin(' 
(li'ijri'i'H  111'  lalitiiili',  wtiulil  liii  nearly  (if  Hiiiiiliir  npt'cirH;  or,  at  ii'iist,  nf  lln'  Hami'  niituriii 
^'iHit'M.  Vrt  Hiu'li,  uM  wt>  HJiiill  hcriMtlor  hIiiiw,  is  not  t)ii<  fact  lii'twi<i>n  tlio  iiniiiiilH  ot' 
lliodi!  ri  'riiiiw  tlirni  in,  imlt't'il,  in  viTy  nmny  inKtanci'.t,  ii  slronif  liinilniify :  kiicIi,  tiir  iiiMtuncr, 
ni  in  ap;  iri'iil  bi't kvrt'n  llif  Trorhiliiltr  ot"  tlio  Now  NVorlil,  tin'  Cinni/riilir  of  Asia  anil  AtVira, 
ami  till'  \h  U'ntluiHiiltt  of  the  AuMtruliiin  iMliimlH.  Such,  :i;.min,  in  fiiiit  ht'twi>iin  tlio  'ri)nc:iin» 
ofAnii'i'ii'ii  {fif(.  75.  <i),  uiul  ilio  liornbillH  of  AHia  (_/iV.  7.'>,  h).  Vt't  not  oni-  Hprcir*  of  tlinso 
75  birds  (K;cnr  in  any  two  of  tlicsi!  coiintrioH.     Nfvortbi'loimft 

cannot  bi;  di'nii'il,  that  tlio  tcmpornturt!  und  eiinfi).'nralion  of 
a  country  oxcrciBCH  n  iKivvi-rliil  inlliicncu  on  Ilio  ilintribntion 
of  animaJM,  lint  tlu'cc  clfoctH  nri'  of  a  KPcondnry  imliiro,  iind 
totully  fail  when  cniiiloycil  to  clncidato  iIiohp  tfcnrraj  princi- 


plcii  which  apuciir  to  ri'jjnlatu  the  wholo  Hyslcin  of  aniniiil 
■         SncI  ..      ..        - 

|K»u4eHH  riiiicli  \V)'i(;lit,  when  wo  dcBCPnd  to  details  aim 


(.'•-oyraphy.     Such  atfoncioH,  howevor,  may  be  witt'l 


ly  allowed 
\\»  and  in- 
vr-Htijfato  till'  liical  Fauna  of  any  particulnr  country  or  diH- 
trii-t.  It  huH  Imm'ii  obHcrvnl  by  tiic  colebratcd  lliiniliolilt,  and 
confirmed  by  an  authority  of  nearly  ecpial  weiffht,  thai,  with 
rcffftrd  to  certain  lrib(>9  of  inscctd,  their  (reo;i;raphical  distribution  doen  not  appear  to  dejiend 
solt'ly  on  the  deyren  of  heat  or  humidity  to  which  they  are  exposed,  or  on  the  pirlicular 
Mituiitioii  lliry  inliabit;  "but  rather  on  local  circuniHtnnces,  tlmt  aredillicult  tocliaracferiHe." 
This  opinion  is  in  unison  with  IIk^  whole  tenor  of  the  tiicts  to  which  we  shall  hereiitler 
lulverl.  W'e  must,  thereliire,  iii;ree  willi  Mr.  Kirby,  and  consider  that  the  distrilmfioii,  nut 
only  ol'  instcli,  but  of  animals  in  jjeneral,  is  "fixed  by  the  will  of  the  Creator,  rntlier  limn 
corlaiiily  re)L.'iilated  by  any  isnllierinal  lines."  {Introthictum  to  Enlomolvpy,  vol,  iv.  p.  'Nl.) 
The  ili>triliulioii  ot'  animals,  in  nmne.xion  with  that  of  the  human  race,  remaiiis  lo  be 
considered.  From  what  has  been  already  Htafed,  there  appears  stronrj  reason  to  believe,  that 
the  viirialiiiiis  in  the  structure  of  man  and  of  animals  are  rejjuliitod  by  similar  laws;  and 
this  supiH)sitiim  will  receive  coiisiderabln  weiyht,  slinuld  it  appear,  U|mn  investiiration. 
that  those  divisions  of  our  (ilobe  which  have  been  apportioned  to  the  ditferent  varieties  of 
mail,  are  e.pmlly  characterised  by  certain  peculiarities  in  their  animal  tribes,  Now,  to 
establish  ilie  iriiih  of  such  a  theory,  it  is  necessary  to  waive  all  pcncral  abstract  reasoninjf, 
and  to  draw  deductions  from  known  facts.  And  it  is  e(pially  obvious  that,  if  such  liicts  am 
to  be  ciijlected  from  the  whole  animal  kinffdom,  this  essay  must  W  extondeil  to  sevpral 
vnlnmi.'s,  even  admitting;  that  our  materials  were  sulViciontly  extcnsivn  for  such  a  purpose. 
But  the  truth  is,  that  tho  daUi  for  such  a  comprehensive  investitrntion  are  so  few,  so  meagre, 
und  so  iiusatistiictory  when  compared  with  the  diversify  and  vastnpss  of  the  subjpct,  that  thpy 
sink  iuiii  iiisi^fiiiticanco.  Nor  will  this  appear  surprising,  if  wo  consider  the  astonishing  number 
of  animals  that  have  been  already  described  by  natnralist.s,  or  arc  known  to  exist  in  cabinets ; 
setting  aside  llie  hosts  of  species  yet  unknown,  which,  in  many  departments,  may  possibly 
amount  to  double  or  treble  the  number  we  are  acquainted  with.  Yet,  as  details  of  some 
sort  must  be  gone  into,  it  becomes  absolutely  necessary  to  select  for  such  a  purpose  some 
one  department  of  nature ;  oiid  the  result  which  might  follow,  we  may  tiiirly  presume, 
would  III-  in  unison  with  those  that  would  attend  the  investigation  of  other  divisions  of  the 
animal  world,  could  they  be  investigated  upon  tho  same  principles.  Nature,  in  all  her 
operations,  is  uniform:  and  it  cannot  be  supposed  that  the  distribution  of  quadrupeds,  birds, 
insects,  or  reptiles,  would  each  be  rpgulated  by  different  laws. 

In  choosing,  therefore,  from  the  animal  kingdom  some  one  order  of  beings  for  particular 
investigation,  it  might  bo  thought  that  the  distribution  of  ipiadrupcds  would  present  the  best 
field  of  inquiry.  It  possibly  might,  did  not  their  investigation  involve  certain  points  of  con- 
troversy connected  with  geology,  which,  however  important,  are  not  so  intinmtely  connected 
with  our  present  object  as  to  render  their  discussion  necessary  in  this  place.  The  division 
of  reptiles  is  subject  to  the  same  objection,  and  is  not  sutRcienfiy  extensive  for  our  purpose. 
The  annulose  animals,  on  tho  other  hand,  are  so  iinmeroim  that  they  appear  to  hafHo  our 
inquiries;  nor  can  we  hope,  while  yet  in  the  infancy  of  geographic  natural  history,  to  do 
more  than  has  boon  already  done  by  the  genius  of  I.atreille,  Birds  alone  remain.  It  has, 
indeed,  been  argiierl,  that  no  very  certain  results  can  attend  the  study  of  their  distribution; 
because,  from  [Kissessing  the  powers  of  locomotion,  and  the  instinct  of  migration,  in  a  high 
degree,  they  appear  more  widely  dispersed  than  any  other  class  of  jiiiimals.  How  fiir  this 
may  be  true  Ins  never,  indeed,  been  made  apparent;  yet,  allowing  the  assertion  its  full 
weight,  wu  iiiiy  safely  conclude,  tlmt  if,  under  these  di.sadvantnges,  any  defmite  notions 
•}f  geographic  di.-^tributiou  can  be  gathered  from  tho  study   of  such  volatile  beings,  the 


p*«T  n. 


DwiK  Ml. 


IN  ITH  RI'J.ATIO.V  TO  AN'IMAI.S. 


•jn7 


ri^MiiltH  wiiiilil  lie  iniitcriully  Htri'ii^tlii'iiiil  If  liiiiinl  to  liiirtiiniii/.i'  with  wliiit  In  nlrcfiilv  known 
Dtk  thiMliNlrilMitiiiii  of  otln'r  cinli'rx  nf  iiiiiiimiIn,  wliicli,  t'nitn  llicir  iiliy^ical  ruiihtnn  Uin,  urn 
li'MH  rii|iiili|i'  i)t'  t'xtcinliin;  llii'lr  K<'i)|{ra|)lii('  riiiiifi'.     It  in  li(>r<',  Ihuvcvit,  lll'^(•^^!•ilr)■  in  iirmiHr, 

tliiit  ill  iliin,  UN  ill  iill  iitiiiT  liriiiii'lit'H  iit'  iiiituriil  liiHtory,  tln'  ii iiiiIn  uiuI  rrl.itioiih  nt'  trn- 

vollcrc,  lint  ill  llii'iilNclvi'il  ZoiilinfiHlH,  iiillHt  111"  rcc'uivPil  with  Krcul  callliiPll.  I'iiiir(|iiii.titiMl 
with  tJKwt'  nii'c  ilihtiiu'tiiiiiH  iii"iii  wliich  imt  only  thn  iliiriTi'iicfH  of  H|>l■(•i(•^',  hiil  nl'  ^jt-iicrii 
mill  tlllllllil'^  an-  now  known  to  iIi>|n>iiiI,  they  |ir>r|M'tiiiilly  coiilrnilirt,  by  ii  linHty  ii{i|ilii'atioii 
lit' well-known  iiiiniiiH,  wiiniMit' tiif^  iiionI  nrknowluilKril  trntliH  in  Hiiinial  >;i'oi;ra|)liy.  Nor 
raw  tin-  liu'l.-t  lU'tuiloil  in  thiM'oin|iiiiiti<inH  ofniorM  Mcifiitilic  wriltTH  li«(nlwayHilf|ii'iiili'c|  iiiion. 
Thii  voliiiiiiiioii<i  workn  of  ii  iiioHt  iiuliiHtrioiis  hikI  zimiIouh  (iriiitliiilo|;ii4t  of  the  !.iiiiiii'aM  niIiihiI 
uIioiiikI  with  tiiiHtiikt'8  of  tliiH  niilnrn;  wlKTrrin  not  only  HiN'cicH  lint  ),M'nrru  nrc  Mini  tu  in- 
hiiliit  noiintrirH  wlicrn  tlu'y  liuvn  nuvnr  Ihtii  foniul  oxccpt  in  tlio  ViiKiic  iinil  crronooUB 
niirriitivc  of  tnivcllrrH.  It  Ih  (he  iniNliirtniui  of  tliomi  who  coiniiiain  ntruiiiKt  the  multiplicity, 
mill  ro);ret  tlio  adoption,  of  iiiinIitii  ilivisioiiH,  that  liy  m)  diiiii^  tht'y  ilrbur  tlll'l||^<•'lv^H  I'rom 
utiidyin^jf  till-  variiitioiiM  of  pliyMical  Htriicturi',  iiiul  nn^lrct  tin'  miiin  duo  to  ciilarjfi'i!  coticop- 
tionH  of  /.iMilo^iritl  Ncii'iici'.  It  i.n  ncci'NMiry  to  make  tlicNn  nlliiHioiiH,  that  tho  rL>adi>r  may  be 
iipprJHi'd  of  our  iidontion,  in  tluH  pliicc,  of  tlio  ))rincipiil  niixlRrn  ((iMir'ru;  and  our  ri'ji'ction  ot 
iiiuny  uf  thu  lociililiuH  errdiiuou.sly  );ivon  to  cnrtuin  Npociim  in  tlin  (rciiurul  hittlurioH  uf  birdit. 

1.  Thr  dauraiiiiH  nr  Eurojiran  I'riwinrr. 
The  ornitlinlo(jirnl  fi'iiturrx  of  tlin  CaiiciiHinn  riuiffo,  or  of  tho  rrfflotm  ovrr  wliich  the 
Cmit'iiHian  viiriuty  of  thu  liiinmn  Hprcii'H  in  Mtid  to  Im  iliMtrihnti'd,  will  firnt  claim  nnr  iitten- 
tion.  It  luiH  Im'cii  ulri'iidy  nIiowii  that  tluM  rnnifo  conipriHOM  hiicIi  portion  of  Africa  iih  lies 
north  of  till!  (ircat  Dcxcrt,  nearly  tho  wliido  of  Kuropi-,  and  a  conMidoraMc  extent  of  WcMtnrn 
AhIii.  Tim  ornithidoifv  of  tho  coiintricH  iKirderinff  uiMin  this  re^'ion  him  been  Imt  partially 
iiiviwtitiated ;  yet  Hiithcient  in  known  to  show  that  it  presentH  a  mixture  of  tliosi  f\wc'uia 
which  have  their  ciiief  nietro|i(iliM  in  other  coiiiitrieH.  It  hiifi  Imen  thonjrht  that  tlie  aninmU 
of  tho  urctic  circle  iiro  no  peculinr,  ii»  to  jiiMtity  iw  in  considering'  that  reifion  in  tlie  light 
■jf  tt  dititiiict  /.ooloffical  province.  The  objectionH  ii|rainMt  this  idcii  have  already  been  nlliidcd 
to;  and  tlK-y  beconio  morn  foriMblo  when  wc  discover,  that  on  calculatin;,'  the  niiiiibcr  of 
liirdn,  Uilh  terrcHtrial  nnil  uipiatie,  which  iM-ciir  within  tho  arctic  circle,  they  do  not  amount 
U)  more  than  twenty-two;  and  that  inoMt  of  these,  dnrin<r  tho  (rreateiit  ixirtion  of  the  year, 
are  I'onnd  in  the  more  northern  parts  of  nrit4iiii  atid  Aniorica.  They  probiibly  occur  in  Hiiiii- 
lur  latitudes  on  the  Asiatic  continent;  lint  on  this  point  our  information  is  defective. 

The  Mwiimnin),'  birds  are  known  to  |ii»sesH  a  very  wide  range;  but  this  is  less  extensivo, 
perhaps,  than  is  generally  iiiiajfined.  Tho  number  of  species  found  on  the  shores  of  Kiiropo 
and  Northern  Africa,  iiulependently  of  tlioso  more  peculiar  to  the  arctic  circle,  is  sixty. 
Of  these,  two  alone  have  been  discovered  in  tho  four  quarters  of  tho  jjlobo;  three  are  com- 
inon  to  Europe,  Asia,  and  America;  one  to  Europe,  Asia,  and  Southom  Africa;  and  twenty- 
seven  to  Europe  and  Northern  America:  thus  leaving  fwonty-seven  (or  nearly  one-half  tho 
number  of  European  natatorial  Fi)ecios)  as  peculiar  to  this  zoological  division  of  the  world. 

Among  the  firallatores,  or  wailors,  some  particular  species  arc  so  widely  dispersed  as  to 
suggest  tho  idea  that  tho  geographic  range  of  this  order  is  oven  wider  than  that  of  the 
Natatnrcn  ;  and  this,  generally  s|)eaking,  may  l)e  true.  Of  tho  sixty-five  sfiecios  descrilied 
as  natives  of  Europe,  thirtoen  only  occur  in  America,  and  two  only  can  be  reckoned  arctic 
birds,  although  several  others  occasionally  frequent  those  regions.  Of  the  remainder,  four 
70  occur  in  Asia;  two  in  Asia  and  Africa;   finir  in  Asia  and 

America ;  seven  in  Asia,  Africa,  and  America ;  and  the  Whim- 
brel  (,fifr.  76.)  {IVumenius  Phcppwi)  is  said  to  bo  the  same  in 
all  the  five  divisions  of  the  globe.  It  is  conseipiently  among 
tho  wading  birds  that  wo  find  thoso  whaso  range  is  most  exten- 
sive ;  yet,  on  a  general  calculation,  the  number  of  species  pecu- 
liar to  Europe  is  considerably  greater  than  those  of  tho  Nata- 

^  ..,_        „_j^s^^  lorps  ;  the  former  being  as  one  to  two,  the  latter  nearly  as  one 

^^••""•^^■^'UiJi  -.of^^;    to  four.     It  thus  appears,  that,  even  among  birds  of  the  most 
'"^''  vagrant  habits,  the  ornithology  of  Europe  is  characterised  by  a 

Th«  Wliimiini.  decided  superiority  in  the  number  of  it«  own  peculiar  species. 

The  rapacious  birds,  next  to  tho  aquatic  orders,  are  tlmtight  to  bo  tho  most  widely  distri- 
buted;  ])nrticiilarly  the  nocturnal  species.  It  is  very  remarkable,  that  out  of  thirteen  dif- 
ferent owls  inhabiting  Europe,  five  only  are  peculiar  to  this  continent;  and  two  of  these 
more  particularly  froqiiont  the  arctic  regions.  Of  tho  rest,  five  occur  in  America,  two  in 
Southern  Africa,  and  ono  both  in  Asia  and  America.  The  F(ilrnnid<r,  or  diurnal  birds  of 
pti-y,  ill  regard  to  their  species,  have  a  more  restricted  distribution  ;  yet,  of  these,  the  eagles 
enjoy  no  'uconsiderahle  range.  Out  of  eight  discovered  in  Europe,  ono  is  more  properly 
arctic,  tlirei  have  been  found  in  several  jiarts  of  Africa,  and  one  occurs  in  America;  leaving 
three  only  to  Kiirope.  It  is  singular  that  those  ra])nciou8  birds  which,  from  the  peculiar 
structure  of  thei.'  wings,  have  been  supnosed  to  i.'tijoy  the  greatest  powers  of  flight  among 


Jt  ^i  1  « 


i  -M 


=  ^''iH 


268 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY, 


Part  II. 


4»: 


1^ 


The  Great  Biii.t>rd, 

Europe  and  Western  Asia. 


their  congeners,  are  those  most  restricted  in  their  goojrrnphic  limits.  Tiiis  is  proved  by  the 
fiicf,  that  out  of  eight  genuine  falcons  occurring  in  Europe  and  Northern  Africa,  two  only 
have  been  discovered  in  America.  It  has,  however,  recently  been  stated  that  the  Falco 
percgrinus  of  Australia  is  identically  the  same  as  that  of  Europe :  neither  docs  Southern 
Africa,  we  believe,  possess  a  single  European  species,  or  not  one  of  tliose  inhabiting  the 
nortiiorn  extremity  of  that  peninsula;  the  Monto^vnrd  of  i,c  Vaillant,  long  confounded 
with  the  European  Kestril,  being  a  decidedly  distinct  species.  UiK)n  the  whole,  tlie  distri- 
bution of  the  forty-four  species  of  European  Ruplnris  will  stand  thus:  three  arc  Arctic, 
eleven  are  found  also  in  America,  two  in  Asia  and  Africa,  and  one  in  Asia  and  America; 
leaving  twenty-seven,  or  more  than  one-half,  peculiar  to  European  ornitliology. 

The  Gallinaceous  genera  are  few ;  and  their  wide  dispersion 
is  decidedly  against  the  theory,  that  all  birds  with  heavy  bodies 
and  short  wings  are  more  limittid  in  their  geographic  range  than 
other  terrestrial  tribes.  This  argument  has  been  ingeniously 
used  to  account  fbr  tlie  very  restricted  limits  within  which  many 
of  tlio  Indian  panxjts  have  been  found ;  one  or  two  species  being 
frequently  confined  to  a  particular  island.  Ornithologists,  how- 
ever, need  not  be  told  tliat  the  wings  of  the  Psillacida  are  pecu- 
liarly adapted  fbr  strong  and  vigorous  flight;  and  those  who  havo 
seen  these  birds  in  their  native  regions  cannot  fuil  to  have  re- 
marketl  that  their  flight  is  peculiarly  rapid ;  many  genera,  in 
this  respect,  passing  through  the  air  with  the  celerity  of  the 
hawk.  The  wide  dispersion  of  the  Gallinaceous  order  is  very 
evident  The  range  of  the  great  bustard  (_Jig.  77.)  extends  from 
one  extremity  of  temperate  Europe  to  the  confines  of  Asia ;  and 
the  ([uail,  remarkable  for  its  heavy  body  and  short  wings,  per- 
forms two  annual  migrations,  from  and  to  Northern  Africa,  over 
We  consider  very  few  of  the  European  Gallinaceous  birds  as 
truly  arctic ;  for  nearly  all  the  species  appear  to  occur  us  plentifully  beyond  those  regions 
as  within  them.  Many  of  the  meridional  European  birds,  as  ITpupa  Epops,  Oriolus  galbula, 
Coraceos  garrulus,  &,c.,  might  with  equal  justice  be  chussed  as  peculiarly  ciiaracleristic  of 
Central  or  Southern  Africa.  It  nevertheless  appears  that,  even  among  tiio  Gnllinucoo'. 
fourteen  out  of  twenty-seven  liave  their  principal  seat  in  Etirop(>.  The  remainder  are  thus 
apportioned:  five  extend  to  Western  Asia,  five  to  the  confines  of  tlie  great  African  desert, 
two  are  dispersed  in  Central  Asia  and  Africii.  while  two  only  occur  in  North  America. 

The  Fissircstriil  birds,  lypi<'iilly  ropresonted  by  the  swallow, 

k       ^  ^^     are,  of  all  the  insectivorous  tribes,  most  cons])icuous  for  their 

\-^-\x-^    j^^^^       powers  of  flight.    With  Imt  one  exception,  the  European  King- 

"AA^      ^Kr!  f-         fisher  {Alc(<lo  vnrnpivii,  fig.  78),  they  arc  all  migratory:  hence 

we  find  that  most  of  the  species  occur  beyond  the  limits  of  the 

European  Fauna.  The  proportion  of  those  which  appear  confined 

to  Europe  and  Northern  Africa  is  as  one  to  three. 

The  small  Granivorous  birds  not  only  present  a  great  diversity 
in  their  species,  but  a  considerable  preponderance  in  their  nu- 
merical amount.  Forty-one  are  included  in  the  European  list ; 
two  of  which,  at  certain  seasons,  frequent  the  polar  regions  in 
great  numbers,  but  are  nevertheless  abundant  in  all  the  northern 
latitudes ;  seven  inhabit  North  America,  and  three  extend  both 
to  Asia  and  Africa ;  so  that  Europe  may  be  considered  the  metropolis  of  nearly  thirty  pecu- 
liar species. 

The  Scansorial  birds  are  few ;  yet  eight  out  of  the  fifteen  recorded  as  European  are 
unknown  in  other  regions.  It  is  among  the  Inseclivorons  and  soft-billed  birds  that  we  must 
look  for  the  principal  ornithological  features  of  any  particular  region.  The  immense  family 
of  Iluiiiiniiig-birds  in  the  New  World,  and  of  Mt'lMpliagidm,  or  Honey-suckers,  in  the  Aus- 
tralian islands,  would  alone  be  sufficient  to  mark  these  regions  with  a  distinct  zoological 
character.  To  what  cause  we  are  to  attribute  the  fact  that  these  birds,  by  n,i  means  deficiwl 
in  the  power  of  flight  (wliich,  indeed,  in  many  of  tliem  is  considerably  developed,)  should 
nevertheless  be  so  strictly  confined  within  certain  geographic  limits,  remains  unexplair»!d. 
We  can  only  in  this  place  illustrate  the  fact.  Of  eighty-five  species  belonging  to  the  I  m- 
neean  genera  of  Turdus,  Sylvia,  Parus,  and  Muscicapa,  eighty-two  are  strictly  Europ«Hn. 
In  this  number  we  of  course  include  those  which  migrate,  at  certain  .seasons,  to  Nortl>-;ni 
Africa  and  Western  Asia;  for  these  regions,  it  must  be  always  remembered,  come  wi>«iir. 
the  zoological  province  we  are  now  treating  of;  yet,  if  we  deduct  the  number  of  those  w)«ich 
have  actually  been  dett!Cted  in  jiarts  biijoiid  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  on  one  i^de, 
and  Western  Asia  on  the  other,  they  will  nniount  only  to  ten;  leaving  seventy-two  i*«  a 
marked  peculiarity  in  tlio  ornithology  of  Europe,  lii  liirther  proof  of  the  liniitcd  rangr  «)'' 
these  fiimilies,  it  may  bo  remarked,  that  thr.'o  only  out  of  eighly-five  have  beini  delccti.  vn 


European  KingfishRr. 


'^^' 


!if 


i'art  n. 


Book  III. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  ANIMALS. 


269 

America ;  and  that  tlie  identity  of  one  of  tiiese  (Parus  atricapillus  L.)  with  nn  European 
tpecies  (Parus  palustris  L.)  is  very  questionable. 

The  Omnivorous  birds,  as  tlie  Sturnidm,  Corvidie,  &,c.,  are  the  last  requirin-r  notice.  A 
few  of  these  appear  widely  dispersed ;  but  upon  the  whole,  severnl  species,  and  oven  peculiar 
genera,  are  lett  to  characterise  this  portion  of  the  world.  We  may  state  their  rumber  at 
twenty-one :  tiiirteen  of  which,  or  more  than  one  half,  habitually  reside  in  Europe ,  four  occu' 
in  Northern  and  Central  Africa ;  one  (Pastor  roseus  T.)  inhabits  botli  the  table-land  of  Asia 
and  the  deserts  of  Central  Africa ;  and  three  have  been  found  in  Ame-ica. 

These  details,  tedious  perhaps  to  tlie  general  reader,  but  interesting  to  the  man  of  science, 
it  becomes  necessary  to  dwell  upon,  before  any  valid  deductions  can  be  drawn  from  the 
facts  they  exhibit.  In  this  difficult  and  somewhat  laborious  investigation  we  have  been 
much  assisted  by  the  writings  of  Wilson,  Temminck,  and  IjC  Vaillant ;  but  more  than  all  by 
the  liberality  which  llirows  the  magnificent  collections  of  the  French  Museum  open  to  the 
use  of  all  scientific  inquirers,  whatever  their  object  or  their  nation  may  be.*  It  cannot, 
iiowever,  be  supposed  that,  even  with  greater  sources  of  information,  some  inaccuracies 
may  not  have  occurred.  Such  calculations,  in  short,  from  their  very  nature,  can  never 
be  perfect;  because  they  are  founded  upon  present  knowledge,  and  that  is  perpetually 
extending.  The  most  that  can  be  done  is  to  make  as  near  an  approximation  to  the  truth  as 
circumstances  will  admit;  and  having  done  this,  (i»e  resultmay  be  entitled  to  some  degree  of 
confidence. 

As  a  general  recapitulation  of  the  European  birds,  wo  may  state  the  total  number,  exclu- 
sive of  a  few  which  occasionally  appear  at  remote  intervals  as  stragglers,  at  388.  Of  these, 
thirty-one  are  more  peculiar  to  the  arctic  regions  of  Europe,  America,  and  probably  of  Asia ; 
the  proportion  being  as  one  to  thirteen.  Sixty-eight  (forty  being  aquatic)  occur  also  in  tem- 
perate America;  nine  are  dispersed  over  four  divisions  of  the  globe,  to  neither  of  which  can 
they  be  particularly  appropriated ;  and  either  one  (Numenius  Phcepus)  or  two  extend  to 
Australia.  With  Uieso  deductions,  the  number  will  thus  be  reduced  to  about  28(1.  If  from 
these  we  abstract  such  others  as  may  possihbjhaxc  a  partial  range  beyond  the  limits  nlready 
defined,  the  number  may  be  farther  reduced  to  about  250;  so  that,  even  with  this  allowance, 
nearly  two  tliirds  of  the  birds  of  Europe,  Northern  Africa,  and  VVestern  Asia  may  safely  be 
considered  ns  zoologically  characteristic  of  those  countries. 

Another  character  in  European  ornithology  deserves  attention.  This  regards  the  s-upcrior 
number  of  generic  types  which  it  exhibits,  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  species.  Those 
genera  amount  to  108,  omitting  those  which  have  not  been  generally  adopted,  or  which,  from 
the  modifications  of  form  being  but  slight,  should  more  properly  be  teniied  sections.  Tlie 
projiortion  which  these  genera  bear  to  the  number  of  species  (estimated  before  at  3S8) 
amounts  to  more  than  two  to  seven ;  or,  in  other  words,  does  not  give  se^'en  birds  to  two 
genera.  It  is  further  remarkable,  that  most  of  these  exhibit  in  their  structure  the  p;rcatcnt 
perfection  of  those  orders  or  families  to  wliich  they  respectively  belong ;  and  which  groups 
are  denominated  by  naturalists  typical.  True  it  is  that  such  genera  are  widely  dispersed  ; 
but  in  no  division  of  the  world  do  they  appear  so  numerous,  in  proportion  to  the  species,  iis 
in  Europe.  This  remark  not  only  applies  to  the  typical  genera,  but  is  frequently  applicable 
to  the  number  of  species  tliey  respectively  contain.  One  instance  may  suffice.  The  noble 
falcons,  or  those  to  whom  tho  generic  name  of  Falco  is  now  restricted,  are  generally  con- 
sidered the  most  typical  group  of  their  family :  of  these,  the  Kestril  (fg.  79.)  and  five  others 

have  their  metropolis  in  Europe  and  Northern  Afi'ica.  The 
whole  of  North  America  has  hitherto  produced  but  four.  Le 
Vaillant  enumerates  the  same  number  from  Southern  and  Cen- 
tral Africa.  Those  of  Centri.l  Asia  are  not  known ;  but  only 
two  have  been  recently  described  as  peculiar  to  the  vast  re- 
gions of  Australia.  Now,  if  we  merely  look  at  these  respective 
numbers,  the  diH'erence  does  not  appear  very  remarkable ;  but 
when  the  great  inferiority  between  the  Caucasian  regions  and 
those  of  America,  Afi'ica,  an'  Australia,  in  point  of  extent,  is 
taken  into  the  account,  it  will  be  immediately  seen  that  the 
proportion  of  these  eminently  typical  species  in  the  European 
regions  is  particularly  great.  Among  the  typical  groups  of 
the  wading  and  swimming  birds  this  is  still  more  apparent;  so  tiiat,  if  we  endeavour  to 
define  what  is  the  most  ^striking  feature  in  the  ornithology  of  this  zof>logical  province,  none 
is  so  remarkable  as  tlie  number  of  purely  typical  groups.  This  peculiarity  will  be  more 
apparent  on  looking  further  into  tlio  matter.  The  total  number  of  birds  tlirouifhout  the 
world,  existing  in  museums  or  clearly  described  in  authentic  works,  may  he  osliinated  at 
6(K)0.  Tlioso  have  been  arranged  under  about  M80  genera ;  but  as  several  of  tiiesc  genera 
will  comprise  more  than  oni;  sul)-gcnua,  we  will  put  down  4(X)  as  a  nearer  approximation  to 

*  Wi'  liavt!  Iiwii  officwllii  iiiliirniPil  tliat,  liy  tlio  Inws  of  tlif'  /.nnlngiral  Piiciotv  nf  I.nnilrm.  no  iiiii'  rim  rorcivo 
|K!riiii>'!>i»ii  to  niiikfi  iiw  ol'  iheir  Miikimiiii,  lor  )!«i"'''al  friiiilitic  imrpoai'i',  who  is  not  a  mcinbcr. 

23* 


The  Koitril. 


r  A 

i! 


m 


m 


Jill 


I'M 


1^',  I   V 

'  'J 


f*,'- 


•270 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY, 


Part  II. 


I     . 


corrcclnosa:  this  would  leave  rather  more  tlian  fourteen  species  to  each  generic  group 
wiiile,  it"  the  oniitholonry  of  Europe  and  Northern  Africa  is  alone  considered,  the  proportion 
is  no  more  than  one  to  three ;  and  even  tiiis  will  he  further  diminished  wiien  those  geo- 
prapliic  groups  among  the  Fringillida:  and  Syhuida,  which  are  decidedly  peculiar  to  this 
portion  of  the  glohe,  are  irivnstigated  and  defined.  Now,  it  is  very  singular  that,  in  speak- 
ing of  the  leading  varieties  of  tiie  Caucasian  race,  a  writer,  whose  testimony  is  no  mean 
authority,  ohserves,  "  that  the  tribes  among  the  Caucas  ans  arc  more  numerous  than  in  any 
other."  And  again — "  Whether  wc  consider  the  several  nations  or  the  individuals  in  each, 
bodily  difl'crenees  are  much  more  numerous  in  the  iiighly  civilized  Caucasir  ty  than  in 

either  of  the  other  divisions  of  mankind."   (^Lawrence,  p.  442.  47.J.)  Wlii  'lance  over 

tlie  list  of  thoi^o  .nations  generally  sup|X)sed  to  have  sprung  from  this  tyji-,  ive  arc  struck 
with  the  justice  of  those  observations.  It  is  the  more  remarkable,  as  the  regions  they  occupy 
are  disproiwrtionahly  small,  when  compared  with  those  peopled  by  the  Mongolian  and  Ethi- 
opian races.  That  there  are  instances  wherein  typical  forms  of  higher  groups  than  genera 
do  not  occur  within  the  European  range,  is  a  circumstance  which  will  not  materially  affect 
the  question.  Thus  the  only  European  bird  belonging  to  the  Teniiirosiris  of  M.  Cuvier 
is  the  European  Hoopoe  (  Ujmpa  Epops),  which  is  certainly  not  a  typical  example ;  but  this, 
so  far  as  tribes  arc  concerned,  is  the  only  exceptioi  to  the  rule.  It  is  curious,  also,  that  this 
exception  shoidd  occur  in  that  division  which  comprises  the  smallest  and  weakest  of  birds. 
If  we  (It^scend  to  tiirnilies,  there  is  scarcely  one  pre-eminently  \  ical  of  its  own  perfection 
which  is  not  European.  A  further  objection  may  possibly  be  urged,  that,  although  such 
forms  are  indeed  abundant  in  this  Fauna,  they  are  nevertheless  found  in  nearly  every  other 
part  of  the  world  ;  and  cannot,  therefore,  be  looked  upon  as  characterising  Europe  more  than 
any  other  country:  but  this  will  not  be  a  just  conclusion,  unless  it  is  first  shown  that 
the  pro[X)rtion  of  such  types  to  the  total  number  of  European  species  is  not  decidedly 
prfatcr  than  in  any  other  region.  Now  the  facts  we  have  already  stated  prove  this 
b(\viind  doubt. 

Tliose  residts,  obtained  from  unquestionable  data,  arc  so  important  to  our  present  inquiry, 
that  their  hasty  notice  would  not  have  been  sufficient.  The  materials  for  illustrating  the 
crnitholoiry  of  Europe  are  naturally  more  numerous  than  can  be  expected  for  other  portions 
of  the  glolie ;  tind  it  became  very  desirable  to  ascertain  how  far  the  ornithology  of  those 
regi<ins.  occupied  by  the  Caucasian  race,  presented  a  peculiarity  of  character  sulliciently 
strong  to  show  a  mutual  relation.ship  with  tlie  geographic  distribution  of  this  variety  of  man. 
We  are,  I  think,  sufficiently  authorised  to  consider  that  both  are  in  unison.  At  least,  there 
are  so  many  singular  points  of  analogy,  as  to  render  it  highly  probable  that  there  exists  an 
intimate  relationship  lictween  the  dis.tributicm  of  one  race  of  mankind  and  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal geographic  divisions  of  birds. 

How  far  this  view  nf  European  orni  'lohigy  would  be  Iwrne  out  by  an  extended  investiga- 
tion of  other  orders  of  animals,  it  is  itniiossihie  to  say.  Yet  even  if  our  present  limits  would 
permit  the  inquiry,  we  should  have  to  rely  mon^  upon  theory  than  facts.  Many  of  the 
quadrupeds  of  Euro|)c  have  long  been  slowly  but  crtainly  disapi'caring,  in  proportion  as 
culture  and  civilizatic.n  have  advanced ;  and  any  conclusions  drawn  from  those  which  std! 
remain  in  a  wild  state  would  be  open  to  great  objections,  particularly  as  the  question  nmst 
necessarily  i.mbraco  the  nature  of  those  no  longer  existing,  but  whose  bones  occur  in  a  fossil 
state  throughout  Europe.  We  think  it  may  fairly  h(!  presumed  that,  in  all  those  convulsions 
which  have  agit'ited  our  globe,  birds  have  suffered  less  than  any  other  vertcbratoti  animals. 
Their  fossil  remains  are  few,  and  f>r  rare  occurrenci; ;  while  extensive  deposits  of  bones  and 
skeletons,  belonging  to  quadrupeds,  reptiles,  and  fish,  occur  more  or  less  abundantly  in 
almost  every  region,  and  attest  the  wide  destruction  to  which  such  animals  were  exposed. 
It  naturally  follows  that,  in  tracing  the  distriliution  of  the  feathered  creation,  wo  are  lell 
unshackled  by  geological  controversy. 

The  few  observations  on  the  Ichthyology,  ]''ntomology,  and  Conchology  of  the  IMcditer- 
ran^an  we  shall  hereafter  make,  in  conjunction  with  thosi;  of  Britain,  will  be  found  in  unison 
with  those  features  in  the  geographic  distribution  of  birds  we  have  already  traced;  and  will 
equally  evince  the  propric!ty  of  including  the  whole  under  one  zoological  division.  This 
we  propose  to  name  tiie  European.  Such  a  designation  is,  indeed,  somewhat  objectionable, 
inasmuch  a.s  it  embraces  not  only  Europe,  hut  Northern  Africa  and  Western  Asia ;  yet  it 
will,  perhaps,  convey  more  definite  ideas  than  if  the  name  were  adopted  from  the  particular 
race  of  men  belonging  to  these  regions. 

2.  The  Moii£;olinn  nr  Asiatic  Prnvmce, 
The  birds  of  the  .Monjolian  range  will  he  now  adverted  to.  The  ty|)ical  nations  of  this 
variety  of  man  occupy  tlie  remaining  [xirtion  of  the  vast  continent  of  Asia;  while  their 
characteristic  peculiarities  appear  blended  witli  the  Malays  in  the  more  eastern  islands  of 
the  Indian  ,in;liipelatrii.  The  ornithology  of  such  a  vast  proportion  of  .Asia  is  as  varied  as 
it  is  remarkable ;  but  the  very  imperfect  nature  of  the  materials  liitherto  furnished  for  it:J 
elucidation,  renders  it  impossible  for  us  to  give  those  satisfactory  data  which  have  beer 


•■?» 


Part  II. 

iLTic  group 
n  proportion 
n  lliosc  gco- 
•uliar  to  this 
it,  in  speak- 
in  no  mean 
;  tlinn  in  any 
uuIh  in  each, 
■ty  than  in 
'lance  over 
,0  are  struck 
1  tlioy  occupy 
ian  and  Ethi- 
than  genera 
orially  affect 
sf  M.  Cuvier 
pie;  but  this, 
also,  that  this 
kost  of  birds. 
,vn  perfection 
Ithough  such 
y  every  other 
ipc  more  than 
t  sliown  that 
[lot  deciJedly 
:d   prove  this 

esent  inquiry, 
hislrating  the 
other  |X)rtions 
ulogy  iif  those 
ir  sullicicntly 
aricty  of  man. 
At  least,  there 
;horp  exists  an 
10  of  the  prin- 

ided  investiga- 

it  limits  would 

Many  of  the 

proportion  as 

)se  which  still 

question  must 

ccur  in  a  fossil 

)sc  convulsions 

iratcd  animals. 

ts  of  bones  and 

abundantly  in 

were  exposed. 

)n,  we  are  li'tV 

jf  the  Meditcr- 
found  in  uiii.-ion 
raced;  and  will 
division.  This 
it  object  iunable, 
■rn  Asia ;  yet  it 
n  tlu!  particular 


Book  III. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  AiMMALS. 


271 


nations  of  this 
lia;  wiiile  their 
stern  islands  of 
;i  is  lis  varied  as 
iiniisiied  for  its 
iiich  have  beer 


furnished  by  v.  riters  on  the  birds  of  Europe.  Naturalists  look  forward  with  tlie  greatest 
interest  to  tliu  speedy  termination  of  the  zoological  researches  of  General  llardwicke,  as 
likely  to  supply  these  deficiencies.  The  vast  stores  of  knowledge  which  a  long  residence 
in  the  East,  and  an  ardent  passion  for  natural  history,  have  plated  at  the  command  of  this 
naturalist,  render  him  peculiarly  qualified  for  such  an  undertaking. 

For  our  present  purpose,  minute  detail  is  not,  however,  essential.  Whatever  doubts  might 
at  first  have  arisen  on  the  propriety  of  considering  Europe  as  the  centre  of  an  ornithological 
province,  there  can  bo  none  with  respect  to  Asia.  It  is  in  these  regions  tliiit  the  chief  scat 
of  tlie  typical  Gallinaceui  is  placed;  they  abound  in  China,  Thibet,  the  Indian  Peninsula, 
and  even  extend  to  those  islands  which  t  re  considered  the  confines  of  the  Jlongolian  race. 

The  larger  species,  arranged  in  tlie  genera 
I'avo  and  Polypleclron,  appear  to  charac- 
terise the  more  elevated  and  central  parts 
of  the  continent ;  while  those  of  tlio  genus 
Gallus  are  more  numerous  in  Sumatra, 
Java,  and  the  adjacent  "  nds.  The  phea- 
sants of  China  and  Thibew  lorm  a  no  less 
striking  feature  in  Asiatic  ornithology ;  five 
species  of  magnificent  plumage  are  pecu- 
Tho  Silver  PhcoBant.  Hav:  one  of  thesc,  the  elegant  Silver  Phea- 

sant (Nycfhemcrus  argtntatus)  (Jiff.  80.)  has  been  long  domesticated  in  our  aviaries.  Three 
other  superb  species  represent  a  group  {Ijophophorus  Tern.),  discovered  only  upon  the  con- 
tinent. The  whole  of  these  Gallinaceous  genera  arc  totally  unknown  in  Africa,  Australia, 
or  in  the  New  World.  When  to  these  we  add  the  Ilornbills  (Buceridcr),  the  Sun-birds 
(Cinnyrifia;),  the  short-legged  Thrushes  (G.  Brachypus),  the  short-tailed  Tl. rushes  {Pitia), 
certain  groups  among  the  Psittaciden,  and  many  others  totally  unknown  in  Europe,  Northern 
Africa,  and  Western  Asia,  yet  abounding  in  the  Mongolian  nations,  no  further  details  appear 
necessary  to  mark  the  ornithological  peculiarities  of  Asia,  as  distinct  from  those  of  Europe. 

From  the  Asiatic  islands  it  would,  perhaps,  be  more  natural  if  we  proceeded  at  once  to 
notice  the  Malay  or  Australian  range,  as  it  is  here  that  the  Faunas  of  those  divisions  of  tlie 
globe  evidently  meet.  But  as  this  would  interfere  with  the  order  observed  in  the  early 
portion  of  this  essay,  wc  shall  pass  from  the  northern  regions  of  Asia  to  those  of  the  New 
World ;  particularly  as  both  present  a  mixed  race  of  men,  probably  originating  from  the 
Asiatic  continent. 

3.  The  American  Province. 
We  proceed  to  a  rapid  sketch  of  American  ornithology.  It  has  already  been  shown  that, 
excepting  the  Natatorial  birds,  there  are  fewer  species  common  alike  to  Northern  America 
and  to  Europe  tiin.n  might,  perhaps,  have  been  supposed ;  yet,  were  the  proportion  nmch 
greater,  the  circumstance  would  only  prove  that  nature  knows  no  abrupt  distinction.  It  is 
not  to  tlie  rcTiotc  ramifications  which  she  employs  to  connect  her  chain  of  operations  that 
our  attention  is  to  be  fixed ;  for  they  are  too  subtile  to  bo  unravelled  by  beings  with  facul- 
ties so  limited.  But  as  soon  as  she  quits  the.se  inexplicable  mazes,  and  again  displays  her- 
self in  a  new  but  decided  form,  we  may  hope  to  gain  soine  acquainUince  with  her  laws. 
It  IS  not,  therefore,  from  either  extremity  of  the  New  World  that  we  must  form  our  opinion 
on  its  zoological  peculiarities.  The  ornithology  of  the  Northern  latitudes  is  evidently 
blended  with  that  of  Europe,  and  in  all  probability  many  of  these  species  exist  in  Northern 
Asia;  those  of  the  more  southern  parts  of  America,  beyond  the  Rio  do  la  Plata  and  Para- 
guay, arc  nearly  unknown.  It  is  only  within  the  last  few  years  that  the  provinces,  elcvateil 
on  the  Mexican  Cordilleras,  and  now  constituting  a  great  repuh'''^,  have  bc(m  opened  to  the 
naturalist;  and  although,  as  yet,  but  superficially  explored,  there  is  perhaps  no  region  in  the 
New  World  which  promises  to  yield  more  interesting  fiicts,  as  connected  with  the  animal 
geography  of  that  hemisphere.  Even  the  configuration  of  the  continent,  at  the  junction  of 
its  two  great  divisions,  is  typical  of  this  distribution.  It  appear?  as  if  nature,  elevated  as 
on  a  throne  upon  this  vast  table-land,  7200  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  had  dinpensed 
her  forms  to  the  right  hand  and  to  the  left,  retaining  immediately  around  her  a  typical 
representation  of  every  group.  To  the  nortli  she  has  given  innum(?rable  flocks  of  slender- 
billed  insectivorous  birds  (Sylvirol(r,  &c.),  which  annually  depart  to  breed  in  those  more 
temperate  climes.  These  are  accompanied  by  particular  species  of  I'^lycatcher.s,  TIniislie.s 
Pigeons  and  Ilangnests  {Ictcrimi);  the  two  latter  in  such  countless  numbers  as  to  darken 
the  air.  To  Southern  America  has  been  more  particularly  assigned  the  Macaws,  Toucans, 
Scansorial  Creepers  (Dcnilrncnlaptes),  Ant  Thrushes  (Mynlhrrina),  Ground  Doves  ((.'ha- 
mtepfJiii),  Tanagers  ( Tn?rr/^r(i),  Trogons,  Fruit-caters  (Am/jf/jWa-),  and  the  numerous  an.i 
splendid  race  of  numming-birds.  Yet  of  all  these  groups,  save  one  (AmjuiiiJa'),  typical 
examples  are  concentrated  on  the  table-lund  of  Mexico.  Thesi?,  moreover,  are  accompa- 
nied by  .some  peculiar  forms,  not  yet  discovered  in  either  portion  of  America,  and  by 
species  among  the  natatorial  tribes  liitlicrto  found  only  in  the  more  northern  latitudes. 


IJH 


W 


t\: 


ilrq 


iff 


•H 


•Tft 


272 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY, 


Part  n. 


1*5 

in 


i 


1^- 


i 


'»«f-V 


The  typical  Gallinaceous  birds  begin  to  show  themselves  adjoining  the  equator,  nearly 
in  the  same  parallel  of  latitude  OS  they  occur  in  A  '      'hey  belong,  however, 
81  to  distinct  und  peculiar  types ;  as  the  genera  ^  >  ;;    b'^'k,  Crax,  Penelope, 

Ourax,  Phosphea,  Ortalida,  and  Opisthocomus.  .  nose  find  tlicir  represent- 
atives, for  the  most  part,  in  the  ancient,  continents,  but  not  one  species  has 
been  detected  beyond  the  New  World.  The  foregoing  remark  applies  to 
tlie  two  great  divisions  of  the  Simi<B,  or  Monkeys,  so  accurately  illustrated 
by  those  distinguished  naturalists,  MM.  Cuvier  and  Geoflroy  St.  Hilaire. 

The  Melliplmgous  groups  of  Ar'erica,  at  the  head  of  which  shine  the 
splendid  fiiniily  of  Iluniming-birds  (Jig.  81.),  form  the  chief  peculiarity  of 
its  ornithology ;  other  races,  scarcely  less  beautiful,  occur  in  Africa,  Asia, 
and  Australia :  yet  the  natural  genera  are  totally  distinct.  The  number 
of  species,  and  the  variety  of  forms,  among  tlie  frugivorous  birds  is  another 
striking  feature  in  the  productions  of  tlie  New  World.  Under  this  term 
HumminB  Bir<i.  ^^^  ^^^^^  include  the  richly  coloured  Chatterers  {Ampelida  Sw.)  and 
Manakins  (Piprinm  Sw.);  togctiier  with  the  whole  family  of  Tanagers  (TanusniuB), 
Hongnosts  (Ictcrince),  and  Parrots  (Psittacidte).  The  first  four  belong  solely  to  this  conti- 
nent, which  more  than  any  other  abounds  in  vast  forests  of  lotly  trees,  affording  a  perpetual 
and  countless  vari.'cy  of  fruits  and  berries,  adapted  to  nourish  all  the  families  of  hard  and  soft- 
billed  frugivorous  bird.s.  If  we  turn  to  the  other  orders  of  vertebrated  animals,  the  Mollusca, 
Annulosa,  or  Radiuta;,  oacii  und  all  conspire  to  stamp  certain  peculiar  features  on  the 
zoology  of  the  New  World,  and  to  mark  it  as  a  distinct  zoological  empire. 

4.   The  Ethiopian  or  African  Province. 

The  chief  seat  of  the  Ethiopian  variety  of  our  species  is  central  Africa;  while  most  writers 
agree  in  thinking  that  its  northern  limits  do  not  pass  the  Great  Desert.  The  pestilential 
ntmosphnre  of  tropical  Africa  has  been  an  insuperable  bar  to  the  researches  of  Europeans ; 
and  all  the  ideas  that  can  bo  formed  on  the  zoology  of  such  regions  must  bo  gathered  fVom 
the  partial  gleanings  made  by  travellers  on  tlie  shores  of  Senegal  and  of  Sierra  Leone.  The 
ornithological  productions  received  from  these  districts  evince  a  total  dissimilarity  from  those 
of  Northern  Africa,  but  intimately  accord,  both  in  species  and  genern,  with  the  ornitholcgy 
of  the  south :  to  this,  however,  there  ara  several  exceptions.  The  Plantain-eaters  {Muso- 
phii^i(l<r),  and  the  bristle-nocked  Thrushes  {Trichophorus  Tern.),  are  among  the  groups 
hitherto  found  only  towards  Sierra  Leone.  The  Guinea  Fowl,  as  its  name  implies,  is  most 
nbundiint  in  the  interior  of  that  country,  where  three  species  have  boon  discovered.  The 
common  Boe-eai  r,  and  the  Golden  Oriole  are  the  only  species  among  the  land  birds  of 
Western  Africa  that  occur  in  the  European  range;  and  these  extend  southward  to  the  Cape 
of  Gooil  Hope.  Tiie  whole  extent  of  Africa  south  of  the  desert  exhibits,  in  short,  a  marked 
diflbronce  in  its  ornithological  groups  and  species  from  these  belonging  to  Europe,  Northern 
Africa,  and  \Vestern  Asia.  The  comparatively  few  exceptions  of  birds  common  to  Europ« 
and  the  Cajio  cannot  diminish  the  general  force  of  this  remark,  but  merely  shows  that  a  few 
exceptions  must  never  be  taken  as  the  groundwork  of  any  particular  theory.  It  is  to  one  of 
the  greatest  ornithologists  that  France,  or  indeed  any  other  nation,  has  produced,  that  W6 
are  ind(!btpd  for  the  most  porfect  account  of  South  African  ornithology  yet  published ;  but  it 
must  over  be  regretted  that  this  portion  of  iu.  le  Vaiilant's  labours  terminated  abruptly ; 
leaving  the  Gallinaceous,  Wading,  and  Swimming  orders  to  be  completed  by  some  other, 
who,  with  equal  enterprise  and  jbservation,  should  visit  the  same  regions,  and  record  their 
mannois  with  the  same  veracity. 

Between  the  ornithology  of  Africa  and  of  America  there  is,  within  the  same  parallels  of 
latitude,  a  very  strong  analogy,  although  (in  the  sense  in  which  we  apply  the  term)  there  is 
none  of  afliiiity.  We  know  not,  in  short,  a  single  jjercliing  bird  common  to  both  continents; 
although  III  ilie  rapacious  order,  which  among  terrestrial  birds  are  well  known  to  have  nearly 
the  widest  range,  two  or  three  specie*--  occur  which  'ikewiso  inhabit  both  extremities  ol 
Africa  no  loss  than  North  America. 

The  other  vertebrated  animals,  and  the  insects  of  Southern  Africa,  furnish  similar  results. 
On  examining  the  large  collection  of  insects  formed  by  Mr.  TJurchell,  in  the  territories  of  the 
Cape  of  fi<xHi  Hope,  wo  could  nut  discover  one  out  of  many  hundreds  which  was  to  be  found 
in  a  nnicli  more  considerable  collection  brought  bv  \is  from  South  America,  although  many 
gonoric  "roups,  particularly  among  tlio  T,e;)i(ioptera,  appeari'd  common  to  both  contineiUs. 

Bet  ween  tin'  launas  of  Africa  and  America  the  dilferei.ct?  is  umiuosfioniibly  strilung;  yet 
there  are  several  points  of  connexion  between  the  ornithology  of  Africa,  Asia,  and  Aus- 
tralia ;  and  these  appear  not  merely  in  generic  groups,  hut  even  in  species.  The  Drongo 
Sh'-ikes  f(I.  r.il'iHiis),  till'  l,arva-eaters  (G.  Cddepyria),  the  typical  Fly-catchers  (G.  M«,v- 
rip.'tii,  C),  the  ('nli-enters  ((i.  ffiilri/nn),  the  Grakli's  (fjiimprnloiiis),  the  African  Snxicolip, 
the  two  ffrouns  of  tropical  Fiiichi-..  'Eslrrldu  Aiiiiiilina  Sw.),  are  all  genera  common  to  these 
tiiree  regidiis,-  tf)  neither  of  which,  in  a  geographic  clivision,  ciiii  they  be  exclusively 
assigned.     But  we  need  not  dwell  tiirther  on  such  resoniblances,  which,  after  alt,  are  but  s( 


Ai 
(h 
V, 
th 
th 

811 
hit 

of 
(In 


Part  II. 

jr,  nearly 
,  however, 
Penelope, 
represent- 
pccies  has 
applies  to 
illustrated 
Hilaire. 
shine  the 
!uliarity  of 
frica,  Asia, 
'he  number 
!  is  another 
■r  this  term 
i  Sw.)  and 
anaffrtn<e), 
)  this  conti- 
a  perpetual 
ird  and  soft- 
e  Mollusca, 
iires  on  the 


most  writers 
pestilential 
'  Europeans ; 
nthered  ftom 
:.eono.    The 
y  from  those 
3  ornitholcgy 
iters  {Muso- 
T  the  groups 
^lics,  is  most 
)vcred.     The 
land  birds  of 
i  to  the  Cape 
ort,  a  marked 
jpe,  Northern 
ion  to  Europe 
ws  that  a  few 
it  is  to  one  of 
iced,  that  W6 
lishcd ;  but  it 
ited  abruptly ; 
y  some  other, 
id  record  their 

le  parallels  of 
term)  tliere  is 
ith  continents ; 
to  have  nearly 
extremities  ol 

gimilar  results. 
;rr'.torios  of  the 
^ras  to  i)i;  found 
although  many 
1  continents, 
y  strikiri!^;  yet 
Asia,  and  .\us- 
Tlio  Drongo 

iiprs  (Cr.  Mii^- 
ricnn  Haxicolff, 
omiuon  to  these 

be  exclusively 
r  all,  are  but  s( 


Book  HI. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  ANIMALS. 


5873 


many  points  of  connexion  between  geographic  divisions,  sufficiently  distinct  in  tlieir  more 
proniinoiit  cliaractcrs. 

5.  The  Malay  or  Australian  Province. 

Tiie  regions  peopled  by  the  Malay  tribes  is  the  lust  zoological  division  requiring  elucida- 
tion. VVe  liave  already  adverted  to  tlic  groat  diversity  of  tribes  comprised  under  this  variety 
of  the  human  race,  and  the  little  autlientic  information  yet  collected  concerning  their  origin 
or  history.     The  z(X)logical  results,  however,  are  more  definite. 

On  looking  to  the  Indian  Archipelago,  as  to  that  region  wliere  physiologists  concur  in 
thinking  tiiat  tlic  Malayan  form  is  first  apparent,  we  nro  told  that  several  of  these  islands 
are  pei-plod  by  two  different  races  of  men  (^Lawrence,  p.  489.  and  Cuvier,  p.  187.)  ;  the  one 
frequently  confined  to  the  inland  tracts,  while  the  otiier  people  the  maritime  districts :  their 
respective  origins,  liowever,  are  so  little  known,  that  it  is  still  a  matter  of  doubt  which  has 
usurped  the  territories  of  the  other.  (Marsden's  Sumatra,  326,  3"7.)  We  confine  these 
remarks  to  Sumatra  and  Java ;  for  with  regard  to  the  vast  islands  of  Borneo,  Celebes,  and 
those  smaller  groups  to  the  eastward,  we  know  little  or  nothing  of  their  productions  or  of 
their  people. 

That  the  istlimus  of  Malacca  and  tlie  adjacent  islands  exhibit  the  first  indications  of  a 
peculiar  race  of  people,  is  a  fact  ujxin  which  all  writers  appear  to  agree ;  and  that  we  here 
begin  to  discern  the  indications  of  a  new  zoological  region  is  equally  certain  :  yet  it  would 
be  altogetlier  rash,  with  our  present  limited  intbrmation,  to  hazard  any  theory  which  would 
respectively  assign  to  these  islands  a  definite  character  in  its  inhabitants  or  productions. 
But  the  zoology  of  Java  and  Sumatra  have  been  of  late  so  zealously  and  ably  investigated 
not  only  by  two  distinguished  British  naturalists,*  but  by  otiiersf  sent  from  France,  that  we 
sliall  in  this  place  attempt  to  draw  some  results  from  their  labours.  The  ornithology  of  these 
islands,  with  some  few  peculiarities,  differs  in  no  very  decided  manner  from  that  of  southern 
India,  In  both,  the  Gallinaceous  genera,  when  they  occur,  a.  a  the  same,  although  some  ol 
tlie  Javanese  species  differ.  Of  the  more  typical  Siiirnidee,  common  to  the  Old  World,  but 
as  yet  unknown  to  the  Australian  or  Oceanic  islands,  no  less  than  tliree  inhabit  Java.  To 
these  groups  must  be  added,  Parus,  Silla,  Bneco,  Cursorius,  Clareola,  Buceros,  Oriolus, 
Brachypus,  and  many  other  genera  characteristic  of  the  ancient 
continents.  The  number  of  typical  Scansorial  birds  within  th' 
narrow  limits  of  these  two  islands  is  truly  remarkable.  Eight 
species  of  Pints  are  descrii)ed  by  Dr.  Horsfiekl,  and  four  or  five 
otliors ;  one,  the  Malacoloplius  Concrctuy,  Sw.  {Jiff.  82.),  of  a 
remarkably  small  size,  liave  been  sent  to  Franco  by  M.  Diard. 
Tlie  total  absence  of  tliis  family  throughout  the  wliole  Australian 
range,  is  a  circumstance  in  itself  sufficiently  strong  to  place  the 
ornitliology  of  Java  and  Sumatra  beyond  sucli  limits ;  to  which, 
nevertheless,  it  approximates  very  closely. 
The  birds  of  Java  and  Sumatra,  whicli  indicfito  an  approximation  to  the  Australian 
province  belong  to  certain  genera  common  to  both  regions;  but  unknown  in  Africa  or 
India:  those  are.  Pitta,  Ccntropuf,  Ocyplrrus,  Prinra,  Pogardus,  Cralrropus,  Dacelo, 
&c.  In  the  Suctorial  birds  (tlie  Tenuiroslres  of  M.  Cuvier,)  we  find  in  Java  an  evident 
departure  from  the  typical  form  of  Cimiyris  tcjwurds  the  Mdlipliufrida  of  Australia, 
in  the  genus  Dicaum;  four  of  the  known  sjiecies  being  Javaue.se,  and  tluee  Austra- 
lian. What  little  is  yet  known  of  the  birds  of  New  Guinea,  and  its  surrounding  islands, 
exhibits  a  still  greater  deviation  from  the  ornithological  features  of  India.  These  enchant- 
ing regions,  long  the  fairy-l  aid  of  naturalists,  remained  n(;arly  unknown  until  visited  by 
learned  Frenchmen,  to  one  of  whom  has  been  assigned  the  distinguished  honour  of  giving 
to  the  world  the  fruits  of  their  scientific  and  imjiortaiit  discoveries.|  It  is  in  these  islands 
that  the  Melliphagous  genera  begin  to  be  developed  in  the  most  novel  forms,  and  the  most 
sumptuous  plumage.  The  grand  Promrrnps  of  New  Guinea  can  only  be  likened  to  the 
Australian  Pliluris.  Several  typical  McUiphaffidir.  are  in  M.  Lesson's  ollertions.  To 
these  we  can  now  add  two  species  of  genuine  Philcdimx  (Cuvior),  and  two  of  the  genus 
Vanga.  The  group  of  which  the  Mtisciccpa  carinala  (S\v.)5  is  the  type,  displays  itself  in 
three  new  and  beautiful  bird;-',  accurately  de.'^cribcd  and  figuroil  by  M.  Lesson.  The  stay  of 
the  French  naturalists  on  the  coast  of  New  Guinea  was  comparatively  short,  and  their 
gleanings  of  its  ornithology  could  not,  from  necessity,  be  otherwise  than  scanty  ;  yet  it  is 
surprising  that,  among  the  birds  thus  procured,  so  large  a  proportion  should  belong  to  groups 
hitherto  supposed  peculiar  to  Now  Holland.  It  is  clear,  therefore,  in  a  natural  arrangement 
of  ornithological  geography,  that  the  islands  of  New  Guinea  may  bo  safely  brought  into  that 
division  which  includes  New  Holland,  Now  Zealand,  and  their  dependencies:  this  distribu- 


Malnco]uplm5  (^oncretus. 


•  Sir  Slnmlunl  Raffli !«  nnil  Dr.  Flnrsriclil. 
t  M.  Lesson,  V<i)  ugu  aulour  dii  Munde. 

Vol.  I. 


t  MM,  A,  Duviivircl  ami  Diard. 
§  Zooliigii  .il  IlluBlrntions,  vol,  iii.  pi.  117.    Zool.  Jouni  i.  p.  306 

2K 


i    :i    i 


^!^^ 


?r4 


SCIP:XCE  of  tJKOr.RAPIIY, 


Part  II, 


■| 


.Alrniirn  f^iipprln. 


lion  lias,  indeciJ,  been  generully  adopted  by  gcograplior?,  merely  from  the  relative  positions 
of  these  islands. 

On  the  zoology  of  New  Holland  it  is  .scarcely  ncccBsary,  in  this  place,  to  expatiate.  All 
natiirali.sls  concur  in  viewing  this  insular  continent  ns  the  chief  metropolis  of  a  peculiar  cre- 
ation of  animals;  whose  limitd  on  one  side  we  have  already  traced,  and  whose  range  on  the 
other  extends  over  the  innumerable  islands  scattered  in  the  great  Pacific  Ocean.   The  Munura 

Sujwrba  (Jifr.  83.)  is  the  most  remarkable  gal- 
linaceous bird  of  this  range.  The  Australian 
province  is  thus  in  fiill  accordance  with  the  dis- 
tribution assigned  to  the  Malay  variety  of  our 
I  species :  its  connexion  with  Asiatic  zoology  is 
unquestionable;  but  we  have  no  means  of  judg- 
ing into  which  of  the  three  remaining  divisions 
it  blends,  at  its  opposite  extremity.  Of  the  birds 
peculiar  to  those  remote  clusters  cf  islands  atl- 
joining  the  north-west  coast  of  America  we  are 
completely  ignorant ;  nor  ore  our  materials 
sufficient  to  furnish  even  a  plausible  conjecture 
ii;  the  subject.  Whether  the  Australian  province,  at  its  northern  limits  unites  again  with 
the  Asiatic,  the  American,  or  the  European,  must  therotbre  be  left  to  future  discovery. 

^V"  have  now  completed  a  general  survey  of  the  distribution  of  birds  over  the  globe.  The 
"n  ,1  {  wc  have  st  .ted  sliow  the  propriety  of  arranging  the  whole  inidcr  five  great  divisions  or 
provinces,  which  may  be  distinguished  is  Iho  European,  the  Asiatic,  the  American,  the 
African,  and  the  AustrJian :  each  of  these  corres(K)iMls,  with  little  variation,  to  the  geogra- 
phic distribution  assigned  by  authors  to  the  dift'orent  races  of  man.  Wo  must,  therelbre,  now 
adrpt  one  out  of  the  two  following  conclusions:  either  that  there  is  just  and  sufficient 
gi"i  liiid  for  believing  tliat  the  distribution  of  man  and  animals  in  general  has  been  regulated 
'r;,-  ■■  c  same  laws;  or,  that  man  and  bird.s  have  been  distributed  alike,  and  all  other  animals 
differently.  To  us,  at  least,  the  latter  conclusion  ap|)oars  highly  improbable ;  not  only  as  being 
unsupported  by  the  least  shadow  of  eviilence,  but  as  opposed  to  that  harmony  in  creation, 
which  is  more  apparent  the  more  it  is  viewed  in  all  its  relations. 

Sect.  V. — General  Summary  of  the  Subject, 

In  offering  these  elucidations  of  a  subject  so  vast  in  itself,  and  so  important  in  all  its 
bearings,  it  will  be  readily  perceived  that  two  different  relations  between  animal  groups  are 
alluded  lu;  one  v.'O  have  considered  us  of  affinity,  the  other  of  analogy  ;  and  as  the  truth  or 
fallacy  of  these  views  will  mainly  depend  on  the  justness  of  these  distinctions,  a  few  obser- 
vations upon  thoiii  o])pear  necessary.  Naturalists,  in  general,  have  considered  those  resem- 
blances whicli  exist  botwoun  certain  groups  placed  in  different  regions,  but  in  the  same 
parallels  of  1  ''ulo,  as  indicating  affinities;  and  on  this  supposition,  as  before  stited,  have 
framed  theorir  .ly  which  animal  geography  has  been  divided  into  zones  or  provinces,  limited 
more  or  loss  by  certain  degrees  of  latitude.  It  nuist  be  confessed  that,  upon  a  superficial 
view,  there  are  many  circunistjinces  which  appear  to  justify  such  a  theory.  Confining  our 
attention  to  that  department  of  nature  which  we  have  throughout  selected,  we  shall  partly 
recapitulate  our  former  observations. 

Tlie  arctic  regions,  in  one  sen.-e,  may  be  considered  an  ornithological  zone ;  for  not  only 
the  same  groups,  but  the  same  species  arc  Inmd  in  such  jj.irts  of  Europe,  America,  and  pro- 
bably Asia,  as  enter  within  its  limits.  But  admitting  this  to  the  full  extent,  let  us  ask  if 
these  regions — !)y  the  numlit",  \aricty,  and  peculiarity  ot'  tlujir  animals,  are  entitled  to  hold 
a  primary  rank  witii  the  great  geographic  groups  already  mentionnd  !  Is  there  to  be  met 
with  among  the  arctic  binls  numerous  species  which  are  not  distributed  far  beyond  such 
limits'!  Are  there  any  gen  r  o  or  siil  feneric  groujis  which  do  U'lt  occur  even  towards  the 
central  parts  of  Europe,  Asi;',  ;  I'.l  .\ii,.;  ica  !  Tiio.sc  i|uestions  which  uuist  bo  answered  in 
the  negiitive,  sufficiently  pro/i  thiil  thi;  arctic  regi  m.-;  vo  not  possess  tiu^  characteristics  of  a 
primary  division;  they  mu.s;  iither  he  hviked  Ui^-i' ii,  a  [wint  of  junction,  where  the  orni- 
tliology  of  the  three  northern  o  ,<tinent.s  Mends  and  n.innonizcs  together. 

The  tropical  regions  of  the  Ol.l  :ind  tiio  Now  Worlds  have  likewise  been  united  in  one 
province.  How  widely  the  ornithology  of  these  countries  really  differs,  has  been  already 
explained.  True  it  is,  that  in  numerous  instances  one  group  typifies  another,  ns  in  the  ca.se 
of  thr  Aiiiericaii  llurii:iiing-binls  (7V(«7iJ/((/rt')  being  ro|ir(vcnted  in  the  Old  World  by  the 
Sun-birils  (('/;u((/r/V/rtO;  and  such  ndatioiiship,  in  one  .sense,  is  certiinly  an  affinity,  inas- 
mucli  as  in  tin'  natural  system  tiiey  ap|)<'ar  to  tullow  one  another;  but  if  we  admit  such  a 
deLrn-r  of  affiriity  to  ho  a  sulVicient  guide  to  a  distributing  of  birds,  we  iruist  also  do  the  same 
with  regard  to  the  variilics  of  nnn,  sini.  !  both  app.^ar  dispers.il  upon  tlm  same  plan.  The 
red  Indian  of  .\merica  as  certainly  represents  tlie  black  negro  of  Africa  as  the  latter  does 
the  sooty  inh:iliit.ant  of  New  CJuinea;  yet  no  one  would  think  of  cla.ssing  them  in  the  !;.ame 
jace,  merely  because  they  inhabited  countries  under  similar  degrees  of  latitude.     The  dis- 


T;'*T  - 


Part  II. 

vc  positions 

itiiito.  All 
ociiliiir  cre- 
[iiigp  on  the 
'liH  Moniira 
irkablf!  (jal- 

AuKtraliun 
with  tliedis- 
iripty  of  our 
c  zoology  is 
sans  of  judg- 
ing divisions 

Of  tho  birds 
f  islands  atl- 
?rica  we  are 
ir  materials 
0  conjecture 
s  ajTam  with 
lovcry. 
ijlobo.    The 

divisions  or 
nerican,  the 

tho  geogra- 
lerefore,  now 
nd  Kiifficient 
en  regulated 
)ther  animals 
only  as  being 

in  creation, 


mt  in  nil  its 
lal  groups  are 
s  the  truth  or 
,  a  few  obser- 
thosc  rescm- 
t  in  tlie  same 
3  stated,  have 
incet--,  limited 
1  a  s'lperficial 
Confining  our 
e  shall  partly 

;  for  not  only 
irica,  and  pro- 
;,  let  us  asit  if 
ntitltMl  to  hold 
?ro  to  be  met 
r  beyond  such 
-n  towards  tho 
!0  answered  in 
iictoristics  of  a 
'here  tlie  orni- 

united  in  one 
s  been  already 

ns  in  llie  ease 

World  by  tiie 
I  alfuiity,  inaa- 
j  admit  such  a 
so  do  tho  same 
[ii(^  plan.     The 

the  latter  does 
nil  in  the  s,ame 
ude.     The  die- 


DOOK  til. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  MAN  L\  SOCIETY. 


275 


persion  of  particular  groups  and  of  their  spccie.s  upon  the  whole,  is  more  in  a  longitudinal 
than  in  a  latitudinal  direction.  This  is  exemplified  in  a  remarkable  manner  by  the  migra- 
tory birds,  whicli  invarialily  proceed  from  north  to  south,  or  from  south  to  north.  It  would, 
indeed,  appear,  that  if  animal  distribution  is  to  be  regulated  by  geographic  degrees,  as  accu- 
rate notions  miglit  result  from  making  the  divisions  of  longitude  as  of  latitude :  both,  how- 
ever, would  be  clearly  artificial. 

These  parallel  relations  of  analogy,  whicli  everywhere  present  themselves  in  the  animal 
kingdom,  nevertliolcss  deserve  our  greatest  attention,  as  fraught  with  peculiar  interest  to 
the  reflecting  mind.  There  are  throughout  nature  so  many  immediate  and  remote  relations, 
so  many  unexplained  ties  of  connexion,  that  the  most  careful  of  her  students  are  perpetually 
misled  in  attempting  to  trace  her  footsteps.  In  ordinary  cases,  the  admirable  distinction 
tlmt'has  been  drawn  between  affinity  and  analogy  {Hor.  Ent.)  is,  perhaps,  the  test  liiat  can 
be  given  ;  yet  instances  might  be  named,  in  which  even  this  is  totally  inadequate  to  the  end 
proponed.  Natural  relations  are  so  complicated,  tlmt  series  of  affinities  apparently  incon- 
testable, will  frequently,  upon  rigid  analysis,  turn  out  completely  erroneous;  proving  no 
more  than  that  nature,  however  diversified,  presents  so  many  points  of  general  resemblance 
and  of  connexion,  that  partial  harmony  will  result  even  from  a  false  combination  of  parts. 
Let  us  not  therefore  conclude,  as  is  now  too  generally  done,  that  by  synthesis  alone  we  can 
exhibit  the  true  affinities  of  nature ;  that  we  may  henceforward,  without  hesitation,  assign 
to  each  of  her  productions  its  true  station  in  the  scale  of  teing ;  that  we  have  suddenly, 
and  as  if  by  magic,  got  full  possession  of  that  mighty  secret  which  at  once  explains  her 
laws,  and  cxjxjunds  all  that  lias  perplexed  the  wise  and  confounded  the  learned,  since  science 
first  dawned  uiwn  man.  Tiiat  the  circular  system  is  the  nearest  approach  yet  made  to  the 
true  disposition  which  pervades  nature, — a  system  which,  from  the  perfections  of  its  Creator, 
must  be  replete  with  order  and  beauty  surpassing  our  utmost  comprehension, — is  indisputable, 
because  none  other  has  attempted  to  explain  the  relations  of  parts  and  the  unity  of  the 
whole  ;  but  farther  than  this  its  pretensions  must  not  be  carried :  it  still  involves  questions 
of  great  weight,  since  by  one  theory  tho  numter  of  its  primary  divisions  is  stated  to  be  five, 
while  by  another,  founded  on  much  more  extensive  analysis,  it  is  maintained  to  bo  three. 
The  searcher  after  truth  will  give  to  these  his  patient  investigation,  his  cool  and  unpreju- 
diced judgment:  he  may  then  hope  to  make  one  step  nearer  to  truth;  for  science,  in  all 
ages,  has  ever  remained  most  stationary  when  the  advocates  of  any  system  have  been  In()^'• 
prejudiced. 

It  is  with  these  qualifications  that  the  views  here  taken  on  the  distribution  of  man  and 
animals  arc  given  to  tho  render.  It  has  been  our  desire  to  trace  a  connexion,  and  a  unity 
of  plan,  in  both,  and  to  simplify  a  subject  hitherto  involved  m  much  intricacy.  How  far 
this  object  may  have  been  attained,  it  is  not  for  us  to  determine ;  but  ho  who  draws  proofe 
of  a  Divine  Creator  from  the  harmony  and  design  apparent  in  his  works,  has  surely  not  writ- 
ten in  vain. 


CHAPTER  III. 

GEOGRAPHY  CONSIDERED  IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  MAN  IN  SOCIETY. 

Man,  when  considered  not  os  a  mere  animal,  but  as  a  teing  endowed  with  thought,  reason, 
and  contrivance,  capable  of  social  intercourse  and  union,  must  be  regarded  as  the  moHt  con- 
spicuous object  in  the  delineation  of  the  globe.  These  attributes  raise  him  to  the  first  rank 
in  this  lower  world;  and  in  every  region  occupied  and  improved  by  him,  the  communities 
which  he  has  formed  become  the  most  prominent  characteristic ;  all  other  beings  are  there 
subordinate  and  subservient  to  him.  The  description  therefore  which,  hi  the  succeeding  part 
of  the  work,  will  be  given  of  tho  different  regions  of  the  globe,  must  be  chiefly  employed  in 
delineating  the  aspects  which  man,  as  an  active  and  social  being,  presents.  At  present, 
however,  it  would  be  premature  to  enter  into  tho  numerous  details  wiiich  this  sulijcct 
embraces.  We  can  do  little  more  than  indicate  the  following  general  heads,  under  wliich 
it  will  be  treated  : — 1.  Historical  Geography.  2.  Political  Constitution  of  the  different  coun- 
tries.    3.  Productive  Industry.    4.  Civil  and  Social  State  of  Man.    5.  lAiigiiages. 

Sect.  I. — Historical  Geography. 

A  survey  of  tho  history  of  man  is  neces.sary  for  enabling  us  accurately  to  understand, 
and  duly  to  estimate  his  present  condition.  Not  only  inanimate  nature,  but  even  the  animal 
and  vegetable  kingdoms,  if  left  to  themselves,  would  remain  constantly  in  the  same  situation : 
tho  ciiangcs  a:id  modifications  undergone  by  them  have  been  produced  entirely  by  man's 
interposition.  That  improved  an(i  civilized  form  under  wiiich  he  now  appears,  is  llio  result 
of  a  continmid  succession  of  changes,  which  have  teen  taking  place  from  the  earliest  periods 
of  authentic  history.  /Ml  the  revolutions,  teth  of  ancient  and  modern  times,  liavo  had  a 
grciter  or  less  influence  in  producing  the  presp'-.t  moral,  political,  and  social  condition  of  man 
in  the  more  improved  quarters  of  the  globe. 


#1^^ 


in 


4  'li 


^! 


.wg' 


'\ 


ffW 


Hi 


*5, 


PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY, 
SuBSKCT.  1.— Ancient  Ilittory, 


PartU. 


Ancient  history  is  generally  conHidcrcd  as  coniprelicndinj,'  the  period  wliich  claptiod  from 
the  earliest  authentic  records,  and  particularly  from  the  rise  of  the  jfreat  inonurciiicH,  to  the 
downfall  of  the  Roman  empire.  The  various  Ibrnia  which  govcrninciit  and  Kociuty  uasuined 
during  that  long  period,  though  they  were  instrumental  in  prcimring  thoHU  which  huvo  exist- 
ed in  the  modern  world,  did  nut  bear  any  exact  resemblance  to  them.  Through  tiio  cun(|uest 
of  Rome  by  the  barbarous  nations,  with  which  the  first  of  these  eras  closed,  almost  every 
connexion  between  them  was  cut  off,  except  those  of  record  and  tradition. 

The  rise  of  the  great  monarchies,  Egypt,  Assyria,  and  Babylon,  constitutes  the  first  grand 
epoch  in  ancient  history.  It  nearly  coincides  with  that  of  the  great  connncrcial  republics, 
Tyre  and  Carthage.  Human  society,  which  had  before  existed  in  a  very  rude  and  imperfect 
sliape,  began  to  assume  a  regular,  orderly,  and  oven  splendid  character.  All  the  arts  which 
contribute  to  man's  support  and  accommodation  were  carried  to  a  considerable  degree  of 
improvement;  and  the  toundation  was  laid  of  those  intellectual  attainments,  which  were  to 
constitute  his  highest  honour.  Alphabetic  writing  was  invented  and  widely  diffused ;  the 
arts  of  painting,  sculpture,  and  architecture,  made  a  considerable  progress ;  there  were  even 
formed  some  elements  of  science  and  philosophy.  During  this  periml,  too,  while  the  world 
generally  was  buried  in  the  darkest  superstition,  a  divine  revelation,  preparatory  for  another 
more  perfect,  having  been  first  communicated  to  tlie  patriarchs,  was  more  formally  disclosed 
to  the  legislator  of  the  Jewish  nation. 

The  Persian  empire  embraced  a  wider  extent  of  the  globe  than  any  that  had  previously 
existed,  and  comprehended  those  countries  which  had  been  most  remarkable  as  the  seats  of 
improvement  and  civilization.  Although,  however,  it  thus  became  instrumental  in  linking 
distant  nations  together,  it  bore  chiefly  the  character  of  empty  and  barbarous  pomp,  and  does 
not  appear  to  have  produced  any  material  advance  in  knowledge  and  improvement. 

The  rise  of  the  Grecian  States  formed,  perhaps,  the  proudest  era  in  the  history  of  the 
human  race.  The  constitutions  then  formed  afforded  a  degree  of  |)olitical  liberty,  and  a 
dovelopement  of  the  higher  energies  of  the  human  mind,  which  could  not  be  attained  in 
extensive  empires,  subjected  to  the  arbitrary  rule  of  a  single  individual.  The  military 
exploits  of  the  Grecian  people,  by  which  they  baffled  the  force  of  almost  the  wliole  known 
world  united  under  the  sway  of  Persia,  were  the  most  splendid  that  had  hitherto  illustrated 
the  annals  of  mankind.  Genius  was  exerted  with  nearly  unrivalled  jwwer  in  every  depart- 
ment ;  the  historic  pa.go  unfolded  its  utmost  degree  of  energy  and  beauty ;  and  many  sub- 
lime lessons  of  morality  were  taught  by  the  Grecian  snges.  The  lino  arts,  poetry,  painting, 
and  architecture,  reached  an  eminence  which  they  have  scarcely  since  regained,  and  in  each 
the  purest  models  were  loft  for  fiiture  imitation.  After  Greece  had  long  maintained  a  glorious 
defensive  war  against  Persia,  her  arms  were  directed  to  conquest.  Tiie  reign  and  triumphs 
of  Alexander,  while  they  subverted  her  admired  forms  of  civil  polity,  diffused  tier  language, 
her  arts,  her  knowledge,  over  a  wide  extent  of  the  eastern  world,  and  thus  spreatl  a  circle 
of  civilization,  the  traces  of  wliich  have  never  been  wholly  obliterated. 

The  dominion  of  Rfjme,  which  succeeded  and  overpowered  that  of  Greece,  extended  over 
a  still  greater  variety  of  countries  and  people,  than  had  been  compreheruled  under  any  for- 
mer empire.  Her  character,  at  first  stern  and  austere,  was  gradually  softened ;  and  on 
arriving  at  her  highest  pinnanlc  of  wealth  and  power,  slie  made  at  the  same  time  an  unri- 
valled display  of  the  jxMnp  and  refinement  of  polished  life.  She  emulated,  without  fully 
equalling,  what  was  m<wt  brilliant  ui  the  arts  and  intellectual  attainments  of  Greece.  But 
the  most  signal  service  which  Rome  rendered  to  the  cause  of  civilization,  was  by  extending 
its  empire  over  wide  regions  in  northern  and  western  Europe,  which  hwl  jireviously  been  the 
seat  of  almost  complete  barbarism ;  though  they  now  form  the  most  enlightened  and  im- 
proveil  portion  of  the  globe. 

SuftsECT.  3. — Modern  History. 

The  downfall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  which  marked  the  commencement  of  modern  his- 
tory, formed  one  of  the  most  remarkable  and  disastrous  eras  in  the  destiny  of  the  Aorld. 
During  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries,  a  succession  of  barbarous  hordes  from  Germany, 
Scandinavia,  Russia,  and  even  the  remotest  extremities  of  northern  Asia,  iX)urod  in  upon 
civilized  Europe,  and  exterminated  or  reduced  to  bondage  the  greater  part  of  its  people. 
All  the  arts  and  sciences,  which  had  shed  such  a  lustre  on  the  Greek  and  Roman  name, 
disappeared,  leaving  only  some  imperfect  remnants,  which  were  preserved  in  the  depth  ot' 
monasteries.  The  empire  was  partitioned  into  a  number  of  disorderly  little  kingdoms,  gra- 
dually merged  into  a  few  great  monarchies,  which,  m  their  general  outline,  have  eontinued 
to  the  present  day.  'J'his  era  was  also  distinguished,  in  the  East,  by  the  intriKluctioii  of  tlie 
religion  of  Mohammed,  and  the  rise  of  the  Saracen  power,  which  undertook,  by  force  of 
arms,  to  diffuse  that  religion  over  the  world.  I*s  armed  votaries  overran  a  great  part  of 
Asia,  Africa,  and  even  of  Europe,  and  continue  s'ill  to  maintain  a  powerfiil  influence  over 
the  destinies  of  the  human  species.     For  some  tiiii?,  the  states  formctl  under  this  system  pre 


PahtIL 


n<>oK  III. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  MAN  IN  SOCIETY. 


277 


uDMcd  from 
lues,  to  the 
ity  assumed 
I  have  exist- 
h(!  comiucst 
Iniodt  every 

0  first  grand 
al  republics, 
iiJ  imperfect 

0  arts  which 
Ic  degree  of 
hicli  were  to 
iliffused;  tlio 
ro  were  even 
ilc  the  world 
y  for  another 
ally  disclosed 

ad  previously 
s  the  seats  of 
ital  in  linking 
amp,  and  does 
iicnt. 

history  of  tho 
liberty,  and  a 
be  attained  in 
The  military 
.  whole  known 
;rto  illustrated 

1  every  depart- 
iind  many  sub- 
)Otry,  painting, 
ed,  ami  in  eacli 
lined  a  glorious 
II  and  triumphs 
.  her  language, 
sprcoil  a  circle 

,  extended  over 
vmdnr  any  for- 
flcned;  and  on 
c  time  an  unri- 
I,  without  fully 
r  Greece.  But 
lis  by  extending 
viously  been  the 
htened  and  im- 


of  modern  his- 

iiy  of  the  world. 

from  Germany. 

poured  in  upon 

rt  (if  its  people. 

.  Roman  name, 

in  the  depth  of 

kingdoms,  gra- 

luive  routinuod 

lr(Kluc;tio\i  of  tlie 

took,  by  force  of 

,  a  great  part  ot 

il  influence  over 

r  this  system  pre 


A 


sented  a  Bomcwhat  nnlightened  aspect,  and  even  revived  the  expiring  lamp  of  icience;  but 
tho  Himl  issue  of  Moi'.mii  asr(m(inncy  has  Ik'imi,  toditfuHO  through  the  world,  ignorance,  des- 
potism, Imrharism,  and  every  principio  hosrije  to  human  miprovemciit. 

'J'he  tl.'udai  syi-tem  was  e.  ibliwiicd  grachially  among  the  bari)iirinis  states  formed  out  of 
llie  (h»inemb(;re(l  portions  of  the  Koman  empire.  The  king,  or  chief,  distributed  the  terri- 
tory among  liis  nobhisor  Ibllowors,  Hubject  only  to  tho  condition  of  military  service.  These 
nobles,  possessing  almost  uncontrolled  jurisdictiim  within  their  own  limits,  holding  at  their 
liisitosal  the  services  of  numerous  vassals,  took  adviintJige  of  every  interval  of  wenknesn  in 
the  reign  of  the  sovereign,  and  rendered  his  power  little  more  than  nominal.  They  reduced 
tlie  body  of  the  people  to  a  state  of  comparative  slavery,  waged  numerous  private  wars  with 
each  other,  and  practised  various  robberies  and  extortions.  During  this  turbulent  erii,  all 
retined  arts  and  pursuits  languLshcd,  while,  on  the  basis  of  ignorance,  superstition  erected  an 
absolute  and  tyrannical  dominion.  The  institutions  of  chivalry,  however,  which  were  then 
formed  and  gradually  improved,  introduced  a  sense  of  honour,  and  a  dignity  and  rofmement 
of  manners,  which  have  beneficially  intluenced  modern  society.  This  perio<l  was  also 
marked  by  tho  piratical  inroails  of  the  Scandinavians  or  Northmen,  who  ravaged  all  the 
coasts  of  Europe,  and  obtained  at  least  a  temporary  possessicm  of  considerable  districts  and 
even  kingdoms.  It  was  morked,  lastly,  by  those  memorable  expeditions  into  the  East, 
called  tho  crusades,  which,  though  attended  with  groat  e.vtravagance,  and  occasioning  much 
disaster  and  bloodshed,  tended,  on  tho  whole,  towards  the  improvement  of  European  i)olipy 
and  social  life. 

Tho  subversion  of  tho  feudal  power,  accompanied  by  the  revival  of  knowledge,  arts,  and 
industry,  formed  a  most  memorable  era  in  the  history  of  mankind.  This  change,  which 
had  been  for  several  ages  silently  iJreiMiring,  was  carried  into  complete  effect  during  the  fif- 
teenth and  sixteenth  centuries.  The  turbulent  rule  of  the  great  nobles  was  then  broken 
down,  and  was  succeeded  by  several  extensive  but  mildly  administered  monarchies,  along 
with  some  free  and  commercial  republics,  and  in  one  instance  a  limited  constitutional  mon- 
archy. The  reformation  of  religion  eminently  distinguished  this  periocl ;  but  being  opposed 
by  the  violent  intolerance  of  the  Catholic  church,  it  gave  rise  to  a  series  of  dreadful  anri 
sanguinary  struggles.  A  general  activity  prevailed  throughout  the  whole  sphere  of  humnn 
exertion.  The  revival  of  learning,  the  invention  of  printinir,  the  extension  of  innritime 
enterprise,  leading  to  the  discovery  of  new  regions,  and  of  new  routes  to  those  tbrmorly 
known,  rendered  the  age  peculiarly  eventful  and  interesting.  It  derived,  however,  a  some- 
what disa.strous  character  from  the  ostablislimont  of  the  Turkish  empire  in  the  East,  by 
which  tho  throne  of  tho  Greek  emperors  at  Constantinople  was  finally  subverted,  and  very 
serious  alarms  spread  through  the  whole  body  of  tho  European  nations. 

The  mixlern  system  of  (xdity  followed,  as  the  result  of  the  great  changes  which  had 
taken  place  in  the  preceding  period.  During  tli(!  seventeenth  and  eigliteenth  cenfuries,  when 
it  prevailed,  civilization  made  very  remarkable  advances.  The  manners  of  social  life  became 
more  polished  and  refined.  The  arts  and  sciences  were  carried  nearer  to  perfection,  and 
more  widely  diffused  through  the  groat  htnly  of  mankind.  Amicable  relations,  before  un- 
known, were  established  between  the  difterent  nations  of  Europe ;  fixed  laws  were  agreed 
uptm  for  regulating  their  intercourst- ;  and  war,  when  it  did  occur,  was  carried  on  with 
greatly  diminished  ferocity.  The  system  of  colonization  in  the  other  quarters  of  tiie  globe 
was  also  carried  to  a  vast  extent,  particularly  in  America;  and  though  its  first  establishment 
was  attended  with  many  circumstances  of  injustice  and  tyranny,  it  had  tho  effect  of  bringing 
those  (juarters  of  the  world  into  a  more  improved  and  civilized  condition. 

The  era  of  political  revolution,  which  commenced  towards  the  end  of  tho  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, being  that  which  is  still  in  progress,  cannot  be  characterised  in  so  decided  a  manner. 
The  formation  of  the  great  monarchies  had  delivered  Europe  from  the  turbulent  sway  of  the 
feudal  chiellains ;  yet  the  almost  absolute  power  with  which  the  sovereign  was  then  invested, 
was  fouiid  productive  of  many  evils.  The  hereditary  nobles,  exchanging  their  rural  scats 
for  a  residence  in  the  groat  capitils,  and  indulging  in  eajie  and  luxury,  lost  all  influence  over 
the  Ixjily  of  the  people.  The  difliision  of  intelligence  and  wealth  through  the  middling  and, 
in  some  degree,  even  the  lower  ranks,  was  followed  by  a  demand,  on  their  part,  to  be  ad- 
mitted to  some  share  in  tho  administration  of  public  afliiirs.  This  spirit,  after  fermenting 
for  some  time,  and  being  <liffus('d  by  the  exertions  of  many  di.stinguislied  writers,  produced 
the  French  revolution,  and  the  extraordinary  series  of  events  which  have  thence  arisen. 
That  gretit  crisis  did  not  merely  agitato  tho  interior  of  France,  but  by  exposing  it  to  fiireign 
interference,  and  then  impelling  its  own  rulers  to  schemes  of  conquest,  it  changed  for  some 
time,  in  an  extraordinary  m-iimer,  tho  aspect  of  all  Europe.  Then,  however,  by  a  grand 
re-action,  France  was  driven  back  within  her  original  boundaries,  and  the  political  relations 
of  tho  Continent  were  re-established  nearly  on  their  former  footing.  Considerable  agita- 
tions, however,  still  prevail  in  the  interior  of  different  kingdoms,  and  their  political  constitu- 
tions have  suffered,  and  arc  likely  to  suffer,  material  altcr-itions. 

Vol.  I.  24 


m 


;i¥> 


\m 


i'i 


!  I 


Mi 
III 


91t 


I'RINCIPLKS  OP  (JKOOHAl'IIY, 


Past  II. 


Skit.  I[. — Vnlilkal  CniiKliiiitinn. 

The  political  constitutioii  iimlor  wliicli  unv  coiniimnity  milMintH,  forinit  a  mi<>t  important 
cleinuiit  in  iti)  social  cunditiun.  liinng  imuully  ustiiblihliiul  witliin  curtain  livul  Ixtixiduriug, 
and  acconi|)uniud  witli  a  iiiinilurily  in  nmniiorii,  religion,  uiid  otiier  ulmruclerii'tii;  i:ircuin- 
atanccH,  it  ih  the  leudin)f  a({cnt  in  conHtitutin^;  a  cmiiilry  ur  htato.  In  diMtriLaliii|f,  thuioloro, 
the  four  qiiurturH  of  tlio  ((lubu  into  thoir  Hinullur  portionx,  tho  )(uo);rn|>li)'r  utum  chi<*lly  uoliti- 
cat  divinionti.  IIu  findi)  Htutcn  which  liavo  niadu  any  profirfHi*  in  civilization  nrranKud  uito 
kinKdoniH,  entpiruH,  and  rcimblicd.  'I'ho  clomuntH  of  political  (wwor  uppuar  to  conaiat  of 
nionarcliy,  ari»touracy,  uiul  duinocrucy ;  whilo  th»  public  functions,  to  uo  exuiciHud  withui 
any  btutc,  ore  tlic  exucutivo,  loKiMlativu,  and  Judicial, 

A  kingdom  in  a  state  of  conBidurablo  though  not  vaut  extent,  governed  by  a  siiiglo  person, 
aa  France,  Spain,  PruiiKiu.  Tlie  subiectti  are  usually  united  bv  a  similarity  of  language  and 
manners,  anu  pervaded  by  a  national  spirit.  The  power  of  tlio  sovereign  is  commonly  cx< 
tensive,  though  controlled  in  Mume  instances  by  national  assemblies;  and  there  is  almost 
always  a  body  of  nobles  possessed  of  high  privileges  an<l  immunities. 

An  empire  generally  consists  of  a  number  of  detached  kingdoms,  which  have  been  united 
by  conipiust  under  one  head,  us  the  Turkish,  Persian,  and  Chinese,  Being  thus  formed  of 
an  aggregation  of  ditibrent  stiites,  empires  are  usually  of  very  great  extent ;  and  as  military 
force  has  been  the  instrument  of  tlicir  combination,  the  sovereigns  exercise  almost  always  an 
unlimited  authority.  The  dillerent  members  having  been  brought  into  union  by  force  only, 
rarely  feel  united  by  any  national  tie,  and  remain  very  dissimilar  in  manners,  religion,  and 
social  institutions. 

Republics  consist  of  states  which  own  the  supremacy  of  no  king  or  sovereign,  but  are 
governed  by  a  senate,  an  assembly  of  the  people,  or  by  Iwth  conjoined.  Though  these  govern- 
ments have  acted  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  history  of  tlie  world,  they  have  been  generally 
of  small  extent,  consisting,  in  many  instances,  of  not  more  than  a  single  city,  with  a 
limited  circle  of  territory.  Where  this  form  of  government  has  been  diffused  over  a  great 
surface  of  country,  it  has  consisted  usually  of  a  number  of  states,  Joined  in  u  federal  union. 
This  is  remarkably  the  case  with  the  United  States  of  America,  where  such  a  government 
has  been  introduced  on  a  scale  of  greater  magnitude  than  in  any  other  quarter  of  the  globe. 

Alonarcliy,  among  tlic  rlcmcnts  which  compose  the  |M)litical  system,  holds  the  most  con- 
spicuous place,  und  is  the  most  generally  prevalent.  In  some  coses,  the  power  of  the 
monarch  is  who'ly  or  very  nearly  absolute.  In  a  majority  of  instances,  however,  it  is  moro 
or  less  controlled  by  the  intlueiice  of  certain  powerful  and  privileged  bodies.  In  somi;  con- 
stitutions tlie  power  of  the  monarch  is  combined  with  that  of  aristocratic  and  |iopuli<i  bodies, 
which  share  witli  I  lie  sovereign  all  the  higher  functions  of  government.  These  are  called 
limited  monarchies,  und  are  well  adapted  (or  the  preservation  of  a  great  |)eople  in  u  state  of 
peace  and  pros(H;rity.  This  form  of  government,  after  being  for  a  long  time  confined  to 
Britain,  is  now  spreading,  though  with  some  difficulty  and  confusion,  over  the  rest  of  Kuropo. 

Aristocracy,  or  tlie  power  vested  in  a  distinguished  and  privileged  class,  is  found  existing 
much  less  frequently  as  a  distinct  and  decided  form  of  government,  than  as  an  element  com- 
bined with  monarchy  and  denioc  racy.  Venice,  perhaps,  oflbrded  almost  the  only  example 
in  which  aristocracy  subsisted  for  a  series  of  ages  pure  and  unmixed.  In  monarchies,  the 
aristocracy  consist  of  a  body  of  nobility,  possessing  various  gradations  of  personal  and 
hereditary  titles  and  rights;  while  in  a  republic  it  is  formed  into  a  deliberative  body,  or 
senate,  exerciring  or  sharing  the  powers  of  the  stote.  In  mixed  monarchies,  both  thesis 
privileges  are  usually  held  by  the  nobles. 

Democracy  is  liie  name  given  to  the  government  in  which  the  sovereignty  resides  in  the 
great  body  of  the  citizens.  They  exercise  it,  either  in  a  general  assembly  of  the  whole 
nation,  or  by  means  of  persons  elected,  during  a  certain  period,  to  act  for  the  body  of  their 
constituents.  The  former  was  the  mode  usual  among  the  ancient  republics ;  the  latter  is 
more  prevalent  in  modern  times,  and  is  alone  compatible  with  the  great  extent  of  territory 
occupied  by  the  leading  repul)lic8  of  the  present  day.  Popular  government  has  been  very 
generally  combined  in  a  greater  or  less  degree  with  aristocracy,  though  there  seldom  fails  to 
he  an  almost  incessant  opposition  between  the  two  parlies. 

The  legislative,  among  the  different  functions  of  the  body  jwlitic,  is  justly  considered 
supreme ;  it  establishes  the  laws  and  regulations,  according  to  which  all  public  affairs  are  to 
be  adiiiiniiitered,  and  to  which  the  persons  exercising  the  other  functions  are  bound  to  con- 
form. Countries  in  which  the  legislative  as  well  as  the  executive  power  is  exercised  by  one 
man,  form  absolute  inonarcliie:>,  where  every  thing  depends  upon  the  arbitrary  will  of  that 
single  individual.  A  purdy  aristocratic  logislaturo  is  commonly  felt  to  bi;  severe  and  oppres- 
sive by  the  great  Iwiiy  of  the  people.  A  government  cannot  be  considered  as  free,  unless 
the  Viirioiis  classes  of  wliicli  tlie  nation  is  composed  have  a  voice  in  hfgislative  arrangements. 
Those  political  systems,  however,  in  which  the  laws  are  enacted  by  the  whole  Ixxly  of  the 
Bsseinbled  people,  are  fitted  only  fiir  a  single  city  with  a  territory  of  limited  extent.  Of 
such  a  nature  and  scale  were  the  ancient  republics  of  Greece,  and  also  that  of  Rome,  during 


Part  IT. 


.it  important 
I  UiuiiiJurios, 
iwiic  I'.ircum- 
\g,  tlioriiloro, 
dw'Ay  vxiliti- 
irran({i3ij  ii'to 
to  consist  of 
rcisud  within 

aiiijjlo  pergoii, 
lttii){uui?o  und 
coiiiinonly  ex- 
ere  i»  almost 

re  been  united 
liUH  formed  of 
md  as  military 
iiost  always  an 
by  force  only, 
),  religion,  and 

reijifn,  but  are 
I  tliesc  fjovern- 
jeen  generally 

0  city,  wiili  a 
f!d  over  a  great 

1  federal  union. 
1  a  government 
sr  of  tlit3  globe, 
s  the  most  con- 
!  power  of  tlie 
ever,  it  is  more 

In  somt;  con- 
]iopuliM  bodies, 
hesc  are  called 
)io  in  a  state  of 
me  confined  to 
!  rest  of  Europe. 
i  founil  existing 
in  element  com- 
e  only  example 
monarchies,  the 
of  personal  and 
erative  body,  or 
shies,  both  these 

ty  resides  in  the 
i)ly  of  the  whole 
,he  bmly  of  tlieir 
ics ;  tlie  latter  is 
[tent  of  territory 
it  has  been  very 
re  seldom  fails  to 

UHtly  considered 
lilic  affairs  are  to 
ir(!  bound  to  con- 
exercised  by  one 
Irary  will  of  that 

vote  and  opprea- 
hI  as  free,  unless 
ve  arrangements, 
vliole  iKKly  of  the 

,od  extent.  Of 
t  of  Home,  during 


Book  III. 


IN  ITH  RELATION  TO  MAN  IN  SOCUrrY. 


a7'J 


llio  earlier  pfnodH  of  her  history.  But  wlien  the  whole  of  a  great  [d'oplo  are  convened  into 
u*m  pliice,  tlifv  furin  ii  ui'to  tiiMiiiltiiary  crowil,  inciiimlilc  of  any  regular  or  effectual  exer- 
rise  iif  li'giHliitivi!  functions.  Tins  diHiiiivantiigi  has,  among  iiiihIitu  nation.",  been  Htuiliously 
reinedieil  by  tiie  reprt'Hontative  Hyntcin,  unilcr  wliich  the  iulmbititlitH  of  each  different  dii»- 
trint  elect  lui  imiividnal  imilerNtfMxl  to  |k)mxch  tluMr  confidence,  wlio  exuniies  in  their  Rtead 
the  Icgisliitive  function.  U|xjm  this  IhimIs  liave  been  found'(!d  tliom-  constitutions  that  have 
been  considered  as  exhibiting  tli(>  most  pcrft'ct  forms  of  civil  |)<)lily. 

Tlie  juilicial  power  provides  for  the  .security  of  ptirson  and  property  niiiong  all  ranks  of 
individuals  composing  the  [Kditical  b<Mly,  and  Ibriiis  thus  one  of  the  arraiigeineuts  most  esaon- 
tial  te  genrral  prosperity  ami  wcll-bt'ing.  The  institutions  for  this  puriMise  vary  greatly  in 
different  nations  and  stages  of  society.  Among  very  rude  tribes,  the  individual  has  only  hia 
own  strength  and  that  ot  his  kindred  to  aid  in  repelling  aggression.  As  society  advanccH, 
tiie  adiiiiiiistratliiii  of  justice  between  iiiun  and  man  becomes  a  li'ading  object  of  public  con- 
cern. Ill  the  earlier  forms  of  jxility,  however,  the  executive  and  legislative  functions  are 
usuiilly  blended  ;  the  monarch,  or  his  dejmty,  sits  on  the  tribunal  of  judgment,  and  the  forms 
of  procedure  ore  exceedingly  simple.  The  parties  appear,  and  plead  thcnr. cause  vivdvoce; 
while  the  judge  decides  itnuiiptly  and  on  the  spot.  In  the  further  progress  of  improvement, 
it  is  discovered  that  this  branch  of  j)ublic  economy  cannot  bo  duly  executed,  without  being 
entirely  separated  from  the  legislative  and  judicial  departments,  and  made  independent  of 
them.  Hence  arise  the  different  orders,  judges,  lawyers,  ond  agents,  by  whom  the  different 
stages  of  prnnedun!  are  conducted ;  written  and  voluminous  codes  of  law  are  formed,  with 
the  view  of  providing  for  every  particular  case.  Yet  the  expense  and  delay  consequent 
upon  these  complicatiKl  arrangements  sonietimes  cause  the  society  to  look  back  with  regret 
on  the  t<iiiiplo  and  expeditious  machinery  employed  by  their  rude  ancestors. 

Other  important  particulars  nn;  comprehended  in  the  political  state  of  o  society : — the 
titles  nf  nihility,  and  the  badges  of  himour  and  distinction  among  individuals;  the  military 
and  naviil  force  employed  in  the  defence  of  a  country ;  the  demvnts  wliicli  compose  it;  and 
the  manner  in  which  these  are  arranged  and  dirocteif.  The  same  subject  cmbraceB  also  the 
revenue,  its  amount,  the  sources  whciico  it  is  derived,  and  the  manner  in  which  it  is  levied 
and  expended.  ,   , 

Sect.  III. — Proditrtive  Induntry. 

The  industry  of  a  nation  is  employed  in  producing  the  necrssarit's,  the  conveniences,  the 
ornaments,  and  the  luxuries  of  lite — all  that  is  comprehended  under  the  name  of  wealth.  It 
forms  thus  one  of  the  most  ini|X)rtant  constituents  of  their  prosperity  and  well-being. 

The  sources  of  national  wealth  are  usually  divided  into  three;  agriculture,  manufactures, 
and  commerce :  each  of  these  is  divisible  into  several  distinct  branches,  nor  can  the  cata- 
logue be  completed  without  including  the  two  occupations  of  mining  and  fishing. 

Agriculture,  including  the  moans  of  procuring  every  part  of  the  produce  of  land,  or  what, 
land  boars  on  its  surface,  is  unquestionably  the  grand  source  of  human  subsistence  and 
BCComnio<lation.  Hence  chiefly  are  derived  the  materials  used  in  manufacture ;  the  objects, 
in  the  exchange  of  which  commerce  consists.  The  modes  in  wliich  support  and  the  means 
of  enjoyment  arc  obtained  from  land  may  be  divided  into  three;  hunting,  pasturage,  and 
tillage,  which  last  being  the  only  form  in  which  labour  is  employed  upon  the  ground  itself, 
is  more  specially  considered  as  agriculture.  The  collection  of  the  spontaneous  fruits  of  the 
earth,  being  confined  to  a  few  tribes  in  the  lowest  stage  of  improvement,  scarcely  requires 
to  be  taken  into  consideration. 

Hunting,  or  the  chase  of  wild  animals,  to  obtain  their  flesh  as  food,  and  their  skins  an 
raiment,  is  the  earliest  and  rudest  mode  of  procuring  human  support.  This  employment 
re(iuiros  art  and  contrivance  as  well  as  bold  adventure;  but  is  usually  accompanied  with  rudo 
and  turbulent  habits,  and,  combined  with  tliem,  constitutes  what  is  called  the  savage  state. 
As  ciilturc  advances,  and  the  greater  proportion  of  the  soil  is  devoted  to  the  plough,  or  to 
the  support  of  tame  animals,  its  range  is  greatly  limited,  and  in  a  high  slate  of  cultivation 
becomes  little  more  than  tlie  amusement  of  the  opulent.  The  chase  of  the  fur-bearing  ani- 
mals, however,  still  affords  one  of  the  most  valuable  materials  of  commerce. 

Pasturage,  or  the  deriving  of  subsistence  fi-oin  herds  and  flocks,  tamed  and  trained  so  as 
to  be  subservient  to  the  use  of  man,  forms  a  more  improved  and  comfortable  occupation  than 
hunting.  Peculiar  habits  of  life  usually  distinguish  nations  subsisting  sohily  by  pasturage. 
They  are  often  destitute  of  any  li.\od  abodes,  moving  from  place  to  place  in  large  bands  or 
enc.iiiipiuents,  living  within  tlieir  tents  in  patriarchal  simplicity,  but  towards  other  nations 
practisiinr  on  a  great  scale  war  and  robbery.  These  habits  constitute  what  is  called  the  bar 
barous  state,  still  ['..-evn-lcnt  among  the  Arabs,  Tartars,  and  other  nations  occupying  an  exten 
give  portion  of  the  earth's  siirlace. 

Tillage,  or  the  culture  of  the  soil  by  the  jiroccsses  of  ploughing  or  sowing,  is  employed, 
by  all  the  more  improved  nations,  as  the  most  cllicacious  means  of  drawing  siibsisteiice  from 
the  earth.  In  proportion  to  the  general  improvement  which  any  people  have  attained,  ia 
usually  the  ekill  ami  diligence  with  which  this  mast  important  art  is  practi.^ed.     The  cora- 


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PMNCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY, 


Part  III. 


munity  which  derives  its  chief  subsistence  from  the  culture  of  the  soil,  merits  generally,  to 
a  ffreat  extent,  the  character  of  civilized.  Some  of  the  oriental  people,  as  the  Hindoo  and 
Chinese,  practise  this  important  art  with  an  indefatigable  industry  applied  to  every  available 
portion  of  their  soil,  which  is  scarcely  to  be  paralleled  elsewhere ;  but  in  Europe,  and  espe- 
cially in  Britain,  the  use  of  machinery,  the  skilful  rotation  of  crops,  and  various  improved 
processes,  render  the  same  measure  of  industry  much  more  productive.  The  objects  of 
culture  vary  exceedingly,  and  for  the  most  part  accoidinj>  to  the  varieties  of  soil  and  cli- 
mate. Grain,  the  mam  staff  of  human  subsistence,  forms  everywhere  the  most  extensive 
and  important  object  of  tillage.  Climate  chiefly  determines  the  grain  cultivated  ip  any 
particular  region.  In  the  tropical  countries  it  is  rice ;  in  the  best  part  of  the  tempcratu 
K)ne,  wheat  and  barley ;  in  the  colder  tracts,  oats  and  rye.  Of  luxuries,  wine  and  oil  are 
the  most  grateful,  and  in  the  most  general  demand;  tiiey  have  their  almost  exclusive 
growth  in  the  wanner  tracts  of  the  temperate  zone.  The  delicate  fruits,  from  which  they 
are  produced,  do  not  flourish  in  tlie  excessively  luxuriant  soil  of  the  tropics.  There,  how- 
ever, the  fragrant  aromatic  plants,  and  those  filled  with  rich  and  saccharine  juices,  produce 
valuable  substances,  which  are  eagerly  sought  after  by  the  natives  of  less  genial  climates. 

FiaheiT,  by  which  subsistence  and  wealth  are  derived  from  the  waters,  forms  a  peculiar 
branch  of  industry,  which  flourishes  in  every  stage  of  society.  Even  the  rudest  savages, 
wherever  their  situation  admits,  conjoin  it  with  hunting,  as  a  means  of  aflbrding  an  imme- 
diate supply  to  their  wants.  They  practise  it  often  with  a  great  degree  of  diligence  and 
contrivance;  but  the  progress  of  industry  leads  to  various  processes  for  extending  and 
improving  this  branch.  By  the  operations  of  salting  and  drying,  fish  is  rendered  fit  to  be 
conveyed  as  merchandise  to  the  most  distant  countries.  Some  of  the  great  maritime  nations 
send  large  fleets  into  remote  seas,  where  they  find  situations  favourable  to  this  pui'suit.  The 
whale,  die  cod,  and  the  herring  fisheries  have,  in  this  manner,  been  raised  to  the  rank  of 
great  national  concerns. 

Mining,  or  the  extraction  of  valuable  substances  from  beneath  the  surface  of  the  earth, 
can  be  extensively  pnictised  only  in  a  somewhat  advanced  state  of  human  industry.  Yet 
nature  has  lodged  in  these  dark  repositories  objects  the  most  essentially  conducive  to  the  use 
and  com^t  oi  man,  and  others  which  afford  his  most  brilliant  ornaments.  Here  are  found 
the  bright  and  attractive  metals  of  gold  and  silver;  there  the  solidly  useful  ores  of  iron  and 
copper;  here  glitter  the  diamond,  the  ruby,  and  the  amethyst;  there  e.xtend  vast  beds  of 
coal,  lime,  and  freestone.  Gold,  the  most  precious  of  the  metals,  is  often  the  most  easily 
accessible ;  but  we  can  scarcely  give  the  name  of  mining  to  the  operation  by  which  the 
savage  merely  collects  its  grains  in  the  sands  of  the  rivers,  or  even  extracts  it  by  pounding, 
when  mechanically  combined  with  other  substances.  But  metalti,  in  general,  when  lodged 
in  the  bowels  of  the  earth,  exist  in  the  form  of  ore,  intimately  and  even  chemically  united 
with  other  materials,  from  which  they  can  be  separated  only  by  smelting,  refining,  and  other 
elaborate  and  even  scientific  processes.  From  the  toilsome  nature  of  these  operations,  and 
from  the  gloomy  depths  in  which  they  ore  conducted,  it  is  often  difficult  to  procure  a  supply 
of  workmen ;  hence  slaves  and  individuals  condemned  for  crimes  have  been  employe<l  to  a 
later  period  in  this  than  in  most  other  species  of  labour.  Whatever  skill  may  be  employed 
in  mining,  it  is  necessarily  a  local  occupation,  nature  having  irregularly  and  almost  capri- 
ciously distributed  its  objects  over  the  different  regions  of  the  globe.  Even  the  experiments 
made  to  discover  whether  metals  are  lodged  in  any  particular  spot,  are  often  attended  with 
considerable  cost,  and  even  peril. 

Manufactures  may  be  regarded  as  a  process  by  which  man  creates,  as  it  were,  a  value 
for  himself.  He  cannot,  indeed,  make  any  new  substance;  he  can  seldom  even  alter 
essentially  the  quality  of  that  which  is  furnished  to  him ;  but  he  can  altogether  change  its 
character  and  quality,  can  convert  a  rude  and  shapeless  substance  into  one  eminently  con- 
ducive to  benefit,  convenience,  or  ornament.  The  excrescence  shorn  from  an  animal,  the 
pod  hanging  from  a  shrub,  objects  in  themselves  neither  useful  nor  beautiful,  are  converted 
into  commodious  and  magnificent  robes,  adorned  with  the  most  brilliant  tints.  Almost 
every  natural  product  requires  to  undergo  some  change  before  it  is  fitted  for  the  use  of 
civilized  man.  Grain  must  undergo  the  process  of  grinding  and  baking;  the  juice  of  the 
vine,  that  of  fermentation ;  even  animal  food,  that  of  cooking.  But  the  name  of  manufac- 
ture is  not  given  to  these  processes,  nor  to  any  which  do  not,  to  a  material  extent,  increase 
the  value  of  the  substances  on  which  they  are  employed.  The  various  articles  of  clothing 
form  the  principal  objects  of  manufacture;  next  to  which  rank  stufls  for  furniture,  metallic 
implements,  and  utensils.  Manufacturing  skill  and  industry,  carried  to  a  certain  extent, 
mark,  beyond  almost  any  other  circumstance,  the  advance  of  a  people  in  orts  and  civiliza^ 
tion.  The  savage  usually  employs  unalterecl  the  substances  with  which  nature  fiirni.hos 
him.  He  feeds  on  the  flesh  of^  tlie  animals  which  ho  has  killed  in  the  chase;  he  clothes 
himself  in  their  skins ;  he  consumes  in  their  crude  ptite  the  roots  and  herbs  which  tlie  earth 
spontaneously  aflbrds.  Even  the  nations  which  subsist  by  pfifiturago,  and  have  made,  per- 
haps, a  certain  progress  in  agriculture,  thoutrh  they  have  usually  acquired  a  desire  for  articles 
of  fine  monufiicture,  prefer  to  obtain  them  from  more  industrious  neighbours,  in  exchange  for 


m  consil 
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absence | 

Vol, 


» 


Boomin. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  MAN  AND  SOCIETY. 


281 


their  own  rudo  produce.  The  eastern  empires,  for  the  consumption  of  their  courts  and  great 
men,  produce  a  few  articles  of  exquisite  fineness  and  beauty  by  mere  manual  labour,  with- 
out any  capital  or  any  machinery  at  all  costly  or  complicated.  It  is  among  European  nations, 
that  the  two  principles,  the  division  of  labour  and  large  capital  employed  in  the  constraction 
of  the  most  ingenious  machines,  have  enabled  the  manuikcturer  to  produce  fabrics  which,  . 
for  abundance,  elegance,  and  cheapness,  have  surpassed  those  of  every  other  age  or  nation, 
and  have  found  their  way  into  all  the  markets  of  the  fflobe. 

Commerce,  the  third  grand  source  of  national  wealu,  does  not  even  aim  at  producing  any 
new  article,  or  altering  the  texture  or  quality  of  that  in  which  it  truffles.  It  merely  con> 
veys  it  from  a  place  in  which  it  is  superabundant,  to  another  in  which  it  is  wanted.  This 
sometimes  confers  an  exchangeable  value  on  that  which  previously  had  none ;  in  every  case, 
where  judiciously  exercised,  it  very  considerably  enhanced  the  value  attached  to  the  article 
which  it  conveys  Irom  one  place  to  another. 

The  home  and  the  foreigii  trade  form  the  two  great  branches  into  which  commerce  is 
divided.  The  former,  in  consequence  of  each  of  its  transactions  being  on  a  smaller  scale, 
and  affording  little  scope  for  brilliant  adventure  and  splendid  speculation,  attracts,  in  general, 
less  notice,  and  is  considered  of  inferior  political  importance ;  yet  it  is  proved  by  Smith  to 
be  by  much  the  most  extensive,  as  well  as  the  most  conducive  to  national  prosperity.  Its 
basis  consists  in  the  exchange  between  the  country  and  the  town,  of  the  grain,  cattle,  and 
other  raw  produce  of  the  one,  for  the  varied  commodities  framed  by  the  manufitcturing  in- 
dustry of  the  other,  or,  in  countries  of  great  extent,  of  the  raw  or  manufiictured  productions 
of  one  section  for  those  of  another.  lume  trade  is  either  coasting  or  inland,  the  former,  . 
where  practicable,  being  preferred  for  bulky  commodities,  or  those  to  be  conveyed  between 
distant  parts  of  a  kingdom ;  much  of  the  interior  commerce  also  passes  along  rivers  and 
canals.  Foreign  trade  has  no  limits  but  those  of  the  habitable  globe;  and,  for  reasons  simi- 
lar to  those  just  hinted  at  in  another  case,  the  more  distant  branches  are  considered  generally 
as  the  most  brilliant  and  important ;  while,  in  fact,  the  trade  with  the  countries  most  closely 
contiguous,  from  its  quicker  returns,  ranks  highest  in  real  amount  and  value.  Unfortunately, 
it  has  been  hitherto  much  fettered  by  the  jealousy  and  rivalry  between  neighbouring  nations, 
which  make  each  imagine  the  prosperity  of  another  to  be  gained  at  its  expense,  and  every 
commodity  received  from  them,  to  be  so  much  abstracted  from  its  own  wealth.  Although 
this  illiberal  system  has  somewhat  abated,  yet  the  consequence  still  is,  that  intercourse  with 
distant  colonial  possessions  is  more  sure  and  steady  than  with  any  power  entirely  foreign. 
The  extensive  capitals  now  possessed  by  some  European  powers,  especially  Britain,  enable 
them  to  carry  on  the  moit  extensive  commerce  with  countries  situated  at  the  greatest  di»- 
tance,  and  even  at  the  opposite  extremity  of  the  globe.  In  the  interior,  also,  of  the  great 
continents,  there  is  a  foreign  trade  by  land,  carried  on  by  caravans,  which  are  bo  numerous 
as  to  resemble  armies,  and  proceed  to  an  immense  distance. 

The  instruments  employed  in  conducting  and  &cilitatmg  commerce,  and  which  are  chiefly 
shipping,  roads,  and  canals,  form  the  most  important  part  of  what  is  called  the  fixed  capital 
of  a  country.    Under  the  head  of  roads,  the  invention  of  railways,  though  yet  only  in  its   '■ 
infiuicy,  promises  to  facilitate,  in  a  remarkable  manner,  the  interior  commimications  of  the 
countries  in  which  it  is  employed. 

Skct.  IV. — Civil  and  Social  Condition  of  Man. 

The  population,  or  the  number  of  individuals,  of  whom  any  community  is  composed,  forms, 
if  not  the  most  important,  at  least  the  most  prominent  circumstance  in  its  social  condition, 
and  one  on  which  its  magnitude,  and  its  place  in  the  scale  of  nations,  intimately  depend.  ,- 
The  ancient  statesmen  cjnsidered  the  increase  of  the  numbers  of  a  people  as  one  of  the  most 
important  of  national  objects,  with  a  view  both  to  its  prosperity  in  peace,  and  its  strength  in 
war.  Some  politicians  of  the  present  doy  take  a  different  view  of  the  subject,  maintaining 
that  population  in  all  circumstances  of  tolerable  peace  and  prosperity  easily  keeps  itself  on 
a  level  with  the  means  of  subsistence,  has  even  a  tendency  to  rise  higher,  and  by  its  super-  . 
abundance  to  produce  a  distressing  degree  of  national  poverty :  they  have  suggested  schemes 
for  checking  the  progress  of  population. 

The  actual  amount  of  the  population  in  any  particular  period  or  country,  has  been  involved 
in  considerable  uncertainty.    It  is  only  in  modem  Europe,  and  in  the  United  States  of  b 
North  America,  and  there  very  recently,  that  general  or  careful  enumerations  have  been  r 
made.    But  in  all  the  other  quarters  of  the  globe,  tlie  estimates  are  formed  upon  very  vague  . 
observation,  founded  on  the  density  with  which,  on  a  superficial  view,  the  districts  appear  to 
be  peopled, 

A  national  character  is  found  to  pervade  every  community.  The  particulars  have  been 
often  exaggerated,  fancifully  delineated,  and  rashly  and  indiscriminately  applied  to  indi- 
viduals ;  but  to  a  certain  extent  such  a  variation  mak  be  always  traced  between  one  people 
and  another.  The  grand  distinction,  founded  upon  tne  progress  of  arts,  letters,  knowledge, 
and  refinement,  is  into  savage,  barbarous,  and  civilized :  the  first  being  marked  by  the  total 
absence  of  these  improvements;  the  second,  by  the  possession  of  them  in  only  an  imperfect 

Vol.  I.  24*  2L 


288 


PBINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY, 


Pabt  n. 


and  progressive  degree ;  the  third,  by  their  having  arrived  at  a  certain  maturity.  The  savage 
state  prevails  among  the  natives  of  America,  and  tlie  islanders  of  the  South  Sea ;  the  former, 
however,  being  now  in  a  great  measure  supplanted  by  Euroiwan  colonists.  I'he  barbaroua 
state  is  general  throughout  Africa,  and  extends  over  a  great  part  of  Asia.  The  civilized  state 
is  found  in  the  great  empires  of  Eastern  Asia,  and  in  a  higher  degree,  as  well  as  under  dif- 
ferent chiuucters,  among  the  nations  of  Europe,  and  tiieir  widely-spread  colonies.  In  these 
last,  too,  civilization  appears  to  continue  in  a  progressive  and  advancing  state,  while  over  the 
rest  of  the  world  it  is  nearly  stationary. 

The  religion  professed  by  any  people  is  a  remarkable  and  most  important  feature  in  their 
social  condition.  Religious  opinions  do  not  come  directly  under  the  cognizance  of  the 
geographer ;  but  he  is  (»lled  upon  to  mark  this,  as  a  particular  in  which  nations  strikingly 
differ  from  each  other.  The  inhabitants  of  the  earth  may,  in  rerard  to  religion,  be  divided 
into  three  great  classes, — Christian,  Mahomedon,  and  Pagan.  The  first,  as  to  numerical 
amount,  does  not  exceed  the  second,  and  still  iiills  short  of  the  third ;  but  the  nations  pro- 
fessing it,  have  acquired  such  an  ascendency  in  arts,  social  improvement,  and  political 
power,  while  their  colonics  have  filled,  and  are  multiplying  over  ail  the  lately  savage  and 
unoccupied  portions  of  the  globe,  that  in  all  probability  this  faith  will,  in  a  few  generations, 
be  more  widely  diffiised  than  any  other.  Tlie  Mahomedan  nations,  though  in  numbers  they 
perhaps  equal  the  last  mentioned,  and  though  tliey  occupy  a  large  proportion  of  the  most 
fertile  regions  of  the  globe,  are  yet  sunk  into  such  a  state  of  slaveiy  and  degradation,  and 
80  decidedly  surpassed  by  the  Christian  people,  tliat  their  sway  is  not  likely  to  endure  above 
two  or  three  centuries.  Of  the  Pagan  religions,  much  the  most  numerous,  and  the  only 
civilized,  professors,  are  those  attached  to  the  kindred  creeds  of  Brahma  and  Boodh,  estab- 
lished, the  one  over  the  greater  part  of  Hindoetan ;  the  other  in  China,  and  other  continental 
kingdoms,  and  insular  territories  of  Eastern  Asia.  From  their  peculiar  habits,  and  the 
immutable  nature  of  their  institutions,  they  are  likely  to  adhere  to  these  systems  with 
greater  pertinacity  than  the  votaries  of  superstition  in  Africa,  the  South  Sea,  and  other 
quarters,  where  the  train  of  belief  and  observance,  however  fantastic,  is  of  a  slighter  and 
looser  texture. 

The  progress  of  knowledge  forms  a  most  conspicuous  chapter  in  the  history  of  the  human 
species:  it  follows  generally  that  train  of  civilization  which  we  have  already  delineated.  In 
surveying  difierent  communities,  various  particulars  connected  with  this  subject  are  highly 
deserving  of  the  attention  of  the  geographer.  Among  these  we  may  mention  the  most 
eminent  philosophers,  men  of  science,  and  authors  who  have  flourished  in  any  nation, — tlie 
institutions  formed  for  the  promotion  and  advancement  of  science, — the  degree  in  which 
knowledge  is  ditTused  throughout  the  community, — the  establishments  formed  for  public  and 
private  educatioa 

The  fine  arts, — which  are  intimately  connected  with  the  more  elevated  and  intellectual 
port  of  man's  nature,  and  of  which  the  successful  cultivation  confers  glory  on  a  people,  and 
polishes  and  improves  their  manners, — merit  to  be  considered  similarly,  and  under  the  same 
general  heads,  as  their  intellectual  attainments. 

There  ore  various  points  of  minor  importance,  M'hich  yet  are  distinctive  and  characteristic 
of  a  people,  and  excite  thus  a  just  and  natural  curiosity.  Such  are  the  amusements  in  which 
they  chiefly  delight,  the  peculiar  costume  in  which  they  are  attired,  the  species  of  food  on 
which  they  subsist,  and  the  liquor  by  which  they  are  exliilaratcd,  as  well  as  tlie  mode  in 
which  these  articles  are  prepared  for  their  use.  .-,  '      >. 

Skot.  V. — The  Langw^et  of  the  World. 

On  the  subjects  now  enumerated,  it  has  been  judged  sufllcient  to  indicate  their  nature, 
and  the  light  under  which  they  will  be  treated,  reserving  the  details  for  the  succeeding  part 
of  the  work,  when  they  come  to  be  considered  successively  in  reference  to  the  various  regions 
of  the  globe.  But  there  is  one  subject  into  which  it  will  be  expedient,  even  at  the  present 
stage,  to  enter  more  particularly. 

Language  is  one  of  the  strongest  characteristics  by  which  nations  are  distinguished  from 
each  other ;  at  the  same  time  the  dialects  spoken  by  different  communities,  even  when  most 
widely  dissimilar,  display  in  many  cases  relations  and  alliances  indicative  ol^  a  common  origin. 
There  exist  over  the  world  classes  of  languages,  each  of  which  comprehends  the  speech  of 
numerous  people,  and  forms  a  tie  between  them,  marking  early  relations  and  connexions. 
Language  thus  acquires  a  character  especially  geographical,  illustrating  the  origin  and  fami- 
lies of  nations,  and  the  connexions  between  different  countries.  It  will  then  be  advantageous 
to  consider,  in  a  large  and  comprehf nsivc  view,  first,  the  languages  spoken  generally  over 
the  globe,  and  then  those  which  prevail  in  its  different  quarters. 

The  languages  by  which  the  nations  of  the  earth  are  distinguished,  and  from  w  hich  are 
derived  tlio  names,  not  only  of  its  princ^l  features,  natural  and  artificial,  but  of  its  different 
regions,  and  of  the  placet  contained  in  them,  constitute  an  important  department  of  geo- 
graphy. When  we  contemplate  those  names  in  maps,  a  little  reflection  suffices  to  convince 
us  that  most  of  them  are  to  be  regarded,  not  as  mere  arbitrary  or  fortuitous  appellations,  but 


Book  III. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  MAN  IN  SOCIETY. 


u  terms  of  definite  meaning,  or  as  significant  memorials  of  the  people  by  whom  they  were 
imposed ;  and,  in  tracing  thoae  of  ancient  origin  through  the  mutations  they  have  undergone, 
we  are  compelled  to  summon  history  to  the  aid  of  geography,  for  the  purposes  of  cxplammtf 
them  with  reference  to  the  great  events  which  have,  from  time  to  time,  altered  the  political, 
civil,  and  social  condition  of  the  nations  composing  the  great  family  of  mankind.  Thus, 
without  adverting  to  tlie  rise,  growth,  and  extinction  of  kmgdoms  and  empires  in  Asia,  we 
may  observe,  tliat  the  series  of  revolutions  which  ended  in  the  overthrow  of  the  Roman 
empire,  and  the  foundation  of  the  existing  system  of  Europe  on  its  ruins,  is  in  nothing  more 
remarkable  tlian  in  the  change  which  it  contributed  to  produce  in  the  greater  part  of  the 
world,  through  the  migration  of  nations ;  a  change  so  absolute,  that  it  has  served  to  mark 
the  distinction  between  ancient  and  modern  history,  ancient  and  modem  geography,  and 
ancient  and  modem  languages.  Of  this  change  the  geographer,  equally  with  the  historian, 
is  at  every  step  of  his  investigations  reminded.  France,  for  instance,  commemorates  in  her 
modern  name  that  branch  of  the  Germanic  fiimily  of  nations  who  prevailed  in  Oaul ;  vet 
ahe  retains,  not  less  in  her  topographical  vocabulary  than  in  her  language  generally, 
unequivocal  traces  of  Roman  dommion ;  and  we  recognise,  though  strangely  curtailed,  the 
imperial  appellations  Augustodunum  and  Aureliana,  in  Autun  and  Orleans.  Italy  and 
S{Hiin,  preserving  semblance  of  their  ancient  names,  exhibit  similar  instances  of  disfigure- 
ment in  those  of^rticular  places :  Forum  Julii  and  Casar-Augusta  survive  in  Frinli  and 
Saragosm ;  but  the  Trasimene  suggests  a  less  classic  reminiscence  as  the  lake  of  Perugia ; 
nor  can  the  Betis  and  the  Durias  be  recognised  under  the  more  sonorous  names,  the  Gua- 
dalquivir and  the  Guadalaviar  (the  great  river  and  the  white  river),  conferred  on  them  by 
the  Arab  conquerors  of  Sp&in.  Apptsllatives,  also  derived  from  languages  little  known, 
whether  ancient  or  modem,  are  liable  to  mutilation  from  the  varying  orthography  of  travel- 
lers ;  and  we  can  no  longer  wonder  at  the  confUsion  caused  by  voyagers  in  this  particular, 
when  we  call  to  mind  the  difference  not  only  between  foreign  and  vernacular  names,  but 
between  their  written  and  oral  expression ;  as  when  a  German  spells  his  native  country 
Deutschland,  and  pronounces  it  Teytshland;  or  a  Persian  writes  for  Persia  Iran,  and  pro- 
nounces it  Eeratin.  But  the  different  idioms  of  the  human  race  claim  our  attention  from 
(kr  higher  considerations  than  the  mere  naming  of  places  or  of  countries ;  for  geography, 
considered  as  an  auxiliary  to  what  has  been  emphatically  called  "  the  proper  study  of  man- 
kind," is  principally  valuable  as  combining,  with  a  description  of  the  earth,  a  view  of  the 
different  branches  of  the  great  human  family  by  whom  such  vast  portions  of  it  have  been 
"  replenished  and  subdued." 

Ethnography  is  the  term  \vhich  has  been  employed  to  designate  this  branch  of  geographi- 
cal science.  It  distinguishes  nations  by  their  languages,  and  professes  to  class  them  in  kmg- 
doms, families,  genera,  speciep  and  varieties;  but  this  systematic  arrangement  is  as. yet  ftr 
from  being  completed.  Of  the  numerous  languages  that  are  or  have  been  spoken  on  the  e&rth, 
many  are  so  imperfectly  known  that  it  is  difficult  to  determine  to  what  family  they  belong. 
For  this  and  other  reasons  it  has  been  deemed  expedient  by  a  modem  writer,  who  appears  to 
have  collated  the  labours  of  his  predecessors  on  the  subject,*  to  adopt  a  geographical  arrange- 
ment, and  consider  languages  in  their  relation  to  the  five  great  divisions  of  the  globe;  the 
Asiatic,  the  European,  the  African,  the  Oceanic,  and  the  American.  It  is  obvious,  how- 
ever, that  the  ethnographical  and  geographical  limits  of  a  nation  and  its  language  may  be 
widely  different;  the  Spanish  and  the  British,  for  instance,  extend  ethnographically  to  the 
remotest  regions  of  both  the  Indies.  Adopting  this  arrangement,  not  only  as  most  convenient 
in  regard  to  a  branch  of  knowledge  still  in  its  infancy,  but  as  most  suitable  to  a  geographi- 
cal treatise,  we  shall  proceed,  without  pausing  to  discuss  the  merits  of  any  particular  theory, 
to  oflTer,  in  this  and  subsequent  parts  of  the  present  work,  such  a  succinct  view  of  the  known 
languages  of  mankind  as  its  just  proportions  will  allow. 

The  distribution  of  languages  into  Shemitic,  Hamitic,  and  Japhetic,  according  to  the 
scriptural  account,  seems  however  entitled  to  some  notice,  as  being  well  warranted  in  rela- 
tion to  the  early  languages  of  the  world,  if  we  can  reconcile  our  thoughts  to  an  affinity  of 
languages  after  their  confusion,  and  the  consequent  dispersion  of  the  human  race.  It  has 
been  placed  in  a  striking  point  of  view  by  the  able  author  of  the  "  History  of  Maritime 
and  Inland  Discovery,"  in  Dr.  Lardner's  Cabinet  Cyclopadia ;  and  a  brief  sketch  of  his 
observations  may  be  useful  as  an  introduction  to  an  account  of  languages  more  strictly 
geographical. 

On  reference  to  the  sacred  records,  we  find  that  in  the  order  in  which  the  generations  of 
the  sons  of  Noah  are  given,  Japheth  takes  precedence  of  Ham  and  Shem,  and  is  called  the 
elder.  This  the  learned  writer  we  are  now  citing  has  not  noticed ;  he  has  taken  the  names 
in  the  order  which  long  and  universal  usage  has  sanctioned. 

"  The  family  of  Shem,"  he  observes,  "  comprised  the  pastoral  nations  which  were  spread 
over  the  plains  between  the  Euphrates  and  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  from  Ararat  to 
Arabia.    The  Hebrews  themselves  were  of  this  stock ;  and  the  resemblance  of  their  Ian- 


*  Beibi,  Atlas  Ethnographique  du  Globe.    Parin,  VdH. 


I 


i 


4 


384 


PWNCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY, 


Pakt  n. 


gyutge  with  the  Aramean,  or  ancient  Syrian,  and  with  Arabic,  sufficicntlv  proves  the  iden- 
tity in  race  of  what  are  called  the  Shemitic  nations.  There  is  no  difficulty  in  oiwigning  to 
each  of  the  sons  of  Shorn  his  proper  situation.  Elam  founded  the  kin(j^om  of  Elymeis ; 
Assur,  that  of  Assyria;  and  Aram,  the  kingdom  of  Aramcu  or  Syria,  a  name  Mtill  clearly 
preserved  in  that  of  Armenia.  From  Arphaxad  were  descended  the  Hebrews  tliomselvos, 
and  the  various  tribes  of  Arabia ;  and  this  close  affinity  of  origin  waN  always  manifust  in  the 
lanffuage  and  in  the  intimate  correspondence  of  the  two  nations.  Some  of  tlie  names  given 
by  Moses  to  the  children  of  Shem  are  still  used  in  Arabia  as  local  designations :  thus  there 
is  still  in  that  country  a  district  called  Havilah ;  and  Uzal,  the  name  given  to  Sana  by  the 
sacred  historian,  is  not  quite  extinct. 

"  The  descendants  of  Ham,"  continues  this  learned  writer,  "  constituted  the  most  civilized 
and  industrious  nations  of  the  Mosaic  age.  The  sons  of  that  patriarch  were  Cush,  Mhraim, 
Phut,  and  Canaan.  The  naine  of  Ham  is  identical  with  Cham  or  Chamia,  by  which  Egypt 
has  in  all  ages  been  called  by  its  native  inhabitants ;  and  Miter  or  Mitraim  is  the  name  by 
which  the  same  country,  or  more  probably  the  Delta,  is  still  known  by  the  Turks  and  Ara- 
bians." [We  may  add,  that  it  is  the  name  by  which,  in  the  original  Hebrew,  Egypt  is  called 
in  the  admonition  that  precedes  the  decalogue.]  "  The  land  of  Phut  appears  to  signify  Libya 
in  general ;  and  the  name  Cush,  though  sometimes  used  vaguely,  is  obviously  applied  to  the 
southern  and  eastern  parts  of  Arabia.  The  names  of  Saba,  Sabtah,  Ra^ah,  and  Sheba, 
children  of  Cush,  have  long  survived  in  the  geography  of  Arabia.  The  posterity  of  Canaan 
rivalled  the  children  of  Mizraim  in  the  early  splendour  of  arts  and  cultivation.  Though  the 
Canaanites,  properly  speaking,  and  the  Phoenicians,  were  separated  from  each  other  by 
Mount  Carmel,  yet,  as  tlie  same  spirit  of  industry  animated  both,  they  may  in  a  general 
sense  be  considered  as  one  people.  The  Phoenicians  possessed  the  knowledge  of  the  Egyp- 
tians, free  from  superstitious  reluctance  to  venture  upon  the  soa.  Their  local  position 
naturally  engaged  them  in  commercial  enterprise.  Their  chief  cities,  Tyre  and  Sidon,  had 
reached  the  highest  point  of  commercial  opulence,  when  the  first  dawn  of  social  polity  was 
only  commencmg  in  Greece." 

To  Japheth,  "  the  Japetus  of  the  Greeks,"  this  writer  concurs  with  others  in  ascribing 
the  superiority  over  the  sons  of  Noah,  if  not  in  the  number  of  his  descendants,  in  the  extent 
of  their  possessions.  All  the  Indo-Teutonic  nations,  stretching  without  interruption  firom 
the  extremity  of  Western  Europe,  through  the  peninsula  of  India,  to  the  isle  of  Ceylon,  he 
considers  as  belonging  to  this  common  ancestor.  The  Turkish  nation  also,  occupying  the 
elevated  countries  of  central  Asia,  boasts  the  same  descent.  Their  own  traditions  accent 
with  the  Mosaic  history;  and  indeed  the  affinities  of  language,  which  arc  still  evident  among 
all  the  nations  of  the  Japhethian  family,  fully  confirm  the  relation  of  the  sacred  writer ;  yet 
the  meaning  assigned  to  the  patriarch  s  name  in  the  Sanscrit  language,  Yapati,  "  lord  of 
the  earth,"  tells  for  nothing  unless  we  can  suppose  the  name  Japheth  to  be  thence  derived. 

To  Gomer,  the  eldest  of  Japhetli's  sons,  is  ascribed,  on  the  authority  of  Joscphus,  the 
distinction  of  being  ancestor  of  the  Celts.  Magog  may  have  been  the  founder  of  some 
Scythian  nation.  Madai  is  recognised  as  the  ancestor  of  the  Mcdes.  The  posterity  of  Ja van 
and  Tubal,  and  Meshech  and  Tiros,  may  be  traced  from  Ararat,  always  called  Masis  by  its 
inhabitants,  througli  Phrygia  into  Europe.  Tubal  and  Meshech  left  their  names  to  the 
Tibareni  and  Moschi,  Armenian  tribes,  whose  early  emigrations  appear  to  have  extended 
mto  Moesia.    In  lite  manner  tiie  Thracians  may  have  owed  their  origin  to  Tiras. 

That  the  progeny  of  Japheth  peopled  Europe,  seems  apparent  on  another  ground,  which 
we  shall  explain,  after  mentioning  the  remaining  branches  of  his  posterity.  Ashkenaz,  the 
son  of  Gomer,  is  thought  to  be  that  Ascanius  whose  name  so  frequently  occurs  in  the  ancient 
topography  of  Phrygia,  and  from  whom,  probably,  the  Euxinc,  at  first  the  Axine,  Sea  derived 
its  appellation.  "  In  To^rmah,"  observes  this  writer,  "  we  see  the  proper  ancestor  of  the 
Armenian  nation,  and  it  is  even  asserted  by  the  Turks." 

"  Javan  was  the  Ion  of  the  Greeks,  the  father  of  the  lonians.  In  the  names  of  his  sons 
we  find  fresh  proofs  of  the  consistency  of  the  Mosaic  history.  In  Elishah  we  see  the  origin 
of  Ellis  or  Hellas.  The  name  of  Tarshish  is  supposed,  with  little  foundation,  to  refer  to 
Tarsus  in  Cilicia.  Kittim  is  said  to  mean  Cyprus ;  and  Dodanim,  or  Rodanim,  is  understood 
to  apply  to  the  island  Rhodes."  Here  we  may  remark,  that  the  sacred  text  contains  a  most 
important  record  relative  to  the  descendants  of  Japheth :  "  By  these  were  the  isles  of  the 
Gentiles  divided  in  their  lands,  every  one  after  his  tongue  after  their /amt{tes,  in  their 
nations."  Now,  if  the  Oriental  latitude  of  expression  be  allowed  in  this  instance,  the  isles 
of  the  Gentiles  must  include  not  only  the  isui»  of  the  Mediterranean  and  other  European 
seas,  but  the  peninsulas  of  Asia  Minor,  of  Greece,  of  Italy,  and  of  Spain. 

To  the  Phoenicians  must  be  partly  ascribed  the  discovery  of  those  territories  collectively 
called  "  The  isles  of  the  Gentiles,"  and  the  earliest  intercourse  with  them.  Unfortunately 
those  early  navigators  have  left  no  records  of  tlieir  discoveries ;  and  the  little  wo  know  of 
their  enterprises  is  derived  from  Scripture,  and  from  the  scattered  notices  of  the  Greek  and 
Latin  authors.  Tliey  were,  as  elsewhere  oliserved,  the  pilots  of  Solomon's  fleet ;  and  as  often 
as  the  fleets  of  Egypt  arc  mentioned  by  ancient  historians,  we  find  them  manned  and  guide<) 


yet 


BooRni. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  MAN  IN  SOCIETy. 


i286 


by  PhcBniciana,  Their  commercial  enterprises  had  contributed  to  augment  the  wealth  of 
that  kinij^dom,  which  had  attained  a  hi^h  degree  of  social  order  and  economy  seven  hundred 
years  before  the  Greeks  became  acquainted  with  the  use  of  money.  The  numerous  tolonies 
which  they  planted  along  the  shores  of  the  Euxino,  the  Mediterranean,  and  the  Atlantic, 
beyond  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  attest  the  extent  of  their  early  voyages.  Those  of  Utico, 
Carthage,  and  Gades,  or  Cadiz,  were  founded  between  twelve  and  eight  hundrod  years 
bofbre  the  Christian  e*u ;  but  the  seas  of  the  west  were  probably  explored  for  ages  before 
settlements  were  formed  at  such  a  distance  from  the  parent  state.  Their  geogrnphical 
knowledge,  even  in  the  febulous  times  of  Greece,  probablv  embraced  as  large  a  portion  of 
the  earth  as  that  of  the  Romans  in  the  time  of  Augustus ;  but,  with  the  caution  charnclcristic 
of  a  mercantile  people,  they  forbore  to  communicate  that  knowledge  to  the  rest  of  mankind. 
The  silence  of  these  descendants  of  Ham  leaves  us  in  uncertainty  as  to  the  progress  of  those 
of  Japheth  in  peopling  the  continent,  the  peninsulas,  and  the  isles  of  Europe.  In  still  deeper 
mystery  is  involved  the  descent  of  the  negro  tribes  of  Africa  from  the  father  of  Canaan. 
Having  thus  briefly  characterized  the  Sheniitic,  Hamitii,  and  Japhetic  races,  we  leave  to 
the  consideration  of  the  curious  the  tlieories  that  have  been  fnitnud  upon  them  in  respect  to 
the  different  idioms  of  mankind,  and  revert  to  the  geographical  arrangement  which  we  pro- 
poM  to  adopt 

Separating  all  the  known  languages  of  the  globe  into  five  grand  divisions,  we  name  them 
the  Asiatic,  the  European,  the  African,  the  Oceanic,  and  the  American,  according  to  the 
part  of  the  world  in  which  they  are  spoken.  Then  tracing,  according  to  the  best  authori- 
ties, the  several  languages  by  their  affinities,  we  class  those  which  appear  to  be  sister  idioms 
in  one  group,  assigning  to  it  a  distinctive  name ;  as  the  Mongolian  mmily,  the  Celtic  family, 
or  the  Sanscrit  family,  conformably,  in  most  cases,  to  tlie  name  of  the  principal  people  of 
each  of  those  families.  But  here  a  difficulty  arises  fVom  the  variance  between  geographic 
and  ethnographic  limits.  Several  nations  included  in  one  of  these  groups  have  dwelt  from 
time  immemorial  at  once  in  Asia,  Africa,  and  Europe ;  others  in  regions  partly  European, 
partly  Asiatic :  to  which  part  of  the  world  then  must  the  family  be  assigned  to  which  those 
nations  belong !  Two  reasons  influence  the  decision ;  the  historical  importance  of  the  people, 
and  its  mass,  or  relative  number,  as  may  be  better  understood  from  one  or  two  examples. 

That  the  Chaldeans,  the  Assyrians,  the  Arabs,  the  Hebrews,  and  other  nations  of  the 
great  Shemitic  family,  were  from  the  earliest  times  inhabitants  of  Western  Asia,  we  know 
from  the  writings  of  Moses,  with  which  tlie  results  of  the  most  eminent  philologers  and 
mathematicians  wonderfully  agree.  These  nations,  therefore,  belong  unquestionably  to 
Asia ;  and  the  comparison  of  the  Gheez  and  Amharic  vocabularies  having  demonstrated  an 
indisputable  affinity  between  them  and  the  people  of  Abyssinia,  who  speak  the  idioms  com- 
prehended in  the  branch  called  Abyssinian,  the  languages  of  the  latter  also  are  classed  in 
the  Asiatic  branch,  though  in  all  epochs,  even  anterior  to  historical  tradition,  those  nations 
have  dwelt  in  Africa. 

The  great  mass  of  the  Malay  people  occupies  almost  all  the  isles  of  the  Indian  Archi- 
pelago, those  of  Polynesia,  and  some  of  Australia.  Hence  we  regard  the  Malay  family 
as  Oceanic,  and  class  all  the  people  characterized  by  this  idiom  as  belonging  to  that  great 
ethnographical  group.  Thus,  besides  the  Malays  of  the  peninsula  of  Malacca,  whose  settle- 
ment in  the  extremity  of  Asia  is  of  no  remote  date,  this  division  includes  the  Si  Delia  or 
Formosans  of  Asia,  and  the  Madecasses  of  the  African  isle  Madagascar. 

The  Uralian  nations  belong  equally  to  Europe  and  Asia ;  because,  from  the  little  we 
know  of  them,  they  have  inhabited,  time  out  of  mind,  the  north-east  and  east  of  Europe, 
and  the  north-west  and  west  of  Asia.  Following  the  demarcation  prescribed  by  M.  Malte 
Brun,  we  find  that  the  great  mass  of  the  Uralian  or  Finnish  nations  belongs  to  Europe.  Wo 
therefore  regard  the  Finnish  family  as  European,  and  class  among  them  all  the  ancient  and 
modern  nations  who,  from  striking  analogies  in  their  respective  idioms,  seem  to  belong  to 
them. 

The  Esquimaux  have  from  time  immemorial  extended  over  all  the  north  of  the  New 
World ;  while  the  sedentary  Tchutchhis,  who  speak  a  language  evidently  related  to  the 
idioms  of  those  American  tribes,  occupy  only  the  extreme  nortli-cast  of  Asia.  The  Tchutch- 
his we  therefore  consider  as  American  colonies,  ond,  following  the  precedent  of  Balbi, 
re-unite  them  as  such  to  the  other  nations  of  America  who  form  the  family  of  the  Es- 
quimaux. 

Under  a  perfect  ethnographical  arrangement,  the  languages  of  the  Indo-Germanic  nations, 
extending  from  Ceylon  and  the  Ganges  to  the  extreme  west  of  Europe,  and  even  to  Ice- 
land, would  form,  not  a  single  family,  but  rather  an  ethnographic  kingdom  divided  into  six 
families. 

In  subsequent  parts  of  this  work,  the  languages  of  the  earth  will  be  considered  as  divided 
into  five  principal  branches ;  the  European,  the  Asiatic,  the  African,  the  American,  and 
the  Oceanic. 


T'f^ 


\ 


ll' 


I 

'i 


MAP  OF  EUROPE— WBR  pakt. 


Fia.  84. 


t'>  lUlKlUHWl 


•  Id  J 
*3 


toifiiailt      t      WM 


^4: 


Fia.  80.      * 


MAP  OF  EUROPK— nurr  past. 


987 


La^ilule  Eail   ia      fnm  Oimwicb      Jt 


.*    '■ 


'$•'.. 


h 


1. 


DESCRIFTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 

PART  III. 


«    Past  Of. 


■^ 


GEOGRAPHV  CONSIDERED  IN  RELATION  TO  THE  VARIOUS  REGIONS 

OP  THE  GLOBE. 

In  the  second  part  of  thia  work,  tho  princi^es  of  ffco|propliy  havo  been  treated  of  lui 
tnunilud  upon  a  (general  aurvey  of  the  ^lobo.  The  mo8t  cxtoniivo  portion  of  our  task  itill 
renminH.  We  must  delineate  tho  leadinjf  objects  of  nature,  art,  and  human  life,  aa  they 
appear  Mucceaiiively  in  eacli  diflbrent  region  into  whicli  tho  earth  ia  divided. 

Five  gtoBit  general  divisions  of  the  earth  are  now  uaually  rccoffnized : — 1.  Europe,  2. 
Aaio.  '.i.  Atirica.  4.  America.  5.  The  extensive  and  numerous  islands  of  tho  South  Sea, 
to  which  tile  PVench  give  the  name  of  Oceania,  tho  Enf^lish  those  of  Australasia  and  Poly- 
iieaia,  to  which  wo  may  add  the  islands  of  the  Polar  Sea.  Each  of  these  will  form  the  wb- 
ject  of  a  separate  book. 


BOOK    L 
EUROPE. 


Europe  ia  tlie  smallest  in  extent  of  the  four  great  continenta,  and  yet  we  may  pronounce 
it  the  moHt  important  of  all  the  divisions  of  tho  globe.  Asia,  indeed,  was  tlie  cradle  of 
civilization  and  knowledge;  but  her  empires  soon  became,  and  havo  over  since  continued 
<<tationnry ;  while  Europe  has  carried  tlie  sciences,  arts,  and  refinement,  with  almost  unin 


ENGLAND. 

I,  lliirhani 

5.  Miruoih 
».  ('arlialo 

4.  Ki  ndiil 

5.  Y.irk 

fi,  Mnnchonlcr 
7,  I.incolii 
8. 1'hi-iler 

II.  im.  AiiHpn 

10.  t'ltnliiinn 

11.  Llandiiir 
W.  Wnri'oitir 
I'l.  (iloiici>Hifr 
14.  IVtvrlMiriiUKh 
IV  Niirwirh 

IR.  I'ainliridin 
17.  riinioibury 
la.  piivFr 
111.  I.uniltin 
'iO.  Mnnrheiter 
«l.  HriMol 
U-i.  PiHiIo 
t£).  KxeMr 

SCOTLANO. 
1.  Thunii 
%  Ulvptn'iBa 
:i.  BiinfT 

4.  Aberdeen 
.1.  Penh 

6.  Kdinliurgh 

7.  Selkirk 

8.  Ayr 

JREtiANIl. 

1.  l.ondiindurry 

5.  8lif  (> 

3.  Galwar 

4.  Limerick 

5.  Ork 

6.  Woxfiird 
T.  n<ildin 

C.  llriiiheda 

9.  Beinist 

NORWAY. 

1.  Ralldillnil 

3.  SelneH 

:!.  Rys  Vniid 

4.  PirviiB 

.'i.  Ilrnritnpim 
(1.  Roir.adnl 

7  Fiiide 

8  Ardiit 

9  Lni'riK 
10  HiTjun 
It.Ti.nihil 
li.  P'ftvftniTpr 
n.  ('hrialinnpiiiul 
14.  Tdiwlierit 

iy  Kunrrlferg 
in.  Oiiid' 
17.  C^hriiitiania 
la  Faaldberi 


W.  Tonninnr 
IM.  FiederiokalMll 


8W£DEN. 

1.  Turn* 
9.  Taiijo 
;i.  hideii 
4.  Otturaand 
.1.  Hundawkll 

6.  IJoda 

7.  Tara 

8.  Sam* 

9.  Iludikavall 
10.  Swlerhamn 
n.  Iluiby 

13.  Salii 

13.  Orebro 

14.  C«rlibad 
l.t.  Ovllki 

16.  NykupilK 

17.  tiinkopin* 

18.  JnnkupiiK 

19.  nnltsnburt 
SO.  T'llkanberf 
31.  Malmo 

93.  ChriJiianitad 
93.  Kalmai 
34.  Emin 

DENMARK. 

1.  Aallmri 
9.  VVibucf 
:i.  Veita 

4.  Ripon 

5.  Bleawiek 
A.  Kiel 

7.  Cupenhateii 

ICELAND. 
1.  Holar 
9.BeaK!ate(l 
3.  Sand  rail 

PRITSSIA. 
1.  Colberf 
3.  Siamard 

3.  Sietiin 

4.  Berlin 

5.  Frankfort 
fl.  Powfi 

7.  Gneana 
H.  I.iaaa 
9.  Brealau 

10.  GluU 

11.  Hniian 

12.  Tiir»au 

13.  MafdebUK 

AUSTRIA. 
1.  nimutz 
3.  Briinn 

3.  Tabnr 

4.  Praiu* 

5.  Pilaen 


Referencei  to  the  Map  of  Europe. —  Weil  Part 

43.  Anilllac 

44.  Pri 

m.  Chi 


n.  Llnti 

7.  Krema 

8.  Prnburi 

0.  Vienna 
ID.  Sopron 
ll.nrali 
13.  Bruek 

13.  Villaeh 

14.  Saltxburf 
IX  Hall 

in.  priien 
17.  Milan 
la  Manlua 

10.  Padua 
90.  Venie* 
21.  Balluno 
93.  Rimini 
93.  Laybaeh 
34.  A  If  am 
as.  CarlaUdt 
SI  7.Vf 
37.  Spalatro 

ITALY. 

1.  Genoa 

2.  Turin    . 

3.  Aleaaandria 

4.  Parma 

5.  Bnlntna 

6.  Florence 

7.  I.oahorn 

8.  Orbotello 

0.  Rome 
1U.  Neiiuno 

11.  Naplaa 
13.  Policaitro 

13.  Tarnnto 

14.  Bilonlo 

15.  Foafia 

16.  Peacara 

17.  Ancona 

18.  Peaaro 

GERMANY. 

1.  Straiaiind 
3.  Ilnmburf 

3.  Bremrn 

4.  OManbun 
.5.  Oannburg 

6.  Hanover 

7.  Brunawick 
H.  raaael 

9  Pnlda 

10.  Oirnialadt 

11.  Wiirma 
13.  Miillirunn 

13.  Freybilrg 

14.  ITIm 

l.V  Aui>liur« 
ID.  Munich 
17.  Nuremburt 
IN.  Ilof 

19.  Leipxii 
SO.  UrcHlen 


SWITZERLAND. 

I.  I'onaiance 
9.  Buriie 
3,  Uene«a 

WEST  PRUSSIA, 
I.  Miinaier 
9.  Woaol 

.  (Tlevca 


44.  Privaa 

jambarrjr 
46.  Grenoble 


47.  nil 
48.Kri 


4.  C'<i|a>ne 

5.  r!iibb-nli 
0.  Pruym 


IJiane. 
.  J>raiuinon 
4|i.  Toulon 

50.  Aviinon 

51.  Nil 


HiamcB 


NGTIIERLANDB. 

i.  Amaterdam 
.  Raiiordam 

3.  An:werp 

J.  Ghent 
.  Bruiaela 

1.  Luxemburc 

FRANCE 

1.  Calaia 
9.  Amiena 
a  8i.  auintin 

4.  Houen 

5.  Evreux 
0.  Caen 
7.SI.  I.O 

8.  Si.  BrieDX 

9.  Breit 

10.  Quimper 

11.  Vanaea 
13.  Rennea 

13.  Alencnn 

14.  <7hartrpa 

15.  Paria 

16.  Stiiaaona 

17.  MaU 

18.  Siraabnrg 
10.  Epinal 
90.  Chiiumnnt 
31.  <7hntillon 
22.  Tr.iyoa 
93.  nrlenna 
34.  Tiiura 
3.5.  Antren 
96.  Nanlea 

37.  I.n  Ruche 

38.  Poiiiera 

39.  Gui-ret 

30.  Mnulina 

31.  Lnna 
.13.  Ijyona 
3:1.  INIncon 
34.  Clermont 
3.T  Periaaux 
311.  Bordeaux 
37.  Dn« 
:«.  Piiu 

39.  Tiiulouaa 

40.  Albr 

41.  Rralex 
49.  Acen 


n.  Aal 
7. 1« 
8.0« 
O.La 


SPAIN. 
I.  Ferrol 
9,  Santiago 

3.  Vim 

4.  Ortmae 
•V  LuKO 
6.  Aaliirca 

tieofi 
fiado 
..  ..anea 

10.  Bantnnder 

11.  Bitboa 
19.  Pampeluna 
J3.  Viltoria 
14.  Rurfoa 
l.V  Palencia 

16.  Znmiira 

17.  Salamanca 

18.  Ciudad  Rodriio 

19.  Avila 

30.  Senovia 

31.  Soria 

33.  Tudela 
3:1.  Hucam 

34.  Air» 

2.1.  Harealona 

20.  Tarragoaa 

97.  I^erida 

98.  Peniacola 

99.  Sarnf  oaaa 

30.  Teruel 

31.  Ulrilla 

33.  Gnadaxara 
3:1.  Huein 
31.  Toh-dq 
3,1.  Madrid 
3il.  PUcontia 
.T7.Truxill'i 
38,  Badaiiix 
3!)  Mnura 

40.  Zarra 

41.  Cordova 
49.  Andiifnr 

4:),  Ciiidad  Real 
44,  Torrenuuva 
4.1.  Alvacele 

46.  Ville  de  Canal 

47.  Miirviedro 

48.  V^iloncia 
4!l.  Villencia 
.K).  Airuenle 
,11.  Murcia 
.12.  Vera 
.1:1.  Bnza 
54.  Graoada 


,1.1.  Almeria 
SO,  Malait 

57,  Ecija 

58,  Carmon 
M.  Iluebia 

60,  Aivilla 

61.  Gibraltar 
03.  Cadix 

PORTUGAL. 
I.  Molaaco 
Sj.  Bwf  •n»» 

3.  Almeida 

4.  Oporto 

5.  Aveyro 
D.  Guarda 

7.  Coimbit 

8.  Leria 

9.  Liabnn 

10.  Obido* 

11.  AbranlM 
13.Evora        '-'■■ 

13.  Alvilo 

14.  Oiirique 
1.1.  Laxoa 
16.  Faro. 


RivtnandlaJm. 
a  Dal,  R. 
b  Moiaen,  L. 
0  Wrner,  L. 
d  Wetter,  U, 
»  Odor,  It. 
f  Ellie,  ft, 
g  Wi'acr,  R. 
h  Rhine.  R, 


.   Mcuaf,  R. 
j   S'iiie,  R. 
k  Luiia,  R. 
I  Gariinne,ll. 
m  Dnuro,  K. 
n  THiiua,  R. 
u  Gunninna,  R. 
p  Giiadnlouivir,  R 
q  Ebrn,  R. 
r  Rhone.  R. 
a  Geneva,  L.  nf 
t  Conaiance,  L.  a 
U  Pn,  R. 
V  Drave,  R. 
w  Danube,  R. 

CORSICA. 

1.  C.irte 

3.  Porlu  Vecchio 

SARDINIA. 
1.  Haaaari 
3.  Orimarni 
3.  Cnnliari 

SICILY. 

1.  Miwea 
3.  Palermo 

3.  Sciacca 

4.  Syracuae 


II 


.  „»ussi 

1.  Enare 

3.  Voronez 
i-  Pano 
S.  PaHlxa 


1%  &°« 

J  Ton 

\l-  Kpu 


ar  kiikaia 

34.  Tavailteh 


43.. 

43.  Staroiabisc 
40.  Mezene 
47.  Labavko 

Vol.  I. 


,R. 

. 
t. 


,R. 

,K. 


.,  R.  . 
a,  L.  of 
ince,  L.  o- 

•V 

ICA. 

Vxcchlo 
MNIA. 


!1LY. 


Bool  I. 


EUROPE. 


m 


temipted  pragtf'M,  to  tlio  comparatively  elevatod  iitato  at  which  they  havo  now  tniVMJ.  All 
th«  brancliun  of  imluHtry  aro  conducted  with  o  Mkill  and  to  an  extent  unattaincd  in  anv  other 
part  of  tlio  uurth.  Kuropean  voaiiol*  carry  on  the  coininerco  of  tiio  moat  distant  regiona. 
The  niiiitury  and  political  influonco  of  Uiiro|j<i  in  now  of  a  magnitude  witli  which  the  rooit 
powerful  und  populous  nmpiroa  of  the  other  contuii'Uta  can  no  lonvcr  be  compared.  European 
colonisti)  hiivu  now  peopled,  and  aro  more  and  more  peopling,  all  the  formerly  lavage  and 
unoccupied  (luartom  of  the  earth ;  and,  with  the  exception  of  iome  atrongholdi  of  ancient 
and  impfrfvct  civilization,  the  whole  world  ia,  through  tlieir  influence,  rapidly  becoming 
civilised  and  European. 


CHAPTER  I. 

GENERAL  SURVEY  Or  EUROPE. 


EvROPi  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Arctic  Ocean,  and  on  the  weit  by  the  Atlantic. 
On  the  south,  the  grand  inlet  of  the  Mediterranean  divides  it  from  Afirica ;  and  the  Grecian 
Archipelago,  with  its  subordinate  branch,  connected  only  by  a  narrow  atraitt  the  Euxine 
or  Black  Sea,  divides  it  fVom  a  groat  part  of  Asia.  Between  the  nortb-east  extremity  of  tlte 
Black  Sea  and  tlio  Northern  Ocean  is  an  interval  of  1400  or  1500  miles  of  land,  forming 
the  eastern  boundary  of  Europe.  Hod  this  been  known  to  the  ancients,  they  would  perhaps 
havo  identiAed  Europe  with  Asia ;  but  the  separation  ia  now  too  deeply  marked,  ana  ia  de- 
fined by  too  many  characters,  moral  and  political,  ever  to  be  altered.  The  absence  of  sea, 
the  natural  and  most  obvioua  boundary  of  a  continent,  haa  somewhat  embarraaaed  modem 
geographers;  for  oven  a  river  limit  is  hero  wanting.    The  chain  of  the  Urals,  running  from 


i  Jul 


5.  Goija 
A.  Arjop 
7.  tiulei 
R.  PilH 
9.  Uircki 

10.  r,i>nii 

11.  Uimi 
l3.Hai 
13.  Up 


Rtfermct*  to  Ihe  Map  tf  £urap<. — EaA  Part. 


SWEDEN 

Allannard 
..  Jukaa  Jervl 
X  Gellivara 

4.  or  Kalii 

5.  Gogan 

6.  Arjoploi 

i|r«ii«lo 
>iiniii(«n 
mn 
Hania 
-  .  Upaal 
U.  Stockholm 

RUSSIA. 
I.  Gnara 
a.  Kola 

3.  Voroiwxkaya 

4.  Panoi 

5.  Pnliiia 

6.  Oumbs 

7.  Ekotlrovikaro 

8.  Kandalikava 
HOilankrla 

Kamitraik 
Rotamemi 
_   rornek 

IS.  u1eabor( 

18.  Knat  NoTolok 

17.  Kuunia 

18.  Viio 

19.  AiMoiara 
JiD.  Sotkanio 
91.  Kajana 
Sa.  Braki-ttod 
in.  Rarlflbir 
S4.  Pio  Piqarvi 
!».  Pinlla     . 
90.  fcibalira 
97.  Puc-nala 

SH.  llllOVMT 

99.  Waia 

30.  rhriitineatad 

31.  Bioimborg 
39.  Abo 

33.  Kilkala 

34.  Tavanohui 
:».  Bnrgo 

3«.  Vrhort 

37.  St.  PolAriburt 

38.  Oloneti 

39.  PetroiHvndHk 

40.  Povlfloetx 

41.  VniovHkaya 
it.  ()ne«« 

43.  Arnnangel 

44.  Routt 

45.  Siaroiabiacho 
4A.  Mezeno 

47.  t.abnvka 
4fl.  Nikilza 
49.  Ouia 

Voi^I. 


M.  OfiiHilka 
M.  Golovu 
S9.  Bichemaia 
K).  Uorovtkaf  a 
M.  Miiuiioijikara 
K.  Pineaa 

Vofkouakri   , 
BhMtilzcirakoi 
H.  Chalr,h«lakii;a 
ISO.  Karahakiivika 
flO.  Makaoovtka 
61.  Krawoboak 
IB.  Met«rnkava 
n.'t.  Yarnniik 
04.  Oual  SiHilik 
0.V  Kai 
on.  Tchrnlin 
H7.  Sniikarnak 
W.  Vilionaku« 
in.  Ortova 


s?; 


IIH. 
"I  . 

iia 
iiu. 

190.' 


7U.  Obira 


--  GaiihkoTa 
79.  Miahamnvak 
T.\.  Ivoiovaka 
74.  Akaanlnrakoo 
7.1.  Valikouatoni 

76.  VIelak 

77.  Pudo* 
7H.  viiaira 
79.  Biiiliiiarak 
83.  KiriloT 
Hl.Volocd* 
83.  Tolnia 

83.  Tchuehloma 

84.  KolochW 
8.1.  Nikobli 

86.  Bergioviln 

87.  Koielnilch 

88.  ainbiidakuv 

89.  Viaika 

90.  Nolinak 

91.  Glaxov 
93.  Ochanak 
0:1.  Perm 
04.  Oia 

91.  Kra'ahainiuk 

Oil.  Bink 

1)7.  Siirnpoul 

98.  KlabflUita 

91).  Malmiah 
ino.  K'iz:tna 
lUI.  Hviajik 
iO-i.  Kniinodemi- 

aniik 
103  Ynranik 
lUt.  ViiilniiKa 
IM.  Viirimvin 
1116.  Semanov 
107.  Inrevotz  Povol- 

akon 
in».  Knilrnm 
lO*).  JnrnilHV 
no.  Rlbiiiak 
III   Pimchon 
119.  OMiiijna 
113.  TikviD 


114.  Yamburt 
■15.  Narva 

leval 

>«rpi 

.Ilia 

«ci»arod 
....  ^nWal 
191.  Oiiiihkai 
199.  Biiinvilchl 

193.  Viahnei  Volo- 

tobiikl 

194.  Oiiditrh 
19.1  Pnlrovik 
136.  Kovriiv 

197.  Nizncf  Noy- 

icorod 
198  ifiuinik 
199.  Sinblrak 
i;iO.  Bingilal 
131.  Siiian 
139.  Kanader 

133.  Ardiitov 

134.  Potchinki 

135.  Nuruvichat 

136.  Temnikuv 

137.  Murom 
118.  Sudoiila 

139.  Kaamor 

140.  Moaoow 


IM. 

155.1 

156.- 


141.  Pnkov 
149.  Tier 
14.3.  Mnjaiik 
144.  Ziiblaoy 
14.1.  Bicliix 

146.  Velikie  Luki 

147.  Cholm 

148.  l>akoy 

149.  Oalror 
l.in.  I.uiixin 
151.  Valk 
159.  C<'n*i> 
1.W  Ri/ia 

liiau 

.iliau 

_. lemol 

157.  a«veni»ani 
1.18.  Vileika 
1.10.  nriaaa 
IIH).  Pnlotzk 
161.  Wiiepak 
169.  Velii 

163.  Smnlenik 

164.  Domgobui 
1AV  Kalouta 
168.  Kaliimna 

167.  Tnola 

168.  Kiazane 

169.  Kniluv 

170.  TiimboY 

171.  Tchambar 
m.  Ponaa  . 

173.  Pntriivak 

174.  Volak 

175.  SaraliiT 

176.  Balaahav 

177.  Nuvokhopack 


17V.  yoranci 
)8a  Pbain 
irn.  hivnl 
189.  Krapiyna 
IH3.HDlehaf 
Jral 
kirai 
(oakivl 

Joihilaw 

188.  hot alehav 
180.  Sloiiiik 
"oriaeT 

Irn'na 
,1  Grodno 

198.  Rawa 

197.  Vldara 

198.  Lublin 

199.  Miai^lrieU 
900.  Rnat  Ulor 
90!.  BieFik 
»1.  kobrin 
903.  Pinak 
90«.  Viaolik 
9U1.  Oyroutch 
9M.  Moiir 

7.  Chnlmlieh 

"1.  Tehfrniiiov 

"T.Hw" 


ielttlia 


909.  N 

910.  Rihk 
9ll.pouml 
919.  Kourak 

913.  Oakol 

914.  VolouiU 
91.1.  Bobror 
aiO.  Paylonk 
917.  Zaiovikaya 
9ta  Kamiahin 
919.  ijoliniknya 
99U  Taarilxin 
391.  Tilkha 
399.  Koalin 
393.  Shealibalotch- 

kaya 
994.  Tcherkuk 
99.1.  Donelik 

998.  Iziuna 
997.  Charkoy 
!K8.  Poltava 

999.  NoTomoakoTak 
ZW.  Kroment 
931.  Zolninnoiha 

939.  Kozelelz 
3:13.  Kiev 
9:14.  Padomiat 
9:15.  Jiiomir 
9:!6.  Rovno 
9:17.  Kameli 
338.  Ralta 
930.  Gaiain 

940.  Tchork 

911.  Nnvomirtorod 
349.  Olviopol 

25 


AU8TSIA. 

1.  Treuiaen 
9.  Schemnia 
3.  Ep«rl«i 


ibraenn 


yBoL 

10.  Pel; 

11.  St.  Maria 
liBaeea  . 

13.  Belitradr 

14.  Temcawar 

15.  Arad 

16.  Bihar 

17.  Ciauaenbort 

18.  Carlaburt 

19.  Herraanaladt 
SO.KuU 

91.  Tamopi 
99.  Siry, 

33.  Sember 

34.  ].ember( 
9.1.  gandeex 

96.  Sendomia* 

97.  Cracow 

TURKEY 
1.  Jaaay 
9.  Biirlal 

3.  Aairad 

4.  Garaia 

5.  Ibraila 
«.  Sil'Mria 

7.  Bukaraal 

8.  Slatina 
D.CratoT« 


o*n>_ 

lopla 
iiaa 

,p1!r. 

raava 
icopoll 
humla 
luriM 
lidleh 

loiMaaUoopIt 
...  -todoflo 
98.  Adrianoph 
""  Cavalla 
rhillPPoU 
labar 
>to1l> 

lalonioa 

34.  BcttUri 

GREECE. 

9.  Butrinto 
X  Jannina 
f  Aim 
5.  Lepanto 
'  TripolHai 


Bnarf  and  Lata 

b  Meiene,  R. 
e  Pitchova,  R. 
d  Kama,  K, 
•  Viaika.  R. 
f  Volia.  R. 
I  Oka.  R. 
h  Don,  R. , 
i  Poneli,  1 

fpoiepar, 
Dniealer,  . 
Pruth,  £. 
m  Panuba,  R. 
n  Viatult,  R, 
o  Niemen.  R. 
p  Dwina,  R. 
q  Tchadakoe,  L. 
r  Ihnen,  L. 
a  Ladoga,  L. 
t  Onega,  L. 
u  Pnruveai,  L. 
y  Bfgo,  u. 
wVigo.L. 
X  Top.  L. 
y  Imandra,  L, 
X  Enaie.  L> 


I 


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DRRCRIPTIVE  OEOGRAPIIY. 


Part  III. 


I 


If 


.**"!►•. 


111! 


north  to  miith,  fnrnm  no  itnpnrtAnt  n  fontiiro,  that  it  hox  b(>oii  tnknn  oh  thn  gnnil  liM  af 
liiviRiiin ;  nnd  in  prolriictnd  ti>  thr  Bltick  Hon  by  mean*  nf  contiimoim  pnrtiunH  of  tlie  gmi 
rivpiK  Kiima,  Vfilffti,  niul  IVm. 

Th"  limn  of  thig  rotitiriont  \n  »ing\i\M]y  broknn  nnd  vnrinil.  Whiln  A«in,  AlVirn,  and  the 
•wo  AmnricAH  nro  nnrh  furinnd  into  a  vnxt  inlnnd  cxpnniie,  Eiirnpo  m  Kplit  into  mnny  dirtinrt 
portiiinn;  pl•ninl<t)ln^  Inrpfn  inlumlN,  and  kinj^domx,  with  rxti'ndnd  nnd  windinj;  conhtD.  Thi» 
form  irinoH  chiefly  out  of  it«  inland  w-a*,  which  ponotrato  farther,  and  iirc  morn  dunply 
ombaycd,  than  thofw  of  any  other  part  of  the  g]o\iii.  Niimnroni  pilfii,  ncnrcrly  ncconilary 
n  ninjfnifiido  nnd  imiHirtiinco,  bninoh  out  IVom  tlicm.  Tho  Mpditormnonn,  which  fornin, 
M  it  wcrr',  a  littlo  ocpim,  Hcpnrntinn'  Europe,  AiiiB,  and  Aflrica,  i»  connected  with  tho  Atlantic 
only  liy  thn  celobrntnd  KtmiUt  of  iSibralUr,  twenty  miloa  in  breadth.  Itn  jfrtMit  cncioMd 
oriincheH  of  the  Adriatic  and  the  Dlack  Sea  penetrate,  and  render  maritime,  M)ine  of  the 
moHt  inland  diMtriots  of  tho  continent.  In  the  north,  the  Baltic,  with  its  grpnt  pulfii  of 
Bothnia  and  Finland,  is  neither  indeed  bo  oxtenHivc  nor  ao  accoiwiblo ;  but  it  ii  of  the  highoHt 
commercial  value,  oa  aflbrdintr  a  channel  by  which  the  rude  ncco8Kiiieii,  tho  nictala  and 
woods  of  thn  north,  may  be  exchanged  for  tho  wines,  tho  silks,  and  other  luxuries  of  tho 
south.  Tho  British  ihles,  by  their  varied  confipiration,  enclose  bowccn  thcmiinlvcs  and  tlio 
opposite  continent  several  important  seas  and  channels.  We  may  odd,  that  tho  mountains 
and  tho  plains  of  Europe  do  not  display  those  immcnxo  unbroken  groups,  or  those  level  and 
almost  endless  expanses,  which  give  so  vast  and  monotonous  a  characttir  to  the  interior 
regions  of  Asia  and  Aft'ica.  In  general  thev  arc  separated  into  smaller  portions,  and  are 
happily  and  commodiously  interchanged.  Thev  have  kept  Europe  divided  into  a  number  of 
separate  nations,  holding  easy  intercourse.  Probably,  tiiis  relative  position  tios  been  one 
great  cause  of  that  intellectual  activity,  and  those  vifforous  exertions  in  all  liberal  and  in- 
genious arts,  which  have  raised  this  part  of  tho  globe  to  so  high  a  pro-eminence.  Tho 
immense  inlnnd  plains  of  Russia  nnd  Poland,  presenting  an  aspect  wholly  Asiatic,  remained, 
even  after  the  civilization  and  improvement  or  nil  western  Europe,  sunk  in  tho  deepest  bar- 
barism, flxun  which  they  are  but  slowly  and  with  difficulty  emerging. 

Sect.  I. — Natural  Fenlvrei. 

The  Bcrfkce  of  Europe,  as  wo  have  observed,  is  very  diversified.  Its  mountains  do  not 
reach  that  stupendous  lieight,  nnr  stretch  in  such  unbroken  chain«,  as  those  of  Asia  and 
America:  nevertheless,  wo  mny  trace  pretty  distinctly  two  highlands,  tho  northern  and 
southern,  and  an  intermediate  lowland.  I'ho  Nouthcrn  highland  comprises  tho  most  elevated 
\nountainB  of  tho  continent,  thn  Alpn  and  the  Pyrenees,  connected  together  by  the  low  chain 
of  the  Cevennes.  Inferior  branches  fVom  tho  Pyrnnens  extend  through  tho  Spanish  penin- 
sula; while  from  tho  Alps  branch  forth  the  Apennines,  which  range  through  all  Italy, 
and  spread  their  lower  slopes  over  thn  greater  [xirt  of  southern  Germany.  The  extremity 
of  the  Julian  Alps,  and  the  mnuntains  of  Dulmntia,  connect  tho  range  with  the  great 
Turkish  chains  of  Ilnimus  and  llhodopc ;  parallel  to  which,  though  with  a  lurgo  group 
intervening,  stretches  the  circuit  of  the  Carpathian  mountains.  North  of  this,  the  great 
European  lowland  comprises  tho  largest  part  of  France,  tho  south  of  England,  the 
Netherlands,  Northern  Germnny,  all  Poland,  and  tho  greater  port  of  Russia.  In  tho 
extreme  north  of  Europe  tlio  mountainous  character  again  prevails.  The  Dol'rincs  roach 
throuffh  Scandinavia;  while  the  nortli  of  England  and  neorly  all  Scotland  is  covered  with 
mountains  of  secondary  magnitude.  Of  all  tho  European  mountains  the  Alps  are  by  much 
the  highest,  and  perhaps  mny  rank  fourth  to  the  Himalaya,  tho  Andes,  and  Caucasus,  among 
the  mountain  chains  ot  tho  globo.  Mont  Blanc  and  Monte  Roea  exceed  15,(K)0  feet  above 
the  sea.  Tho  luimnrous  other  summits  of  this  chain  exemplify  all  tho  descending  grades  of 
elevation.  The  Apennines  vary  from  3(K)0  to  6000  feet;  but  il'^tnn,  at  their  utini>st extremi- 
ty, is  nearly  11,000.  The  mo.«t  olevnted  of  tho  Pyrenees  risi-s  somewhat  above  that  height. 
The  Spanish  summits  arc  in  general  of  the  level  of  tho  Apennine,  except  tho  Guadarrama, 
which  exceeds  8000  feet,  and  the  Sierra  Nevada,  which  equals  the  Pyrenees.  The  Thmcian 
chains  have  not  yet  been  subjected  to  survey ;  but  they  doubtless  exceed  those  of  Greece, 
which  ascend  to  6000  or  7000  feet,  Tho  Dofrines,  notwithstanding  their  snowy  and  terrible 
luipect,  are  not  of  first-rate  elevation.  The  great  Norwegian  chain  does  not  quite  reach 
JXKM)  feet ;  Ben  Nevis  is  only  4;}00  feet ;  nnil  none  of  tlie  English  mountains  roach  that 
altitude. 

Tlio  rivor.'i  of  Europe  nro  numerous,  but  none  of  them  of  the  very  first  magnitude. 
The  two  largest  flow  tiirough  tho  great  eastern  plain,  a  semi-Asiatic  region,  and  terminate 
in  distant  and  interior  sens,  where  they  contribute  little  to  commercial  intercourse.  The 
Volga,  which  alone  can  come  into  rivalry  with  the  great  rivers  of  Asia,  passes  the  Asiatic 
limit,  where  it  spreads  into  the  great  interior  expanse  of  thn  Caspian.  The  Black  Sea  absorbs 
the  other  rivers  from  thn  creat  plain  of  Russia  nnd  Poland :  it  receives  nlso  tho  noble  stream 
of  tho  Danube,  whirli  helongn  indeed  to  the  central  region  of  Europe ;  but  directing  its 
lower  course  thrnugji  barbarous  nnd  uncultivated  regions,  and  terminating  in  this  distant 
feceptacle,  it  conduces  only  in  a  secondary  degree  to  the  distribution  of  wealth  and  plenty 


% 


Thei 
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some,  te 


Boot  I. 


BUROPE. 


9U1 


fi 


thinuKh  tlin  rontinnnt.  Wortom  Eurnpo  ia  tno  much  broken  intn  lepnrnto  portioiu,  and 
oroHMxl  hy  hiffli  mnuntain  Iwrriorii,  to  allow  to  iu  rivnni  a  longth  of  nmro  than  tWtm  4iD0  to 
60()  milm;  anil  thny  hnvn  iimially  thiir  ontiro  coumc  throuirh  a  aingln  country, — the  Rhin^. 
tho  RItio,  mill  tlin  (Mcr,  tliroiivli  flormanv;  tho  lioiro,  tho  Khono,  and  tlin  (lanmno,  thruuf^h 
Franco ,  Iho  I'd  tliriiii|{h  Italy ;  tho  Kbns  thu  IXiiiro,  tho  Tii|{ua,  aiul  tho  Guadahiuivir, 
thn)ii;{li  Hinin.  Tho  northorn  rivoni  of  Oritain  anil  Hciimlinavia,  rniitriclail  tu  a  atill  nar- 
rownr  flxlil,  m>liloin  accomplish  an  \oni/(  a  courao  oa  9(M)  iniloa.  Yut,  thou|;h  Ruropo  dooa 
not  prnHiMit  tho  gnml  river*  which  diatim^iiiah  tho  greater  continonta,  it  ia  on  tho  whole 
happily  and  cotniiinitiuiiMly  watnroil.  AlinuMt  ovory  part  of  it  oiiioya  the  benefit  of  river 
coininunication ,  it  iit  neither  ovcrapread  by  tho  droarv  awainiM  ot  America,  nor  the  aandy 
doaorta  which  roniler  uniuh:ibitiiblo  ao  i^roat  a  part  of  Aaia  and  AtVica. 

The  lakca  of  Ruropo  aro  iminoroua,  chiufly  onvloaoil  within  itn  mountain  rogiona;  but  fow 
of  them  nrn  of  auHicinnt  mik|fnitudc  to  rank  aa  inland  acaa.  Thoao  alono  entitled  to  thia 
diatiiiitioti  are  the  Lndoffa  and  the  Ono({a,  which,  forming  a  aort  of  continuation  of  the  Gulf 
if  Finland,  and  bcinff  nituated  in  bleak  and  fVoson  roginna,  miniator  very  little  to  internal 
intorcourHo.  (^nlnnd  is  covered  with  limilar  lakea.  Tho  Wener  and  Wetter  of  Sweden 
rank  next  in  maffnitmle,  and,  aurrounde<l  by  imninnao  woixla  and  ircn  minea,  poaaeaa  conHid- 
orablo  beauty  and  value.  Hwitzorland,  with  it4  Italian  bortlor,  ia  the  chief  lake-region  of 
Europe;  ita  watorn,  particularly  thuao  of  Geneva  and  Lucerne,  cncloacd  between  the  loflicat 
anowy  pinnaclcii  of  the  Alps,  preaont  acenea  of  grandeur  and  beauty  altnoat  unrivalled ;  but 
they  are  not  on  auch  a  acalo  or  ao  aituatod  aa  to  afTord  any  important  inland  navigation. 
Those  of  England  and  Ireland  aro  merely  "imall  picturoaquo  fcaturea.  Those  of  Scotland 
are  larger  and  more  numeroua ;  and  a  chain  of  them,  having  been  connected  by  a  broad 
canal,  waa  cxpecto«l  to  form  a  great  naval  route  acruaa  the  island. 

Tho  European  soil  ia  diatinffuishcd  fur  procluctions,  perhaps  surpaasing  in  value  thow 
of  any  other  ijiinrter  of  tho  glubr.  It  does  not,  indeed,  |i08m!«H  that  brilliant  luxuriance  of 
vegetation  which  adorns  tho  equatorial  regions  of  AhIq  nnd  America.  But  com  and  wine, 
the  most  substantial  and  most  agreeable  iirticica  of  human  diet,  are  nowhere  produced  on  ao 
groat  a  acale  or  in  such  high  perfection.  Grain,  of  one  description  or  another,  ia  raised  over 
ita  whole  surface,  excepting  in  the  extreme  nortit ;  wines  throughout  all  ita  southern  king- 
doms. In  hemp,  flax,  and  wool,  those  staple  materials  of  clothing,  Europe  ia  equally  pre- 
eminent.  Silk,  another  valuable  commodity,  it  produces  copiously,  though  not  ao  aa  to  bo 
independent  of  supplies  from  India  and  China.  Cotton  is  the  only  grout  material  which  the 
immense  manufactures  of  Europe  derive  almost  entirely  from  foreign  regions.  If  we  except 
the  horse  and  the  cuinul,  for  which  Awia  is  renowned,  Europe  contains  tno  most  valuable  ns 
well  as  tho  most  numerous  breeds  of  domestic  animals.  Its  northern  f(>reat8  produce  the 
finest  timber  in  tho  world,  with  tho  exception  of  the  teak ;  and  its  iron,  the  most  useful  nf 
metals,  surpasses  that  of  the  rest  of  the  world:  but  all  tho  more  precious  substances,  goll. 
silver,  pearls,  jewels,  exist  in  an  extent  ao  limited  as  scarcely  to  ti  deserving  of  mention. 
The  cultivation  of  the  soil  is  carried  on  with  much  greater  diligence  than  in  any  countricH 
exccpl  in  the  south-east  of  Asia,  while  in  science,  skill,  and  the  extent  of  capital  employeil 
upon  it,  European  agriculture  is  quite  unrivalled. 

In  manufacturing  industry,  this  quarter  of  tho  world  has,  within  these  fow  eentnriea,  far 
surpassed  all  tho  others  of  the  globe.  Asia,  indeed,  has  long  Ixnstcd  somo  fabrics  of  extra- 
ordinary beauty, — silks,  muslins,  carpets,  and  porcelain, — which  aro  not  yet  altogether  equal- 
led :  but  the  looms  and  workshops  of  Europe  now  yield  a  variety  of  fine  and  beautiful  fnbrics, 
in  such  proflision,  and  at  so  cheap  a  rate,  as  to  place  them  within  the  reach  of  iilmost 
every  class  of  society.  This  continent  thus  clothes  all  tho  young  nations  which  have 
issued  from  her  own  Imsom,  and  which  fill  nearly  two  entire  quarters  of  the  habitable  earth. 

Commerce,  on  so  great  a  scale  as  to  connect  together  the  distant  quarters  of  the  world, 
can  hardly  be  said  to  exist  out  of  Europe.  European  vessels  arc  found  in  the  utmost  boundw 
of  Asia  and  America,  in  the  snowy  regions  of  cither  pole,  and  crowding  tho  ports  of  the 
Austral  continent.  There  is  not  now  a  place  on  earth,  however  remote,  affording  any  flcoi>e 
for  tho  employment  of  commercial  capital,  which  is  not  immediately  filled  with  the  same 
promptitude  as  if  it  had  been  situated  in  the  heart  of  Europe.  The  ships  of  that  continent 
exceed  thoej  of  all  the  others  in  number  and  dimensions :  they  arc  also  tho  most  skilfully 
constructed,  and  navigated  by  the  only  seamen  who  are  qualified  to  ofuide  a  vessel  across  the 
great  oceans.  All  these  observations  are  liable  to  one  exception :  the  new  American  states 
are  beginning  to  form  a  commercial  and  maritime  system,  modelled  on  that  of  Europe — a 
system  which  may  one  day  surpass  the  original. 

Sect.  II. — Inhabttantn. 

The  population  of  Europe,  though  more  closely  calculated  than  that  of  any  other  quarter 
of  the  globe,  is  yet  far  from  being  ascertained  on  data  that  are  very  precise.  In  regard  to 
some  districts,  and  in  particular  tn  the  whole  of  the  Turkish  empire,  no  census  has  ever 
been  instituted ;  in  others,  the  computation  is  founded  only  on  the  number  of  houses :  and  in 
some,  ten,  twenty,  and  thirty  years  have  elapsed  since  any  was  attempted.* 
~"  *  Sec  the  Tabic  It  iilM  cloae  of  thii  book. 


'■VkH 


:rf  :    ,,,.  ^...Vn— ■»Ml«M.«».~l^^ 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


The  people  of  Europe  are  divided  chiefly  into  three  ^eat  races,  which  differ,  to  a  very 
mtrked  dej^ree,  in  language,  political  situation,  and  habits  of  life.  These  are  the  Sclavonic, 
the  Teutonic,  and  a  third  which  Hassel  calls  the  Romish,  as  occupying  the  chief  of  those 
countries  which  once  composed  the  Western  Empire. 

The  Sclavonic  races  cover  the  greater  extent  of  Europe,  since  they  occupy  the  whole  of 
the  eastern  plain  bordering  on  Asia.  The  people  have  a  resemblance  to  thane  of  that 
continent;  and  were  considered  almost  as  beyond  the  social  and  political  pale  of  Europe,  till 
within  the  last  half  century.  They  have  now  forcibly  thrust  themselves  into  the  European 
srstem,  and  rank  among  its  most  influential  members.  The  Sclavonic  people  consist  of 
about  twenty-five  millions  of  Russians,  ten  millions  of  Poles,  Lithuanians,  and  Letts,  and 
about  ten  millions  of  other  races,  known  under  the  namen  of  Windes,  Tcheches,  Slawakes, 
Croats,  Morlauihians,  which  have  found  their  way  into  eastern  Germany,  Hungary,  and  Illy<- 
ria.  Without  wishing  to  consider  intellectual  and  moral  qualities  as  necessarily  belonging 
to  any  particular  race  exclusively,  we  may  notice  it  as  a  ract,  that  the  Sclavonians  are,  in 
both  respects,  less  improved  than  otiier  Europeans.  They  have  only  some  infant  forms  of 
art  and  literature,  which  have  sprung  up  from  the  imitation  of  those  of  the  eastern  nations. 
They  are  generally  subjected  to  abmlute  monarchy,  and  the  greater  part  of  them  are  only 
beginning  to  emerge  from  the  degrading  condition  of  personal  slavery.  All  the  habits  of 
life  which  connect  them  with  polished  society  have  been  recently  and  studiously  imported 
from  the  west,  and  are  still  intermingled  with  deep  remnants  of  barbarism.  The  majority 
profess  that  superstitious  form  of  Christianity  acknowledged  by  the  Greek  church.  Yet  they 
are  a  brave,  enterprising,  and  persevering  race,  and  have  established  themselves  as  a  ruling 
and  conquering  people,  m  reference  to  all  the  contiguous  nations  of  Europe  and  Asia. 

The  Teutonic  race  occupies  generally  the  centre  and  north  of  Europe ;  besides  Germany, 
their  original  seat,  they  have  filled  the  greater  part  of  Scandinavia,  the  Netherlands,  and 
Great  Britain,  and  may  be  reckoned  at  upwards  of  fifty  millions.  Under  the  limitatic.:s 
above  stated,  we  may  describe  the  Teutonic  people  generally  as  brave,  hardy,  intelligent, 
and  industrious,  though  somewhat  blunt  and  unpoli^ed.  All  the  sciences,  and  even  the 
arts,  both  useful  and  ornamental,  have  been  carried  among  them  to  the  highest  perfection ; 
yet  they  are  accused  of  wanting  some  of  the  graces  and  agremens  which  embellish  the 
courts  and  fashionable  circles  of  the  south,  by  whom  they  are  treated  as  semi-barbarians.  A 
great  majority  of  the  Teutonic  nations  are  Protestants ;  and  that  profession  is  in  a  great 
measure  confined  to  them,  and  to  the  nations  in  the  other  parts  of  the  world  who  have  sprung 
from  them. 

The  race  called  Romish,  which  comprehends  the  modem  inhabitants  of  France,  Italy,  and 
Spain,  has  only  a  very  imperfect  claim  to  that  title.  The  Teutonic  nations,  in  conquering 
these  countries,  poured  into  them  a  vast  muss  of  their  own  population :  but  Roman  manner 
and  the  Roman  bnguage  had  taken  such  deep  root  in  countries  which  once  constituted  the 
main  body  of  the  western  empire,  that  the  latter  forms  still  the  chief  basis  of  the  dialects 
Hpoken  in  this  part  of  Europe.  The  Romish  were  the  most  early  civilized  of  the  modem 
nations.  They  have  carried  the  polish  of  manners  and  the  cultivation  of  the  elegant  arts 
to  a  higher  pitcli  than  any  other  known  nation.  In  solid  energy  and  intelligence,  they 
scarcely  equal  tlie  Teutonic  nations.  The  Roman  Catholic  is  tlie  raling  religion  in  all  these 
countries,  and  has  among  them  her  metropolitan  seat. 

Certain  interesting  and  antique  races  inhabit  the  rude  and  mountainous  extremities  of 
Europe.  The  Celts  were  the  most  numerous  people,  and  at  a  period  of  high  antiquity,  the 
possessors  of  all  western  Europe.  Subdued  and  disarmed  by  the  Romans,  they  rapidly  declined 
when  the  falling  empire  could  no  longer  protect  them,  and  became  the  helpless  victims  of 
tliat  mighty  torrent  of  barbarous  invasion  which  poured  in  from  the  remotest  extremities 
of  Europe  and  Asia.  At  this  dreadful  period  they  sought  or  found  a  refuge,  partly  in  Ire-  _ 
land  and  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  where  they  exist  under  the  name  of  Gael ;  partly  in 
Wales  and  Britany,  where  they  are  called  Cymri ;  and  partly  in  the  north  of  Spain,  where 
they  are  termed  Basques.  Having  retained  their  condition  unaltered  during  so  many  ages, 
they  cherish  a  fond  attachment  to  antiquity,  and  trace  their  pedigree  higher  than  any  of  the 
Romish  or  Teutonic  nobles.  They  have  a  traditional  poetry  celebrating  the  exploits  of  their 
ancestors,  to  which  tliey  are  fondly  attached ;  but  in  general  they  have,  in  the  rapid  pro- 
gress made  by  the  more  modern  races,  been  lefl  somewhat  behind ;  though  individual  emi- 
grants have  raised  themselves  to  eminence  in  every  department.  Hassel  calculates  the 
Gael  at  3,720,000,  which,  from  the  last  census  of  Ireland,  must  be  much  too  low ;  the 
Cymri  at  1,610,000 ;  the  Basques  at  630,000.  The  Oreeks,  once  the  most  illustrious  of  all 
the  races,  no  longer  plant  their  colonies  along  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  but  still 
occupy  their  old  seats,  and  are  spread  through  difleront  parts  of  the  Turkish  empire.  De- 
pressed by  two  thousand  years  of  slavery,  they  had  ceased  to  display  those  high  attributes 
which  excited  the  admiration  of  mankind ;  but  the  prospects  of  independence  which  they 
have  now  opened  for  themselves,  afford  some  hope  that  they  may  regain  their  place  in  the 
scale  of  nations.  Their  number  may  be  about  2,100,000.  The  Jetcs,  that  singularly  inte- 
resting people,  are  spread  through  all  Europe,  b<it  especially  the  eastern  countries,  Poland, 


* 


lities  of 
lity,  the 
leclined 
ctims  of 
remities 
in  Ire-, 
wrtly  in 
whore 
ny  ages, 
y  of  the 
of  their 
ipid  pro- 
aal  emi- 
ates  the 
ow;  the 
us  of  all 
but  still 
._.    Dc- 
ttributes 
ich  they 
:e  in  the 
irly  inte- 
I,  Pokni), 


re. 


Book  I. 


W^ 


EUROPE. 


S»3 


Russia,  and  Turkey.  They  are  supposed  rather  to  exceed  2,000,000.  The  Gipaiet,  in  aii 
humbler  sphere,  are  strangely  scattered  over  all  Europe  to  the  supposed  number  of  340,000; 
a  wild,  roaming,  dcmi-savage  race,  of  unknown  origin,  but  probably  Asiatic  rather  than 
Egyptian. 

Several  Asiatic  nations  have  penetrated  by  conquest  or  migration  into  the  east  of  Europe. 
These  are  chiefly  Tartars,  whom  Hassel  estimates  at  3,250,')()0  heads.  The  most  prominent 
branch  is  that  of  the  Turks,  the  ruling  people  in  the  Ottoman  empire,  though  they  form  in 
a  few  districts  only  a  majority  of  the  population.  It  seems  doubtful,  however,  if  all  the 
Tartars  who  wander  over  the  southern  steppes  of  Russia  can  be  considered  as  Asiatic  in  their 
origin.  Ttie  Magyars,  who,  to  the  number  of  3,000,000,  prevail  in  Hungary  and  Transyl- 
vania, appear  to  be  also  Asiatic,  or  at  least  to  have  sprung  from  that  most  eastern  border  of 
European  Russia,  which  can  scarcely  be  distinguished  from  Asia. 

Tlie  religion  of  Europe  is  almost  entirely  monotheistic.  A  mere  handful  of  pagans,  the 
Samoiedes,  are  found  in  its  north-eastern  extremity,  on  the  shores  of  the  Icy  Sea.  Europe 
is  almost  entirely  Christian ;  and  the  small  population  of  Mahomedans  who  have  found  their 
way  into  it  consist  of  Asiatic  races,  Turks  and  Tartars.  The  Jews,  however  generally  dif- 
fused, have  nowhere  a  national  church,  nor  are  they  in  any  nation  fully  identified  with  the 
body  of  the  people.  The  Christians  of  Europe  are  divided  into  tliree  great  churches,  the 
Greek,  the  Latin  or  Roman  Catholic,  and  the  Protestant 

The  Greek  or  Eastern  church,  which  was  that  of  the  Constantinopolitan  empire,  was 
severed  from  the  Latin  by  the  great  schism  in  the  ninth  century,  caused  by  some  abstruse 
questions  respecting  the  nature  and  person  of  Christ  It  is  still  professed  by  the  modern 
Greeks,  is  the  established  religion  of  Russia,  and  has  votaries  in  Hungary  and  all  its  append- 
ant territories.  Hassel  reckons  its  numbers  at  32,000,000 ;  Malte-Brun  at  50,000,000 — a 
strange  discrepancy.  We  should  think  the  former  much  nearer  the  truth,  though  perhaps 
somewhat  under  it  This  religion  having  been  long  prevalent  among  unenlightened  and 
degraded  nations,  has  become  encumbereKl  with  empty  pomp  and  childish  ceremonies ;  and 
many  of  its  clergy  are  ill-informed  and  of  irregular  lives. 

Tne  Roman  Catholic  religion,  which  reigned  so  long  with  supreme  sway  over  Europe, 
embraces  still  a  numerical  majority  of  its  people.  In  Italy,  Spain,  France,  and  the  dominions 
Df  the  house  of  Austria,  it  is  dommant  and  almo-st  exclusive.  It  still  holds  attached  to  it 
1  large  portion  of  the  smaller  states  of  Germany,  and  of  the  Cantons  of  Switzerland.  The 
greater  part  of  Ireland  and  of  Russian  Poland  continue  attached  to  it,  without  regard  to  the 
opposite  systems  supported  by  the  state.  Tliat  intolerance  which  gave  birth  to  so  many 
struggles  in  attempting  to  extirpate  the  Protestant  fiiith,  has  been  greatly  mitigated,  and, 
except  in  Italy  and  Spain,  all  professions  enjoy  an  almost  complete  toleration.  Tlie  number 
of  Faman  Catholics  seems  lO  be  fairly  estimated  at  between  90,000,000  and  100,000,000. 
The  absolute  authority  of  the  Pope  in  matters  of  faith  and  worship,  auricular  confession,  the 
prohibition  of  tlie  Scriptures  in  the  vulgar  tongue,  and  a  splendid  ritual  colculated  to  dazzle 
the  eyes  of  the  multitude,  form  the  peculiar  characters  of  the  Roman  Catliolic  system.  The 
monstrous  pretensions  once  advanceil  to  excommunicate  and  depose  kings,  and  to  grant  indul- 
gences to  commit  crime,  seem  now  to  be  generally  withdrawn. 

Tlie  Protestant  or  Reformed  religion  raised  its  standard  early  in  the  fifteenth  century,  and 
made  most  rapid  progress,  especially  in  the  north  of  Europe.  It  sought  to  purge  Christianity 
from  the  superstitious  observances  which  ha<l  enveloped  it  during  many  ages  of  darkness ;  to 
introduce  a  more  spiritual  and  simple  form  of  worship ;  to  break  up  the  institutions  devoted 
to  celibacy ;  to  deny  human  authority  in  matters  of  doctrine,  and  rest  it  solely  on  the  found- 
ation of  Scripture,  It  had  to  maintain  a  dreadful  struggle  against  the  Romish  see,  which 
armed  in  its  cause  all  the  great  monarchs  of  Europe ;  and  in  France  and  Bohemia,  after 
taking  deep  root,  it  was  nearly  extirpated.  It  has  been  finally  established,  however,  in  Great 
Britain,  in  the  Netherlands,  the  north  of  Germany,  and  tlie  Scandinavian  peninsula.  Not- 
withstanding its  numerical  inferiority,  it  now  ranks  among  its  votaries  the  most  powerful,  the 
most  opulent  and  the  most  intelligent  nations  of  Europe  and  tlie  globe.  Its  rejection  of 
human  authority,  and  direct  appeal  to  the  Scriptures,  have  caused  it  to  be  split  into  numerous 
sects  and  divisions.  The  most  prominent  is  into  Lutherans  and  Calvinists ;  tlie  Luthcraas 
retaining  still  many  of  the  Romish  rites  and  doctrines,  to  which,  in  every  point,  the  Calvinists 
place  themselves  in  the  most  decided  opposition.  The  Englisli  church  may  be  considered  a 
sort  of  medium  between  the  two,  inclming  nearer  to  tiie  Lutheran.  In  the  Protestant 
countries,  numerous  smaller  sects  have  asserted  the  right  of  private  judgment,  on  which  the 
Refbrnintion  was  founded.  Among  these  are  tiie  Anabaptists,  chiefly  in  Germany,  the  Neth- 
erlands, and  England,  whom  Hassel  perhaps  underrates  at  240,0(K) ;  Methodists  and  Quakers 
in  Britain,  estimated  at  I9(),(K)0 ;  the  Moravian  brethren  in  Germany,  40,000.  The  Unita- 
rians have  an  established  church  in  Transylvania,  comprising  40,000  souls,  and  are  difliised, 
openly  or  secretly,  through  tlie  other  European  countries,  especially  Britain. 

In  learning,  nrt  Kcionce,  all  th**  piirsiiits  which  dcvclope  the  intellectual  nature  of  man, 
wiiich  refine  and  pnlirirn  liis  idens,  Europe  has  fur  surpassed  every  other  continent  The 
enioiros  of  Southern  and  Eai-tcrn  Asia  alone  liiive  an  ancient  traditional  literature,  of  which 

85* 


MP 


'HT*' 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


the  remains  are  yet  preserved.  But,  besides  being  now  in  a  very  decayed  state,  it  never 
included  any  autiientic  history,  sound  pliilosophy,  or  accurate  knowledge  of  nature.  An 
extravagant  though  sometimes  ]X)ctical  mytiiology,  proverbial  maxims  of  wisdom,  and  a 
poetry  replete  with  bold  and  hyperbolical  images,  compoHe  almost  its  entire  circle.  The 
science  of  Europe  has  been  employed  with  equal  success  in  exploring  tiie  most  distant  regions 
of  the  universe,  and  in  improving  tlie  condition  of  man  in  society.  Astronomy,  which  else- 
where is  a  mere  mass  of  superstition  and  wild  conjecture,  has  here  not  onlv  delineated  witli 
perfect  precision  the  situation  and  movements  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  but  has  disclosed 
numberless  systems  of  worlds,  of  which  without  her  aid  the  existence  could  never  have 
been  suspected.  Chemistry,  which  was  formerly  a  mere  collection  of  empirical  receipts  and 
chimeras,  is  become  a  mighty  science,  which  analyses  the  meet  secret  operations  of  nature, 
and  discovers  important,  and  before  unknown,  substances.  A  similarly  sound  and  compre- 
1,^,  hcnsive  character  marks  her  attainments  in  physical  science,  and  in  every  branch  of  natural 

',i\  ,.,  history.    In  regard  to  poetic  fancy,  although  some  natural  flights  may  be  found  among  the 

rudest  tribes,  and  though  the  Orientals  possess  a  peculiar  vein  of  learned  and  studied  orna- 
ment, it  is  in  Europe,  during  either  ancient  or  modem  times,  that  the  polished  and  classic 
models  of  poetical  composition  have  been  exclusively  produced. 

The  invention  of  printing,  and  tlie  consequent  general  diflusion  of  information  among  all 

classes,  are  features  especially  European.    By  their  means,  in  its  enlightened  countries,  the 

essential  branches  of  knowledge  are  now  placed  within  the  reach  of  the  humblest  classes, 

^  and  even  tlie  highest  branches  are  not  absolutely  beyond  tlieir  attainment.  The  endowments 

*  for  tlie  support  of  learning  are  very  extensive,  founded  in  a  great  measure  during  the  middle 

ages,  and  bearing  some  stamp  of  the  then  infant  state  of  literature ;  but  they  are  now  adapting 

i*f  themselves  to  modern  improvements.    The  extensive  and  extending  institutions  for  the 

T^  instruction  of  the  lower  orders  have  produced  a  general  diflusion  of  intelligence,  to  which 

in  the  other  parts  of  the  world,  if  we  except  America,  there  is  nothing  analogous. 

The  political  state  of  Europe  is  also  peculiarly  fortunate.  Elsewhere,  with  rare  exceptions, 
u  turbulent  anarchy  prevails,  or  vast  empires  are  subjected  to  the  absolute  sway  of  a  single 
despot.  It  is  in  this  continent  only  that  the  secret  has  been  found  of  establishing  a  regular 
and  constitutional  liberty,  in  whicli  the  extremes  of  tyranny  and  licentiousness  are  equally 
avoided.  Even  the  absolute  monarcliies  arc  generally  administered  with  mildness,  according 
to  legal  forms,  and  afford  to  the  bulk  of  the  people  a  tolerable  security  of  person  and  pro- 
perty. The  European  states  have  also  establisheil  among  themselves  a  balance  of  power, 
wiiich  sets  bounds  to  the  encroachments  of  any  particular  state,  and  has  repeatedly  rescued 
the  whole  continent  from  the  imminent  danger  of  universal  subjugation.  The  military  and 
naval  [wwer  has  been  raised  to  a  height,  to  which  none  of  the  other  continents  can  offer  any 
effectual  resistance.  A  great  proportion  of  them  has  now  been  conquered,  occupied,  or 
colonised  by  Europe;  and  if  the  whole  is  not  reduced  under  this  condition,  it  is  only  through 
distance  and  extensive  deserts  that  many  great  countries  still  preserve  their  independence. 
The  geology  of  Europe  will  be  more  odvantageously  treated  of  under  its  respective 
countries. 

Sect.  III. — Botany. 

The  botany  of  Europe  presents  some  general  characters,  which  it  may  be  important  to 
notice.  In  the  preliminary  observations,  we  have  given  a  very  general  and  rapid  sketch  of 
the  vegetable  geography  of  the  globe,  taken  in  its  more  enlarged  sense.  We  must  now 
survey  it  in  its  subordinate  divisions;  and  the  plan  which  we  have  prescribed  to  our- 
selves, is,  in  the  first  instance,  under  the  great  principal  divisions  of  the  eartli,  to  mention 
the  more  striking  vegetable  features ;  and  then,  under  each  respective  country,  to  give  a 
more  particular  statement  of  the  plants  belonging  to  it  which  deserve  notice,  either  from 
their  extreme  abundance,  their  rarity,  their  peculiar  properties  and  qualities,  or  some  circum- 
stance of  general  interest. 

The  nature  of  the  present  publication  only  allowing  us  to  consider,  in  a  very  general 
way,  tlie  vegetable  productions  as  connected  witli  their  geographical  distribution,  we  can- 
not devote  much  space  to  what  concerns  the  primary  divisions.  The  artificial  boundaries 
of  Europe,  especially  to  the  east  and  to  the  south,  are  of  that  nature  that  many  of  what 
might  otherwise  be  ranked  among  its  more  striking  botanical  features  arc  gradually  blended 
into  those  of  Asia  on  the  one  hand,  and  of  the  north  of  Africa  on  the  other.  Liocal  circum 
stances,  as  we  have  already  seen,  affect  the  presence  or  absence  of  certain  plants,  to  an  extent 
more  than  equal  to  that  of  any  artificial  geographical  arrangement.  Temperature,  which 
has  so  powerful  an  efl'pct  upon  them,  varies  in  a  regular  progression  upon  a  lofty  mountain ; 
;*  but  it  is  not  so  in  nil  situations,  and  with  the  same  regulr.rity,  especially  on  tlie  great  conti- 

nents-, upon  the  plains  and  low  grounds.     "Sometimes,"  says  the  elixnicnt  Mirbel,  "a  chain 
of  mountains  f()rms  a  barrier  against  the  freezing  winds  of  the  north,*  and  receives  and 

*  T»  oTti?  ppnt.  iTi  (he  rutrnrnr'  iin»th  nf  Pwpdni),  ftirinir  Ihc  Ken,  nrii!  hnrkfil  hy  liifly  hilH,  otiven  h;ivfi  siirnROtletl 
in  Ihn  (i|hmi  nir,  unci  ripviiecl  llinir  fruit ;  while,  nl  thn  (liil.incR  of  fix  Sninliiih  iiiilo  nnrtliwaril,  Uio  inhabiunli 
clothi'  thcinsrlvrs  with  TiirB  in  the  v.intcr.  to  |irol>!ct  thunimlVM  Trom  the  suverity  of  tho  cold. 


!  f '1 

fi 


[y  general 

we  can- 

Bundaries 

ly  of  what 

lly  blended 
»1  circum 
I  an  extent 

lire,  which 

linountain; 

|r«;nt  conti- 
'  tt  chain 

Iceives  and 

Ive  »\icce(>cleil 
iiihabitanli 


Book  UI. 


EUROPE. 


206 


rcfVacts  upon  the  plants  the  heat  which  it  dcriveH  from  the  nolar  rays;  somctinios  a  parching 
Hirocco  fruin  the  south  raisen  the  temperature ;  in  some  places,  the  winters  are  tempered  by 
the  proximity  to  the  aea ;  whilst  at  other  times  all  these  causes  combined,  produce  a  climate 
BO  mild,  that,  to  Judge  of  its  geographical  position  only  by  the  indication  of  the  thermometer, 
wo  should  suppose  its  latitude  to  be  much  nearer  the  tropics  than  it  actually  is.  Again, 
continued  plains  of  vast  extent,  exactly  on  a  level  with  the  sea,  are  of  rare  occurrence;  and 
if  there  be  but  an  elevation  of  1000  or  1100  feet,  it  suffices  to  proiUico  a  considerable  reduc- 
tion of  temperature.  This,  in  its  turn,  obtains  an  influence  over  the  vegetable  creation ;  it 
changes  the  line  of  the  progress  of  plants  in  their  migration ;  it  arrests  them,  and  limits  their 
boundaries.  Sometimes  the  northern  species  procc^  southward  towards  the  tropics;  some- 
limes  those  of  the  south  migrate  northwards ;  and  sometimes  groups  belonging  to  both  of  these 

tribes  exchange  countries,  passing  one  an- 
other ;  each  about  to  establish  colonics  in  privi- 
leged stations,  in  the  midst  of  a  vegetable  popu- 
lation to  which  they  are  no  less  strangers  bv 
their  physiognomy  than  by  their  temperament 

We  shall  here  confine,  as  much  as  pos- 
sible, our  observations  to  a  table,  by  M.  Mir- 
bel,  of  the  pha-nogamous  (or  flowering)  plants 
of  Europe ;  to  which  have  been  adlled,  for 
reasons  already  alluded  to,  part  of  those  of 
Asia  and  of  Northern  Africa.  He  divides 
the  northern  hemisphere  into  imaginary  belts 
or  zones ;  the  equatorial,  the  transition  tem- 
perate, the  temperate,  the  transition  frozen, 
and  the  frozen  zones.  The  temperate  transi- 
tion, where  European  vegetation  commences, 
is  limited,  to  the  north,  by  the  disappearance 
of  the  Olive ;  the  temperate  zone  by  the  ces- 
sation of  the  Oak;  and  the  frozen  transition 
by  that  of  the  Fir  {Piniis  sylvestris)  in  the 
west,  and  of  the  Spruce  (P.  Aides)  in  the 
east.  The  frozen  zone  is  divided  into  two 
bands;  the  lowrr  or  muthern,  and  the  upper 
or  northern.  Both  are  entirely  destitute  of 
trees ;  but  in  the  frst  band  are  many  shrubs 
and  suflhiticoso  plants  :*  whilst  in  the  second 
scarcely  any  thing  is  foimd  but  small  herba- 
ceous plants ;  and  these  cease  where  the  Ime 
of  perpetual  snow  commences.f  Here,  too, 
another  im|K>rtant  fact  must  be  considered, — 
that,  in  the  frozen  or  arctic  regions,  almost 
exactly  the  same  flora  is  exhibited  in  Europe, 
Asia,  and  America. 

In  the  extent  of  country  to  which  the  following  table  is  more  peculiarly  applicable,  the 
Owarf  Palm  (Chamarops  humilUi),  and  the  Date  Tree  {Phcenix  dactylifera),  (fifr.  86.),  are 
■he  plants  that  have  the  nearest  approximation  to  a  tro|>ical  vegetation,  and  which  are,  of 

course,  the  most  southern.  The  plant  which  is  found  the 
nearest  to  the  pole,  and  which,  there  is  every  reason  to 
believe,  ascends  to  it,  is  the  Palmella  nivalis  (Hooker), 
Red  Snow  (Jiff.  87.)  of  arctic  navigators,  belonging  to 
the  Cryptogamic  fiimily,  and  which  will  be  more  especially 
noticed  hereafter.  In  speaking  of  vegetat'on,  however, 
generally,  and  except  tiio  contrary  is  otherwise  expressed, 
the  Cryptogamic  plants  ore  not  taken  into  account;  partly 
because  wc  are  at  present  but  imperfectly  acquainted 
with  their  extent  or  limits,  and  partly  because  they  are  not 
fled  s»now.  of  such  general  interest. 

*ThR  nhriiliby  or  siiflViitiRose  plants  nf  the  smithrrn  hninl  of  tlin  frozen  none,  lire  fifteen  willows  :  ihe  Dwarf 
nirrh  {Betula  Banol,  the  lliiiiible  Iliiili  (B.  iiumila),  the  White  Birch  (JJ.  alba)—lh\s  Inst  ia  only  found  on  tha 
southern  roasts  ofOreoiilauil ;  the  Hoary  llirch  (H.  infiino),  the  Juniper  (.luniiicruH  rommitni.i^  the  Trailing;  Azale 
{A.  proeHmlirna),  the  Blue  Meniiesia  (.W.  rcfrulm).  the  IMum  r"!"""^'  ami  f,  lalifolivm,  the  Lapland  Diapensia, 
the  DowMV  Whiirtlclierry  (Fii«ii?ii<m  puk«.ircn.<\  the  Marsh  Whortli'herry  (V.  uligitioium),  the  Ueil  (Cowberry  (K 
Vilis  I<l,rn\  th ■■  I'ranlicrry  (r.  Oiycotro*  ,  the  (ilnucoiis  Kiihnia,  eiuht  speries  of  llhoiloilenilron,  thc>  Alpine  Arbu- 
tus, the  Crow  iierry,  the  Common  Heath,  the  Bhriihliy  Pnteiililla,  ami  the  Rowan  Fir  (Pyrui  aucnpnria),  on  the 
nuuthern  shores  of  Greenland. 

t  Almost  the  only  shriihhv  plants  of  the  northern  band  nf  the  tVo/.en  zone,  are  the  little  Arctic  Willow  (8>/ii 
foUtrii),  the  reticulated  Willow  (S.  rctitulatB),  and  the  I'oursideU  Androuieila  (.4  tetrcjona). 


Boranui. 


Data  Trca.      Dwarf  Pa'm 


<> 


ti 


■'4 


t 


■61  i 

Ml 


290 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 
COMPARATIVE  TABLE 


^ 


Part  ID. 


'.rv 


ttt  the  phenogamout  reitetatlon  of  n  part  of  the  Tsmperale  TVaniitim  Zmt  (Palealine,  Syria,  Asia  IMiiior,  tat 
tbe  Caiicaiian  regloiia;  a  portion  of  the  north  of  Africu  and  llm  inutli  of  Europe  being  comprised  in  tliia  zone); 
of  the  TTimptrati  Zone  (Central  Euri>|H!  as  far  as  tliu  UrnI  Mniinlains  and  th«  Ciispiuii  S<!a.  and  parts  of  Tartarv 
bordering  upon  that  ten) ;  of  the  'rrannilian  Frmcii  Zone  (Nurlliern  Europii,  Silmria,  and  Kniiitscliiilka) ;  and  all 
the  Frmen  Zone  (Polar  Rufions)  of  the  Old  and  Now  World.  Extracted  from  M.  MirlHil'a  table,  in  tliu  Mem.  iu 
Museum  d'HM.  Jfat.  de  Parit.  ! 


9k 


^^m 


>  of  Ritanl  rsMlllM. 


llM«>MttM,  TnfclMt,  ud  ArntM.  AlOldau... 

OrwM,  UnmlacM. 

Mc««  CfparartM, 

Knttn,  lUMlVMt, 

BMb«,JuMcai, 

Watai^plaRUlm,  AMimwaM. 

AnmnM,  Aa|«ra«tM 

Cfltohkuna,  Colcblr«MM 

Ulin,  UllaeMt, 

Iftrrlipus,  IfarclMcw 

Ittl,IrMrM 

Orrbta.  UrobUvM 

rra|«bll.HrdmitaarMcM 

^Mdwrad.  Naiftin, 


ralow,  PafMW. .. 
PlMcCoairene,. 


Elni^  VIoMMWi. 

MetlW,  Vrtkcw. 

Bartn,  BupkorUarvM* 
rthmrt,  AHitoloehiM, 

Bn  hekibori).  KiMfMw 

■aodtl-wood,  B«KlalaccM , 

DapliDa,  TbymrtoM^ .< 

tMitrt,  UnrlPM*. « 

Buckwhrat.  roincoMM, , 

Oooarfont,  Cktmtfoimt, 

Amraatb.  AnwmDlhmM. , 

Ptanlaltt  PlutaftniiM, 

Thrift,  rtiitntavKwWs 

Mwtii,  NrrlartMM « 

Olobwtarta,  OMMltreM, 

ttimnmtt  frlmttlHWM,. , 

Bullarvort,  LantlbiilarlVP* 

Plfwort,  BriofhulariMK), 

Mi|bl«b«d«.  BnlaaM*. 

0«alUa.  OrRliMf^a 

Bwatlowwiirt,  AporynfM,. 

AruUina,  Acaaibarrftr, 

PnlPinoaliiin.  PiilitmanlanMs, 

Mndwfwd.  CoBvolruUrcaa 

fioraf»,  Boriflnn*, 

UMalc.  UhiMM 

VvrrtlM,  Verbcume, , 

JMmlMs  JwiniBTM. ' 

Hniba,  Kriclorar 

KbodndeadroM,  BbiNlomMW, 

Vxmf.  KbtBtMW, 

BrtUowers,  CsrapMvlMcw. 

CardtiHt-llowcra.  LobcllMn^  ,.., 

CuBpiiuRd,  BrnalbaraM 

Tnwia,  DipaarMT 

VakriaM.  ValeriaiMM. 

Madden.  ftaUarcar 

H  cuifraucklaa,  raprirnlUcrM 

VmbtlHfrroDa.  Draballifena, 

Baikrra|«%  HaiirrMrWi 

Punlaaea,  Purlularrae 

Kwwrto,  ParoarctUae 

HoaarlMka.  CraM'ilcat, 

Cvrruiak  BtbMiae. 

PMrklf  Pcara,  Opuntlacew, 

rif-llart|oUa,  ricotdew,  ..» 

OmiTda,  CDCurbtlarM*. 

Wllkmhrrta.  OuffnrlM. 

MrnlM.  Mrrtsm* 

Lrlkntm.  Batieailar. . 


RMff,  RoMirrae, ,  

l>fumiBaiia  pluila,  t^fluminoaaak-  • 

Bumacba,  Tcrfblulharaae 

BurkthoriM.  Hbamneari 

Cterlarla.  CnnanM, 

Bua,  B  itarrar 

WoodmrrrK  Oia>ldPa>>, 

Babama,  RaUamiorar 

Oenmumi,  (irfaniKiiM' 

ViD4M,  Ampeliilrv 

Aardararh.  Mrliarrar, 

HoraKhratniil.  Ilippucaatanraa,  ... 

Hapk,  Aicrinnv, 

HI.  John'*  Wort,  Hrp^riciDv**',  .. . 

Oraa|«,  Atiranltarrae 

Llnd«M,  TtliM>eae, 

Matbiw.  MalTarrw 

riai,  Ltiirar 

Plaka,  CarropbrllfBi? 

Vrankfnla.  Prmiikriiiat.-ea*! 

Mllkwnria,  Pulyyakar 

■n  »«'a.  Drnai'r»-#sr 

V.MrK  Viote^ 

Onm  riatsa,  riitlavar 

C'aptr,  Capparidraf 

rriii'irrriHia  plaala,  rriKlferM^. ...... 

I'atnltnrf.  Fumaria*, 

P^WT'  Pap-tvcrartw 

W^lrrtily.  Nr(n[>ha»anart 

Brrtitrrf.  BrrtMrrtiliar 

Moniid^il,  Mi>iili|»-iiitPap 

BanuarulLiB,  ftanuorulat-eaa, 


If 


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BookUI.  .  EUROPK  ''-i  297 

In  the  temperate  tranBition  zone,  out  of  6103  epeciee,  1202  have  been  ascertained  to  be 
woody,  and  6808  herbaceous ;  and  of  these  latter  9861  are  known  to  have  perennial,  and 
2373  annual  or  biennial  roots. 

In  the  temperate  zone,  out  if  3982  species,  there  are  ^1  '.voody,  and  3(f2!i  herbaceous ; 
of  which  2010  arc  understood  to  have  perennial,  and  944  annual  or  biennial  roots. 

In  the  frozen  tiansition  zone,  out  of  2129  species,  are  103  woody  plants,  and  1030  herba- 
ceous ;  of  which  511  are  supposed  to  have  perennial,  and  363  annual  or  biennial  roots. 

In  the  frozen  zone,  of  the  438  species,  46  are  woody,  and  392  herbaceous ;  of  which  371 
are  estimated  to  have  perennial  roots,  and  only  15  annual  or  biennial  roots. 

We  have  already  stated  that  in  the  frozen  or  polar  region  the  vegetation  is  very  similar 
^  throughout  the  north  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  America ;  which  mav  in  part  arise  from  its 

\  limited  oxtciit,  and  from  the  continents  approaching  comparatively  so  near  to  each  other. 
^  There  must  necessarily,  too,  be  a  greater  equality  of  temperature  than  in  the  other  zones ; 
V.  the  vegetation  everywhere  appearing  nearly  upon  a  level  with  the  sea.  In  Greenland, 
^houw  estimates  that  there  is  hardly  one-sixth  of  the  plants  that  are  not  equally  found  in 
Lapland.  Of  tlie  genera  of  Greenland  only  two  are  not  found  in  I^pland  (Streplopus  and 
Ck^tis),  and  both  occnr  in  North  America.  We  shall,  by-and-by,  notice  how  analogous  is 
the  vegetation  discovered  during  Captain  Parry's  arctic  voyages  to  that  both  of  the  European 
and  American  continents,  in  corresponding  latitudes.  Even  in  Kamtschatka,  one  half  of 
the  plants  found  by  Wormskiold  arc  European ;  and  of  the  genera  only  eight  or  ten  are  not 
European ;  and  they  are  North  American.  But,  as  we  proceed  from  the  Arctic  Regions  to 
the  south,  wo  find  the  vegetation  gradually  becoming  more  and  more  dissimilar  between 
America  and  Europe ;  except,  indeed,  when  the  high  mountains  in  the  respective  countries 
are  examined,  and  then  the  resemblance  again  appears.  Pursh,  whose  flora  comprises,  to  a 
very  limited  extent,  the  plants  of  the  arctic  or  sub-arctic  regions,  or  of  the  lofty  mountains 
of  North  America,  but  is  principally  confined  to  Canada,  and  to  those  districts  of  the  United 
States  whose  latitude  corresponds  pretty  nearly  with  that  of  the  more  temperate  parts  of  the 
European  continent,  has  about  one-seventh  of  his  species  only  European ;  and  if  the  doubt- 
ful natives,  those  probably  introduced  from  the  Old  World,  be  taken  into  account,  only  one- 
tenth:  out  of  716  genera  of  North  American  plants,  480,  or  two-thirds,  also  occur  in 
Europe,  or  in  Northern  Africa. 

Schouw  estimates  the  most  striking  disparities  between  the  vegetation  of  the  western 
parts  of  the  Old  World,  and  the  eastern  parts  of  the  New,  to  be  as  follows : — 

1.  The  Cruciform  (Jig.  88.  a)  and  Umbelliferotu  families  (6) :  those  of  the  Pinks  (c)  and 
Labiate  flowers  (jf)  arc  much  the  most  numerous  on  the  old  continent.  The  first,  in  North 
America,  mny  be  estimated  at  oV,  in  Europe  at  about  ^;  and  the  otlier  families  may  be 
classed  in  the  following  proportions : — 

Nonh  Amertca.       Fruce.      Deanurk. 

,  .  Umbelliferous -    3V  tt         21 

Pink  Family jV  Vs         Ti 

Labiate  flowers      -----    jV  ■51         iV 

2.  Of  the  family  with  Compound  flowers  {Composita:),  the  groups  of  the  Endives  (<•) 
Ci^ffi.  gg  (Cichoraceoi),  and  of  the  Arti- 

"-^  -~  /  chokf.s  and  Thistles  {Cynaro- 

cephala),  are  more  abundant 
in  Europe;  whilst,  on  the 
other  hand.  North  America 
possesses  such  a  number  of  spe- 
cies of  Michaelmas  Daisy  {As- 
ter), and  Golden  Rod  {Solida- 
go),  that  they  constitute  one- 
___  third  of  the  compound  flowers 

)>i!^^^  V    CBH^'tiHiMiiS^  ISL^Ob  ^jSkll^      °^  ^^    country,    forming  a 
.^Kl^W^Mb.    Ikl^wflBw^^  !/■»  Jrrv  SSffifUnJli^.   striking  feature  in  the  vegeta- 
tion of  the  United  States,  and 

_3.  I    carrying  the  preponderance  in 

^\3^  ''^.  ^^J^JL^J^tKSIiflif^^^j^  [S^SXS^s^    favour  of  North  America. 
'l^^%^(^^^|^^^^g/^^10^^g',     3-  I'he  family  of  Bellflow- 
'^<^^]|^^g^^ro^^^^^^fe^8,jy;^^^r  ers(/)('Cflwpanti/flccg;)aboimd 

"*'"  of  the  Cardinal  Flowers  (Lo- 

d  ^^  beliacetE),  in  thg  New. 

4.  Not  a  single  species  of  Heath  (g)  is  found  in  the  new  continent ;  while,  in  the  old, 
immense  tracts  are  covered  with  them ;  but  their  places  are  taken  in  America  by  the  Whor- 
tleberries (  Vaccinia). 

5.  Both  in  North  America  and  in  Europe,  the  forests  are  constituted  by  the  families  of 
Vol.  2N 


.h 


f 


296 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


PartUI 


the  Conc-I)earin>;  (,Con\fertB)  und  Amentaceous  (_Amentace<e)  trees ;  but  in  America  they  fiir 
exceed  those  of  Curope  in  respect  to  the  number  of  spccios. 

6.  In  North  America  we  tind  the  typce  or  representatives  of  many  tropical  families; 

as,  for  cximple,  of  tiie  Cactuses,  Scitamineous  plants,  the  Han;o  {Cycadetc),  the  Custard 

Apples  {Aniwiwcea),  the  Sapindaceous,  and  the  Melastomuce.ous  plants:  those  are  wholly 

t  wantiiiij;  in  Kiniilur  latitudes  in  the  Old  World ;  and  in  regard  to  many  olliers,  which  are 

•i^  common   to  both  countries,  such  as  the   Palms,  Laurels,  Swallowworts  (Asclepiadem), 

J,  Sumachs,  Cassias,  and  Mimosas,  they  are  more  abundant,  and  generally  reach  a  higher 

northern  Iiititude,  in  North  America  than  in  the  Old  World.     In  Europe,  again,  there  are 

fewer  arborescent  plants ;  for,  according  to  Humboldt,  while  North  America  has  137  trees 

whose  trunks  reach  the  height  of  30  feet  and  upwards,  Europe  possesses  only  45  of  that 

character. 

Siberia,  Iwunded  as  it  is  on  the  side  of  Europe  by  the  Ural  Mountains,  differs  from  the 
latter  country  in  a  much  less  degree ;  and  it  is  mostly  in  North  American  genera  that  this 
jt^  difference  lies;  aa  in  the  presence  of  the  genus  Phlox,  Mitella,  Claytonia,  &c.  and  in  the 

predomintinne  of  the  tribes  of  Michaelmas  Daisy  {Aster),  Golden  Rod  {Solidatro),  Meadow- 
Sweet  {Spircptt),  and  especially  of  the  Milkvetches  {Astragalus)  and  Wormwoods  {Arte- 
misia), as  well  as  (on  account  of  the  numerous  saline  lakes)  the  Goospfoots  und  Saltworts. 

In  the  soulliern  hemisphere,  the  vegetation  is  very  dift'erent  from  that  of  Europe  in  the 
corresponding  degrees  of  latitude.  In  Southern  Africa,  Thunberg  enumerates  118  species 
which  arc  analogous  to  those  of  Europe ;  which  would  probably  be  found  considerably  to 
exceed  the  truth,  if  the  species  were  accurately  examined.  Mr.  Brown  assures  us  that  the 
Alpine  Catstail  Grass  {Phleum  Alpinum)  and  the  Moonwort  Fern  {Botrychium  lunaria) 
exist  in  the  Banksinn  herbarium,  which  were  gathered  in  the  extreme  parts  of  South  Ame- 
rica :  and  the  same  accurate  writer  observed  45  European  phoinogamous  plants  in  Terra 
Australis,  of  which  23  are  dicotyledonous  and  21  monocotyledonous,  and  121  acotyledonous 
or  Cryptogamia;  namely,  2  of  the  Fern  family,  25  Mosses,  14  Hepaticm,  38  Lichens,  10 
Fungi,  12  Alga;.*  The  very  general  distribution  of  plants  of  this  class  over  the  surface  of 
the  globe,  we  have  before,  indeed,  hod  occasion  to  notice. 

Sect.  IV. — Zoology. 

The  zoological  features  of  Europe,  although  sufficiently  important  to  render  this  continent 
a  primary  division  of  geographic  natural  history,  are  neither  so  extensive  nor  so  varied  as 
those  of  more  genial  regions.  We  have  already  shown  the  propriety  of  including  within 
this  range  the  southern  parts  of  Africa  bordering  the  Great  Desert;  while  the  western 
provinces  of  Asia  appear  to  partake  both  of  the  European  and  the  Oriental  zoology.  It 
might  be  imagined  that  such  a  division,  including  countries  suffering  by  the  extremes  of 
cold  and  boat,  would  present  animals  of  the  most  diversified  nature :  but  such  is  by  no  means 
the  case,  at  least  to  any  great  extent.  The  chief  seat  of  this  zoological  province  appears 
to  be  on  the  southern  side  of  Central  Europe,  towards  the  Alps,  or  those  countries  lying 
between  the  latitudes  of  40°  and  .50°  N. ;  as  within  these  parallels  the  greatest  proportionate 
number  of  species  appear  to  be  found.  It  may,  however,  be  more  natural  to  consider  this 
zoological  region  as  presenting  three  minor  divisions:  1.  The  arctic ;  2.  The  central ;  and, 
3.  The  southern. 

The  arctic  division  will  include  Greenland,  the  islands  of  Spitzbergen  and  Iceland,  and  a 
considerable  part  of  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Northern  Russia.  The  central  division  may  be 
said  to  commence  towards  the  northern  limits  of  Scotland,  and  to  reach  the  shores  of  North- 
ern Italy ;  or,  more  properly,  to  about  the  45th  degree  of  north  latitude.  The  southern 
range  includes  the  whole  of  the  Mediterranean  countries.  Northern  Africa,  and  Asia  Minor. 

The  animals  more  particularly  belonging  to  the  arctic  circle  are  few  in  species.  Those 
dreary  and  inhospitable  regions  afford  but  little  sustenance  to  ruminating  quadrupeds,  or  to 
insectivorous  land  birds ;  while  the  intense  cold  is  as  inimical  to  vegetation  as  to  the  pro- 
duction of  insects.  Yet  these  undisturbed  solitudes  are  instinctively  chosen  by  multitudes 
of  marine  animals,  as  secure  retreats  from  the  interruption  of  man,  for  breeding  and  pro- 
viding tor  their  young.  The  polar  seas  abound  with  innumerable  water-fowl ;  they  congre- 
gate and  build  among  the  rocks,  whose  surface  they  almost  cover  by  their  numbers. 

Of  the  Herring,  {fg.  89.)  Pennant  was  among  the  first  naturalists  who  believed  that 

the  countless  myriads  which  annually  visit  the  northern 
shores  of  Europe,  migrated  from  the  Arctic  Ocean. 
,  The  account  given  by  this  elo(iuent  writer  is  so  inte- 
resting,  that  we  shall   repeat  it  nearly  in   his  own 
words: — "The  great  winter  rendezvous  of  the  herring 
is  within  the  arctic  circle.     There  they  continue  for 
many  months,  in  order  to  recruit  themselves  afler  the  fatigue  of  spawning ;  the  seas  within 
that  space  swarming  with  insect  food  in  a  degree  fnr  greater  than  in  our  wnrniiir  latitudes. 
Thus  renovated,  this  mighty  army  begins  to  put  itself  in  motion  in  the  spring.    They  appear 

*nr  Ihn  1<<|  Hcnt)loclonou8  plaiita  it  may  b»  obicrvcd,  lliat  all,  cici'iit  one,  liin  Mnri«ili'a  r|uuilrjr»li:i,  am  found 
in  Uruat  Bniaiii. 


nrititli  Hnrrinf. 


Book  I. 


EUROPE. 


200 


Ptarmigan. 


off  the  Shetland  Isles  in  April  and  Mny  :  tiieso  are  only  the  forerunners  of  the  prand  divi- 
bion,  which  comes  in  June ;  and  their  appcurnnce  is  marked  by  certain  si^^ntt,  and  hy  the 
numbers  of  birds  which  follow' to  prey  Ujwn  them:  but  when  the  main  body  ttppro;i(;!iO!<,  its 
breadtl)  and  its  depth  are  sucli  as  to  alter  the  appearance  of  the  vory  occiin.  It  is  divided 
into  distinct  columns,  of  five  or  six  miles  in  length,  and  three  or  four  in  breadth ;  and  they 
drive  the  water  before  them  with  a  kind  of  rippling.  Sometimes  they  sink  for  ten  or  lifleen 
minutes,  then  rise  again  to  the  surface,  and,  m  bright  weather,  reflect  a  variety  of  splendid 
colours,  like  a  field  of  the  most  precious  gems." 

The  zoology  of  arctic  Europe  has  received  much  less  attention  than  that  of  Northern 
America ;  we  must,  therefore,  be  somewhat  concise  on  this  head.  Among  the  few  original 
writers  who  have  treated  on  the  fauna  of  arctic  Europe,  the  learned  and  acute  Otlio  Fabri- 
ciuB,  many  years  a  resident  in  those  dreary  regions,  deservedly  ranks  foremost.  He  enumer- 
ates thirty-two  species  of  Mammalia  as  natives  of  Greenland,  nine  of  whicii  belong  to  the 
genera  ot  Walrus  and  Seal  {Trichecus  and  Phoca),  and  fifteen  to  the  cetaceous  order;  thus 

leaving  but  eight  species  of  terrestrial  quadrupedx,  a  propor- 
tion at  once  explained  by  the  wild  and  desolate  nature  of  these 
regions.  The  number  of  birds,  comprehending  such  as  are 
occasional  visiters,  amounts  to  fifty-two.  Seven  of  these  are 
rapacious,  and  five  are  referable  to  the  families  of  Warblers 
and  Finciies (Sy/vi(i</(r  and  Fringillid<c);  the  remainder,  with 
the  solitary  exception  of  the  Ptarmigan  {fig.  00.),  or  Lago- 
pus  mvlus,  belong  to  the  wading  and  swimming  orders,  to 
whose  nourishment  and  increase  the  arctic  solitudes  are  par- 
ticularly congenial.  Nevertheless:,  by  far  the  greater  number 
of  these  birds  occur  abundantly  in  more  southern  latitudes ; 
and  many  extend  their  flight  to  the  warm  shores  of  tiie  Me- 
diterranean. Those  species,  in  fact,  which  habitually  live 
within  the  arctic  circle,  as  if  by  preference,  are  remarkably  few,  and  offer  no  good  founda- 
tion to  ground  a  belief  that  these  regions  constitute  one  of  the  primary  groups  in  animal 
geoffraphy. 

The  zoology  of  Central  Europe  may  be  said  to  commence  towards  the  fiOth  degree  of 
northern  latitude,  where  a  sensible  change  in  tiie  number  and  species  of  animals  may  be 
perceived ;  vegetation  assumes  a  marked  and  decisive  character ;  and  those  animals  which 
depend  for  thoir  support  both  on  the  produce  of  the  earth  and  on  the  insect  world  are  greatly 
increased,  at  once  in  number  and  in  species.  Vegetables  fiirnish  nutrition  to  insects,  and 
seeds  to  birds:  the  former,  again,  become  the  prey  of  the  latter;  and  thus 
the  supplies  of  nature  are  nicely  and  accurately  balanced,  with  a  just 
regard  to  the  preservation  of  all  her  creatures.  The  dark  pine  forests  of 
Norway,  Sweden,  and  Lnpland  are  the  most  northern  boimdaries  of  the 
Woodpeckers;  one  of  which  (Ap/firnn»  triductylus  Sw.)  is  remnrkable 
for  having  but  three  toes  to  its  feet  (Jig.  91.),  and  is  more  peculiarly  a 
native  of  these  high  latitudes.  The  insectivorous  and  omnivorous  tribes 
begin, also,  to  be  common;  while  the  wading  and  natatorial  birds  diminish 
in  numbers,  though  not  in  species ;  for  as  they  congregate  at  certain  seasons 
in  the  polar  seas,  so  during  winter  they  disperse  themselves  on  the  shores 
of  Great  Britain  and  the  Continent.  We  have  no  very  precise  informa- 
tion as  to  the  extreme  northern  range  of  those  birds  whoso  chief  metropo- 
lis is  in  Central  Europe ;  and  we  are  still  deficient  in  a  Fauna  Scotica. 
Most  of  the  Arctic  birds  occur  on  the  northern  shores  of  Scotland,  the  islands  of  Orkney 
and  Shetland,  and  on  the  coasts  of  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Denmark.  Miiller,  in  his  Zoologio 
Danica,  enumerates  57  species  of  Mammalia,  and  131  of  birds,  as  natives  of  that  kingdom. 
Among  the  former,  3  only  are  marine,  and  14  are  Cetacets:  while  the  land  birds  amount  to 
87,  exclusive  of  26  belonging  to  the  rapacious  genera  of  Eagles,  Falcons,  and  Owls.  On 
comparing  these  numbers  with  those  of  the  Greenland  fauna,  we  observe,  on  the  one  hand, 
a  considerable  diminution  of  marine  Mammalia,  and  a  very  large  addition  to  the  list  of 
terrestrial  birds ;  this  latter  circumstance  is  easily  accounted  for, — they  are  not  formed  to 
endure  extreme  cold ;  and  being  dependent  upon  insects  and  seeds  for  their  support,  their 
dispersion  is  naturally  limited  by  the  facilities  afforded  by  nature  for  supporting  life.  Pro- 
ceeding to  those  countries  which  lie  towards  the  centre  of  Europe,  there  is  a  gradual  aug 
mentation  of  animal  life :  we  may  even  trace  this  change  in  the  local  distribution  of  the 
animals  peculiar  to  the  British  islands.  Many  species,  in  every  department  of  zoology,  are 
common  in  the  southern  and  western  counties  of  England,  which  are  totally  unknown  in  the 
northern  counties  and  in  Scotland.  Even  among  the  domesticated  races,  a  greater  develope- 
ment  of  structure  under  a  more  genial  climate  is  apparent  in  the  horse,  the  sheep,  and  the  ox 
of  Britain,  whon  compared  to  those  of  the  i.slands  and  mountains  of  Scotland ;  while  among 
birds  the  gallinaceous  genera,  which,  in  the  former  climates,  breed  and  live  at  all  seasons  in 
the  open  air,  are  roare(l  and  preserved  with  Jifiiculty  in  countries  farther  north ;  of  these  tho 
peacock  and  Guinea  fowl  mav  be  cited  as  examples. 


Thne.toed  Wood^scker. 


e 

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100 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  IU. 


Brown  Earopcen  Bmr. 


The  Bouthem  part  of  central  Europe  is,  then,  the  field  best  cnlculated  for  studying  the 
peculiarities  of  European  zoology.  Commencing  with  the  existing  (|uudrupt<(lt>,  we  may 
remurl{,  tliat  while  two  species  alone  appear  to  inlmbit  the  6old  regions  of  Denmark,  there 
are  thirteen  described  as  natives  of  France  and  the  adjacent  kinffdoms,  seven  of  wiiicii  have 
been  enumerated  among  British  quadrupeds.  The  great  wliitn  Bcur,  whicli  is  perhiipa  more 
July  an  arctic  animal  than  any  other,  disappears  on  the  southern  shores  of  the  Polar  Sea, 
and  is  replaced  in  temperate  Europe  by  the  common  brown  species.  Of  this  genus  tiicre  are, 
ccording  to  Cuvier,  but  two  recent  species  belonging  to  Europe,  the  brown  (_Jig.  if2.)  and  the 
black  bear.  Others  imagine,  with  some  show  of  reason,  that 
there  are  more ;  as  the  varieties  from  the  first  are  very  remark- 
I  able.  The  second  is  the  black  bear  of  Europe,  diflcring  from 
that  of  America  in  many  important  [wints  of  structure :  only 
one  living  example  appears  to  have  been  seen  and  dissected ; 
and  this,  having  died  in  confinement,  afiTorded  no  clue  to  a 
knowledge  of  its  haunts  or  manners. 

The  VVolf  and  the  Fox,  under  different  varieties  or  species, 
appear  generally  distributed  over  Europe :  to  these  we  must  add 
the  Lynx  and  the  Wild  Cat,  as  the  onljr  true  rapacious  or  car- 
nivorous animals  that  have  been  appropriated  to  this  division  of 
the  globe.  The  Lynx,  once  common  in  central  Europe,  is  now 
only  known  in  some  parts  of  Spain,  the  Apennines,  and  in  the  northern  kingdoms.  The 
wild  cat  is  still  said  to  be  a  native  of  Britain,  and  is  spread  over  other  kingdoms  on  the  Con- 
tinent A  recent  author  includes  among  the  "  extinct  animals"  of  Britain  tiic  liysna  and 
tiger  whose  bones  have  been  found  in  the  caves  of  Kirkdale,  as  forming  part  of  the  modern 
geographic  distribution  of  animals.  This  hypothesis  lies  open  to  many  and  great  objections. 
If  such  formidable  and  terrific  carnivorous  animals  have  existed  in  Europe  since  the  last 
revolution  of  our  globe,  what  others  constituted  their  prey  1  Their  food  being  flesh  alone* 
what  were  the  other  races  of  quadrupeds  destined  by  nature  to  furnish  them  with  subsistence  1 
These  questions  must  be  first  considered,  before  we  can  assent  to  an  opinion  so  confidently 
advanced.  Whatever  might  have  been  the  character  of  European  zoology  before  the  deluge, 
certain  it  is,  that  in  its  present  state  it  exhibits  that  harmony  and  consistency  which  peculi- 
arly marks  a  wise  provision  for  all  created  things.  As  the  number  of  European  Mammalia 
is  so  disproportionably  small,  when  compared  with  those  of  Asia,  Africa,  and  America,  so  arc 
the  species  which  are  to  keep  their  own  class  under  subjection  feeble  and  few ;  and  tliis  law 
is  not  only  apparent  among  quadrupeds,  but  is  equally  observable  in  every  other  division  of 
animals.  Now,  aa  buds  are  much  more  numerous,  we  find  that  in  addition  to  the  natural 
enemies  in  their  own  class,  there  is  a  group  of  quadnipcds  more  particularly  destructive  to 
tlie  feathered  tribes.  These  are  the  MusIcUb,  or  Weasels;  few  perhaps  in  species,  but  im- 
portant in  their  numbers,  and  in  their  powers  of  destruction.  No  less  than  eight  species 
mhabit  different  parts  of  Europe.  Like  the  monkeys  of  the  tropics,  many  of  them  climb 
trees  and  suck  eggs;  and  by  thus  destroying  birds  in  every  stage  of  life,  from  the  egg  to  the 
adult,  are  peculiany  adapted  to  prevent  an  undue  increase  of  numbers. 

On  the  granivorous  quadrupetls  it  may  be  observed,  that  although  the  woods  of  Europe  are 
deficient  in  that  variety  of  pulpy  fruits  so  abundant  in  tropical  countries,  and  upon  which  the 
numerous  monkeys,  bats,  and  other  animals  of  those  regions  principally  live,  yet  there  is  a 
03  great  diversity  of  nuts  and  grain.     Hence  we  find  a  propor- 

tionate number  of  small  quadrupeds,  whose  subsistence  en- 
tirely depends  upon  these  boimtiful  supplies  of  nature: 
under  this  head  may  be  enumerated  the  Hedgehog,  Squirrel, 
and  the  various  Mice,  of  which  seven  species  belong  to 
Europe.  The  Beaver  (Jig.  93.)  is  found  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  Rhone,  the  Danube,  the  Rhine,  and  other  of  the  larger 
European  rivers.  If  naturalists  are  correct  in  considering 
this  to  be  identical  with  the  American  beaver,  it  is  one  of 
tlie  very  few  instances  of  the  same  species  of  animal  inhab- 
B«a»et.  iting  the  temperate  parts  of  the  old  and  new  continents. 

The  black  bear  of  Europe  was  long  confounded  with  that  of  America;  and  a  similar  differ- 
ence may  possibly  exist  between  the  beavers  of  the  two  continenta. 

The  different  species  of  Mice,  &c.,  now  arranged  under  many  genera,  form  an  important 
part  of  European  zoology ;  as  will  appear  from  the  following  list,  furnished  by  Mr.  Grifiitli 
'rom  the  valuable  Mammalogie  of  M.  Desmarest : — 


Arvicnia  amphibiuB Water  Rat. 

arvalia Field  Moiiso. 

— — —  Ailviia FiilvntiR  riiltrt. 

ortientorati^nsiii Htranbiirfr  ditto. 

Genryclm»  Norve):icu8 Thn  Leiiiniiiig, 

ti'rrcstriii Land  ditto. 

MuB  sylvatiriig Fiold  Mouse. 

^—  campcBtris Plain  ditto. 


MiiB  muKuliia Hoiisn  Moimr. 

nii?88ariiiH Ilarv»!t  ditto. 

iiiiiiiitiiB Riiinll  ditto. 

niirariiiR Sntnic  ditto. 

Boririiiiis Sliri'W-liko  ditto. 

dichriiriiH Pnrtyoolmircd  Rat. 

iHlandicua Iceland  ditto. 


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the  Medite 

Vol.  I. 


m. 

I  the 
may 
there 
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r  Sea, 
re  are, 
nd  the 
II,  tliat 
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ch  peculi- 

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ivieion  of 
lir  natural 
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lit  species 
lem  climb 
igg  to  the 

Europe  arc 
which  the 
there  is  a 
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'  nature: 
,  Squirrel, 
belong  to 
vicinity  of 
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onsidering 
^  is  one  of 
nal  inhab- 
lontinento. 
^ilar  diflfer- 

I  important 
Ir.  (Jriffitli 


lilitto. 
led  Rat. 


■^■• 


BooeI. 


EUROPE. 


aoi 


The  Ilamstors,  remarkable  for  their  cheek  pouches,  and  lielonging  to  the  snmo  natural 
family  as  tlie  mice,  have  their  chief  metroiKilit)  in  Siberia;  yet  one  species  {CHcrluii  vuU 
ffaria)  extends  to  central  and  nortiiern  Eurupu.  Tlio  Marmots  (Arclomyn  Marmnttii,  Bo. 
bac)  are  likewise  nucivorous,  and  occur  on  Uie  mountains  of  central  and  norttiern  Europe, 
together  with  the  Spermophilua  cUillug,  or  Soulisk  of  the  Germans.  Of  tlie  I  lure,  four 
species  are  European,  the  snowy,  the  common,  the  calling,  and  the  rabbit ;  and  these  com- 
plete tiie  list  of  European  Glireg. 

Among  ruminating  quadrupeds,  the  Elk  and  Reindeer  are  well-known  inhabitants  of  the 
northern  countries ;  the  latter  giving  place  to  the  Fallow-deer,  the  Stag,  and  the  Roebuck, 
in  the  midland  parts  of  Europe.  In  the  lofly  mountains  and  inaccessible  precipices  of  the 
Alps  and  Pyrenees,  the  Chamois,  Yzard,  and  Ibex  still  live  in  partial  security,  notwith- 
standing the  daring  intrepidity  of  their  hunters.  The  Musmon  is  another  European  quad- 
ruped deserving  particular  notice,  as  being  generally  considered  the  origin  of  all  our  domes- 
tic breeds  of  sheep.  It  appears  still  to  exist  in  a  state  of  nature  among  the  high  mountains 
of  Corsica  and  Sardinia;  and  although  now  extirpated  upon  the  continent,  is  well  ascer- 
tained to  have  formerly  been  common  in  the  mountains  of  Asturia  in  Spain.  Lastly,  it 
appears  incontestable  that  the  ox,  one  of  Uie  most  valuable  of  nature's  gifts  to  man,  originally 
existed  in  a  wild  state  over  the  whole  of  Europe,  but  whether  as  a  distinct  species  or  mere 
variety  is  still  uncertain.  The  white  ox  of  Scotland  is  a  peculiar  breed,  still  preserved  in 
some  few  parks  of  the  nobility,  and  will  be  noticed  hereafter.  But  a  much  larger  race,  dis- 
tinguished by  Hamilton  Smith  under  the  name  of  the  Fossil  Urus  {Griff.  Cuv.  iv.  414.), 
although,  probably,  in  existence  long  after  the  invasion  of  Cojsar,  is  now  only  known,  like 
the  elk  of  Ireland,  by  its  gi^ntic  bones. 

From  this  brief  enumeration  of  the  European  quadrupeds  it  will  be  perceived  that  their 
numbers  are  too  few,  and  tlieir  original  dispersion  too  obscure,  to  allow  of  any  correct  notions 
being  formed  as  to  their  natural  distribution.  With  regard  to  the  origin  of  our  domestic 
animals,  and  the  several  races,  breeds,  or  varieties  that  have  apparently  sprung  from  them, 
the  reader  must  be  referred  to  the  writings  of  F.  Cuvier,  and  the  extensive  resenrches  of 
Hamilton  Smith,  whose  acquaintance  with  the  order  of  ruminating  animals,  more  particu- 
larly, is,  perhaps,  superior  to  that  of  any  other  living  zoologist. 

The  ornithological  features  of  the  zoological  province  to  which  Europe  belonn^s,  have 
already  claimed  our  attention.  We  shall,  therefore,  now  merely  notice  a  few  circumstances 
connected  with  the  ornithology  of  central  Europe.  On  the  highest 
summits  of  the  Alps,  and  in  the  vast  forests  which  clothe  their  sides 
in  Hungary,  Switzerland,  and  the  Tyrol,  are  found  nil  the  four  spe- 
cies of  European  Vultures :  only  one  of  these,  Vtiltur  fnlvus  (Jig, 
94.),  appears  to  have  a  range  in  countries  farther  north ;  yet  all  are 
distributed  over  the  southern  kingdoms,  and  two  are  again  met  with 
on  the  northern  lunits  of  Africa  and  western  Asia.  The  Iceland  or 
gyr  Falcon,  long  supposed  to  bo  peculiar  to  the  high  northern  lati- 
tudes, is  now  considered  the  same  with  the  Falco  candicans  of  the 
northern  parts  of  Germany.  The  wide  geogmphic  range  of  the 
rapacious  order  has  already  been  odverted  to ;  nor  do  we  find  any 
species  besides  the  Vultures  which  serve  to  mark  the  ornithology 
of  central  Europe.  The  forests  of  Germany,  Austria,  Switzerland, 
and  France  appear  to  contain  all  the  European  Woodpeckers,  which, 
notwithstanding  their  wide  dispersion,  are  but  thinly  and  partially 
scattered  in  the  northern  and  southern  kingdoms. 

The  range  of  the  small  insectivorous  birds,  or  warbV.rs,  requires  much  investigation ;  nor 
are  we  at  this  moment  aware  of  any  species  in  Germany  which  does  not  occur  in  Prance  or 
towards  northern  Italy.  The  few  gallinaceous  birds  of  Europe  are  nearly  all  found  towards 
its  centre,  although  the  different  species  of  grouse  seem  to  affect  the  more  northern  lati- 
tudes. The  warm  covering  of  feathers  which  protects  their  feet,  is  peculiarly  adapted  as 
a  defence  from  the  intense  cold  of  the  polar  regions.  The  Bustards,  on  the  contrary,  occupy 
the  middle  regions  of  Europe,  and  extend  latitudinally  fl-om  the  confines  of  Asia  to  the  shores 
of  the  Atlantic.  The  Bee-eater  (Merops  apiaster),  the  Roller,  the  Hoopoe,  and  the  Golden 
Oriole,  in  their  annual  migrations  from  Africa,  visit  all  the  central  parts  of  the  Continent, 
but  become  progressively  scarce  as  we  advance  northward. 

In  the  third  portion  of  the  European  range,  we  comprehend  the  south  of  France,  the  whole 
of  Spain,  Italy,  and  Turkey,  together  with  the  coasts  and  islands  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea 
bordering  Asia  Minor,  and  Northern  Africa. 

On  the  geographic  range  of  the  quadrupeds  more  peculiar  to  those  countries,  little  ran  be 
said ;  as  the  materials  to  be  gathered  from  the  relations  of  travellers  unacquainted  with  zoolopy 
are  generally  most  imperfect.  There  is  no  evidence  of  the  great  northern  ruminatinrj  animals, 
such  as  the  Elk  and  the  Reindeer,  being  found  wild  in  any  of  the  countries  which  border 
the  Mediterranean  Sea,  although  a  small  species,  probably  the  fallow  deer  or  the  roebuck, 
Vol.  I.  26 


Folvoui  Vullun. 


:w 


.MrT. 


8USI 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOTiRAPIIY. 


Pamt  ni. 


1 


IH 


ii 


in  rcprowntnd  m  still  to  lie  met  with  in  thn  oxtonHJvo  fiiroHts  nf  Calabria.  The  Porcupine, 
now  wild  in  IhiiM)  countrim,  in  supposed,  (but  with  a  slicrht  nlinw  of  reason,)  to  have  been 
intnxliicod  rtoni  AtVira;  but  for  what  purpose  we  are  unuilbrnii'd.  Thn  Huffalo  is  domesti- 
ciUcmI  ill  (Jrocpn  luid  Turkey,  and  somcpiirtsof  southern  Italy ;  where  it  is  sometinics,  though 
rarely,  iHi'd  for  draujfht. 

Tin'  (irnitliolojry  of  the  rountries  bordering  upon  the  Mediterranean  presents  many 
mteri'stin;,'  peculiarities.  The  vultures,  which  are  seldom  found  northward  of  the  Alps, 
(tccur  niciro  ireiiunntly  as  thn  climate  becomes  wanner.  This  tribe  appears  to  follow  the 
cours(-  of  the  Apennines  iti  Italy,  and  of  the  higher  mountains  of  Spam  and  Greece,  from 
whence  they  extend  their  ranjfo  to  Asia  Minor  and  northern  Africa.  The  Imperial  Eagle 
{Fako  imperialin  Tern.)  is  chiefly  found  in  southern  Europ«),  while  the  Gohlen  Eagle  is 
iiuich  more  numerous  in  the  colder  latitudes.  The  gigantic  (Vwls  of  the  polar  regions  are 
hero  unknown ;  but  two  or  three  homed  spccipfi,  of  diminutive  size,  follow  the  migratory 
troops  of  smaller  birds  in  their  annual  journeys  across  the  Mediterranean.  Two  of  these 
small  owls  have  not  yet  been  described.  In  the  extensive  family  of  the  warblers, '  many 
appear  ])eculiar  to  Italy,  Spain,  Sicily,  luid  Sardinia ;  and  in  the  latter  Mand  there  has  recently 
~  been  discovered  a  second  species  of  European  Btarl  ing  ( Sturnu* 

unicolor  Tem.)  (Jig.  OTy)  The  grouse  of  northern  Europe  are 
rarely,  if  ever,  seen.  But  two  species  of  bustard  {Olis  Tetrao 
and  Ilmtbara)  seldom  met  with  farther  north,  are  common  in 
Spain,  Italy,  and  Turkey.  Hero  also  we  first  meet  with  the 
African  and  Asiatic  genera  Cur»oriu»  and  Hemipodiui ;  birds 
which  delight  in  the  dry  and  arid  plains  of  those  continents, 
where  they  run  with  amazingswiflncBS.  The  rocky  and  un- 
cultivated wastes  of  Spain,  Turkey,  and  Asia  Minor,  furnish 
two  species  of  rock  grouse  (Plerocles)  long  confounded  with 
Biurnui  Unicflior.  that  northern  genus,  of  which  it  is  the  representative  in  warm 

climates.  The  beautiful  Wall-creeper,  with  its  bright  rosy  wings,  although  rare  in  other 
parts  of  Europe,  is  not  uncommon  in  Italy ;  while  the  Golden  Oriole,  the  Bee-eater,  the 
Hoopoe,  and  the  Roller,  four  of  the  most  beautiful  Etiropean  binls,  are  so  abundant  in  the  two 
Sicilies  during  the  spring  and  autumnal  migrations,  that  they  may  occasionally  be  seen  hang- 
ing in  the  poulterers'  shops  of  Naples  and  Palermo.  The  union  of  the  African,  European, 
and  Asiatic  ornithology  on  the  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean  is  further  apparent  among  the 
water-birds.  The  Pelican,  the  Spoon-bill,  and  the  Flamingo,  are  still  to  be  met  with  in  these 
countries ;  although,  from  their  large  size  attracting  tlie  sportsmen,  they  arc  never  seen  in 
anv  considerable  numbers. 

Die  European  reptiles  are  too  few  to  afford  any  material  illustration  of  animal  diatribution. 
The  mo.st  remarkable  forms  and  the  greatest  numerical  proportion  occur  in  southern  Europe, 
particularly  in  Italy  and  Greece,  and  the  islands  of  Sicily  and  Malta :  some  of  these,  as  the 
Gecko,  or  house  lizards  of  Naples  and  Sicily,  belong  to  genera  not  met  with  farther  north, 
but  common  on  the  opposite  shores  of  Africa  and  Asia  Minor. 

The  fish  and  other  marine  animals  of  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  coasts  bordering  on  the 
Atlantic  have  not  been  well  investigated,  and  our  slight  acquaintance  with  them  is  insufficient 
to  give  us  uny  correct  idea  of  tiieir  nature ;  but  on  entering  the  Mediterranean,  we  find,  at 
Gihriiltar,  many  of  those  peculiar  to  much  more  southern  latitudes.  Spain  and  Portugal 
nimuit  be  said,  like  England,  France,  or  Holland,  to  have  national  fisheries  ;  but  no  sooner 
do  we  pass  Gibraltar,  than  these  natural  sources  of  prosperity  and  plenty  are  agoin  opened 
to  the  industry  and  support  of  man.    The  enormous  shoals  of  Anchovies,  (Jig.  96.)  annually 

employ,  in  their  capture  and  preparation,  a  great  number 
of  persons:  ond  the  exportation  of  this  highly  flavoured 
little  fish,  to  all  parts  of  the  world,  creates  an  important 
branch  of  permoncnt  commerce.  The  Herring  apd,  we 
believe,  the  Pilchard,  are  not  unknown  in  the  fish-mar- 
kets of  Sicily  and  Malta;  but,  notwithstanding  their 
abundance  in  northern  Europe,  tJicy  are  scarce  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  never  seen  in  any 
considerable  numbers.  The  tunny  fishery  is  peculiar  to  Sicily,  although  there  is  very  little 
doubt  that  the  some  fish  frequents  the  shores  ond  islands  of  the  Peloponnesus ;  yet  the  tota' 
disregard  of  the  Turks  to  all  sources  of  national  wealth  blinds  them  to  this,  and  to  every 
other  advantage  which  Nature  has  placed  within  their  grasp.  The  Ichthyology  of  southern 
Europe  is  certainly  of  a  more  marked  and  peculiar  character  than  any  other  department  of 
European  zoology.  Of  nearly  1.%  species  observed  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  not  more 
than  one-third  belonged  to  the  Ichthyology  of  Great  Britain  and  northern  Europe. 

The  Turtle  of  the  Mediterranean  is  that  described  by  authors  under  the  name  of  Testudo 
carella :  writers  have  uniformly  copied  each  other  in  asserting  that  this  ia  the  same  as  the 
Loggerhead  Turtle  of  the  West  Indies ;  and  that  its  flesh  is  coarse,  rank,  oily,  and  not 


;^gSg*(sis.i 


AnehOTT. 


% 


a 
On  cor 


rin. 

ipine, 

occn 

mcBti- 

liough 

many 

Alpe, 
)W  ino 
<,  from 

Eagle 
agle  ia 
onB  are 
igrntory 
)f  these 
s,  many 
recently 
dturnwi 
irope  ore 
,  Tetrao 
nnmon  in 
with  the 
u$ ;  birds 
mtincnts, 
f  and  nn- 
)r,  furnish 
jded  with 
B  in  worm 
>  in  other 
■eater,  the 
;  in  the  two 
seen  hang- 

Enropean, 
among  the 
ith  in  these 
vcr  seen  in 

listribution. 
;rii  Europe, 
icse,  as  the 
ther  north, 

ring  on  the 
insufficient 
we  find,  at 
id  Portugal 
t  no  Booner 
jtiin  opened 
}.)  annually 
•eat  number 
ly  flavoured 
n  important 
ng  and,  we 
le  fish-mar- 
nding  their 
seen  in  any 
8  very  little 
^et  the  tota' 
nd  to  every 
of  southern 
lartment  of 
la,  not  more 

of  Tettudo 
jimc  as  the 
fily,  and  not 


Book  I. 

edible. 


EUROPE. 


.4v 

8(n 


Lo«(mI>miI  Tattlt. 


Tho  acc  iracy  of  both  these  atatcmentii  may  bn  nucstioncd.  Whutcvcr  may  be  the 
qualition  of  the  Woat  Indian  Ixigffcrhead,  wo  know,  flom 
personal  experience,  that  the  flcidi  of  thu  Me<litcrranoan 
species  ia  delicioua.  V\'o  were  once  lH<cnlniod  off  tho  iHle 
of  Elba,  and  in  one  morning  captured  a  tiutficient  number  ot 
^^  small  turtle  to  supply  tlio  cabin  tublo  (Jir  u  week.  They 
'^  mode  exquisite  soup;  and  although  one  of  tlio  cuiiipuny  wai< 
ill,  it  aroHO  fl-om  repletion.  Wn  omitted  to  draw  and  dcKcribo 
tho  animal,  from  a  Dclief  that  it  was  the  llawk'n-bill  Turtle, 
tho  only  species  described  as  inhabiting  the  Mediterranean; 
the  figure  given  by  Gottwold  (.fig-  97.)  has  been  considered, 
by  Dr.  Shaw,  aa  representing  the  Tvitudo  carettu. 
Of  European  insects,  a  bare  enumeration  of  the  gcneru  would  alono  fill  a  vuluiiio;  and  in 
tho  half-artitlcial,  half-natural,  arrangement  in  which  our  entomological  syttteiiiH  at  this 
moment  remain,  it  is  impossible  to  form  any  precise  idea  oven  on  the  natural  distribution  of 
tlio  families.  As  we  approach  the  provinces  of  southern  Italy  and  tho  Pclu|)onncijUs,  we 
And  many  genera  which  more  properly  characterise  Western  Asia  and  Africa ;  while,  in 
99  Sicily  and  Malta,  the  geodephacous  groups,  particularly  the 

Linneean  Carabii,  are  diminishoa;  apparently  in  species,  but 
certainly  in  numbers.  It  is  in  these  countries  that  tiio  Ants, 
those  universal  scavengers  of  nature  in  tropical  countries,  begin 
to  appear  in  almost  every  situation,  and  to  perform  tlioHo  otTices 
which  in  more  temperate  regions  have  been  uMbigned  to  the 
Gendephaga,  Brachelylra,  and  Necrnphagu  among  coleopter- 
ous insects.  Most  of  the  northern  Butterflies  {Papilioncs  Sw.) 
Cienpatrt'i  Buiierflf.  gjQ  common  even  in  Sicily,  whore,  notwithstanding  a  dissimilar 

vegetation  and  a  more  heated  atmosphere,  we  find  only  three  or  four  species  unknown  to 
the  British  fauna :  among  these,  the  Gonepteryx  Cleopatra  {fig.  08.)  or  Cleopatra's  Butter- 
fly, much  resembles  a  British  species,  but  has  the  middle  of  the  anterior  wings  of  a  rich 
orange. 
The  Radiated  animals  of  tho  Mediterranean  are  particularly  numerous ;  the  many  liar- 
•  hours,  coves,  and  sub-immersed  rocks,  sheltered  from  tlioso  violent 
commotions  which  agitate  the  mighty  Atlantic,  afford  them  secure 
protection,  and  contribute  to  their  rapid  increase.  Their  investiga- 
tion, hitherto  much  neglected,  offers  a  wide  ticid  fur  the  discoveries 
of  naturalists  who  can  study  them  in  their  native  seas.  Numerous 
;  species  of  Sea  Anemone,  or  animal  flowers,  unfold  themselves  in 
the  crevices  of  the  rocks;  one  of  these  {fig.  09.),  ornamented  witii 
rich  purple,  is  particularly  common  on  all  tho  shores  of  Sicily. 

The  tubular  and  cellular  polypes,  whoso  habitations  arc  termed 
corals  and  corallines,  are  generally  abund- 
ant in  warm  latitudes.    Among  tliese  a 
vast  number  of  species  occurs  on  the ' 
shores  of  Sicily,  Italy,  and  the  Greek 
Aiiiinni  Fiiitvcn.  islands,  which  do  not  inhabit  the  British 

coasts.  Sicily,  for  many  ages,  has  been  celebrated  for  its  fisheries 
of  the  true  red  coral  {fig.  100.);  and  it  still  affords  employment  at 
certain  seasons  to  many  fishermen :  but  the  produce  of  the  old 
grounds  of  late  years  has  materially  diminished,  through  want  of 
care  and  duo  preservation.  The  Bay  of  Naples  likewise  produces 
this  beautiful  substance,  but  the  pieces  usually  found  are  small,  and 
in  no  groat  abundance. 
The  Molluscous  animals  or  shell-fish  of  southern  Europe  are  in 
101  great  variety ;  and  are  much  prized  by 

all  classes,  as  general  articles  of  food.    It  is  no  uncommon  thing 

to  see  from  twelve  to  fifteen  diflerent  sorts  of  shell-fish,  none  of 

a  small  size,  exposed  in  the  principal  market  at  Naples;  and  we 

have  been  assured  that  double  this  number  are  not  unfrequcntly 

served  at  the  tables  of  the  higher  ecclesiastics  and  nobility  of 

Tarentum  during  Lent,  that  city  being  higlily  celebrated  tor  its 

slicll-tish.     The  Solen  atrigilatus  {fig.  1()1.)  is  abundant  sit 

Siiicn  stritiiuiiis.  Naples,  and  considered  most  delicate  food. 

On  comparing  the  conchology  of  the  Mediterranean  with  that  of  Britain,  there  does  not 

appear  so  much  difference  as  at  first  might  have  been  imagined ;  nor  are  we  aware  of  more 

than  three  or  four  genera  in  those  southern  latitudes  of  which  examples  have  not  been  found 

in  the  British  seas.    Yet,  on  descending  to  species,  the  difference  is  much  greater.  Perhaps 


Kcd  Coral. 


k'lM 


i«taidlfai 


I  ill 
5'' 


iRi. 


4 

804 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


PAmxin. 


two-thirdM  or  throo-flfthii  oflho  Mcditcrruiionn  hIioIIh  havo  brnn  fi)iiii<l  in  thn  Chnnnnl,  and  on 
tlio  wnntorn  or  other  cnaiiU  (if  BriUiii.  Tho  rcmaininif  portion  imlionti!  BBtrotijf  ullinity  with 
tlio  coiiciiolofry  nf  India  and  tlio  Ui<d  Hon  on  ono  hand,  nnd  that  of  Africa,  townrdn  Menogal, 
on  tho  otht-r.  Tlio  (luviptilo  iipecio*  are  nio«t  numrroiia  in  central  Europe,  whero  tho  hwt 
ofmnniiier  iM  Ii-ms  calculated  to  dry  up  thoMO  Rnmll  poola  ami  siiallow  Ktreanm,  in  which  moat 
of  tiieKO  univnlvo  inolluKa  delight  to  dwell.  Tha  fluviatilo  bivalven  nro  few ;  but  aro  of 
Hiiecios  wh  ch  Honin  [mculiar  to  tho  Europ«!an  range.  Independently  of  thoao  common  alik* 
to  Hritnin  and  the  Continent,  thcro  aro  other*  in  Franco  and  tho  miuth  of  Enron*!  (Jg.  108). 
Uiiw  littnrnU»  (n)  and  the  true  V.  balava  (.6)  aro  common  in  tho  Heine  |  and  wo  have  recoivoi] 
another  Nhell  from  near  Gibraltar,  which  wo  miapoct  to  bo  a  now  ipocica,  intemiodiato  be 
I^'^       -^^ii^^m.  b  .^Mkw      tweon  tho  latter  and  ovalui ;  wo  name  it 


proviiiionally  Vnio  inlermediui  (r,  c), 
'I'iio  Cephalopoda,  or  cuttle-nih  of 


tho 


Mediterranean,  thouifh  not  of  many  apccioi, 
arc  Dometimeii  fuimd  in  prodiginua  numberi, 
and  fre<|uently  vrow  to  an  enonnouM  hIzo. 
Tho  zoolofry  of  tho  Black  and  Caspian  Sou 
ia  very  little  known. 

Tho  phosphorexccnco  of  tho  Mediterra- 
nean ia  at  timcH  ho  brilliant,  that  it  cxcitea 
tho  admiration  of  all  vovagera;  it  therefore 

rj  ,11    J      deacrvca  to  be  particularly  mentioned.   Thia 

Rivnr  iiivaivn  stM-iii.  phenomenon,  ia  cntiroly  produced  by  various 

marine  nnimnlH.  Hpix,  tho  Bavarian  naturaliat  and  traveller,  in  his  poaanfro  down  the  Modi* 
terrancan,  cauaod  aevoral  buckets  to  be  filled  with  thia  luminoua  water;  and  tho  followin); 
results  attended  hia  experiments : — 

Th'iao  luminoua  animalcula  odhcrcd  to  whatever  waa  wetted  with  the  water,  and  continued 
to  ehinc  thereon ;  tho  buckcta,  when  ahakon,  appoarinjr  full  of  luminoua  particlea.  Tho 
water,  examined  by  a  inicroacopc,  waa  filled  with  little  bodies,  aomo  roundiiili,  acme  oblon)r, 
nnil  f^enerally  almiit  the  aizo  of  a  poppy-accd ;  each  of  theac  had,  at  one  end,  a  i<mall  navel- 
likn  opcninjr,  encircled  by  from  six  to  nine  delicate  filamcnta  which  float  within  tho  bladder, 
and  witli  which  tho  animal  aeoma  to  attach  itaclf  to  other  bodies,  and  to  aoizo  ita  nourish- 
nicnt.  In  tho  inside  of  these  bladdcra  tlioro  were  many  other  Rmall'Harker  points,  crowded 
toi^cthor  on  ono  side,  or  here  and  there  aomo  larger  onea,  which  might  be  either  tho  remains 
of  smiillr>r  animals  which  they  hod  awallowed,  or  their  own  spawn.  These  globular  anitnal- 
pula  (which  Spix  considers  to  be  of  the  nature  of  MctluHo;)  have  been  named  by  I'eron  and 
Lechcnault  Arcthuaa  pelagka,  and  by  Savigny  Noctiluca  miliaru.  They  swim  in  greater 
or  loss  numbers  at  nignt,  but  in  tlie  sunshine  they  appear  to  tho  naked  eye  like  little  drops 
of  grease.  When  put  into  a  vessel  they  soon  dio  and  fiill  to  tho  bottom ;  when  they  come 
near  together,  they  appear  involuntarily  to  attach  each  other,  so  that  they  form  whole  groupa. 
The  aame  phenomenon  is  aomctimoa  observed  in  tho  day-time,  when  the  aky  ia  dark,  which 
rarely  happens :  as  these  animals  aro  seldom  found  in  water  taken  up  in  the  day-time,  it  ia 
probable  they  then  sink  to  the  deptha  of  tho  ocean,  and  only  return  near  the  aurfacc  towards 
night    {Sptx,  Trav.) 

Other  luminoua  bodies  resemble  balla  oa  large  oa  a  nut ;  and  every  wave  atriking  a  ship, 
when  filled  with  these  animals,  lights  up  all  surrounding  objects.  Bcsidoa  thcae,  there  are 
aomctimca  inaulatcd  luminous  bladders,  like  fiery  balls,  a  foot  in  diameter,  which  rise  singly 
above  the  water ;  and  the  striking  of  two  waves  together  produces  a  shallow  bluish  atreak 
of  light,  resembling  tho  reflection  of  lightning  on  the  water.    {Spix,  TVav.  i.  44.  47.) 

The  quadrupeds  of  Europe,  according  to  tho  most  recent  distribution  of  the  species  (jOriff. 
Cull.),  under  tho  modern  aiviaiona,  compriao  about  ninety  species,  arranged  under  the  fol- 
lowing genera  and  sub-genera.  To  these  rauat  be  added  the  fish-quadrupeds,  or  Cetacee, 
chiefly  inhabiting  the  high  northern  latitudes : — 


Snn     .    . 

Lom    .   .   . 

.    .  1 

Mtohh  .    .    , 

.    .9 

Mymle  .    . 

full     .    .    . 

.    .  1 

m'h  .... 

.    .  ■ 

ainoliihiil     ...    2 

T.l|«    .    . 

yr :  :  : 

.    .* 

CricMu     .    . 

.    .1 

Rnrntus    ....     1 

l'r.J»    .    . 

.    .  1 

nerblUw    .    . 

.    .  1 

Va^MKIlin    ...  13 

Mela    .    . 

i.yii  .  .  . 

.    .  1 

A>paU<.    .    . 

.    .  1 

Uulo.    .    . 
rnlnriui     . 

C>i«<r    .    .    . 
Anrlcnta     .    . 

.    .  1 
.    .  4 

Sriunjf  .    .    . 

.    .1 

Krioucui .    .    .    .   S 

M«nn  .    . 

Gwrrchn  .    . 

.    .  1 

rtUDin;!   .    . 

.    .  1 

llj«rii.  . 

I.rpiu    .  . 

Ujiomya  . 

Onrtif  .  . 

ADIIInp«  . 
Riipricapim 

Capn    .  . 

0,li      .  . 


Tvava  .    .    .    . 

Mwim. 
Phom    .    .    .    . 
TrlrhflOM  ,    ,    . 
(Xarla    .    .    .    . 
MirauDgi.  .    .    . 


The  genera  of  European  birds,  in  reference  to  our  former  remarks  on  the  geographic  dis- 
tribution  of  animals,  deserves  particular  attention.  Those  marked  *  ore  typical  of  fiimilica  or 
sub-families;  thoaef  include  sub-genera,  or  subordinate  variotions  of  structure  to  which  we 
shall  not  attach  a  distinct  patronymic  name ;  cither  because  the  higher  pfroups  have  not  been 
aufticiently  analysed,  or  because  these  subordinate  forms  have  been  mistaken  for  genera. 
Decided  stragglers  arc  excluded ;  other  genera,  of  uncertain  rank,  are  not  marked.  The 
typical  genera  of  tho  wading  birds  have  not  yet  been  ascertained. 


Tlio 
extinct,  i 
in  Bolgiii 
2.  Ancien 
Proper, 
of  Ireland 
Cambrian 
and  now  ^ 
three  prim 
od  fKiin  til 
since  nlwn 
tlio  C,l/o-. 
de.scon<l(int 
Arinorica. 


^lllir. 


a  iihip, 
jicte  are 
^0  singly 
|h  streak 

Is  (Oriff- 
the  fol- 
>tacete, 

.    .    I 


Iphic  d'lB- 
Imilies  or 
vhich  wc 
I  not  been 
genera, 
bd.    The 


Door  I. 

•  VnllMf  4i^l 

H<ll>>'i>  *>ii<. 

iairr 

•  r«l'" 

jtlnw 
tMrU 

fniiriirtm. 

SipHmuUui 
lllruii'lii 
Cyuwlu)  //i. 

•  AInil" 


EURors. 


•  MtlM-ICAUl 

•  u • 

•  Mtnila  any. 
(  inctiii 

•  OricliM 
•miu'.iU 
Vrfihre*  .^'r. 
I'tHonlntn  >l«. 

•  miiloniaU  Xi« 
t  CiimiAi  ■••*. 

•  t!i,l(l<  l.m. 

•  t  l^na  /.M. 
Accitnlitr  vmA. 

HiKlktai  (  Ml>. 

•  »l>>urill>  /.III. 
t  Anthw  *<rA. 

•  HmubKllli  (rU. 

•  *  Al4gd» 

•  IKliWrTH 
•CwlwIM 


t  rVrlit«>tl«ffMf 

•  fyrrtiiiU  Cu«. 

•  llHiriHN 

•  t  Pw..r  n  -n. 
N<Kirrt(«  ■».!, 

•  t  CervtM 

Ir^filut  (.  iw. 

tk>ii<lr<>i->>pu*  .t'wi 
AiHrrixw  .<(U'. 
I  [ir]r«t|>llliH  Hw, 

•  NilU  Alt*. 

•  (■rliu  tin. 
TU|iM,tr'4iui 
TroKl'NlytM 


;  •  rtwpa  ;.«fi. 

l-«n>u''  ^'•l'' 

I  •r«4uii.U  t,  . 

*  t  Sitl&Jkii*  i.tak 

•  Wr.lis  /.in. 

II.-.  w.,  f. 


(if'i- 


~h\U 


i>h<cfti>  li'f  riM  £.ifk 
Tinuiut  Lm, 
I  NuuianliM  *na. 


I  t  T>lainii  VmM. 

'  llMiiri>in>«irM 

<  StwhMlvt  CMIh 

Mh.lih.i..* 

Kxltu« 
Cnct  Sl»4; 

ri%llimila«r)*, 

Tifhy  In. mm  /J. 
tilriiwitti  /W. 
I  Irtniri,  /- 
V«irlliw  Mr,*. 
t(  MrhlrliM  /tn. 


I  lllmMtopw  VrH, 

'  •  y  AiMr 

•  f  Amm 

•  t  Mirfw 

t  Cum.* 

(nlvHibu* 
t  I'ru 

MtTNtiill    \\L 

•  AtP« 
Milioiii///. 
|h«|iiirii«  /If. 

•  I'vlKariiH  J^iMl. 

•  Slum.  L. 

•L.    ., /.. 
(.Mint  /U. 
I'nf.lUtU  /,. 
l*t«wwJlaf* 


Skct.  v. — Languages, 

Europo,  con«ulcro<l  in  repfard  to  its  lanfj^aufOM,  coniprulieiulH  tho  whole  globe,  Uiruii^h  those 
imnioiiHti  culonif38  which  liuvo  buuii  fuiinduiT  by  tho  natioan  of  thin  cuntuient  in  ovory  othor 
quarter  or*  tho  worhl. 

Tho  European  lun^uaffOH,  ancient  and  modern,  fonn  nix  tlunitieti: — 1.  Tho  family  of  tho 
Pierian  lanj^uajfes;  ii.  That  of  tho  (UUic  lanffuai^OH;  !J.  That  of  tho  Thraco-Pdangic  or 
Grtvcii-Latin  hnifjfuagcs;  4.  Tlio  family  uf  tho  Germanic  lan^ua^fOH;  5.  That  of  the  NWa- 
vonic  languaKCd;  0,  Tho  family  of  tliu  Vralian  languages,  conununly  callud  tho  FinnUk  or 
Chudir, 

SUMECT.  1. 

Tho  Iberian  or  IkMiiio  fhmily  Ima  boon  ilividnd  into  tho  two  following  branciirs : — 1, 
Ancient  liin^fungog  long  extinct,  under  which  nrn  classed  tho  idioms  spoken  by  tho  Ik-riani 
in  the  (rreatcr  [mrt  ot  tlio  Spanish  peninsula,  in  southern  Gnul,  and  in  some  piirts  of  Italy 
and  its  three  i^ruat  iHhimis.  2.  Anciiuit  hin{;un|;es  still  living ;  of  which  thn  only  one  remain- 
injy  is  tho  Etcuarn  or  Batquc,  formerly  sjiokcn  in  a  largo  portion  of  Spain  niul  of  southern 
Oaul,  and  now  spokon  only  by  tho  VuKconf^iulos  or  ttaixiwn  in  tho  Spanish  provinces  of 
Biscay  and  Navurro,  ond  in  some  parts  of  tho  south  of  Friincp.  Tlio  DnHijues  are  tlio 
doscondanta  of  tho  ancient  Vascones.  Their  hinguagc,  which  resembles  no  othor  European 
idiom,  though  it  has  adopted  several  Latin  and  somo  German  words,  appears  to  have  a  certain 
affinity  to  tho  Shomitic  languages,  and,  in  its  conjugations,  some  analogy  to  tho  langugcs  of 
America. 

SvMECT.  2. 

Tho  Celtic  family  exhibits,  like  tho  Basque,  two  branches: — 1.  Ancient  lan/'im^'os  long 
extinct,  among  which  aro  clussed  tho  idioms  si)uken  by  tho  numerous  Celtic  nations  in  Gaul, 
in  Belgium,  in  tho  British  Isles,  in  parts  of  Germany,  Italy,  and  also  Galatia  in  Asia  Minor. 
2.  Ancient  languages  still  livimr,  of  which  tliero  aro  two:  1.  Tho  Gallic,  Gnrlic  or  Celtic 
Proper,  spoken  in  different  dialects  by  tho  descendonts  of  the  true  Celts,  in  a  liirge  portion 
of  Ireland,  in  tiie  itighlands  of  Scotland,  in  tho  Hebrides,  and  in  tho  Isle  of  Mun.  2.  The 
Cambrian  or  Cclto-Belgic,  formerly  spoken  by  the  Cymri  or  Belgie  in  Belgium  acid  Britain, 
and  now  confined  to  a  part  of  Englund  and  Franco.  In  this  language  are  distinguished 
three  principal  dialects:  tho  Wvhh,  siyjken  iiiul  written  by  the  peojilo  of  that  name  descend- 
ed fniin  the  ancient  Britons;  tho  Cnrnish,  formerly  spoken  throughout  Cornwall,  but  extinct 
since  alwut  the  middle  of  tho  last  century ;  nnd  the  Bas-Bretoii,  culled  also  by  French  writers 
tho  CtilD-lireton,  s|)okon  in  tho  part  of  Franco  formerly  called  I/jwer  Brotague,  by  the 
descendants  of  those  British  fugitives  who,  in  the  fiflh. century,  sought  roAigo  and  settled  in 
Arinorica.    The  Ban-Breton  has  many  sub-dialects  and  varieties. 

SCBSECT.  3. 

The  numerous  family  of  tho  Grnjco-Latin  languages  may  be  divided  into  four  branches : 
I.  The  nii/rian  ;  II.  The  Etruscan ;  III.  The  Hellenic ;  IV.  The  Italic,  including  the  Latin, 
the  Romaic  or  Roniaiio-Rustic,  the  nKxIcrn  Italian,  tho  French,  tho  Spanish  or  Ciistilinn,  the 
I'orf'iguese,  and  tho  Valaciue  or  Wallachian. 

I.  'i'lie  Tliraco-Illyriiui  branch  includes  all  those  Thracian  nnd  Illyrian  nations  once  seated 
in  Asia  Minor  west  of  the  river  Halys,  nnd  in  Europe  all  over  its  eastern  portion,  from  Nori- 
cum,  occupied  hy  Celtic  tribes,  to  tho  mouths  of  tho  Donube  and  the  Dnieper,  and  even 
beyond.  Of  those  nations,  long  extinct,  or  confounded  with  others,  the  principal  were  tin; 
Phrygians,  the  Trojans,  tho  Bithynians,  the  Lydians,  the  Carians,  the  Lycians,  the  Cinunerii, 
the  Tauri,  the  Tlirueians  properly  so  called,  the  Ma?si,  the  Goto?,  the  MaccdonianF,  the 
ancient  Illyrians,  among  whom  wero  the  Dalmati  nnd  tlie  Istri,  the  Pannonians  or  Pieones, 
the  Veiipti,  and  tho  Siculi.  In  this  branch,  according  to  M.  Maltc-Brun,  rnay  be  not  impro- 
perly placed — 

The  Albanian,  sjwken  in  Albania  and  otlicr  countries  by  tho  Skipatar,  named  Arnnuts  by 

Vol,.  L  26*  20 


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sMir 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


the  Turk?,  and  generally  known  under  the  name  of  Albanians.  They  form  the  principal 
impiilation  of  Albania,  aiui  are  scattered  throughout  European  Turkey,  especially  in  Rou- 
melia,  liiilgaria,  and  Macedonia;  others  on  the  Slavonic  military  confines  of  the  Austrian 
oin|)ire,  and  others  in  various  j)art3  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies.  This  Scyp,  or 
Albanian  language,  according  to  M.  Malte-Brun,  appears  to  be  fornicd  of  one-third  of  ancient 
(Jreck,  especially  the  jfJolic  dialect,  one-third  Latin,  and  one-third  of  an  idiom  not  yet  ascer- 
tained, probably  the  lllyrian.  The  Albanians  have  three  different  alphabets:  one  sacred  or 
hieratic,  now  fallen  into  disuse ;  another,  the  Greek  alphabet ;  a  tliird,  the  modern  Italian  or 
litttin. 

II.  The  Etruscan,  (wo  are  here  reminded  of  the  Osci  and  Heterosci,  quasi  Elrusci  ?) 
spoken  by  the  Etrurians,  called  also  Tyrrhenians  by  the  Greeks.  This  nation,  according  tc 
some,  appears  to  have  been  a  mixture  of  Rhietian  Celts  with  the  Aborigines  of  Italy.  The 
Etruscan  alphabet  was  the  same  with  the  primitive  alphabet  of  the  Greeks ;  it  had  sixteen 
letters,  niul  was  written  from  right  to  lefl. 

III.  The  Pelasgo-Hellenic,  including  the  idioms  in  ancient  times  spoken  by  the  famous 
Pelusgi  and  Hellenes,  long  since  incorporated  with  other  nations.  The  people  of  early 
origin  who  may  with  probability  be  classed  under  tliis  branch  are,  the  Pelasgi,  the  Lelegcs, 
and  other  tribes  enumerated  by  ancient  geographers  among  the  population  of  Greece  and  its 
isles,  especially  the  Gra>ci,  originally  a  small  community  of  Thessaly,  but  remarkable  for 
having  given  name  to  the  whole  of  that  celebrated  nation,  whose  language  wos — 

The  Hellenic,  or  ancient  Greek,  formerly  spoken  in  Greece  and  its  dependencies,  and 
at  a  later  period  in  a  great  part  of  Sicily,  Lower  Italy,  Asia  Minor,  Egypt,  and  its  dependen- 
cies, in  part  of  Gallia  Narboncnsis,  and  in  other  districts  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean. 

During  the  Macedonian  empire  the  Hellenic  wos  spoken  at  all  the  courts  of  the  descend- 
ants of  Alexander,  and  by  persons  of  distinction  in  all  the  countries  subject  to  the  Macedo- 
nians. In  a  subsequent  age,  it  was  studied  by  all  the  most  distinguished  subjects  of  the 
Roman  empire,  and  was  the  prevailing  idiom  in  the  East  until  the  fall  of  Constantinople,  at 
which  period  it  was  studied  witii  reneweu  ardour  in  the  West.  In  this  language,  270  years 
befbrc  Christ,  was  written  the  famous  version  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  called  the  Septua- 
gint ;  in  this  language  also  was  the  Gospel  promulgated  by  the  Apostles ;  and  it  thus  became 
tor  ever  sacred.  It  appears  not  the  least  wonderful  among  the  dispensations  of  Providence, 
that  the  light  of  Christianity  should  have  been  originally  diffused  under  the  most  powerful 
empire  and  in  the  most  cultivated  language  of  the  ancient  world,  and  that  it  should  prevail 
notwithstanding  the  power  of  the  one,  and  the  learning  and  philo.sophy  for  which  the  other 
was  .so  proudly  distinguished.  The  literature  of  the  Groek.«,  comprehending  some  of  the 
finest  productions  of  the  human  mind,  i.^,  perhaps,  the  richest  in  the  world,  and  presents  an 
unparalleled  series  of  eminent  writer.?,  extending  from  the  age  of  Homer  to  the  middle  of 
■iho  fitlecnth  century.  The  language  is  one  of  the  most  flexible,  harmonious,  and  copious 
t.!iat  have  ever  existed;  its  grammatical  forms  are  almost  identical  with  those  of  the  Latin, 
to  the  formation  of  which  it  has  greatly  contributed,  but  in  many  essential  points  it  is 
.«tipprior,  and  especially  in  '.he  unlimited  tiiculty  of  making  as  many  compounds  as  can  bo 
ri'quKed.  M.  Malte-IJrun  distinguishes  in  tlic  ancient  Greek  two  ditlerent  idioms: — 1.  The 
jtrimithf  Hrllniic,  which  he  subdivides  into  three  principal  dialects — the  Arcadian,  the 
'rijessalian,  with  the  ancient  Macedonian,  and  the  0<]notrian,  transported  into  Italy  and  min- 
L'li'd  with  file  Latin;  '2.  The  Hellenic  of  the  historical  times,  divided  into  four  principal 
ilialocfs  and  several  varieties. 

Tiie  RoiMRic,  or  the  modern  Greek,  spoken  by  the  Greeks  of  our  own  times,  especially 
in  the  Morea,  in  Livadia,  Tliessaly,  the  isle  of  Candia,  the  Archipelago,  part  of  Albania, 
-Macedonia,  Kounielri,  Thrace,  Asia  Minor,  Cyprus,  and  by  the  Greeks  established  in  Wal- 
iaciiia,  Moldavia,  Syria,  and  Egypt.  The  Romaic  is  also  spoken  by  the  inhabitants  of  the 
Ionian  Isles,  by  considerable  numbers  of  Greeks  in  the  Austrian  and  Russian  empires,  and 
some  hiiiidrcd  of  Mainotes  in  Corsica,  near  Ajarrio.  It  is  dividnil  into  two  principal  dialects, 
t!ie  Romanic  and  tiie  yKolo-Dorian,  each  inchuliiig  various  sub-dialects. 

IV.  Tiie  Italic  branch,  so  called,  as  including  the  languages  of  the  aborigines  of  Itoly, 
nliich  form  the  sti.-in  of  the  modern  idioms  comprised  in  this  branch.  Those  nbnnffiiirx 
were,  the  Ruganoi,  the  Atisonrs,  the  Lucani,  the  Briitti,  the  Piceni,  tlie  Marsi,  the  Latini 
the  Sal)ille^.  and  the  Samnites,  From  a  mixture  of  the  three  last  idioms,  primarily  with 
the  oriirin.il  Hellenic,  afterwards  with  the  old  ^Tlolian  and  ancient  Doric,  was  formed,  as  M. 
Miilte-Urun  inclines  to  think,  the  hingiirige  spoken  by  the  Romans,  and  called  the  I^itin 
Inniriinire.     The  Inngiiages  included  in  that  brniirli  are, — 

'i'lic  I.iitiii,  which  was  tiie  written  and  current  language  of  the  higher  classes  in  Italy 
and  flirnuglidut  the  Roman  empire.  It  was  very  ilifferent  from  the  linffun  jthheiaor  ruslini, 
s|)oki'ii  in  the  rural  districts  of  the  peninsula,  and  by  the  lower  clii.sses  in  S|)ain,  (Jaiil,  and 
the  other  provinres.  Its  grammatical  forms  are  similar  to  the  Greek,  though  less  perfect. 
I.itin  literature,  formed  on  that  of  Greece,  is  very  rich  in  all  branches  of  knov\ledge,  and, 
t^'getlier  with  the  Greek,  is  tiie  source  from  which  flows  the  literature  of  the  malerii  nations 
cf  Europe.     Il.s  most  brilliant  epoch  was  the  Augustan  age.     In  this  language  St.  Jerome 


Part  III. 

he  principnl 
iiilly  in  Rou- 
the  Austrian 
'hiB  Scyp,  or 
ril  of  ancient 
lot  yet  uscer- 
ne  sacred  or 
jm  Italian  or 

isi  Etrusci  ?) 

according' tc 

f  Italy.    The 

t  had  sixteen 

by  the  famous 
loplc  of  eai-ly 
,  tlie  Lelegcs, 
Srcoce  and  its 
•emarkable  for 


:fct 


jndencies,  and 
I  its  dependen- 
diterranean. 
if  the  descend- 
to  the  Macedo- 
Bubjccts  of  the 
nstantinople,  at 
lage,  270  years 
ted  the  Septua- 
it  thus  became 
of  Providence, 
most  powerful 
t  shoi'.ld  prevail 
which  the  other 
ijr  some  of  the 
and  presents  lin 
0  the  middle  of 
ms,  and  copious 
?e  of  the  Latin, 
:ial  points  it  is 
unds  as  can  bo 
dioms:— 1.  The 
Arcadian,  the 
o  Italy  and  min- 
o  four  principal 

imes,  especially 
part  of  Albania, 
iblishod  in  Wal- 
liabitants  of  the 
an  empires,  and 
rincipiil  dialects, 

iri^ines  of  Italy, 

M)^f.  nbOfifriHfS 

(ursi,  till!  Latini 
,  primarily  wit! 
1^  fiirmcd,  as  M. 
ciiUcd  the  Ijitin 

classes  in  Italy 
liheia  or  rnstica, 
Spain,  (5niil,  and 
niRh  loss  perfect. 

knowledjio,  and, 
e  modern  nations 
r\iagc  St.  Jerome 


K- 


Book  I. 


EUROPE. 


307 


wrote  the  Vulgate,  or  Latin  translation  of  the  Bible  which  is  used  in  tlie  Romish  church. 
The  overthrow  of  the  Roman  empire  in  the  fifth  century  gave  birtii  to  a  corrupt  Latin, 
mingled  witii  a  great  number  of  barbarous  words,  and  named  low  Latin,  which,  until  the 
fourteenth,  was,  almost  exclusively,  the  written  language  tliroughout  the  West.  In  the  two 
succeeding  centuries,  Ijitin  literature  again  flourished,  especially  in  Italy ;  but  it  was  only 
to  contribute  to  tiie  improvement  of  modem  languages,  which  being  diligently  and  success- 
fiiUy  cultivated,  the  Latin  was  restricted  to  works  of  erudition  alone.  Its  phraseology  has 
had  a  marked  influence  on  tliat  of  the  most  polite  nations  of  Europe.  It  is  now  a  dead  lan- 
guage, except  in  Poland  and  Hungary,  where  some  educated  persons  speak  it  in  ordinary 
life  with  considerable  purity,  and  with  the  continental  pronunciation,  of  course  almost  unin- 
telligible to  English  travellers,  who  cannot  or  will  not  relinquish  the  Saxon  diphthongal 
sounds  of  the  vowels  A,  I,  and  U,  the  chief  causes  of  their  embarrassment.  Lotin  is  no 
longer  employed  except  in  tlie  Catholic  liturgy,  in  medicine,  in  the  diplomacy  of  the  court 
of  Rome,  and  partially  in  the  literature  of  all  the  civilized  nations  of  Europe.  The  alpiia- 
bet,  of  twenty-three  letters,  having  been  improved  in  its  characters  by  the  Italians  and 
French,  is  used  by  all  the  people  of  Europe,  except  the  Greeks,  the  Russians,  and  some 
other  nations  who  have  particular  alphabets.  This  same  Latin  alphabet,  with  the  Gothic 
forms  it  assumed  under  the  pen  of  the  writers  of  the  middle  ages,  is  used  by  the  Germans 
and  Danes,  and  by  the  Bohemians,  and  other  Slavonic  nations;  and,  according  to  some 
authors,  its  capital  letters,  truncated  and  squared  to  facilitate  the  inscription  of  them  in  wootl 
or  stone,  constitute  the  Runic  alphabet,  formerly  used  in  the  north  of  Europe. 

The  Romana,  or  Romana  Rusticu,  spoken  in  the  brightest  ages  of  Rome  by  the  lower 
classes  in  tiie  south  of  the  empire,  excepting  Greece,  and  some  other  counties.  After  various 
modilications  more  or  less  considerable,  it  appears  still  to  subsist  among  the  vulgar  dialects 
spoken  throughout  a  great  part  of  Spain,  France,  Switzerland,  and  some  districts  of  Italy. 
The  chief  of  tliose  dialects,  according  to  M.  Champollion  Figeac,  are  the  following,  classed 
with  reference  to  those  four  regions : — In  Spain,  Sardinia,  ana  the  Balearic  Isles,  the  Catalan, 
the  Valencian,  the  Majorcan.  In  PVonce,  the  Languedocian,  the  Provencal,  the  Dauphinois, 
the  Lyonnais,  the  Auvorgnat,  the  Limousin,  and  the  Gascon.  In  Switzerland,  tlie  Romanic, 
or  Celto-Romanic,  (frecjuently  called  Romance,  Khurwelsii,  and  Rhietish,)  the  Volaisan  in 
the  Valais.  In  the  states  of  the  king  of  Sardinia  are  spoken  the  Savoisian ;  and  the  Vaudo'.'i 
in  the  vales  of  Lucerne,  Perosa,  and  part  of  Piedmont.  To  these  might  b<3  added  tin 
jargon  called  lingua  Franca,  in  which  Catalan,  Limousin,  Sicilian,  and  Arabic  are  the  princi- 
pal ingredients.  The  Romance  literature  is  also  called  that  of  the  Troubadours.  From  tlic 
mixture  of  this  language  with  the  diflerent  Germanic,  Slavonic,  and  other  idioms,  were 
formed,  in  the  tenth  century,  the  following  languoges : — 

The  Italian,  spoken  by  the  Italians  in  almost  all  Italy,  in  the  isles  geographically  connected 
with  that  peninsula,  and  in  various  Alpine  territories;  also  frequent  in  Dalmatia  and  the  ish; 
of  Tino;  very  common  at  Constantinople,  and  in  several  mercantile  towns  of  the  Ottoman 
empire.  The  toritten  language,  which  is  nowhere  generally  spoken,  is  common  with  all 
well-educated  Italians,  and  differs  considerably  from  the  vulgar  tongue,  whicli  is  sulxliviilwl 
into  a  great  number  of  dialects.  The  principal  of  these  are,  the  Piedmontese  and  Genoese ; 
the  Milanese,  or  Iximbard  proper ;  the  Low  Ijombard ;  the  Bolognese,  the  Bergamase ;  the 
Venetian,  the  Friulian,  the  Tyrolean,  the  vulgar  Tuscan;  the  Roman;  (he  Sabine  and 
Abruzzan;  the  Calabrian  and  Apulian;  the  Tarentine;  tlie  Neapolitan;  the  Sicilian,  and 
the  Sardinian. 

The  French  language,  spoken  by  the  French  almost  throughout  the  north  of  France ;  by 
the  Walloons  and  Flemings  in  various  Netherlandish  provinces ;  by  the  Swiss,  in  several  of 
their  cantons ;  by  the  people  of  Jersey  and  Guernsey ;  also  in  some  parts  of  the  Austrian 
and  Russian  empires,  and  of  the  Prussian  monarchy ;  by  the  French  colonists  in  Asia,  Africa, 
and  America.  The  following  are  the  principal  dialects : — the  Picard,  the  Flemish,  tlie  Nor- 
man, the  Walloon  or  Roimchi,  tlio  vulsrar  French,  the  Breton  French,  the  Champenois,  the 
Lorraine,  the  Burgnndian,  the  Franchr-Comte,  the  Neufchatelain,  the  OrUannois,  tlip 
Angevin,  and  the  Manceau.  To  these  might,  perhaps,  be  added  the  jargon  spoken  by  the 
negroes  and  Creoles  m  the  French  West  Indies. 

The  Spanish  or  Castilian  language,  spoken  by  the  Spaniards  in  the  greater  part  of  i-'piiin, 
and,  with  some  variation  and  admixture,  by  their  descendants  in  Oceania,  Africa,  and  America ; 
also  by  the  numerous  Spanish  Jews  established  in  the  Ottoman  empire,  and  in  other  states 
of  Europe,  and  of  Nortli  Africa ;  in  the  isle  of  Trinidad  belonging  to  the  crown  of  Great 
Britain ;  in  some  parts  of  Florida  and  I^ouisiana ;  and  in  the  eastern  part  of  Hispaniola  or 
St.  Domingo.  This  language  is  also  common  to  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  towns  of  Spain 
where  the  Basque  and  Romance  languages  are  spoken.  The  written  and  polished  language 
is  almost  identical  in  its  grommatical  forms  with  the  Romance  and  the  Portuguese ;  and 
differs  little  from  the  Italian ;  it  is  very  rich  and  harmonious,  notwithstanding  some  guttural 
and  aspirate  sounds  taken  from  the  Arabic,  from  which  it  iins  liorrowed  many  words.  It  is 
singular  to  remark,  that  the  German  is  characterised  by  similar  gutturals  or  aspirates.  The 
reigns  of  tlie  emperor  Charles  V.  and  of  his  son  Philip  II.  were  the  golden  ago  of  Spanish 


lA'. 


hii 


k 


i  ■( 


h^iif 


■  i 


■y^w- 


309  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  III. 

literature ;  afler  which  it  fell  into  decay,  but  partially  revived  under  tlio  Bourbon  kinga 
Philip  V.  and  Charles  III.  Of  the  dialects,  which  differ  little  from  each  other,  tlie  following 
are  the  principal :  —  the  dialect  of  Toledo ;  that  of  Ldon  and  the  Aslurias ;  the  Andalusian ; 
the  Murcian;  the  Gulician,  or  Gallcgo;  and  tlie  Transatlantic,  spoken  in  America;  where, 
next  to  the  English,  the  Spanish  languaj^e  is  mpokcn  by  the  greatest  number  of  inhabitants. 

The  Portuguese  language,  spoken  by  tlie  Portuguese  in  Portugal  and  the  Azores,  and, 
with  some  difterences,  by  the  Portuguese  Jews  settled  in  Hamburg,  Amsterdam,  the  Tyrol, 
and  other  parts  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Airica ;  also  by  the  descendants  of  tlie  Portuguese  in 
tlieir  Asiatic,  African,  Oceanic,  and  American  colonies.  The  Portuguese  is  as  rich  and 
concise  as  its  sister  languages;  it  hos  borrowed  some  words  from  the  Arabic  and  the  French; 
to  the  French  it  seems  indebted  for  the  soft  sound  of  g,  and  for  the  nasal  syllables ;  it  ia 
sonorous,  sotl,  and  unimpeded  by  the  aspirates  and  gutturals  of  the  Spanish ;  but  the  fre- 
quency of  hiatus,  and  of  the  modem  nasal  ao,  equisonant  with  the  French  am  or  an,  injure 
the  harmony  of  tlie  language.  Its  origin,  like  that  of  the  Spanish,  is  dated  in  tlie  eleventh 
century ;  and  it  had  attaine<l  its  maturity  in  the  sixteenth.  The  Portuguese  literature, 
which  Camoens  illustrated  with  one  of  the  finest  epics  in  existence,  is  as  varied  and  rich  as 
the  Spanbh,  though  less  known.  It  revived  in  the  memorable  reign  of  Joseph.  The 
language  may  be  said  to  exhibit  no  differences  of  dialect ;  tlicro  arc  only  varieties :  those 
which  differ  most  from  the  written  language  are,  the  Minho,  Algarve,  and  Azores  varieties 
in  Europe;  the  Brazilian  in  America;  those  of  Congo  and  Mozambique  in  Africa;  and  of 
Goa  and  Macao  in  Asia.  Some,  however,  regard  as  a  dialect  of  the  Portuguese,  the  jargon 
called  lingua  geral,  spoken  along  the  east  and  west  coasts  of  Africa,  also  along  the  coasts  of 
Ceylon  and  the  Indian  peninsula.  In  Africa,  as  well  as  in  Asia,  it  presents  the  phenomenon 
offered  by  the  lingua  Franca  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  attests  the  power  formerly  held 
by  the  Portuguese  in  those  regions. 

The  Valac  or  Wallachian,  spoken  by  the  Rumanje  or  Roumouni,  better  known  as  Valacs, 
a  people  apparently  descended  from  the  ancient  Roman  colonists  settled  in  Dacia  and  Thrace, 
and  the  Slavonic  and  other  nations  dwelling  there.  Its  literature  is  very  meagre.  Among 
its  numerous  dialects  the  more  remarkable  are  the  Roumounic  or  Valac  proper,  spoken  in 
Wallacliia,  Moldavia,  and  Bessarabia ;  the  Hungarian  Valac,  the  Macedo- Valac,  and  tlie 
Kutzo- Valac,  spoken  in  various  sub^lialects,  in  several  parts  of  European  Turkey,  south  of 
the  Danube.  .    -  , 

SUBSECT.  4. 

The  family  of  the  Germanic  languages  next  claims  our  notice.  Without  entering  into 
the  history  of  the  Germanic  nations,  which  rivals  in  importance  that  of  the  Graeco- Latin,  we 
may  class  these  different  idioms,  according  to  M.  Malte-Brun's  theory,  in  four  branches; 
the  Teutonic,  the  Saxon  or  Cimbric,  the  Scandinavian  or  Normanno-Gothic,  and  the  Anglo- 
Britannic. 

The  Teutonic  branch,  wliicli  comprises  the  idioms  of  the  various  ancient  nations  and 
tribes  recognised  as  German  by  the  Roman  historians  and  writers ;  as  the  Bastarne,  tlie 
Suevi,  the  Marcomanni,  the  Hcrmonduri,  and  the  Franci,  (iresonts  the  following  idioms : — 

The  ancient  higii  German  (alt  hoch  Deutscb),  formerly  sjiokcn  in  different  dialects 
throughout  South  Germany,  Switzerlniui,  Alsace,  Hesse,  Thuringia,  Wetteravia,  and  a 
great  part  of  the  countries  once  subjected  to  the  Franks.  It  has  been  extinct  for  several 
centuries :  its  three  prhicipal  dialects  wrre,  the  Francic,  and  the  Aiemnnnic,  which  are  of 
contemporary  origin,  and  contain  the  most  ancient  productions  of  that  language,  and  the 
.Middle  High  German,  wliich  succeeded  tliem.  The  Francic  or  Tudesc  was  tlie  language 
of  the  Franks:  it  was  spoken  at  the  court  of  the  Merovingian  and  Carlovingian  sovereigns, 
until  ("liarles  the  Bold ;  after  whose  rnign  it  gave  way  to  the  old  French  in  France,  but 
continued  to  be  the  court  langungi;  in  Germany  until  the  times  of  the  Ilolienstaul'en.  The 
Middle  High  German  is  tiio  language  in  which  were  composed  the  numerous  works  of  the 
Suabian,  Bavarian,  Austrian,  and  Swiss  writers,  and  several  other  authors  in  Middle  and  Lower 
Germany,  from  the  eleventh  to  tlie  fifloonth  centuries.  Its  finest  productions  arc  dated  in 
the  period  of  the  Hoiienstaufen,  from  11M6  to  1254,  called  also  the  Minnemingfr,  the 
trouveurs  and  troubadours  of  Germany.  The  Nibelimgen-lied,  the  finest  epic  in  this  lan- 
guage, is  supposed  by  Winter  to  liave  lieeu  (-(imposed  in  ItiiM),  by  Conrad  of  Wiirtzburg. 

The  German,  called  also  niu  hncli  Dpiitfch,  in  which  distinction  must  be  made  between 
the  written  and  the  spoken  language.  Tlie  latter  is  divided  into  a  great  number  of  very 
diflbront  dialects,  subdivided  into  several  sub-dialects  and  varieties.  The  written  language 
is  nowhere  spoken  by  the  people :  it  was  formed  at  the  period  wiicn  Luther,  rejei^ting  the 
Middle  High  and  the  Middle  fjow  (irrmaii,  adopted  in  preference  fii(>  diiile(;t  of  Misnia  or 
Meissen,  which  had  begun  to  be  written  much  later.  This  Misniun  dialect,  aidy  employed 
by  that  great  man  and  his  numerous  followers,  sfK)n  became,  as  the  language  of  Ixxiks  and 
of  gocKl  society,  commou  to  all  well-educated  Germans,  and  also  ranked  as  the  learned  lan- 
guage of  the  north  and  great  part  of  the  east  of  Europe.  Tiie  literature  of  Germany,  in 
regard  to  the  qualify  of  its  productions,  rivals  those  of  France  and  England,  and  surooasea 


T»?' 


Part  IIL 

•bon  kings 
3  following 
iiidalusian ; 
ca;  wUerc, 
ihabiUinta. 
.zorcs,  and, 
,  the  Tyrol, 
ttui^iese  in 
08  ricli  and 
the  French; 
llables;  it  is 
but  the  fre- 
er on,  injure 
Uie  eleventh 
se  literature, 
I  and  rich  aa 
[oseph.    The 
irieties:  those 
lores  varieties 
frica;  and  of 
ISC,  the  jargon 
[J  the  coasts  ot 
e  phenomenon 
formerly  held 

own  as  Valacs, 
:ia  and  Tlirace, 
■agrc.  Among 
(jper,  spoken  in 
Valac,  and  the 
'urkey,  south  of 


ut  entering  mto 
Jraeco-Latin,  we 
■^four  branches; 
;,  and  the  AngJo- 

ent  nations  and 
lie  Bastarnffi,  tlie 
wing  idioms ; — 
iffercnt  dialects 
jtteravia,  and  a 
itinct  for  several 
kc,  which  are  ot 
Inguagc,  and  the 
IS  the  language 
icrian  sovereigns, 
.in  France,  but 
[pnstauten.    The 
aus  works  of  the 
[iddie  and  I^wcr 
MA  arc  dated  in 
\inneitiini;<'r,  the 
.pic  in  this  lan- 
I'WVirtzburg. 
L  made  between 
number  of  very 
Lvritton  language 
pr,  re'iccting  tlie 
pet  of  M'""'"^  "' 
•t,  iiltly  cuiployed 
ipe  of  iHXiks  and 
the  learned  lan- 
^  of  Germany,  m 
lid,  and  suroassea 


Book  I. 


EUROPE. 


309 


tliem  in  abundance.  The  German  is  the  richest  in  words  of  any  language  in  Europe ;  and 
thif<  dJHtinction  it  owes  to  the  great  number  of  its  monosyllabic  root",  witii  which  it  creates 
new  terms  ad  itifiniluin,  by  derivation  and  comjxjsition.  It.«  principal  dialects  nre,  ttie  Swiss; 
the  Rhenish;  the  Danubian,  with  its  four  sub-dialects',  tlie  Bavariiiii,  the  Tyroleiin,  Austrian, 
and  Uoliemo-Hungaro-Silesian ;  and  the  Frunconian,  or  Mittel-Deutsch.  To  these,  on  the 
autliority  of  Adelung,  wo  may  add  two  others,  remarkable  for  the  strange  admi.xture  of  words 
totally  foreign;  these  are,  the  German  Jewish;  and  tlie  Rothwelsh,  t^poken  by  the  Jenish 
or  Jaunrr,  who  are  generally  rejwrted  to  be  thieves  and  vagabonds.  It  contains  a  multitude 
of  terms  and  expressions  quite  dillerent  from  German. 

The  Saxon,  or  Cimbric,  which  comprises  the  idioms  anciently  spoken  by  the  Cimbri ;  also 
by  the  Angli,  who,  with  the  Jutes  and  Saxons,  afterwards  made  so  great  a  figure  in  northern 
history ;  the  Bmcteri  and  Chauci,  the  Menapi,  the  Tungri,  the  Butavi,  tlie  Frisones,  and 
other  nations  of  less  note,  the  ancient  Saxons,  and  probably  the  Longobardi.  This  branch 
includes  the  four  following  idioms : — 

The  ancient  low  German  {alt  nieder  Deutsch),  called  also  the  ancient  Saxon,  after  the 
people  who  spoke  it.  This  language,  now  extinct,  was  current  throughout  Ijower  Germany 
and  the  Netherlands,  except  in  the  countries  occupied  by  the  Frisones  and  the  Angli.  About 
the  commencement  of  the  seventeenth  century  it  wholly  ceased  to  be  written.  Its  principal 
dialects  are,  the  Saxon  proper,  or  idiom  of  Lower  Saxony ;  the  Eastern  Saxon,  spoken  in 
various  sub-dialects  in  Prussia,  and  the  Wcstphalian,  or  Western  Saxon. 

The  Frisic,  formerly  spoken  along  the  coast,  from  the  Rhine  to  the  Elbe,  by  the  Frisones, 
and  their  allies  the  Chauci,  the  ancestors  of  the  present  Frisians,  who  are  now  far  from 
numerous,  and  speak  a  language  very  diflerent  from  the  ancient  Frisic,  being  mixed  with 
other  idioms.  Its  three  principal  dialects  are,  the  Batavian  Frisic,  the  Westphalian  Frisic, 
and  the  North  Frisic,  or  Cimbric. 

The  Netherlandish,  or  modern  Batavian,  hos  two  principol  dialects,  the  Flemish,  and  the 
Hollandish,  or,  as  it  is  commonly  called  in  this  country,  the  Dutch.  The  Flemish  is  s;M)kcn 
in  the  southern  provinces  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,  excepting  those  wlicrc  (!ur- 
man  and  French  are  spoken.  It  was  the  written  and  oral  language  of  the  sevontern  pro- 
vinces once  subject  to  the  Counts  of  Burgundy.  After  their  extinction,  and  undrr  tlio 
Spanish  rule,  the  Flemish  idiom  gradually  gave  way  in  the  north  to  the  Dutcli,  in  the  s.,iitli 
to  the  French  language.  The  Dutch  is  ppokcn  in  different  varieties  in  the  seven  i)r()viiicos 
of  the  North,  and  in  some  bordering  districts  of  the  South :  with  certain  chnngos  and 
admixtures  it  is  also  spoken,  or  at  least  understood,  in  the  various  settlements  founded  liy 
the  Dutch  in  Africa,  Oceania,  and  America,  and  in  several  places  in  Ceylon,  India,  mid  '■.ho 
peninsula  of  Malacca;  in  South  Africa;  at  the  Cape  of  Hope;  and  on  the  American  con- 
tinent in  Guiana.  Some  descendants  of  Dutcli  settlors  also  in  the  United  States  retain  their 
native  language.  It  was  only  in  the  sixteenth  century  that  this  vulgar  idiom  of  the  pro- 
vince of  lloiland,  in  some  degree  polished  ond  improved,  became  the  national  language  of 
the  Dutch.     It  is  a  riixture  of  ancient  Francic,  Frisic,  and  low  German. 

Tiie  Scandinavian,  or  Normanno-Gothic,  comprises  the  idioms  formerly  spoken  by  the 
Jutes,  the  Goths  or  Guto",  and  other  less  considerable  nations  of  pure  Gothic  race.  There 
are  five  different  idioms  in  this  branch : — 

The  Mffiso-Gotiiic,  formerly  spoken  by  the  Gotlis  established  in  Mcesia.  According  to 
Grimm,  this  is  the  richest  of  the  Germanic  languages  in  grammatical  forms:  it  has  not  less 
than  fifteen  declensions,  with  120  rases,  and  sixteen  conjugations.  The  Mceso-Gotiiic  has 
been  dead  many  centuries.  Its  most  ancient  productions  are,  the  fiimous  Codex  Argenteiis 
of  Upsal ;  and  otlier  li-agtneuts  of  the  translation  of  the  Bililo,  made  between  the  years  ;160 
and  :isO,  by  Bishop  Ulphilas.  The  Ma'so-Gotlis  appear  to  have  been  the  first  to  embrace 
Christianity  of  all  those  nations  who  overthrew  the  Roman  empire. 

The  Norinannic,  called  by  Grimm  the  AIt-\ordisch.  It  is  the  language  of  the  Edda,  of 
the  Vohispa,  and  other  poems  of  uncertain  date,  and  was  generally  spoken  throughout  Scan- 
dinavia in  the  eighth,  nintii,  and  tenth  centuries. 

The  Norwegian,  ancient  Norwegian,  Norrrena  tunga,  not  to  be  confounded  with  tlio 
mixlcrn  Norwegian  or  Norsk,  which  is  only  a  dialect  of  the  Danish.  Its  principal  dialects 
are,  the  Icelandic,  the  Norwegian  proper,  the  Dalska,  or  Western  Dalecarlian,  the  Jiinit- 
landish,  and  the  Norse,  spoken  in  the  Shetland  Isles. 

The  Swedish  (Svrnski),  spoken  by  the  Swedes  throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  Swed- 
isli  monarchy ;  also  in  the  principal  towns  of  Finland  and  the  isle  of  Runoe,  in  the  Russian 
empire.  It  has  two  principal  dialects,  the  Swedish,  and  the  modern  Gothic,  subdivided  into 
several  suh-dialects  and  varieties. 

The  Danish,  spoken  l)y  the  Danes  in  Denmark,  and  in  their  Asiatic,  African,  and  Ame- 
rican sctth'inor.ls;  also  liy  the  higher  classes  in  the  Feriie  I<les,  ond  in  Iceland.  It  lias  two 
nrinripal  dialects,  each  having  several  sub-dialerts  and  varieties:  the  Dntiish  proper,  which 
includes  the  insular  Dnnisti.  the  anrieiit  siilwlialert  of  Rornholm,  the  modern  Norwegian, 
and  the  idiom  of  Scania.  The  Jiillanilish,  or  modern  Jutic,  including  the  Nornianno-Jutic, 
the  Dnno-Jiitic,  and  the  Anfflo-Jtitic. 


Ml 


■I'''" 


■   A    t:     i 


t.i»' 

ifi^''""  ■!-f!*f*tfl| 

. 

jar- :> 

#■ 

310 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  HI. 


.•rfv 


li  !ll 


Ki*  !■ 


The  Anglo- Britannic  (not  to  be  conrounded  with  tiie  Brituh,  which  is  Welsh),  comprises 
only  two  idioms. 

The  Anglo-Saxon,  formed  by  a  mixture  of  tlie  idioms  spoken  by  the  Angli,  the  Saxons, 
and  tlie  Jutes,  who,  invited  by  the  Britons  against  the  Picts,  finally  toolt  possession  of  the 
country,  wiiore  their  language  was  successively  preserved  in  three  dialects,  until  the  eighth 
century.  During  the  invoiiions  and  tem|X>rary  ascendency  of  the  Danes,  it  was  so  moditied 
us  to  become  Dano-Saxmt,  or  rather  this  may  be  called  a  dialect  of  the  Anglo-Saxon.  For 
several  centuries  this  language  has  been  totally  dead. 

The  English,  spoken  in  England,  in  the  east  and  south-east  of  Scotland,  in  part  of  Ireland 
and  of  Wales ;  in  the  Shetland  Isles,  in  the  isles  of  Jersey  and  Guernsey,  in  the  British 
colonies  of  Asia,  Oceania,  Africfi,  and  America.  It  is  the  national  language  of  the  United 
States  of  America.  It  is  also  cultivated  and  spoken  by  a  great  number  of  persons  of  differ* 
cnt  nations  in  all  parts  of  the  world  on  account  of  its  literary,  political,  and  commercial 
importance :  the  two  latter  considerations  render  it  very  current  ui  the  kingdom  of  Hanover, 
in  the  Ionian  Isles  and  Malta,  in  Portugal  and  Brazil,  and  in  the  republic  of  Hayti.  The 
English  language  is  a  mixture  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  and  the  Neustrian  French  or  Franco 
Norman,  with  some  Celtic  words,  and  a  tew  of  ancient  British  origin.  It  has  imported 
largely  from  the  Greek  and  Latin,  as  knowledge  and  culture  advanced  in  the  nation.  If  the 
number  of  words  in  the  language  be  taken  at  thirty-eight  thousand,  those  of  Saxon  or  north- 
ern origin  will  be  found  limited  to  about  eight  thousand,  the  rest  being  principally  Greek 
and  Latin  derivatives.  Copious  and  energetic,  the  English  language  is  tlie  simplest  and 
most  monosyllabic  of  all  European  idioms ;  and  it  is  that  also  of  which  the  pronunciation 
differs  most  from  the  orthography.  It  did  not  become  the  language  of  the  state  until  the 
reign  of  Edward  III.,  since  which  time  it  has  rapidly  improved.  Towards  the  commence- 
ment of  the  seventeentli  century  may  be  dated  its  regular  developement,  and  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  eighteenth  it  took  its  fi.\ed  and  invariable  form.  The  English  language  occupies 
one  of  the  most  eminent  places  in  European  literature ;  it  is  comparable  with  any  of  them 
in  elegance,  and  perhaps,  surpasses  them  all  in  energy.  It  is  no  less  graceful  than  concise ; 
its  poetry  is  at  once  manly  and  harmonious;  and,  like  that  of  the  cognate  languages  of  the 
north,  is  admirably  adapted  to  depict  the  sublimities  of  nature  and  pourtray  the  stronger  pas- 
sions: aw  the  language  of  political  and  parliamentary  eloquence,  it  is  without  a  rival.  Of 
the  number  of  its  dialects  it  might  be  difficult  to  speak  with  precision:  foreign  philologers 
distinguish  four  as  the  principal : — the  English  proper ;  the  Northumbrian  English,  called 
also  Dano-English  from  the  great  number  of  Danish  words  retained  in  it,  and  spoken  in 
various  sub-dialects  in  Yorkshire,  Lancashire,  Cumberland,  and  Westmoreland :  the  Scottish 
01  Anglo-Scandinavian,  including  i\\o  Lowland  Scottish,  vi\\h  the  Border  language ;  and 
lastly  the  Ultra-European  English,  prevalent  in  the  English  colonies  and  in  the  United 
States.  It  has  been  observed  that  the  English  language  is  spoken  by  the  greatest  number 
of  the  irdiabitants  of  the  New  World. 

SUBSECT.  5. 

The  family  of  the  Slavonic  languages  is  widely  diffused.  From  the  neighboiu-hood  of 
Udina  in  Italy,  from  Silliiin  in  the  Tyrol,  and  from  the  centre  of  Germany  to  the  remotest 
extremities  of  Europe  and  of  Asia,  and  even  to  the  north-west  coast  of  America,  are  nations 
of  Slavonic  origin  to  be  found  ;  the  tract  of  country  over  which  they  hold  sway  amounting 
to  about  a  si.vth  part  of  the  habitable  surface  of  the  globe.  These  nations  exhibit  almost  all 
the  varieties  of  the  human  race,  botli  physical  and  moral,  if  not  from  the  most  exalted,  at 
least  to  the  most  degraded. 

The  Slavonic  languages,  so  far  as  is  at  present  known,  may  be  regarded  as  forming 
three  branches : — 1.  The  Russo-Illyrian.  2.  The  Bohemo-Polish.  3.  The  Wendo-Lithu- 
anian. 

(1.)  The  Russo-Illvrian  is  so  called  from  its  chief  people,  the  Russians,  and  from  the 
general  appellation  Illyrian  given  to  most  of  the  nations  who  speak  Servian  or  Create.  The 
languages  comprised  in  this  branch  are  : — 

The  Slavonic,  Servian,  Serbe,  or  Illyriun,  called  also  by  some  authors  Rulcna,  siwken  in 
different  dialects  by  the  more  southern  Slavi,  generally  denominated  Illyrians.  They  dwell 
in  the  Austrian  and  Ottoman  empires,  excepting  a  small  number,  settled  a.s  colonists  in  south 
RiiAsia.  The  dialects  dilfi'ring  most  frr»n  eacli  other,  and  from  the  ancient  Slavonic,  are 
the  Sirvian  or  Sirblin,  with  various  sub-dialects ;  tiio  Italiano- Slavonic,  .spoken  on  the 
coiist  of  Dalmatia ;  the  Uxkokc,  s|x)kcn  by  the  wandering  tribes  in  Scrvia,  Bosnia,  Dalmatia, 
Croatiii,  Maritime  Hmignry,  and  Curniola.  It  is  mixed  with  many  Turkish  words.  Lastly, 
the  Hiilifarian,  sixikiMi  in  Buliraria,  in  the  Ottoman  empire. 

Tlie  Russian,  Ruski,  or  modern  Russian,  spoken  throughout  the  Russian  empire  by  the 
Russians,  who  are  tin,'  ruling  nation;  also  sjwken  in  a  great  partof  Gallicia  and  port  of  Hun- 
gary in  the  Austrian  empire.  Since  the  reign  of  the  Czar  Peter,  when  the  Slavvenski  was 
abandoned  for  the  Ruski,  it  became  the  language  of  literature  and  of  business  throughout 
Russia.     It  has  the  tbilowing  dialects,  which  dilU'rlittlL"  from  each  other,  the  Valiki-Rttski 


mans- 
be  add 
Slavi 
tated  f 


i4-viftf. 


Book  I. 


EUROPE. 


811 


in. 

ixons, 
)f  the 
iiglitli 
xlitied 
For 

rcland 
British 
United 
'differ- 
mercial 
anover, 
.    The 
Franco- 
nnported 
,   If  the 
)r  north- 
y  Greek 
)lest  and 
inciation 
mtil  the 
mmonce- 
le  begin- 
occupies 
r  of  them 
I  concise ; 
res  of  the 
jnger  pas- 
ival.     Of 
ihilo\o<;ers 
ish,  calletl 
[spoken  in 
e  Scoltish 


lage; 


and 


J\e  United 
number 


lurhood  of 
remotest 
ire  nations 
amountuig 
almost  all 
exalted,  at 

IS  forming 
ndo-Litliu- 

from  the 
roate.  The 

siK)kcn  in 
?hey  dwell 
i\s  in  south 
ivonic,  arc 
on  on  the 
,  Dalmatia, 
Is.    Lastly, 

pire  by  the 

artof  llun- 

Ivenski  was 

Ithroufrhou* 


or  Russian  of  Great  Ruattia;  the  Malo-Iluski,  or  Russian  of  Little  Russia;  the  Suzdalian; 
tlie  Olonetzian,  and  the  Rusniac. 

The  Croate,  spoken  by  the  Croatcs  or  Khorliatos,  who  dcliglit  to  call  it  the  Blyrian. 

The  Wendo  or  Winde,  s))okcn  by  several  Slavonic  nations  sulycct  to  the  Austrian 
empire,  and  known  by  different  names  in  the  countries  tiiey  inhabit.  In  the  Wende 
appear  to  be  distuiguisiied  three  principal  dialects,  the  Carniolan,  the  Carintliian,  and  the 
Styrian. 

(2.)  The  B0HEM0-POLI8H,  named  from  its  two  principal  nations,  the  Boliemians  and  the 
Poles.  The  languages  belonging  to  this  branch  are  the  Bohemian  or  Chekhe,  including  the 
Bohemian  proper,  and  certain  idioms,  bearing  the  character  of  principal  dialects,  and  spoken 
in  the  Austrian  empire. 

The  Bohemian  proper,  or  Chekhe,  is  spoken  in  several  very  different  sub-dialects  by  the 
Chekiies  or  Czecks,  better  known  by  the  appellation  of  Bohemians.  The  dialect  of  Prague 
is  the  most  elegant  and  pure.  Tlie  others  are  the  Slowac,  the  Hannac,  the  Slraniac,  the 
Passekarsk,  the  Sallashac,  and  tiic  Szotac. 

The  Polish  is  spoken  by  the  Poles,  called  in  the  middle  ages,  Lechen  or  Liachy.  They 
form  more  than  three-fourtlis  of  the  population  of  the  present  Russian  kingdom  of  Poland, 
almost  the  whole  population  of  tiie  province  of  Cracow,  and  of  the  western  part  of  Gallicio, 
in  the  empire  of  Austria.  They  also  form  three-fourtJis  of  the  population  of  the  grand 
duchy  of  Posen,  two-thirds  of  that  of  West-Prussia,  and  part  of  that  of  Silesia.  The  Polish 
is  also  the  national  language  of  the  nobility  and  part  of  tiie  commonalty  in  all  the  countries 
formerly  belonging  to  the  kingdom  of  Poland,  and  is  spoken  by  thousands  of  colonists  in 
Russia.  Its  prmcipal  dialects  are  those  of  Great  Poland,  of  Little  Poland,  of  West  Prussia, 
of  Mazovia,  of  Polish  Silesia,  of  the  Geralys  or  highlandcrs,  belonging  to  part  of  the  Carpa- 
thians in  Gallicia.  The  preference  given  in  Poland  to  the  Latin,  long  retarded  the  progress 
of  this  national  language. 

The  Serbe  or  Sorabe,  spoken  until  the  fourteenth  century  by  the  Serbes,  or  Sserske.  It 
lias  two  dialects ;  the  Upper  Lusatian,  and  the  Lower  Lusatian. 

(3.)  The  Wendo-IjIthuanian,  called  also  the  Germano-Slavonic.  Tliis  branch  comprises 
the  following  idioms : — 

The  Wend,  spoken  until  tlie  fourteenth  century  in  different  dialects  tliroughout  the 
north  of  Germany,  from  Holstein  to  Pomerania,  by  various  nations,  as  the  Wogriaiis,  the 
Pnlaben,  the  Wilzians,  the  Obotrites,  the  Ruffians,  and  the  Pomeranians.  Since  the 
fourteenth  century  it  has  been  extinct,  with  the  exception  of  the  Linonish,  improperly 
called  the  Polabish  dialect,  which  subsisted  in  some  districts,  until  the  latter  half  of  the 
eighteenth. 

The  Prucze  or  ancient  Prussian,  formerly  spoken  in  eleven  very  different  dialects,  by  the 
tribes  forming  the  powerful  nation  of  the  Pruczi,  dwelling  between  the  Vistula  and  tlie  Pre- 
gel.    It  is  almost  entirely  extinct. 

The  Lithuanian  or  Littauish,  formerly  spoken  by  those  powerful  nations  the  Lithuanians 
and  Kriwitschi,  and  now  current  only  among  the  common  people ;  as  the  higher  classes 
speak  Polish,  with  Russian  or  German,  according  to  their  different  countries.  Its  principal 
dialects  have  been  thus  classed : — The  Lithuanian  proper,  the  Samogilian,  the  Kriwitsh, 
and  the  Prusso-Lithuanian. 

The  Lelte,  Lettwa,  Lettonian,  or  Lettish,  spoken  by  the  IjCtts  or  Lcttons,  forming  the 
bulk  of  the  population  in  the  government  of  Mitta,  a  larire  pnrt  of  that  of  Riga,  a  small  por- 
tion of  that  o*"  Witcpsk  in  Russia,  and  of  the  province  of  Eiist  Prussia.  It  has  five  principal 
dialects,  subdivided  into  a  multitude  of  very  different  sub-dialects.  The  former,  accorduig 
to  Mr.  Watson,  are,  tlie  Lette  proper ;  the  Seingallian  or  Sengallish  ;  the  Lclto-Livonian 
or  Lirflnndish ;  the  Seclian,  s]X)ken  by  the  Secies  in  Courland :  the  Wende  by  the  Wendes, 
in  the  north-east  of  that  duchy,  particularly  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Windau.  This  language 
abounds  witli  Gorman  phrases  and  expressions. 

Tlift  Slavonic  nations  employ  five  different  alphabets : — 1.  The  Cyrilian,  invented  by  St. 
Cyril  in  80."i,  called  also  tlic  Servian  or  Ruthenian.  2.  Tiie  (ilagolitir,  Slavonic,  Krtiko- 
witza,  or  Divinira,  called  also  that  of  St.  .Toroine.  3.  The  Russian  alphabet  of  the  Czar 
Peter,  which  is  the  Cyrilian  modified  by  that  emperor:  it  lias  tliirty-fivc  letters,  and  is  in 
use  throughout  the  Russian  empire.  4.  The  Sorabes,  Bohemians,  and  Slavo-Silesians  use 
the  Gcrnitm  alpiinbet  or  character.  .'5.  The  other  Slavonic  nations,  as  tlic  Poles,  Lithua- 
nians, Lottcs  and  WpikIps,  use  the  Latin  or  Roman  letters.  To  those  five  alphabets  may 
he  added  the  Runic  M^rnil,  the  Grook  al])lial)ot,  adopted,  according  to  Karamsin,  by  those 
Slavi  wiio,  in  the  eighth  century,  .•settled  in  Peloponnesus;  and  lantly,  the  Bulgarian,  iini 
tated  from  tlie  Glagolitic,  and  used  by  the  Bulgarians. 

SUBSECT.    0. 

The  fiimily  of  the  Uralian  languafros,  also  called  the  Finnish  or  Cliudic,  completes  the 
cthnogriiphie  division  of  Europe. 
From  the  north-west  coast  of  Norway  to  the  long  chain  of  the  Urals,  and  beyond  tliose 


"Ml  ' 


m. 


-   ivj 


;-1i'iii 


fMnmsmami 


< 


:»;  :\ 


M  ' 


812 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


.\         mountains  to  near  the  Yenisei  in  tlie  centre  of  Siberia,  in  another  direction  from  the  Leitha 
gtO-  to  tiie  Scrot,  and  from  tlie  Carputhiann  to  the  Diinube,  nations  of  Uralian  race  live  among 

■r    *  other  nations,  and  retain  the  niiinners,  liabits,  aiid  laiiguajre  of  their  furefatiiers.     In  n)arl{ing 

the  gradations  among  the  people  composing  tliin  liimily,  wo  may  consider  the  Ilinigarians 
and  the  Ostiaks  as  exhibiting  the  two  e.xtremes  in  a  moral  as  well  as  physical  respect,  not- 
withstanding the  great  affinity  of  their  respective  languages. 

The  Uralian  fiimily  includes  (bur  brandies,  according  to  Klaproth ;  but  some  languages 
not  included  in  them  may  be  separately  considered  as  a  fifth. 

The  Finnish,  or  Germanised  P'innish  branch,  includes  the  four  following  languages : — 
(1.)  The  Finnish  proper,  or  Sumenkieli,  spoken  by  the  Suomi,  better  known  as  the  Fins 
,  or  Finlanders.     Its  principal  dialects  are,  the  Finlandish,  the  Tawastian,  the  Carelian  or 

Kyriala,  the  Olonetzian,  and  the  VVatailaiset 

The  Esthonian  spoken  by  the  Estlionians  or  Estlien,  whoso  ancestors  were  formidable 

Eirates,  and  who  now  form  the  most  numerous  part  of  the  population  of  the  government  ot 
Leval,  and  of  the  circles  of  Pernau  and  Dorpat  in  tliat  of  Riga.    Its  two  principal  dialects 
^  are  that  of  Reval  and  that  of  Dorp.t 

^*  ;'  The  Liapponian,  spoken  by  the  Shames,  better  known  as  the  Lappons  or  Laplanders,  inha- 

biting the  northern  extremity  of  Europe,  partly  under  the  monarchy  of  the  Swedes,  and 
partly  under  the  Russian  empire.  Tliis  language,  which  is  said  to  have  more  affinity  witii 
the  Hungarian  than  with  the  Finnioii,  has  a  groat  number  of  very  different  dialects,  which 
have  been  classed  under  tlie  Liippn-Norweffian,  tiie  Lappo-Swedish  (western  and  eastern), 
the  Lappn-Russ,  epokp.n  in  tlie  circle  of  Kola,  in  the  government  of  Archangel.  Through 
the  beneficent  care  of  the  Swedish  government,  at  the  close  of  the  last  and  tlie  beginning 
of  the  present  century,  the  Laplanders  have  been  reclaimed  from  idolatry,  and  have  begun 
to  enjoy  the  blessings  of  Christianity  and  civilization. 

The  Livonian,  spokeii  formerly  by  the  Lives  or  Liven,  who  gradually  abandoned  this 
idiom  for  the  Lettish,  in  consequence  of  which  it  is  become  nearly  extinct. 

(2.)  The  Wolgaic  brancii  includes  the  languages  spoken  along  the  Wolga  and  its  tributa- 
ries. They  liave  a  strong  admixture  of  Turkish,  and  may  rank  under  two  classes,  the  Che- 
remisse  and  the  Morduino,  including  as  dialects  the  Mokshau  and  the  Ersan. 

(3.)  The  Permian  branch  includes  two  languages,  the  Permiun  proper,  spoken  by  the 
Korni  or  Permians,  and  tiio  Syrencs  or  Syranos ;  and  the  Wotieqtic,  spoken  by  the  Udi  or 
VVotiaks  scattered  among  tlic  governments  of  Wiatka,  Oremburg,  and  Kasan.  They  are  all 
Christians,  and  the  most  industrious  people  of  Uralian  race  in  the  Russian  empire,  except 
tlie  Fins  and  pcrliaps  the  Estlionians. 

(4.)  The  Hungarian  brancli  includes  the  following  languages: — 
i  Tiic  Hungarian  or  Magyar,  spoken  by  the  Magyars  or   Iluiigarians.     They  form  about  a 

third  of  the  population  of  Hungary,  aiu!  alinost  a  fourth  of  that  of  Traasylvania ;  several 
thousands  also  of  this  people  are  settled  in  the  Rukowine  in  Gallicia,  and  about  Ibrty  thou- 
sand in  Moldavia,  under  the  Turkish  sway.  The  Hungarian,  according  to  Czaplovicz,  has 
four  principal  dialects: — 1.  The  Paloczen.  2.  The  dialect  of  the  .W(/,i; //«rs  beyond  the 
Danube.  M.  That  of  the  Magyars  of  the  Theiss ;  and  4.  That  of  the  Szeklrr,  living  in 
j  Transylvania,  in  the  Bukowine,  and  in  Moldavia.    Tlie  Hungarian  language  is  very  harmo- 

nious; and  is  mixed  with  many  foreign  words,  especially  Slavonic,  German,  and  Latin. 

The  Wogoulo,  spoken  by  the  Mansi  or  Miuiskum,  more  known  as  the  Woguls,  an<l  called 

•  Wogoulitshe  by  the  Russians.  They  are  alinost  all  Christians,  and  live  principally  aa 
hunters  and  fishermen,  scattered  over  the  govorninent  of  Saratow,  in  the  high  valleys  of  the 
Ural,  in  that  of  Perm,  and  in  that  of  Tobolsk,  between  Kourjan  and  Bercsow.  Klaproth 
distinguishes  in  it  four  dialects,  that  of  Chiasow,  those  of  Werchoturia,  and  Cherdin,  and 
that  of  Bercsow  in  the  government  of  Tobolsk. 

Tlie  Ostiak,  or  Obi-Ostiak,  which  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  Yenisei  family.  The 
As-jachs  or  Ostiaks  of  the  Obi,  who  speak  this  language,  are  mostly  Christians;  some  are 
still  idolaters.  The  principal  dialects  are  those  of  licresow,  Lumpokol,  Wass-i-giin,  and 
Narym.     Under  the  branch  still  uncertain  are  ranked  the  Hunniuc,  the  Awur,  the  Oulga' 

*  'ian,  and  the  Chazar. 

CHAPTER  II. 

ENGLAND, 

The  British  islands,  placed  nonrly  in  the  north-western  angle  of  Europe,  coinni.  n  !  ,~5cu- 
liar  udvantages,  no  less  tor  natural  strength  in  war,  than  as  an  emporium  of  t. ;  .mi-rce  in 
peace:  on  the  southern  side,  they  arc  almost  in  contact  with  France,  Holland,  and  Gcrinan}', 
for  ages  tlie  most  enlighti'invl  anil  flourishing  coiiiifrins  of  the  civilized  world;  on  tlie  fasf, 
'  a  wide  expanse  <if  sea  si'parales  them  from  the  bleak  region  of  Scandinavia;  on  the  west, 
they  ov(!rlook  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  whose  limit  in  another  hemisphere  is  the  coast  of  Ameri- 
ca; vvliile,  ill  the  extreme  north  tiiey  may  be  almost  said  to  face  the  unexplored  expanse  of 
the  Polar  Sea.     Exclusive  of  the  nortliern  insular  appendages,  they  may  lie  considered  as 


<    : 


10 

Vol. 


in. 


Fio.  103. 


MAP  OP  THE  BRITISH  ISLES, 


313 


uLout  a 
several 

jrty  tliou- 
,icz,  lias 
))((/   the 
living  in 

;ry  harmo- 
ilin. 

and  called 
ipiilly  aa 

leys  of  the 
Klaproth 
.'rdin,  and 

lily.    TIk' 

some  are 

i-friin,  and 


]  ,  ?cu- 
Mucfce  in 
Germany, 
tlie  east, 
tl„.  west, 
,  of  Amcri- 
jxpinise  of 
isiderod  as 


It 


t« 

■J. 


10 

Vol.  I. 


6      LDogitwIe  West    i   from  Qnenwicb     2 

27 


2P 


1 .!!')' 


if:.., 


^..■^  ■!* 


■atni  I  ■'•■■' 


''■V'ftrt 


•  » 


314 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  HI. 


Rituatcd  between  the  fiftieth  and  fifty-ninth  degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  between  the 
oecond  dcfrroo  of  east  and  the  tenth  of  west  longitude.  They  are  gcogrupliically  divided 
into  two  iiilunda  of  unequal  magnitude,  Great  Britain  and  Ireland :  Britain,  again,  is  divided 
into  two  unequal  parts :  England,  which,  including  Wales,  contains  57,0(30  square  miles ; 
and  Scotlunil,  which  contains  30,500.  Tlie  tlirce,  though  united  into  one  kingdom,  respec- 
tively cxitibit  peculiarities  which  characterise  them  as  distinct  countries.  It  will,  therefore, 
be  ro«|ui.site  to  describe  each  separately,  commencing  with  England,  the  seat  of  empire  and 
legislation.  The  chapter  which  treats  of  England  will  afford  the  proper  plnce  for  many 
details,  particularly  of  a  political  nature,  which  arc  alike  applicable  to  the  two  sister 
countries. 


Refertnctn  to  the  Map  of  the  lirilish  Itland$. 


Ti     :il 


ENGLAND 

m. 

1.  AlnwiLk 
U.  Rolhbuiy 
X  Mnrpelh 
4.  Ilrilio 

w. 

Wl. 

W), 
Ul. 

.V  Newi'Mlio 

w. 

6.    lexlilni 

»:<, 

7.  BilliiiKhrtin 
S.   'nilwlii 

94. 

lis. 

\t,  Cocktirmoulh 

w. 

10.  Efiroiiinnt 

>c. 

1 1.  Rnvuiiftlttu 
W.  Ulvrnlun 

!W, 

09, 

\X  Krmlul 

(10. 
Ul. 

U.  Kuiwick 

IS.  Pnnrith 

I», 

IB.  AuulBbir 
7.  Alimone 

a". 

ot. 

B.  Darliniclun 

!«. 

ILporhiiin 
W.  Buml.irland 

INt. 
07. 

21.  Siockton 

IIH, 

iM.  Hiokolry 

00. 

Zi,  (iuiilwniuch 

10, 

!M.  Whitby 

II. 

'Hi.  Piekerinii 

IS 

•X.  Think 

i:i. 

in.  Norih  Allorton 

14. 

<«.  Uwei 

1.5, 

'UK  Ripon 

Hi, 

:in.  KeiiHil 

17 

HI.   .itnciister 

18. 

■H.  CJnrmang 

lU. 

:«.  I'uulicm 

iW, 

:I4.  nrniiriiril 

■n. 

US.  Skiplon 

'M.  Knaroaborough 

IK. 

:W.  Irfcils 

I'fl, 

V>.  York 

134, 

*W.  Nhw  Malton 

I'iS, 

4().  Ililliiigion 

136. 

41,  9cnrl>nroui?h 

1'^, 

42.  GtL'at  Diiffield 

liM. 

4:<.  HiirnMa 

129, 

44.  Hi'diin 

r.io. 

43.  Kiiiinton  on  Hull 

III.  Barlon 

31. 

47.  nrimsby 

48.  Ravcndale 

.12, 

3,1, 

49.  SnIlfli'iM 

:i4. 

SO.  Thedlclhoipe 

35, 

m.  Rnttun 

36. 

Si.  Mford 

i:n. 

5.1,    larncaette 

i:w. 

.M,  Lincoln 

39. 

.V>.  (iainiborouih 

40, 

.W,  Aihby 

41. 

57,  Doncniler 

42, 

.58,  Sheffield 

43. 

59,  Poniofract 

44. 

no.  Manchnttcr 

1.5, 

fli,  Prtiion 

40. 

fri.  Liverpool 

47. 

SI.  Cheater 

48, 

64,  Ncwcnitle 

49, 

as,  .Newport 
n6,  Siafli)rd 

1.50, 

.51. 

f17,  Riirion 

.52. 

(W,  Perhy 

.53. 

in.  Aihbourn 

51. 

7U,  Cheslertield 

,5.5. 

71.  Miin«flold 

l.'iO. 

7i  Alfruton 

1.57. 

7:1,  Noiiiniiimm 

1.58, 

74.  Mellon  Mowuray  I.SU, 

75,  (iranlhani 

lliO. 

76,  Newark 

161. 

77,  Slenford 

1(K, 

7a  Ppalding 

lli3. 

79,  Lynn  Roiii 
R),  Wells 

164, 
16), 

81.  <,'romRr 

166. 

9%.  Yarmouth 

167. 

R3.  RccclM 

Iffl. 

B4,  Harloilon 

169, 

H.5,  Norwich 

170, 

H6,  Recpham 

171, 

Eaal  Dereham 
Dim 

Theirord 
Ely 
March 

PelerboruUfh 
.  Oundle 
Hiamrtird 
Harburuugh 
Leicivter 
.  Tovenlry 
Tamworth 
Lichfield 
.  Rirminehjm 
Hridguiiorth 
SItrowgbury 
Plynlinimun 
Ludlow 
Tenbury 
I.puminglor 
llrotnrord 
Tewkeibury 
WorcMlor 
Alceaiet 
Warwick 
Kveaham 
Towceator 
Northampton 
Wellingborough 
Thrapiton 
lliintingdnn 
lledr<inl 
Cambridgo 
Mildenhnll 
Bury  Bt.  Ed 

mund'a 
Framlingham 
Aldborough 
Ipawich 
Sudbury 
Harwich 
Colchcater 
Coggeahall 
Royiton 
Biinup's  Stort' 

ford 

Hertford 
St.  Albana 
Ayletbury 
Winiluw 
Bijckinghain 
Wooditock 
Burfurd 
Cfloucesler 
Hereford 
Koaa 
(Jotford 
Briilol 
Melkiham 
Malmeibury 
Cirencc  '  r 
Swindon 
llungcrford 
Kennel 
Abingdon 
Ojford 
Wallingford 
Thame 
Windaor 
Uxbridge 
Kingiton 
C'rnydnn 
GreeiiHirh 
Londiin 
(Jhelmaford 
Maldon 
Maidstone 
Canterbury 
Mnmalo 
Kamigate 
Dover 
Rye 

Haalinn 
Seaford 
Rattle 

East  Grinatead 
Reigate 


172,  Honham 

173,  Briahlon 

174,  Arundel 

175,  Pulboniugh 

176,  (iuildford 

177,  Rodalming 

178,  Pelworih 
ITX  Cliichrater 

180,  Porlimoulh 

181,  H"Ulhainptan 

182,  Whiichurch 
IKI.  Andover 
IHI.  Sniubury 

185,  Lyminglon 

186.  I'uule 

187.  Shafteiburr 

188,  Baih 
181).  tTxbridge 

190.  Wt'llt 

191.  Glaalonbury 

192.  llcheator 

193.  Tauninn 

194.  Porloek 

195.  South  Bam- 

iiapio 
196  Bideford 

197.  Torringlun 

198.  Launceiton 

199.  Bodmin 
2110.  Si.  Agnea 
201.  Penzance 
2112.  Falmouth 
203,  Tregony 
201,  Tavialock 
21^5.  Plymoulh 
2116.  Modbiiry 

207,  Durlinouth 

208.  Aihburton 

209,  Chumleigh 

210.  Tivertou 
211.Eieh)r 

212.  Sidmoulh 

213.  Honimn 

214.  Lyme  Regie 

21 5.  Dorcheater 
210.  Weymouth 

Rivera, 

a  Tyne 
b  Teei 
c  Derwent 
d  Swule 
e  Wharfa 
f  Aire 

RDon 
Trent 
i  Ouse 
J  Thamea 
k  Avon 
1  Severn 
in  Dee 

WALES. 

1.  Flint 

2.  Si.  Aaaph 

3.  Uonbigh 

4.  .Aberconway 

5.  Bangor 

6.  Benumaria 

7.  Holyhead 

8.  Caernarvon 

9.  I.Ian  Haiarn 

10.  Si,  Mary'a 

11.  Harlech 

12.  Bala 

13.  Corwen 

14.  Mfmlgomery 
1,5,  Diiiaainowa 

16.  Tnwyn 

17.  AlK'ryatwitli 

18.  Rhainrier 

19.  Bault 

20.  Tregnrron 

21.  LlnnlH>»r 

22.  Cardigan 

23.  Newport 

24.  Fi«:ard 


25.  St.  David'i 

26.  Pembroke 

27.  Caennarthen 

28.  Cwyrgryg 

50.  Brc'^.m 

30,  Monmouth 

31,  Uake 

32, 1'heptlow 

33,  Nuw'Mirt 

34.  Cardiir 
:i3,  Laiidair 
30.  Llantriiacnl 
37.  Swansea 

Rivert. 
a  Towey 
b  Tievy 
c  Dee 

SCOTLAND 

1.  Durneai 

2.  Tongue 

3.  Reay 

4.  Thurao 

5.  Wick 

6.  Dunbeath 

7.  Helmadale 
c.  Dornoch 
9.  Tain 

10,  Portinleik 

11,  llllnpuol 

12,  Poolew 

13,  Torridon 

14,  Loch  l^irron 

15,  Dingwall 

16,  Beauly 

17,  loverneaa 

18,  Graniown 

19,  Nairn 

20,  Elgin 

21,  Inveraven 

22,  Cullen 

23,  Banff 

24,  Huntley 

25,  Turroff 

26,  Fiaaeraburih 

27,  Peterhead 

28,  Nuwhurgh 

29,  Aberdeen 

30,  Sionehavcn 

31,  Bervie 

32,  Tulloch 

33,  Braemar 

34,  Fort  Auguitua 

35,  Glencig 

36,  Araaaig 

37,  Appin 

:i8.  Fort  William 

39.  Perth 

40.  Dunkeld 

41.  Blair  Athol 

42.  Brechin 

43.  Montrose 

44.  Forfar 
4.5.  Arbroath 

46,  Dundee 

47.  St.  Andrews 

48.  Anatruther 

49,  Kinross 

.50,  Inverkcithing 

51.  Clackmannan 

52.  Muihill 
5,1.  Slirling 
.54.  Inverary 
55,  Oban 

.56,  Diimbnrlon 
.57.  Grei-nock 
.58.  Paialey 
.59,  Irviiw 

60.  Hamilton 

61.  Glasgow 
63,  Falkirk 
6.3.  Linlithgow 
1)4,  Whitlium 

65,  Peebles 

66,  Edinburgh 

67,  Haddington 


68.  North  Berwick 

69,  Dunbar 

70,  Berwick 

71.  Kekoe 
Ti.  Jedburgh 

73.  Hawick 

74,  Aahkirk 
7.5,  Bjggiir 
70.  Moffat 

77,  Sanquhar 

78,  Lanark 

79.  Kilmarnock 

80,  Ayr 

81,  (iirvan 

82.  Ballintrae 

83.  Stranraer 

84.  Port  Patrick 
83.  Wigton 

86,  Kircudbright 

87,  Now  Galloway 

88,  Monihivu 

89,  Dumfries 

90,  Langholm 
Ul,  Annan 

Rivert. 
a  Spey 
b  Don 
c  Deo 
dTay 
o  Clyde 
f  Ken 
g  Nith 
h  Annan 
i  Tweed 

IRELAND. 

1.  Belfast 

2.  Antrim 

3.  Lame 

4.  Glenarm 

5.  Ballycaslle 

6.  Rallymoney 

7.  Cnleraine 

8.  Tubbermute 

9.  Strabane 

10.  Londonderry 

11.  White  Castle 
13.  Raphoe 

13.  Lifford 

14.  Leticrkenny 

15.  Killybeis 

10.  Donegal 

17,  llallybofy 

18,  Omagh 

19,  Pomcroy 

20,  Clogher 

21,  Dungannon 

22,  Armagh 

23,  jurgan 

24,  Donughadce 

25,  Porlaferry 

26,  Downpairick 

27,  .Strevoy 

28,  Ncwry 

29,  Dundalk 

30,  Moiiaghan 

31,  Cavan 
33.  Cnllahill 
:t3,  K.nriiakillen 
:U.  Churchill 

35.  Sligo 

36.  Drumoirn 

37.  Bnllyinoro 

38.  Citliioiiey 

39.  Rrillina 
411,  Kilbla 

41,  Biillyglasa 

42,  Cliigaiin 

43,  Ni'wport 

44,  Wealport 
4,5,  Konior 
41).  Ilallinrolio 

47.  (^Batte  Barr 

48,  Kilcolmaii 

49,  Tuam 

50.  Elphin 


51,  Roscommon 

.52.  Leilrim 

.53.  Longford 

.54,  Moyiinliy 

.55.  Carrickmacrou 

.50.  Donleer 

.57.  Diogheda 

58.  Ilalhriggan 

59.  llulilin 

60.  Screen 

61.  Trim 

62.  ,>liivriouth 
at.  IViitia 

64,  Tullamore 

65,  Mullingar 

66,  Aihlono 

67,  Eyrecourt 

68,  Ballyforan 

69,  Newion  Bellow 

70,  I.iiughrea 

71,  Ornmure 

72,  Oogiiiera 

73,  Galway 

74,  Cort 

7.5.  Innialymon 

76,  Kilrush 

77,  Clare 

78,  Eiinis 

79.  Limerick 

80.  Porlumn 

81.  Nenagh 
K.  Kllliiloe 
K<,  Tliurles 
84.  Kuaorea 
K5,  Durrow 

86,  Alh 

87,  Kildare 

88,  Catlow 

89,  Tullow 

90,  Biillinglaas 

91,  Bh>8siiigluu 

92,  Togher 

93,  Wicklow 

94,  Gorey 

9.5,  Ballycanoe 
06.  Enniacorlhy 

97.  Wesfuid 

98.  Felhaid 

99.  Waterford 
100.  Thomas  Town 
nil.  Kilkenny 

102,  CariickonSuirn 

103,  Clonmol 

104.  Ballyporecn 

105.  Tiptierary 

106,  Killmullock 

107.  Aakeyion 

108.  Ballylongfurd 

109,  Tralen 
no  CnaileFord 

111,  Killainey 

112,  Kenmare 

113,  v''(iallctown 

114,  Biiiilry 

115,  ('nalletown 

116,  Kiusalo 

117,  Crk 

118,  Killady 

1 19,  Torlijteola 

120,  Mitllnw 

121,  R;illirormuck 

122,  Kildorery 
12:1,  l.iamore 
124,  ViMigliall 
1'iS,  Dungarvan 
126.  Tramoro 

Rivtrt. 

n  11:10 

h  Ciirtingford 
e  lloyne 
d  Harrow 
e  Note 
f  Siiiro 

Rlllackwatei 
Shannon 
i  Buck. 


Rivers. 

riiillngfuTa 
oyne 
t'lrruw 
kiire 
Miini 

hliickwatei 
Rtmnnun 
Buck. 


Book  L 


ENGLAND. 


I 


315 


Sect.  I. — Oencrul  Outline  and  Aspect. 

England  is  bounded  on  the  soutli  by  tho  Eiiglitih  CImnnol,  iiitprposod  between  its  coast 
and  tlial  of  Franco;  on  tlio  east  by  tlio  Gennan  Sea,  on  tlio  north  by  Scotland,  from  which 
it  is  sopariitfd  by  tho  Tweed,  the  Cheviot  hillH,  and  the  Frith  of  Sol  way ;  on  tho  woHt  by  the 
Irish  Sea  and  St.  George's  Channel :  the  promontory  of  the  Lanil's-End,  forming  its  south- 
western extremity,  faces  the  vast  expanse  of  the  Atlantic. 

The  greatest  dimension  of  England  is  from  south  to  north,  between  tho  Lizard  Point, 
49°  58'  N.,  and  Berwick  on  Tweed,  55°  45'  N. ;  four  hundred  miles  in  length.  Tiie  points 
of  extreme  breadth  are  the  Lund's-End  (^g.  104.),  in  5°  41'  \V.,and  Lowestoffe,  in  1°44'  E., 

forming  a  space  of  about  280  mil's.  There 
is  no  point,  however,  where  a  line  of  this 
extent  can  be  carried  across  the  island,  and 
the  northern  part  does  not  on  an  average 
exceed  one  hundred  miles  in  breadth. 

The  surface  of  England  is  of  a  diversifi- 
ed character ;  the  eastern  districts  are  in 
general  level,  and  there  arc  several  direc- 
tions in  which  hundreds  of  miles  may  be 
travelled  without  seeing  a  hill.  Along  the 
western  side  of  the  island  are  large  tracts, 
not  only  hilly,  but  sometimes  rising  even  to 
mountain  grandeur.  Such  are  the  counties 
of  Cumberland  and  Westmoreland,  the  bleak  ridge  of  Ingleborough,  extending  like  a  spine 
through  tlie  north  of  England:  of  the  same  character  are  Derbyshire,  the  whole  principality 
of  Wales,  and  a  great  part  of  Devon  and  Cornwall.  These  tracts  exhibit  all  tho  varieties  of 
mountain  scenery:  in  Cumberland,  encircling  little  plains  filled  with  beautiful  lakes;  in 
Wales,  enclosing  narrow  valleys  through  which  the  rapid  mountain  stream  dashes ;  in  Der- 


LindVEnd. 


References  to  the  Map  of  England. — North  Fart. 


.NORTH  SEIIIKS. 
1.  KHrwirk 

3.  Molilniin 
X  \\,'\f,m\ 

4.  \,  rhiirl'on 
r>.  Alnwiuk 

0.  VVhitlinghnni 
7.  IJdwayturd 
H.  F.lsdun 
U.  Rcithhuty 

10.  Warkwutih 

11.  Morpeih 
n.  Ilivthe 
i:t.  Clifton 

14.  Siamrtirdlmm 

15.  Kirk  Harlu 
IH.  Hatliiiillun 
IV.  Ri>llin)innti) 
IH.  Hutii'rshuugh 
It).  Shillburn 

311.  KonnrI 
31.  Kewrastle 
'J^l.  Iiunglown 
'H.  Rrarnplon 
•U.  Ilallwhiitic 
'i.'i.  Simonbiiin 
•Hi.  Hexham 
•••7.  Hickloy 
28.  NuwcBBtlB 
'.tt.  .North  Sliirlils 
:U).  Tynpmniith 
:il.  Houlh  Sliit'lJd 
'.^i.  Sunderland 
:<:i.  Shuiton 
:U.  Durliiini. 
:i.').  ('hcstcr-leSlrect 
.lit.  I.nnchcstcr 
:I7.  VVultiiniiliuni 
'X'.  Hianliiipu 
:19.  Aciun 

40.  .Mdsliinn 

41.  *'rnfe!tj:ill 

4'i.  Kirk  Oswald 
4:1. 1.aionby 
44.  Hiiltdii 
Vi.  Tarliflle 
4B.  Oricin 
47.  Wiiitiin 
4H.  Ahbeyholmo 
i\i.  Maryport 
.W.  Wurkiniiion 
.'il.  rockerinduiti 
fit.  Iroby 
.'1:1.  Ki'swick 
.54.  Matierdalo 
.W.  IVmilh 
.5fi.  Clifton 
57.  Aimloliy 
.W.  Milljurn 
,50.  nroouli 
6U.  aiackiiolin 


Middleton 

Bflglostnn 

Harnard  <?H8tIo 

Hiaindrop 

VVi-8l  Auckland 

Bishop  Auck- 
land 

Sedtfefiuld 

Hartlepool 

Seaton  Carow 

Gnighrougb 

Whitby 

Btokeilcy 

Raunton 

Yarm 

Darlington 

Croll 

Rokeby 

Roweri 

Reeih 

Kirkby  Stephen 

Orion 

Mardale 

Amblciiilo 

St-atbwaite 

Whitehaven 

Kgreriiotit 

Ravrnglass 

Whitheck 

IJtvergion 

Hawkshoad 

Kendal 

Fawcott 

Millthorpe 

Sedbcrgh 

Hawea 

Ankrigg 

Miildlulmm 

Richmond 

<*ntterick 

Hcrlkle 

Rnrneiton 

Thitsk 

North  Allerton 

lli'lmalev 

Kirby  Mnorside 

Snainion 

Cloughttin 

Srarhurongh 

Filey      , 

llunmanby 

llridlington 

Kilhnm 

nrillicld 

Sledmero 
Wintrintibam 

Now  Malton 

(larrnhy 

Stillenham 

t'oxwold 

Euaingwold 


121.  Aldburouch 
It^i.  KnarosUirough 
12:1.  Ripon 
VH.  iMtmham 
V2^.  Whernsido 
1%  Grauinatun 
l'/7.  Arnclilfe 
128.  Settle 
I3».  Indeton 
IJO.  Kirkby  Long- 
dale 
Itll.  Hornby 
1:13.  Lancagtor 
i;t;f.  Oargtung 
1:14.  Slaidbiirn 
ia5.  Clithoroe 
ItW.  L'nine 
i:n.  PMythorne 
1.18.  Bkiptun 
130.  ThurcroM 

140.  Olley 

141.  llarewood 

142.  Ripl.y 
14:1.  Weiherby 
144.  Tndcagter 
W^.  Cawoud 
14B.  York 

147.  Porklington 

148.  Middletnn 

149.  Market  Wcigh- 

ton 
l.'iO.  Meverlry 
l.^l.  Rrandgburton 
152.  Horngea 
15:1.  Aldborough 
VA.  Hedon 
155.  Pattrington 

SOtJTH    SERIES. 

1.  Poullon 

2.  RIackpoul 
:i.  KIrkham 

4.  Predion 

5.  Ohotley 

fi.  niaekburn 
7.  Iturntey 
H.  Halifax 
9.  Koiiihley 

10.  nradrnril 

11.  Oow^bnry 

12.  Wakefield 

13.  Leeds 

14.  Poniefract 
1.5.  Snaiih 

IK.  Selby 

17.  Howdon 

18.  Riirlun 

19.  Snuth  Covo 

20.  Hull 

21.  Uarton 


22.  Oriiniby 

2:1.  Ravendalo 

24.  Caigtor 

2.5.  Rlanhird  Bridge 

20.  Kiitun 

27.  lirunihy  • 

28.  Crowie 

29.  Thome 
RO.  DuncBiter 
.11.  Iludgwonh 

32.  Barnegley 

33.  Penigtune 

34.  Huddergfield 
;i5.  Meltham 

36.  Aghton-under- 

Line 
.17.  Manchegter 
:h  Rochdale 
:I9.  Rury 

40.  Bolton 

41.  Iieigh 

42.  Wigan 
4:1.  Ornigkirk 

44,  Forniby 

45.  Liverpool 
40.  Pregcol 

47.  Newton 

48.  Warrington 

49.  Knuigiiird 
,50,  Atlringham 
51.  Slockport 
,52.  Digley 

53.  Chniiel  in  tho 

Frith 
.54.  Tidegwoll 
.5.5,  Cagtleton 
.50.  Sheineld 
,57.  Dronlield 
.58.  Rolherham 
,59,  Worksop 
m.  RIyth 
61.  Retl'ord 
02,  Oaingborouah 
fU.  Willouuhtun 

64.  Wrnehy 

65.  Market  Rosen 
<iO.  I.MUth 

07.  Salilleet 
68.  ."Jution 
09.  A I  ford 

70.  Biirgh 

71.  VVaiiifleet 

72.  SSpil.by 

73.  Horn('ii.<;Ilo 

74.  Tnttershall 

75.  n-.iiig1on 
70.  Naveiiby 
ii.  Lincoln 

78.  Thornev 

79.  TuxI'urd 


80.  Newark 

81.  Mangfield 

82.  Rolgover 

83.  L'lii'gKirlield 

84.  All'reton 
8.5,  Mat  lock 

86.  Wirkgworth 

87.  Wingtcr 

88.  Buxton 

89.  Lognur 
90. 1..veke 

91.  Horton 

92.  MaccleiifiRld 

93.  Conglotun 

94.  Talk 

95.  Nanlwich 

96.  Middlewieh 

97.  Northwich 

98.  Tarportey 

99.  C'begter 
100.  Hidt 

nil,  Wrexham 
102,  Mold 
10:1.  Flint 
104.  Ruthin 
10.5.  Denbigh 
100,  St.  Asaph 

107.  Aberiieley 

108.  Aberconway 

109.  Llanrwst 

110  Penire  Vnelai 
lll.Treniadoc 

112.  Bangor 

113.  Beaumaris 

114.  Amlwch 

11,5.  Llanerchymedd 
116  Holyhead 
1 17. I'aernarvon 

118.  Bwich  Mawr 

119.  Pwllheli 

120.  Crickieth 

121.  Harlech 

122.  ,\rrennip 

123.  Llanuwch- 

Uwyn 

124.  Bala 
12.5.  (,'nrvGn 
120.  Tilangollen 

127.  KlleBniere 

128.  Wem 

129.  Whitchurch 
1:10.  Mnl|i:is 
131.  Druylon 
i:H.  rcclcshall 
1:1:1.  Ptnno 

i:i4.  Newrrtfttle-un- 

der- Line 
13.5,  Rurslem 
i:i6.  Cheadle 
137.  Ulio.xetcr 


1,38,  Aabborna 
i:«l.  Derby 

140.  Bi^per 

141.  Nottingham 

142.  Biilteslbnl 

143.  tirantbam 

144.  ^lealbrd 
14,5.  Folkinghnm 
140.  Doiiningtuu 

147.  Boston 

148.  Bnrnliam 

Market 
140.  Cagtle  Riging 
150.  Fakenliam 
ISI.NcwWalsing- 

ham 
1.52.  Holt 
1,5,3,  Crumer 
154.  N.  Waliham 

ISLE  OF  MAN 

1.  Ramsey 

2.  Peel 

3.  Douglas 

4.  Caslletown 

RiverB, 
a  Till 
b  Aln 
c  CcHiuet 
d  Wensbeck 
e  Blyth 
f  Tvne 

KWear 
Tecs 
■   F.Hk 
J    Rye 
k  Dorwent 

1  Ouse 
in  Swale 
n  Hro 

o  Wharf 
p  Air 
q  Calder 
r  Don 
B  Rother 
t  Dcrwent 
u  Dove 
V  Trent 
w  Ankbolm 
X  Wiiham 
y  Cnnwoy 

2  t'lwyd 
a*  Dee 

b*  Weaver 
c*  Mersey 
d»  Rihblu 
e*  Lunc 
f  *  Derwent 
g»  Eden 


•^» 


-i;,) 


lit 


'M 


'»♦ 


ne 


MAP  OP  ENGLAND— NORTH. 


Fio.  105 


;#^ 


r 


€ 


818 


DESCRIl'TIVK  OROGRAPHY. 


Pa>t  ni 


liVMhirc,  pniKonJinff  rocky  nconiTy  in  nvrry  picliin-Hiiiii)  innl  firitnBtic  Mlmpo;  wliilo  in  Devon- 
Mliirn  low  liroad  sIi'i'jm  oviTsliiirtoNV  wiili<  itiiil  liriiiitil'iil  viiIoh. 

Willi  one  iMti'<'|>ti(iii,  till-  riioHt  iin|i(>rtiiiit  rivi-rn  of  Kii(r|iini|  trivrw  tlin  lircndtli  of  tho 
kiti;(iloni :  rininif  niiion)f  llii>  woxtcrn  liillii,  utiil  tlowiiijf  towiinl  tlio  (mtiiihii  OriMiii,  they  do 
not  Dttiiiii  tliiit  ltm;(tli  of  I'Diirno  which  tlitt  r.xtciit  nf  iIh  t)>rrilory  in  iitiothcr  ilircction  wonlil 
liiivR  ii(liniti*>(l.  'riioiiirli  ili'licii'Mt,  howovcr,  in  niii|[;nitii(l<>,  tlii>y  urn  nuiiicroiiH,  coiiHriudioiiii, 
nnil  vaiinli!)' ;  (lowing  tliroii|{h  lirunil  vuIoh  anil  \viil('-''|>riMiilin;^  jilaiiiM. 

The  'riinnii'.",  thmi^rli  not  tlii>  lon)r('Mt,  ilfHrrvcK  to  bn  rankcilaM  thu  flrnt  of  HritiHh  rivnrii. 
It  ori;;iiuiti<ii  tVoin  u  number  uf  rivulutM  on  tho  burdorM  of  Wiltii  ami  ISIouccntorHliiro,  which, 


Kiferrncei  to  the  .Wa/i  uf  F.nnUinil. — South  I'arl, 


I 


I 


.NoiiTH  Hi:imw. 

j.  TnllifbiMil 

3.  IHnaariMWiliIy 

4.  Ilonilrii 

A.  I.lHnCyllitl 

fl.  I'llnl 

7.  Llniit'tur 

H.  Hhriiwalillir 

It.  (Hwii.lrx 

10.  Vvallin«i(in 
M.  Nii»jii>ri 

n.  rfiiinitrk 

M.  l.irhHillil 

l.'i.  AblHirallfijinl"; 

III.   HllTlllll 

17.  .Atliliy  lie  la 

y.ulirh 
\A  Knliiwiirih 
11*.  UMiBlilinrniiu'li 
ill.  MtMint  Honi'l 
•Jl.  MnlidiiMoivliriiy 
'.'■.•.  Oniilmm 
■i:i.  ( 'oil.y 
-.'1.  lliMini 
*.'•>.  Hiamrnrl 
•Jli.  Murlici  Diii'iiinj 
*,*T.  rniwIiiMil 
•i''.  Hpnliliiil 
VI.  Hi'llipuni 
:<ll.  Wialiinch 

:ii.  lnliiiuiiMi 

'M.  I.ynn  Kt'niii 
:'"I.  .N'.wlliirniuh 
:M.  Iillrliiiiii 
:C>.  Hw'iirtmm 
r.fi.  Kimi  Oft'ihuni 
n*.  Finiiahiirn 
:h.   \vl»li!iiii 
!l!l.  .S'lirwicli 
4i>  \Vrii«lMm 

11.  YnriiMMiih 
4;  l..i>v,..t„i'i 

rl.  Ilorrlpi 

M.  I.MiM.in 

4.'i.  Itiiiiitny 

411.  llHrlmiiil 

47.  .Nhw  lluckins- 

hiiin 
■H.  VVyiiifinHtmm 
I'l.  Ilinirhiiin 
'Jl.  Wniiiii 
'il.  Ka.«>  llaiiiiii 
.V.'.  'I'tii'tliira 
X\.  Ilrnndon 
.%4  MdiIiwuIiI 
.'i.^.  Ildwnhnin 
:«.  K.ly 
.'i*.  M.ircli 
.V.  Kamicr 
.'i!i.  Tliiirnpi' 
IHI.  I'ftorbiirniirh 
III.  NorniAi)  Criim 
fi'.  Ouiull.' 
IVI.  Knrkiniehitm 
('■-I.  ('[iiiiiiKhdin 
\Vi.  I<flirt'nter 
m.  .Mniki't  Ilnrbo- 

rixigb 
117.  liiittprwiirth 

fin,  llliirklir 

I'd.  Niinoiiinn 
711.  .^ItirrrttiiiiQ 
71.  'I  minvnitli 
7-.>.  Ciiluhill 
7:i  S.iliuii  CuUm«lil 
74.  WnUiiM 
7.'i.  IllTininnliftin 
7fJ.  Wiilvor'iiiiniilon 
77.  Itrtilffi'niirlli 
7-^    HroHi-ky 
7>.i.  Mcirh  Wcnlork 
HI.  IIinIiop'h  CiiKtlo 
HI.  MniilKiitnnry 
H2.  Nowinwn 
HI   Ijlanfiiir 
w-1.  Mafhynllclh 
8A.  Tuwyn 


Hit. 

mi. 
Ill, 
w. 
m. 
(It 

IkV 
INI. 

117. 
IK. 

mi. 

IINI. 
Mil. 
Ilh.>. 
Iii:i. 

1114. 

m 
\m. 

1117. 
I  IIH. 

r,«: 

111. 

Ill 
ii:i 

IM. 

n^. 
11(1. 

117. 

ii«. 
nil. 
I'W. 

i-.'i. 
i«. 
vi\. 

I'J4. 

i« 

i-.ti, 
I'.T. 
ft-) 
I'.ii. 
l:m. 
i:ii. 
1.19. 

i:i:i. 
i:m. 
v.a. 

IM. 

i:n. 
i:w. 

1311. 
140, 

141. 
U'i. 

I4:i. 

144. 

14.'i. 

m. 

147. 
14H. 

14!l. 
1.1(1. 
Ml. 

Ma. 

1.VI. 
l.M. 
155. 

l.W. 
157. 

IIW. 
I.V.I. 
IIUI 
Kit. 
IIW 
Id'l. 
1114. 
IIIV 
I  IVI. 
107. 
IBH. 
IIB. 


Abt'ryHivvith 
.MH'rIkiwyii 
HuilMy  V><»lth 
|JiimhII..|'ii 
Khiiy.iilriiiwy 
litiiitib'Hli'y 
Nhw  KiiilM'ir 
Kniuhlnil 

I'lllDM 

Liiilhiw 
Cli'iiliury  .Miir 


tlmi*r 
jl.;wilVy 


iildHriiliiintnr 
(itMirliriitKit 

IltlrlrHuwni 
lriiiilH|[ri>\ii 
llritiUVK-h 
llt'htcy  HI  ,'\rit«ii 
Warwirk 
Cuvcnlry 

i.i<amiiiiitun 
laviniiy 
{luliy 
Koihwi-ll 
N<MlhniTi|ilon 
Kpiiiwiittf 
ThraiiFttitil 
Kiiiiliolinn 
Hi.  Nnii'i 

llllMlMltflluil 

Hi.  Ivm 

WilluiHlDim 
\i.wiiiiirki!i 
I.liitii  Itiirion 
lliiry  Hi.  IM- 
inuiliri 
Htiiw  Maikut 

Iiwuitb 
Mm 
'y" 

l)f>br>n'inm 
Winiilli'M 
Prninlinitbnm 
S.iiilbwi>ld 
Diinwicb 
HiLxiiiiinilbnin 
AlilboriiiiKb 
VViHxIbriilig 
ItMwirb 
nH<ll(!itfti 
WhaiHitlil 

niiib-ahill 

NVirilliitin 

Ii?ivfiibiim 

Sudbury 

Haverhill 

LIniiiii 

f*ninliridBe 

(Nixlntl 

Royiton 

PillllMI 

B"dfiird 
0\mr 
Ncwiuirl  PaK- 

FiMiny  Simif"ril 

Tiiwrealrr 

RilRkiniihiim 

Urnckli-y 

lliinilbiiry 

Kineliin 

HltiiiRinn  upun 

Hiiiiir 
Putiipdpn 
SlraU'urd  un 

.\  von 
Alfpnipr 
KvnMhnin 
WiirrpHler 
Pi-r-hnr« 
rpiciii 
Tji'ftbury 
llniinyitrd 
T.<!iilniMiili:r 
W«dily 
llirdiird 
Thruxton 
Har 


1711.  Tulirarib 
171.  X,l».w„o 
I7'i.  Biiilllh 
I7;l.  I.iinililln* 
Ijl.  'rrt'iiaiiin 
17.1  1.1  miMcur 
17)1.  Ni'w  Ciuilo 

Kiiilyii 
177.  ('[irdikiin 
7H.  N<"*piirl 

JTit,  pi.  i)»vi.r. , 

IHI.  Millord 
I**!.  Prinbriika 
IKI  Tenby 
IHI.  Narborih 
IKV  Hi.  I'li'ai'a 
iH(l.  Ijanvflrimrh 
iH7.  r'aiTnmrlht'il 
W.  l.niulubii] 
IHI*.  |.aniiaili>n 
lUO.  Laiidiivniy 
llll.  Triru«llii 
Wt.  lUrrm 
lli:t.  Cnrkhowi'll 
int.  AbiMiavi'iiiiy 
IIH.  Hi.  Wuuiianri 
imi.  KiiH 
I!I7.  Miirbi'ldonn 
1!H.  Newunl 
lim.  (iliiuriuH'r 
am.  Tiiwki'Kbiiry 
'.111.  Clii'lh'iilinnl 
•»H  Niirlbiinrb 
■MS.  Hinw  In  iho 

WnId 
301.  Miwliin  in  Ibn 

Mnriili 
>»».  Charbiiry 
VIA.  WoiKl.liirk 
3117.  flcditiKiun 
Slf.  tliruiiiir 
<Mt.  Winilow 

910.  Ayltiliiiry 

911.  VVuiMliivor 
919.  Ivlnihiio 

913.  I^eifhliin  lluz- 

tard 

914.  Lulun 

915.  Sievennae 
9m.  Riild.H'k 
917.  Iliillliikl  nialiop 
9IH.  Ilt'rtrnrd 
3IU.  Iliahiip'i  Slnil- 

ford 
990.  nunmuw 
a-il.Thaated 
292.  Ilralnirre 
99:1.  (.'tiffpaball 

994.  Ilnl Ill 

995.  Culfhi'aiiT 
'tX,  Harwich 
997.  St.  Oayih 
■tit.  Bradwi'll 
99ft.  RiK-hf.ird 
9:HI.  Maldiin 
9*11.  Chelmarord 

939.  Inaiitt^Mliinu 
9.13.  Hiirndiin 
9:14.  Rmnforil 
9:15.  C'hippinil  Ollinr 

916.  Rppinii 
9117.  Knd.-ld 
9nH.  Si.  Alban'a 
9'm.  WallWrd 

940.  BerkhnmiMluad 

941.  AiiiiTchiiin 
91.'.  Mnrli.w 
913.  Wiillinnl'.iril 
941.  Oxri.id 
9  l.'i,  Alijnuiliiti 
•-'4li.  WanlHKn 

917.  Whilni'y 
9|H.  llurfdid 
9  m.  U'chiade 
9.')0.  Cirfniwater 
9.'il.  Miiliiieahury 
9.59.  Wiiliim  uiidiT 

Edfe 


9.53.  MiiirhmlmiiiP' 

lull 
9.V4.  Hiiiiiid 
9.V1.  Iliirkflay 
9.'in.  illaikiiiy 
9.H.  Miiiiniiiuili 
•IV.i'tk 

9.'»ll.  Chi'paldW 
900.  Nvwpnrt 
9(11   Nlnilliyr  Tyilvil 
9119.  l.liiiilMiiBiint 
9ii:l.  i.lniidair 
9(14.  (*iiwbndtf6 
WIV  l'rl« 
9lkl.  NViilh 
9(17.  Alit>riiant 
9'IH,  I'lininrilylala 
91H1.  Kiilwi'lly 
970.  Punriru 

WIl'TII  Hr.RIKH. 
I.  Thnrnbiiry 
9.  OiippiiiK  nud- 

hiirv 
3   nriatiil 
4.  Wriiitfinn 
.5.  I'i'iitliird 
n.  .MimhtlBld 
7.  Iliiiilfnrd 
H.  ( 'hipiivnbani 
•I.  Cnlnii 

10.  Wiiilim  Bnawt 

11.  Miirlbiiriiiiith 
19.  Miiniii'rrord 

13.  (.I'iMTinlirilu 

14.  K.  llaliiy 
1.5.  HiMd^K 

III.  Wiikinihnm 
17.  ^lNidf<iin6ad 
IH.  Windaiir 
I'.l.  I'xlirldiia 

90.  Kiiiailu 

91.  Kwill 
9*2.  (.'rnydiin 
91.  I.imhIiiii 
94.  VViMilwirh 
9,5.  (irHVpadiid 
9A.  Rncbiiatfr 
97.  C'lialhaiii 
f^.  HheuriH'aa 
9*.!.  Fiivi-rabnm 
.'Ml.  (  niiU'ibiiry 
31.  Martfnli) 

39.  Haiulwich 
3:1,  Hull 

34,  Duvur 
Xt.  Hyihu 
3«.  Wyn 
37.  Aahf.ird 
3H,  Bmiirileii 
;i*.l  l.t'nham 

40.  Miiitlahilio 

41.  Wrolhnm 
49.  Tiiiibridne 
43.  Sfvi-nnaka 
41.  VVcslorlmm 
45.  I'^firiiiaload 
411.  Ilifiiuli! 

47.  ItiirKiiitf 
4a  Itu.li'y 
4'.l.  (iiiildliiril 
.50.  (fiidiitmiiiff 
51.  Ahnn 

59.  Oililiaiii 

.51.  H;iainualiike 
,54.  Ni'wbury 
55.  Whiicliurch 
.Vi.  .Aiidiivtif 
,57.  l.uilxcraliull 
.5H,  Arnculiiiry 
511.  HliiiiidiHiiifO 
00.  n.'vin-a 
Bl.  Trnwbridso 
(i9.  Wi'Hibury 
(H.  Baih 
fA.  Hruton 
6.5.  Hliiiptiin  Mallot 

60.  Uluiluabury 


(17,  VV..|la 
w.  Aabridin 
(III,  |llai-kl..rd 
.0,  llridnuwalttr 
71.  Whaii-hrt 
79  Mini'h.'iid 

73.  I'.irlliK-k 

74.  (\iiiitM-  Mnrhii 
.5,  IllVaruiiilm 

711,  llarnaliitiln 
77,  Appl'doio 
7H.  Ilidiil'iird 
711.  Halllaiid 
HO.  'rnrrinatnn 
HI,  Hnllth  Multuii 
t^i.  llnlvi'rifMl 
Kt.  VVivfliaronilMl 
HJ.  W.  llllKlull 
Ki,  Taunliin 
Hll.  liiiniipiirt 
H7.  Hiimurton 
HH.  Iirhoicr 
H!i.  Slilboiii  Port 
m.  Caallo  Ciiry 
111.  Wiiiraiintnn 
09  Hhiil'loabury 
ICI.  Mom 

114.  Waniiinalcr 

115.  Ilinduii 
IHI,  Wiliiin 
07.  Haliabury 
IH  lluwiiliill 
|l!l.  Itiimacy 

1(10.  Hlorkbiid>n 
jbl.  VVillrhialur 

109.  Ilraniilrim 
103.  I'liltuahulil 
KM   Midhurat 
IU5.  Pi'twoilh 
llkl.  Ilaalflinrra 
1117.  Ili.iahnin 
lOH.  Cui'kni'ld 
IIKI.  I'ckflvlil 

110.  TiinbridgQ 

Wdla 
111   Wadhunit 
119  (ioudhural 

113.  Criinbrmiko 

114.  Applntiiro 
11.5.  New  Riiniiwy 
no.  l.ydd 

117  Hy« 

1  |H.  VVincholaca 

llll.  Ilaaiinga 

190.  Iluiilu 

191,  ilailaham 
199.  K.  Biiuino 

193.  Hraliird 

194.  l.<'Wila 

195.  Ilriiihton 
19(1.  N.  Shnraham 
197.  Hieyninn 
19H,  VVorthlnn 
19!l.  Arundel 
1:10.  Cbichoitor 
131.  llavani 

ri9.  Fiiri'liiim 
VXl  Hniiihaniptun 
134.  Newtown 

i;i.5.  iVi'wpuTt 

1:111  Viiriniiuth 
1:17.  I.ymlnilun 
i:iH.  Chrinlrliurch 
i:i'.l.  Kingwiiud 
1411.  PooTo 
141,  WinibnrnMin- 

Mtur 
149.  niandford 
143.  Ileer  RhbIi 
141,  W.in-bam 
145,  CiirluCiiKllo 
14n,  M.'jcuiiibc  Itu- 

KJi 

147.  VVefmoiith 
14H.  Durcheator 
1411.  (^I'rne  Abbai 
1.50.  Bridport 
ISI.LyinoIlcfi) 


151.  ,5«ininatar 
I.VI.  t'harii 
154.  Iloiilian 
I,''i5. 1'ldrlon 
1,50.  Hiilniiiuih 

1.57.  i;i uih 

1,5H.  Hilvnrion 
I.VI,  I  olliinipluD 
lliti,  Crmliion 
IHI.  Chunileifh 
11.9,  I  'riH  knrnwiill 
IIU.  (iflkhamplun 
Hit.  Iliilhirlmih 
105  Hhi'i'pwaali 
Hkl.  Iliilaworlby 
107,  HirnlliMi 
|(IH.  Jncolwlow 
Hill.  Ciiniolluid 

170.  I.iiniii't'alon 

171.  Callintfion 
179,  'I'uviaiiick 

173.  Hiaiihird 

Hpiiioy 

174.  Murelun  HnmR 

lien 

175.  Ktnii'r 
1711.  I'lmdli'lih 

r/7.  Ni'wiiiii  Biuhel 
17H.  Aabtiurtnn 
170  Tolnraa 
IHO.  l)iiriMiuuih 
|H|,  Kiniabiidice 
|H9.  Miidliiiry 
IH3.  Pljinpiiin  Eiri 
1,-<^I,  Plyiiiiiulh 
IH5,  Hnllnah 
IHil.  Hi.  (iurmant 
Ih7.  I.iaki'ard 
inn.  Liioe 
l".!.  Fowcy 
IINI,  LoaiwilMol 
llll,  Hoilniin 
I!I9,  fit  Miiiver 
Itl3,  Padaiow 

1114.  Hi.  Michanl 

1115,  (triimpuund 
lIHI  Trudinr 
1117.  'riiirii 

llie.  Ili'drulh 
llHI.  Penryn 
900.  Ilnialon 
901  MuraaiuD 
909.  Hi.  1v« 
90.1,  Poniaiic* 

Rivtrt. 

a  VViilland 

l>  Nen 

R  Old  Bedrord 

d  OldUiw 

11  Oiiafl 

f  Wi'iiion 

n  ]i«tt 
i   Thamea 
I  <!liarwell 

K     KlMlflOt 

1  Wpy 
m  Molo 
n  Mt'dwa 

0  Htour 
p  Kiilher 
i|   \nm 

r  Avon 
H  Kxo 

1  Turner 
u  Taw 

V  Perrol 
w  Axe 
X  Avon 
y  Haven* 
'  Tern* 
a«Wy« 
b*  Tatf 
c*  Toway 
d»  Toi« 
0*  Yaiwllh 
f • Dovoy 


TJlis  1 


£ 


Book  I. 


ENOI^AND. 


319 


,      fiirfr*. 
I  VVulland 

I  oil!  Bedforil 
1  olil  Ou» 
InnM) 
1  Wrmon 
1  Coin 

liCU 

J  'I'hsmM, 

1  Konn«l 

Wey 
L  Miilo 
T  Miilwa 
Biiiur 

t  UlllIlM 

Aviiii 

I'.xo 
I  Tumor 
iTuw 
1  Peitot 

r  Axe 

Avun 
J  Beveiu     . 

!•  Tovnj 
l»Toi»,^ 
I*  Yitwitb 
>  Dovoy 


unitinif  lit  Crickladn,  foriH  a  fitri'itiii  which  in  aUmt  nine  fi'i't  Imiiiil  in  wiiiniH'r,  iiiiil  in  ciillod 
thd 'rliniiin,  Ntmr  (Vxfnnl  it  riK-iiivi'H  tho  (Ihiirwttll  iiikI  the  Ikin,  iiw<iiiiiiii)f  on  iIh  iiini^tion 
with  thn  liitti<rriviir  t>i('(^'<ri|)<)iiiiil  iiiiiiutot'TiiiitKNiM,  which  Ii:im  hi'ci)  ithhri'viiiti'd  into  Thiimcii. 
Alter  n  cciiirNn  nlinoKt  Nouthwiinl  to  Knndinif,  it  wiiiiU  northwanl  thriiii|rh  tlin  W(i<kIi>iI  viih<  of 
HiMiloy  mill  M.'iidiMihoiid,  mid  lhiinci>  by  tim  CAntidlnti'd  hi<ii;htM  ut'  WiiidMir.  lis  ronrxii  to 
Liiiiloii  in  liy  ('hnrtHpy,  I|iiiii|itiiii,  Twickcnhiiin,  and  llichiiniiid,  nimm;^  tlin  iniii^niHront 
wihkU  mid  iNihici'M  it"  ttnH  imnulimt  of  I'liiulniiil.  Nimr  'ritidiiiKton  ifn  riirrcnt  im  Nlijr|it|y 
nclt'd  ii|i<)ii  liy  till-  i>xtfi  "  II'  I'hli  iiiid  How  ol  the  tide,  whicii  rinim  lii({hpr  in  iIiih  Ihun  in  iiny 
other  nviT  of  Kiimix'.  t  dividen  tIm  cii|iititl  into  two  uni<(|iinl  |HirtH,  hiivinif  mi  it-i  northern 
hniik  the  citioM  of  I,i»i'  n  and  WeNtininHter,  niiil  on  itx  wmtliern  the  lioriiii^rh  of  Smithwark. 
nidiiw  liondon  nriilu(>  ii  im  imvi|;abie  tiir  vcHHolHof  lnr(;e  hnrtlien ;  itx  aiiijile  i-hmini'l,and  the 
■imciiiiiH  (liK'kH  ciiiiiieetcd  with  it,  are  thuro  conMtantly  lliieil  witii  liireHtM  of  iminti',  and  Heeiii 
to  contain,  m  it  wisre,  tiie  wealth  of  the  world.  It  windn  ito  way  to  the  nceiin  Ihnmtrh  a 
country  prenenting  few  ohjectn  of  interent,  excopt  tho  viiHt  naval  OHtahlinhiiientH  Hitmited  on 
the  Month  hank  of  tho  river.  Woolwich  clainiH  |iarticnlar  attention,  not  only  on  iici'iiiint  of 
the  royal  diK'kyard,  and  the  national  de|)At  of  artillery,  but  lor  itH  military  acadeiny,  uliich 
runkH  iiM  the  lirnt  in  tho  enipire.  Tho  cntuary  of  tho  Medwiiy,  o|ienin);  into  the  river  from 
Kent,  alForilM  comiiiiMlioiiH  mtcH  for  the  naval  Htutiong  of  Chatham  and  8hcernesii.  'I'lii-  entire 
cournn  of  tho  Thanien  Ih  alwiit  iRJO  miles. 

Tho  Trent,  with  its  trihiitary,  tho  iiorthom  Ouho,  travcrHCs  tho  whole  midland  territory  of 
Kni^rland,  and  several  of  its  princi|)al  maniitiictiirinif  districts,  to  which  it  airurdri  a  cominnni- 
cation  with  tho  eastern,  and  by  canals  with  tho  western,  ocean.  It  rises  anioiif;  the  low 
Stalfurdshiro  hills,  and  at  niirtnn,  it  becomes  navi(»ablo  for  vessels  of  moderate  si/.e.  Ue- 
coivinif  tho  Dove  and  Derwent,  which,  after  dashing;  thrimf;h  the  rocky  rei;enses  of  Dorby- 
shirc,  have  already  subsided  into  |M<ucofnl  streams,  it  jmssos  Nottiiiuhani,  and  at  (iain.ilHiroii^h 
becomes  navijfabfo  for  steam-b<Mit8,  and  other  vo8.sels  of  larjfer  burthen.  Aller  a  liirther 
course  of  alKiiit  thirty  miles,  it  Hows  into  tho  Ilumber,  already  rendered  a  bruud  estuary  by 
tho  Ouse,  whicli  lias  collected  Iho  princi|)al  streams  of  Vorkdliiro.  The  Ouse,  lormed  \<y 
tho  confluence  of  tho  Aire  and  tho  Swalo  from  tho  uplands  of  the  North  Ridini.',  is  ciilise- 
quently  augmented  by  tho  VVhart'o.  Tho  Aire,  with  its  tributaries  the  Calder  and  Don,  ena- 
ble it  to  commuuicato  with  all  tho  great  nianutiicturiiifr  towns  of  tho  West  Ridiiiij,  iini!  tiiD 
conlliiencoof  tho  Derwent  iVom  tho  East  RidiiiK  renders  it  eiiual  inmaffnitude  to  the  Thame.s. 
The  Ouse,  with  its  branches,  forms  one  of  the  most  useful  and  least  beautiful  of  Kinflinh 
rivers.  It  winds  a  slupfgish  course  tlirnuirh  maniifiicturiiijjr  districts  and  rich  anilile  fields 
without  any  diversity  of  scenery.  The  llumbor,  formed  by  tho  junction  of  the  'i'reiit  and 
Ouse,  resembles  an  arm  of  tho  sea;  and  ita  trade  contributes  mainly  to  tho  commercial 
prosperity  of  Hull. 

Tlio  .Severn  is  tho  only  groat  stream  which  runs  from  north  to  south  for  a  considerable  part 
of  its  course.  Rising  in  \Vales,  near  the  fiwit  of  Plinliiiimon,  it  flows  throufrli  tho  vales  of 
Moiitiroinory ;  and,  after  winding  round  Shrewsbury,  directs  its  coursi.'  to  the  southward, 
thniugli  somn  of  tho  richest  and  most  beautiful  plains  of  Kngland,  piLssiiii;  by  the  cities  nl' 
Worcester,  Tewkesbury,  and  Gloucester.  In  commercial  importance  it  also  niiiks  hijili, 
since  it  flows  through  Colcbrook  Dale,  and  other  principal  seats  of  the  iron  triiile;  while  tho 
tracts  on  its  lower  course  have  for  ages  been  distinguished  for  the  manufiicture  of  fine  wool- 
lens. Its  navigation  is  not  free  from  obstructions,  but  much  has  been  done  to  oliviatr-  these 
disadvantages,  and  to  connect  the  Severn  by  canals  with  the  other  groat  rivers.  In  approach- 
ing Bristol,  it  receives  the  Wye,  which,  rising  in  Wales,  flows  through  scenery  that  renders 
it  tho  most  picturesque  of  English  rivers.  The  Severn  then  expands  into  tho  estuary  of  the 
Bristol  Channel,  tho  seat  of  a  commerce  once  second  only  to  that  of  the  metropolis,  but  now 
surpassed  by  that  of  Liverpool. 

The  other  rivers  of  England  arc  small ;  tho  Eden,  the  beautiful  river  of  Cumberland, 
forms  the  Solway ;  the  Mersey  of  liiincashire,  with  its  tributary  the  Irwell,  is  iiii|)<irt:int,  for 
the  mass  of  commodities  which  it  conveys  from  the  great  tnauufacturiiig  districts  to  Liver- 
pool ;  the  southern  Ouse,  combines  with  the  William  of  Lincolnshire  in  forminjf  that  broad, 
shallow,  marshy  estuary  called  tho  Wash,  through  which  is  exported  a  consideratde  quantity 
of  grain  from  tho  agricultural  districts;  tlie  Tyne  and  the  Tees  in  the  north  of  nnirliind  art; 
the  channels  of  extensive  trade;  tho  Tyne,  in  particular,  which  carries  down  the  product 
of  the  vast  coal  mines  of  Newcastle. 

The  lakes  of  England  occur  principally  in  tho  counties  of  Cumberland  and  Westmoreland, 
whicli  are  denominated  the  country  of  the  lakes.  These,  of  which  Wiiiderinere,  the  largest, 
is  only  twelve  miles  long  and  one  broad,  have  been  raised  to  distinction  by  the  ttiste  of  tho 
ago  for  picturesque  beauty,  rather  than  as  geographical  features  of  the  eounfry.  Their 
number,  which  is  considerable,  entitles  them  to  notice;  and  a  description  of  them  will  accom- 
pany that  of  the  districts  to  which  they  belong. 

Sect.  TI. — Natural  Qeoirraphy. 
This  subject  will  be  treated  under  the  heads  of  Geology,  Botany,  and  Zoology. 


'¥ 


f'i 

1 1 


■  ■  iifl 


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sua 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY, 


Part  III. 


I 


SuBSECT.  1. — Oeology  of  England. 

While  in  Scotland  tlie  prevailing  formations  belong  to  the  primitive  and  transition  classes, 
in  England  tlic  deposits  tliat  most  abound  arc  t)ic  secondary,  tertiary,  and  alluviiil.  Ilcncc 
it  is  that  Scotland  appears  lofly  and  rugged,  when  contrasted  with  the  hilly,  Hat,  and  low 
land  of  England.  To  enable  our  readers  to  form  a  general  conception  of  tim  geognostical 
structure  of  England,  we  siiall  consider  the  mineral  formations  in  the  following  order : — I. 
Primitive  and  Transition.    11.  Secondary.    III.  Tertiary.    IV.  Alluvial. 

I.  Primitive  and  Transition.  These  rocks  are  principally  confined  to  the  more  moun 
tainous  parts  of  England,  and  appear  most  abundantly,  in  Cumberland  ond  some  neiglibouring 
counties ;  in  Wales ;  and  in  Cornwall  and  Devon. 

(1.)  Cumberland  district.  This  district  is  bounded  to  the  west  and  the  south  by  the  Irish 
Sea  and  Morecombe  Bay ;  towards  tlie  north  it  descends  into  the  plain  of  the  new  red  sand- 
stone, within  tlie  basin  of  the  Eden ;  and  on  the  east  it  is  bounde<i  by  the  central  carbonifer- 
ous chain  of  the  north.  Within  these  limits  there  are  two  sets  of  rocks,  viz.  Plutonian  and 
Neptunian ;  the  more  central  parts  being  Plutonian,  and  the  others  Neptunian.  The  order 
in  whicli  they  occur,  is  as  follows : — 

1.  Granite  and  Syenite.  They  form  the  geognostical  axis  of  all  this  region,  and  extend 
from  the  centre  of  the  Skiddaw  range  to  tlie  neighbourhood  of  Egremont.  There  is  a  fine 
display  of  the  granite  in  the  bed  of  the  Calden,  where  it  is  intersected  by  veins  of  quartz, 
and  contains,  besides  other  minerals,  molybdena,  tungsten,  wolfram,  and  phosphate  of  lime. 

2.  A  scries  of  crystalline  slaty  deposits,  forming  the  centre  of  the  Skiddaw  region,  extend- 
ing across  Cromac  lake,  and  by  the  foot  of  Ennerdale,  as  far  as  Denthill,  is  composed  of 
gneiss,  mica  slate,  hornblende  slate,  and  cliiastolite  slate.  In  some  parts  of  Skiddaw  and 
Saddleback  the  curious  mineral  named  chiastolite  occurs:  veins  of  quartz  and  galena  occui* 
in  Thornthwaite,  Newlands,  Ix)wes water,  and  other  places;  a  copper-mine  was  formerly 
worked  in  Newlands.    The  salt  springs  of  Borrowdale  issue  from  these  rocks. 

3.  Deposit  of  clay  slate. 

4.  An  enormous  fonnation  of  a  green  felspathose  slate,  intimately  associated  with  porphyry, 
likn  that  of  Snowdonia  in  Wales,  and  the  Needle's  Eye  in  Scotland.  The  fiimous  graphite 
or  bliick-lead  mine  of  Borrowdale  is  situated  in  the  upper  end  of  the  valley  of  that  name, 
where  the  grapliite  occurs  in  irregular  veins  associated  with  calc  spar,  brown  spar,  and 
quartz.  The  graphite  is  in  nests  in  these  veins,  and  the  veins  are  contained  in  a  Plutonian 
rock,  viz.  felspar  porphyry,  which  is  in  some  places  amygdaloidal.  Some  nests  of  graphite 
liave  atTordcd  3000i.  wortli  of  that  mineral. 

5.  Greywacke,  with  subordinate  beds  of  limestone  enclosing  organic  remains.  A  gryphma 
i'.nil  turritell-  occur  near  to  Kirby-Lonsdale ;  a  pecten,  plagiostoma,  trigonia,  and  patella 
near  to  Keswick.  On  the  north  side  of  the  geognostical  axis  the  Neptunian  formotions  are 
repeated,  with  the  exception  of  the  greywacke  series,  which  is  probably  buried  under  the 
old  red  sandstone  and  mountain  limestone ;  and  on  this  northern  side,  notwithstanding  its 
less  extensive  devolopcment,  tliere  is  a  group  of  mountains,  almost  entirely  composed  of 
didUage  rnrk,  and  other  minerals;  of  which,  it  is  said,  no  trace  occurs  in  the  south.  These 
occupy  the  place  of  the  green  felspar  slate  and  porphyry  series  of  No.  3.  of  Wales,  after- 
wards to  be  noticed ;  and  seem  to  be  in  the  precise  place  of  the  serpentine  of  the  Lizard  in 
Cornwall.  Further,  there  is  on  the  west  side  of  Cumberland  another  formation  of  granite 
and  syenite,  which  underlies,  traverses,  and  overlies  the  clay  slate,  No.  3.,  and  is  considered 
tlie  great  centre  of  elevation  of  the  region.  It  never  overlies,  it  is  said,  the  mica  slate, 
chiastolite  slate,  &c. ;  but  is  probably  connected  with  veins  of  syenite,  and  other  detached 
masses  of  crystalline  rock,  which  ao  not  belong  to  the  ordinary  rocks  of  Kuporposition.  A 
range  of  transition  limestone  extending  from  Mellam  in  Cumberland  to  the  neighbourhood 
of  Wa.sdalo  Head  in  Westmoreland,  nearly  across  the  wliole  region  we  are  now  describing, 
is  finally  cut  off  by  a  protruding  mass  of  granite,  newer  than  the  limestone. 

(2.)  Wales,  including  the  Isle  of  Anglesca.  The  Neptunian  and  Plutonian  rocks  in  this 
extensive  district  are  arranged  as  follows : — 1st,  Granite  rising  among  the  clay  slate  strata  in 
the  Isle  of  Anglnsea.  2dly,  A  group  of  slaty  rocks  consisting  of  mica  slate,  chlorite  slate,  and 
quartz  rock.  These  appear  upheaved  by  the  subjacent  granite.  They  occur  in  the  Isle  of 
Anglesca.  In  this  island  are  tlio  great  Mona  marble  and  Paris  copper  mines,  in  which  the 
ore  is  coinninn  copper  pyrites.  The  Mona  marble,  a  beautiful  compound  of  marble  and  ser- 
pcii'inc,  occurs  among  tliesc  rocks,  3dly,  A  great  group  containing  a  very  large  proportion 
of  felspathose  rncks  and  porphyries.  Of  those  the  district  of  Snowdonia  is  probably  tiio 
lowest  portidn.  Some  of  the  slates  of  the  Snowdon  range  contain  organic  remains,  princi- 
pn.Uy  of  shells,  some  of  which  appear  rcfiirablo  to  the  genus  Producta.  4tlily,  A  vast 
deposit  of  clay  .slate,  ."jthly,  GreywiLcke,  which  fJirnis  the  uppermost  or  newest  member  of 
the  gmat  serins  of  deposits.  Ciinnn(;tod  witli  these  series  are  great  bods  of  limestone. 
Fossil  organic  remains  are  met  with  in  this  series,  and  iniich  more  abundantly  than  in  tlie 
deeper-seated  siiitcs.  Cnrols  of  various  kinds,  crinoid  animal  shells,  and  rrvstacra  occur 
among  thciso  rocks,  in  a  fos.-;il  state.     Of  full,  llic  remain*  of  bones,  teeth,  and  the  defensive 


HI. 


iSSUS, 

Icncc 
1  low 
stical 
: :— I. 

moun 
)uring 

e  Irish 
I  sand- 
jonifcr- 
an  and 
e  order 

extend 
is  a  fine 
'  quartz, 
f  lime, 
extend- 
poscd  of 
[daw  and 
na  ocelli 
formerly 


porpliyry. 
1  trrapliite 
hat  name, 


Book  I. 


ENGLAND. 


1 
it 

321 


spar, 


and 


I'lutonian 
)f  graphite 

^  crryphiea 

ind  patella 

lations  are 

1  under  the 

[landing  its 
)mpoaed  of 

Ith.    These 

[ales,  after- 

lAzard  in 

of  granite 

considered 

mica  slate, 

;r  detached 

position.     A 

[ghbourhood 

describing, 

locks  in  this 
late  strata  in 
Vc  slate,  and 
L  the  Isle  of 
In  which  the 
Tble  and  ser- 
le  proportion 
Irohably  the 
lains,  princi- 
Ihly,  A  vast 
I.  member  ot 
If  limestone. 
\  than  in  the 
Isfnffrt  occur 
Iho  defensive 


fin-bones  named  ichthyndornUies,  are  met  with.  In  the  lists  of  organic  remains  of  these  slates 
we  find  extinct  genera,  and  genera  that  still  exist ;  and,  judging  from  the  nature  of  the 
remains,  wo  infer  that  some  of  the  animals  were  inhabitants  of  deep,  others  of  sliallow,  seas. 
The  organic  remains  in  greywacke  rocks  are  rare,  and  form  a  very  small  proportion  to  the 
extent  of  the  rock. 

(3.)  Cornwall  and  Devon.  In  this  district  of  England  the  rocks  of  the  primitive  class 
are  arranged  in  tlie  following  order : — 1st,  Oranite.  There  are  four  great  projecting  masses 
of  granite  rising  through  the  bounding  slaty  strata:  they  send  arms  or  veins  among  the 
Neptunian  strata,  and  have  upraised  and  variously  modified  them.  Tlie  granite  is  traversed 
by  contemporaneous  veins  of  granite,  and  also  encloses  contemporaneous  masses  and  v^'ns 
of  a  compound  of  quartz  and  schorl,  named  schorl-rock.  It  is  also  traveried  by  veins  of 
porphyry,  called  elvan.  2dly,  Resting  upon,  or  adjacent  to,  the  granite  there  is  a  vast  deposit 
of  clay  slate,  named,  in  the  county,  killas.  It  abound."  in  ores,  hence  is  sometimes  named 
metalliferous  slate.  Where  in  the  vicinity  of  granite,  there  is  interposed  gneiss  or  mica 
slate,  or  both ;  and  in  many  parts  it  contains  subordinate  beds  of  greenstone,  felspathose 
slate,  &c.  3dly,  Apparently  above  the  preceding  slates  there  occurs,  in  two  places,  a  form- 
ation of  serpentine,  whic*-,  in  the  Lizard,  contains  diallage  rock,  talc  slate,  hornblende 
slate,  and  mica  slate,  and  appears  to  occur  below  the  greywacke.  4thly,  Oreyieacke.  This, 
which  appears  to  form  a  great  mass,  is  the  uppermost  and  newest  member  of  the  stratified 
series.     It  contains  considerable  beds  of  limestone,  including  various  organic  remains. 

Mines  in  Cornwall  and  Devon.  Cornwall  and  Devonshire  present  three  principal  mining 
districts.  The  part  of  Cornwall  situated  in  the  vicinity  ^nd  to  the  southward  of  Truro,  the 
neighbourhood  of  St.  Austle,  and  the  neighbourhood  of  Tavistock.  The  first  of  these  dis- 
tricts is  the  most  important  of  the  three,  fi-om  the  number  and  richne.ss  of  its  mines,  in  which 
copper,  tin,  and  lead  are  obtained.  The  ores  of  copper,  which  are  principally  copper  pyrites 
and  gray  copper,  form  regular  veins,  having  a  direction  nearly  from  E.  to  W.  in  the  rock 
named  killas ;  and  sometimes  in  the  granite  which  projects  amongst  the  slaty  strata.  The 
tin  occurs  principally  in  veins,  which,  like  the  preceding,  traverse  the  killas  and  granite. 
They  have  also,  very  often,  a  direction  nearly  from  E.  to  W. ;  they  have  a  different  inclina- 
tion from  that  of  the  copper  veins,  which  mterscct  and  interrupt  them,  and  which  are, 
consequently,  newer.  The  tin  also  occurs  in  contemporaneous  masses  and  veins,  and  dis- 
seminated through  the  granite.  Some  veins  afford,  at  the  same  time,  copper  and  tin ;  but 
most  of  them  produce  only  one  of  these  metals  in  any  quantity.  There  are  also  in  Cornwall 
cross  vein.i,  that  intersect  the  veins  botli  of  copper  and  tin ;  these  contain  argentiferous  galena, 
native  silver,  and  ores  of  silver.  Near  to  Tavistock  there  are  veins  of  copper,  tin,  and  lead. 
Mines  of  antimony  occur  at  Huel  Boys  in  Devonshire,  and  at  Saltash  in  Cornwall.  The  tin 
and  copper  ores  of  Cornwall  arc  accompanied  with  arsenical  pyrites,  which  is  turned  to  profit 
by  manufacturing  oxide  of  arsenic  from  it. 

II.  Seconilary  Rocks.  The  rocks  of  this  class  form  the  largest  portion  of  the  surface  of 
England,  and  the  districts  composed  of  them  are  generally  flat  or  hilly ;  never  assuming 
the  mountainous  character,  unless  where  the  old  red  sandstone  or  mountain  lunestone  appears. 
We  shall  now  describe  the  different  formations  in  the  order  in  which  they  occur,  beginning 
with  the  deeper-seated  or  oldest  (the  old  red  sandstone),  and  finishing  our  view  with  an 
account  of  the  newest,  or  chalk. 

(1.)  Old  ml  sandstone.  This  sandstone,  which  is  distinguished  from  those  newer  in  the 
series  by  its  greater  hardness  and  red  colour,  occurs  in  greatest  abundance  in  Herefordshire 
and  Brecknockshire.  Smaller  portions  cccur  in  the  Cumberland  district,  tlie  Isle  of  Man 
and  the  Isle  of  Anglesea. 

(2.)  Mountain  limestone,  metalliferous  limistone,  or  carboniferous  limestone.  This  rock 
is  generally  grey  coloured  ;  sometimes,  however,  it  exhibits  various  tints  when  it  is  worked 
as  an  inferior  kind  of  marble.  Its  fracture  is  compact,  lustre  glimmering,  and  opaque  or 
translucent  on  the  edges.  Its  structure  is  sometimes  oolitic,  as  is  the  case  in  tlie  vicinity  of 
Bristol,  Veins  of  calcareous  spar  frequently  traverse  it,  and  occasionally  contribute  to  the 
beauty  of  the  varieties  used  as  marble.  Sometimes  remains  of  the  encrinus  are  so  abundant 
in  it,  that  it  is  named  encrinal  limestone.  Its  name  carboniferous  is  from  its  somotimea 
occurring  along  with  coal,  as  that  of  metalliferous  from  its,  in  some  districts,  abounding  in 
ores.  It  alxHinds  in  organic  remains  of  various  genera  of  corals,  radiaria,  and  shells  ;  also 
some  genera  of  Crustacea  a.m\  fishes.  Tliose  bear  a  strong  reseniblancc  to  the  fossils  of  the 
transition  limestone  in  the  greywacke  districts.  Derbyshire,  Nortiiumberland,  and  Cumber- 
land aftbrd  fine  displays  of  this  formation. 

Mines  in  mountain  limestone.  The  mountain  limestone  forms  several  mountuinous  dis- 
tricts in  England  and  Wales;  in  which  there  arc  three  districts  rich  in  lead  mines.  The 
first  of  these  comprehends  the  upper  parts  of  the  valleys  of  the  Tync,  the  Wear,  and  tlie 
Tees,  in  the  counties  of  Cumberland,  Durham,  and  York.  Its  principal  mines  arc  .situated 
near  Aldston  Moor  in  Cumberland.  The  veins  of  sulphurct  of  lead  or  galena,  which  form 
the  principal  oliject  of  the  works,  traverse  alternately  hods  of  limestone  and  sandstone.  They, 
are  remarkable,  from  the  circumstance  that  they  suddenly  become  thinner  and  jworer  on 

Vol.  I  2(1 


'..  ■  m 


wtii 


-"■'"■-'■^iihiiiiiii 


»22 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


I     1 


oassing  from  the  limestone  into  the  sandstone;  an  iirrang-emcnl  probably  connected  with 
Bonie  uloctro-magnetic  action.  Tlicro  is  also  a  copjjer  mine  S.  W.  of  Aldston  Moor.  The 
ore  is  common  yellow  copper  pyrites,  which  is  associated  with  galena  in  a  vein  of  great 
extent,  and  which  does  not  neem  to  belong  to  the  same  formation  a.«!  the  other  veins  in  this 
county.  The  iron  mines  of  Ulverston  are  in  this  district.  The  ore  is  red  hematite,  which 
traverses  the  limestone  in  tiie  form  of  veins ;  some  of  which  are  said  to  be  30  yards  wide. 
Near  Whitehaven  great  masses  of  reniform  hematite  alternate  with  red  beds  of  mountain 
limestone.  The  second  mctallife.roun  district  is  situated  in  the  northern  part  of  Derbyshire, 
and  tiio  contiguous  jmrtsof  the  neighbouring  counties.  The  districts  called  Peak  and  Kings- 
tieltl  are  the  richest  in  ore.  Tiie  blende,  associated  with  the  lead,  is  worked  as  an  ore,  and 
zinc  is  obtained  from  it.  A  vein  of  copper  pyrites  occurs  at  Ecton  in  Staffordshire,  on  the 
borders  of  Derbyshire.  The  Derbyshire  vems  have  been  long  famous  on  account  of  the 
beautit'ul  minerals  they  produce,  especially  J?uor  spart,  and  also  from  the  interruption  which 
the  metalliferous  veins  experience  on  meeting  with  trap  rocks,  called  loadstone,  which  occurs 
alternately  witli  the  limestone.  The  third  metalliferous  district  is  situated  in  Flintshire 
and  Denbighshire,  which  form  the  N.  E.  part  of  Wales.  It  is  the  most  productive  next  to 
Aldston  Moor.  Besides  lead,  it  furnishes  also  calamine  or  true  ore  of  zinc.  The  mines  are 
situated  partly  in  the  mountain  limestone,  partly  in  various  rocks  of  older  formation.  To 
the  S.  W.  of  this  district  there  are  also  lead  mines  in  Shropshire :  like  the  preceding,  they 
occur  partly  in  mountain  limestone  and  partly  in  older  rocks.  They  yield  a  great  annual 
return  of  lead.  Some  mines  of  galeno  and  of  calamine  are  mentioned  as  occurring  in  the 
Mendip  hills  to  the  south  of  Bristol ;  but  they  appear  to  be  now  aimndoned.  Many  beautiful 
and  interesting  minerals  are  met  with  in  these  mines.  Of  the  vein  stones,  quartz,  in  Corn- 
wall, is  the  most  abundant ;  while  it  is  fluor  spar  and  calcareous  spar  in  Derbyshire ;  in 
Yorkshire  heavy  spar  or  sulphate  of  barytes;  and  in  Cumberland,  heavy  spar  and  fluor  spar. 
(,").)  Coal  formation.  This,  which  is  the  most  important  of  the  secondary  deposits,  follows 
in  the  regular  succession  the  mountain  limestone,  on  which  it  therefore  rests.  The  lower 
beds  of  this  deposit  sometimes  alternate  with  the  upper  strata  of  the  mountain  limestone. 
The  rocks  of  which  it  is  composed  are  shale,  sandstone,  clay  ironstone,  induratfd  clay,  and 
coal,  alternating  in  various  ways  witli  each  other.  The  shale,  sandstone.^,  ironstones,  and 
clays  contain  numerous  fossil  remains  of  extinct  species  of  plants,  rarely  of  animals,  the 
animal  remains  occurring  principally  in  tlic  limestone.  No  country  of  the  same  size  in  the 
world  affords  so  much  coal  as  England,  end  nowhere  has  its  natural  and  economical  history 
been  so  well  examined  as  in  this  island.  Messrs.  Cony  beare  and  Phillipe  arrange  the  different 
coal  districts  in  the  following  manner : — 

1.  Coal  district  north  of  the  Trent,  or  grand  Penine  chain. — 1.  Northumberland  and 
Durham.  2.  North  of  Yorkshire.  3.  South  York,  Nottingham,  and  Derby.  4.  South  of 
Derby.  5.  North  Staff()rd.  fi.  South  Iioncashire.  7.  North  Lancashire.  8.  Cumberland 
and  Whitehaven.    9.  Foot  of  Crossfell. 

2.  Central  coal  district. — 1.  Ashby  de  la  Zouch.  2.  Warwickshire.  3.  South  Stafford 
(>r  Dudley.     4.  Indications  near  the  Lickey  hill,  &c. 

3.  Western  coal  district,  divided  into,  1.  North  Western  or  North  Welsh. — 1.  Isle  of 
Anglesea.    2.  Flintshire. 

4.  Middle  western  or  Shropshire. — 1.  Plain  of  Shrewsbury.  2.  Colebrook-dale.  3.  The 
Clce  hills  and  South  Shropshire.    4.  Near  the  Abberley  hill. 

T).  South  Western. — 1.  South  Wales.  2.  Forest  of  Dean.  3.  South  Gloucester  and 
Somerset 

These  different  districts  ore  accurately  described  in  Conybcarc  and  Phillips's  Geology  of 
Enffland  and  Wal-es. 

Changes  of  the  conl  frldx  from  the  British  Channel  to  the  Tweed.  The  great  coal  fields 
in  England  experience  a  great  change  of  stnicturo  in  their  range  from  the  Bristol  Channel 
to  the  valley  of  the  Tweed  :  these  changes  we  shall  now  enumerate,  using  the  view  given 
by  Sedgwick.  In  tlie  various  coal  basins  on  the  Bristol  Channel,  tlio  limestone  strata  are 
developed  only  in  the  lower,  and  the  coal  licds  in  the  upper,  part  of  the  series ;  and  the 
two  members  arc  separated  by  nearly  unproductive  deposits  of  millstone-grit  and  sliale 
The  arrangement  in  Derbysliire  is  nearly  tiie  same;  there,  however,  the  millstone-grit  is 
more  varied,  and  is  of  very  great  thickness,  and  subordinate  to  the  groat  dc|)osit  of  shale, 
and,  hero  and  there,  \ery  thick  mas.«e3  of  a  peculiar  argillaceous  sandstone,  disposed  in  a 
tnlndar  manner.  On  the  re-appoariinee  of  the  carboniferous  limestone,  nt  the  biiRO  of  the 
Yorkshire  chain,  wc  ftill  find  the  same  L'enernl  iiiinlogies  of  structure;  enormous  deposits 
of  iiinestone  firm  the  lowest  part,  and  tlii!  coiil  fields  tlio  highest  part  of  the  whole  series; 
and.  ns  in  the  former  instance?,  we  al.-o  find  the  inillstone-grit  occupying  an  intermediate 
position.  The  millstnne-grit.  however,  becomes  a  very  complex  deposit,  with  several 
piibordinafe  beds  of  coal ;  and  is  sninrnted  from  the  jrreat  inferior  calcareous  group  (the  scat 
limestone),  not  merely  liy  the  ;'r  '.it  sliale  a'ld  sliale-liinestone,  ns  in  DerbysliLre,  but  hy  a 
still  more  complex  dep.isit,  in  some  place.s  not  less  than  KKK)  feel,  thick ;  in  which  five 
groups  of  limestone  strata  alternate  with  great  mosses  of  sandstone  and  shale,  aliound  in 


Part  111. 

inccted  with 
1  Moor.    The 
vein  of  great 
veins  in  this 
matite,  which 
10  yards  wide. 
la  of  mountain 
of  Dcrhyshire, 
■ak  and  Kings- 
BB  an  ore,  and 
rdshire,  on  the 
account  of  the 
irruption  which 
e,  which  occurs 
d  in  Flintshire 
luctive  next  to 

The  mines  are 
formation.  To 
preceding,  they 
I  a  great  annual 
ccurring  in  the 

Many  beautiful 
quartz,  in  Corn- 
i  Derbyshire ;  in 
ir  and  fluor  spar. 
J  deposits,  follows 
ists.    The  lower 
mtain  limestone. 
luratfd  clay,  and 
!,  ironstones,  and 
y  of  animals,  the 
,  same  size  in  the 
conomical  history 
range  tlie  different 

rthumberland  and 

•by.    4.  South  of 

8.  Cumberland 

3.  South  Stafford 

Velsh.—\.  Isle  of 

•ook-dale.    3.  The 

h  Gloucester  and 

illips's  Geology  nf 

10  great  coal  fields 
le  Bristol  Channel 
ng  tho  view  given 
nestoiio  strata  are 
he  series ;  and  tho 
ine-grii  and  shale 
le  millstone-grit  is 
at  dcpsit  of  shale, 
tone,  disposed  in  a 
at  the  buso  of  the 

enormous  deposits 
_i"  the  whole  scries ; 
ig  an  intermediate 
wnit,  with   several 

ons  groiip  (the  scai 
)orl)VKliije,  but  by  a 

lick';  in  which  five 

id  shale,  aliound  in 


Book  I. 


ENGLAND. 


impressions  of  coal  plants,  and  three  or  four  thin  beds  of  good  coal  extensively  worked  for 
'iornestic  use. 

In  tho  range  of  the  carboniferous  chain  from  Stainmoor,  through  the  ridge  of  Crossfell  to 
the  confines  of  Northumberland,  we  imve  a  repetition  of  the  same  general  phenomena.  On 
its  eastern  flanks,  and  superior  to  all  its  component  groups,  is  the  coal  field  of  Durham. 
Under  the  coal  field,  we  have,  in  a  regular  descending  order,  the  millstone-grit,  the  alterna- 
tions of  limestone  and  coal  measures  nearly  identical  with  tlioee  of  the  Yorkshire  chain, 
and  at  the  base  of  all  is  the  great  scar  limestone.  The  scar  limestone  begins,  however,  to 
be  subdivided  by  thick  masses  of  sandstone  and  carbonaceous  shale,  of  which  we  had  hardly 
a  trace  in  Yorkshire ;  and  gradually  passes  into  a  complex  deposit,  not  distinguishable  from 
the  next  superior  division  of  the  series.  Along  with  this  gradual  change  is  a  great  devel- 
opement  of  the  inferior  coal  beds  alternating  with  the  limestone ;  some  of  which  on  the 
north-eastern  skirts  of  Cumberland,  are  three  or  four  feet  in  thickness,  and  are  now  worked 
for  domestic  use. 

The  alternating  beds  of  sandstone  and  shale  expand  more  and  more  as  we  advance 
towards  the  north,  at  the  expense  of  all  the  calcareous  groups,  which  gradually  thin  off  and 
cease  to  produce  any  impress  on  the  features  of  the  country.  And  thus  it  is,  that  the  lowest 
portion  of  the  whole  carboniferous  system,  from  Bewcastle  Forest,  along  the  skirts  of  the 
Cheviot  Hills,  to  the  valley  of  the  Tweed,  has  hardly  a  single  feature  in  common  with  the 
inferior  part  of  the  Yorkshire  chain ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  has  almost  all  the  most  ordinary 
external  characters  of  a  coal  formation.  Corresponding  to  this  change,  is  also  a  gradual 
thickening  of  carbonaceous  matter  in  some  of  the  lower  groups.  Many  coal  works  have 
been  opened  upon  this  line ;  and  near  the  right  bank  of  the  Tweed  (almopt  on  a  parallel 
with  the  great  scar  limestone)  is  a  coal  field,  with  five  or  six  good  seams,  some  of  which  are 
pretty  extensively  worked.  The  beds  of  sandstone,  shale,  and  limestone,  forming  tlie  base 
m  the  carboniferous  system  in  the  basin  of  the  Tweed,  are  often  deeply  tinged  with  oxide  of 
iron ;  and  have  been  compared  sometimes  with  the  new,  sometimes  with  uie  old,  red  sand- 
stone: to  the  new  red  sandstone  they  have  no  relations;  "and  I  would  rather  compare 
them,"  says  Sedgwick,  "especially  as  the  old  red  sandstone  of  the  north  of  England  seldom 
exist  but  as  a  conglomerate,  and  is  seen  in  that  form  on  tlie  flanks  of  the  Cheviot  Hills,  with 
the  red  beds  of  mountain  limestone  and  sandstone,  which,  both  in  Cumberland  and  Lan- 
cashire, sometimes  form  the  base  of  the  whole  carboniferous  series." 

These  coal  fields  are  traversed  and  variously  deranged  by  great  faults;  interesting 
descriptions  of  which,  particularly  those  in  the  northern  fields,  have  been  published  by 
Messrs.  Phillips  and  Sedgwick. 

The  coal  strata,  or  metals  as  they  are  sometimes  called,  arc  in  some  parts  of  England 
affected  by  Plutonian  trap  rocks,  hut  in  a  very  inferior  degree  to  what  takes  plnce  in  Scot- 
land. The  principal  trap  rock  k  greenstone,  which  appears  in  the  form  of  overlyinir  masses, 
OS  at  Clee  Hill  and  at  Dudley ;  in  the  form  of  intersecting  tabular  masses  or  dikes  (veins), 
as  in  Northumberland  and  Durham.  Sometimes  the  trap  mass  has  been  forced  between  the 
strata,  when  it  has  the  character  of  «  bed,  or  these  bed-like  masses  may  be  .some  of  the  rocks 
of  the  coal  formation  softened  and  recrystallised  in  situ  by  hent  from  below.  The  great 
lehin  sill  of  Northumberland,  and  the  toodstonc  beds  of  Derbyshire,  are  examples  of  these 
trap  beds.  The  strata  near  the  trap  frequently  appear  changed,  the  clays  hardened,  the 
limestone  rendered  crystalline  and  magnesian,  the  coal  charred,  and  the  sandstone  hardened, 
&c. ;  and  these  strata  are  either  moved  fi-om  their  original  position,  or  are  unchanged. 

Although  rather  foreign  to  our  subject,  we  may,  as  an  illustration  of  the  importance  of 
the  coal  formation  to  England,  mention  the  quantity  of  iron  manufactured,  and  of  coal  con- 
sumed, in  the  carboniferous  district  of  Wales.  The  quantity  of  iron,  according  to  Mr. 
Forster,  aimually  manuihcturcd  in  Wales,  has  been  calculated  at  270,000  tons.  Of  this 
quantity  a  proportion  of  about  three-fourths  is  made  into  bars,  and  one-fourth  sold  as  pigs  and 
castings.  The  quantity  of  coal  required  for  its  manuflicture  on  tlie  average  of  the  whole, 
including  that  used  by  engines,  workmen,  &c.  will  be  about  ."ij  tons  for  each  ton  of  iron ; 
the  annual  consumption  of  coal  by  the  ironworks  will,  therefore,  be  about  1,.500,000  tons. 
The  quantity  used  in  the  smelting  of  copper  ore  imported  into  Wales  from  Cornwall,  in 
the  manufacture  of  tin-plate,  forging  of  iron  for  various  purposes,  and  for  domestic  uses, 
may  be  calculated  at  350,000,  which  makes  altogether  the  annual  consumption  in  Wales, 
1,850,000  tons. 

(4.)  Magnesian  limestone  formation.  The  upper  part  of  the  coal  formation  has  some- 
times a  red  colour  with  an  arenaceous  and  conglomerated  cliaracter.  Above  or  resting  upon 
it  we  have  the  magnesian  limestone  deposit.  This  deposit  extends  through  Yorkshire  and 
Durham^  Its  lower  part  is  said  to  be  separated  from  the  coal  formation  by  a  deposit  of  sand 
and  sandstone,  with  occasional  rod  marl  ond  gypsum.  The  magnesian  limestone  itself  con- 
sists in  its  lower  part  of  a  bitutninous  marl  slate,  abounding  in  fossil  fishes  of  the  genus 
Palaothrissum ;  the  middle  and  upper  parts  being  a  yellowish  small  granulor  or  glimmer- 
ing magnesian  limestone.    The  organic  character  of  this  limestone  approaches  nearly  to 


324 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III 


that  of  t^ie  mountain  limestone  already  described.     It  contaiuij  Products,  which,  however 
do  not  occur  higher  in  the  series ;  also  Spir\fcr<e,  a  tribe  found  as  high  as  the  oolite. 

(5.)  Varicffuted  or  new  red  sandstone,  with  the  red  variegated  marl  deposit .  As  the 
shell  limestone  is  wanting  in  England,  the  variegated  sandstone  and  the  red  and  variegated 
marls  come  together,  and  moy  here,  therefore,  be  viewed  as  one  fonnation.  They  rest 
immediately  upon  the  mogncsian  limestone,  but  of  the  two  sets  the  marl  appears  in  general 
to  be  the  uppermost  or  newest.  The  sandstone  is  of  a  looser  texture  than  tiiat  of  the  old 
red  sandstone  deposit,  has  a  red  or  variegated  colour,  and  the  strata  are  generally  horizontal. 
The  marls  arc  red  or  variegated  in  colour.  In  these  sandstones  and  marls,  beds  and  great 
masses  or  nodules  of  gypsum  occur,  as  in  Derbysliire,  Staffordshire,  &c.  All  the  salt  mines 
in  England  are  situated  in  this  deposit.  At  Northwich  there  is  an  extensive  deposit  of  solid 
rock  salt,  forming  two  beds,  together  not  less  than  60  feet  in  thickness.  These  beds  are 
supposed  to  form  large  insulated  masses  of  this  mineral,  extending  in  length  about  a  mile 
and  a  half,  and  in  breadth  about  18(K)  yards.  The  salt  works  at  Droitwich  in  Worcester- 
shire are  also  in  this  red  marl  deposit.  Iron-sand  and  iserine  are  said  to  occur  in  this  sand- 
stone on  the  banks  of  the  Mersey  opposite  Liverpool ;  and  in  other  places  sulphuret  of  cop- 
per, gray  oxide  of  cobalt,  and  black  oxide  of  manganese  occur  in  the  sandstone  or  its  marls. 
It  forms  Uie  surface  of  vast  tracts  extending  with  little  interruption  from  the  northern  bank 
of  the  Tees  in  Durham  to  the  southern  coast  of  Devonshire.  We  find  a  tract  in  the  great 
plain  in  the  centre  of  England  of  about  80  miles  in  length  and  sixty  in  breadth,  principally 
covered  with  tliis  deposit ;  several  islands  of  the  older  rocks,  however,  rising,  in  various 
places,  through  it.  These  are,  1st,  the  syenite,  greenstone,  and  slate  district  of  Charnwood 
forest  in  Leicestershire ;  2dly,  the  coal  district  surrounding  Ashby  de  la  Zouch  in  the  same 
county ;  connected  with  which  are  several  patches  of  the  carboniferous  magnesian  lime- 
stone, and  a  patch  of  millstone-grit  at  Stanton-bridge  on  the  Trent ;  3dly,  the  coal-field  of 
Warwickshire ;  4thly,  the  coal-field  in  the  south  of  Staffordshire,  with  the  transition  lime- 
stone on  which  it  rests;  5thly,  the  lower  and  northern  range  of  the  Lickey  hill,  near  Broms- 
grove  in  Worcestershire,  which  exhibits  strata,  probably  of  transition  quartz  rock.  Some 
trap  rocks  occur  in  this  formation  at  Upton  Pyne,  a  village  five  miles  nortli  of  Exeter,  and 
at  other  points  near  that  town. 

(6.)  Lias  and  oolite  formation.  This  great  fonnation  occupies  a  zone  having  nearly  30 
miles  in  average  breadth,  extending  across  the  island  from  Yorkshire  on  the  north-east,  to 
Devonshire  on  the  south-west  It  is  eminently  remarkable  on  account  of  the  number  and 
variety  of  fossil  organic  remains  whicii  it  contains,  and  its  wide  distribution  not  only  in 
England,  but  also  in  many  other  parts  of  the  world.  In  this  fonnation,  at  Stonesfield,  the 
first  or  earliest  remains  of  mammiferous  animals  were  found.  Crocodiles  and  many  vast 
and  strangely  organised  reptiles  occur  in  this  deposit,  with  a  vast  variety  of  shells,  many 
radiaria,  una  also  corals.  Fisiies  are  also  met  with  in  a  fossil  state,  but  by  no  means  so  fre- 
quently as  reptiles.  Fossil  plants  of  various  tribes  also  occur,  and  tlius  add  to  the  organic 
variety  of  this  remarkable  formation :  they  belong  to  the  Alga,  Emisetacca,  Filices,  Cy' 
cadets,  Conifera,  and  Lilia.  Beds  of  coal,  generally  of  an  indinerent  quality,  occur  in 
different  parts  of  the  country  in  this  deposit. 

(7.)  Wealden  clay  and  Purbeck  stone.  This  formation,  which  lies  immediately  upon 
the  oolite,  consists  of  limestones,  sands,  and  clay.s  abounding  in  fossil  organic  remains, 
principally  of  terrestrial  and  fresh-water  plants  and  animals,  marine  species  being  rare.  In 
the  lower  part  of  this  formation,  in  tlie  neighbourhood  of  Weymouth,  there  is  a  bed  of  black 
earth,  called  tlie  dirt  bed,  containing,  in  a  silicified  state,  long  prostrate  trunks  of  coniferous 
trees,  and  stems  of  Cycadeoidea.  These  trunks  lie  partly  sunk  into  the  deep  black  eartli, 
like  fiillen  trees  on  the  surface  of  a  peat  bog,  and  partly  covered  by  tlie  incumbent  Purbeck 
limestone.  Many  tnmks  of  trees  also  remain  erect,  with  their  roots  attached  to  the  black 
soil  in  which  they  grew,  and  their  upper  jmrt  in  the  limestone ;  and  show  that  the  .^uiiace  of 
the  subjacent  Portland  stone  was  for  some  time  dry  land,  and  covered  with  a  forest ;  and 
probably  in  a  climate  such  as  admits  the  growth  of  tiie  modem  Zamia  and  Cycnn,  remains 
of  these  genera  being  found  here.  This  forest  has  been  s-'brnerged ;  first,  beneath  the  fresh 
waters  of  a  lake  or  estuary,  in  which  were  deposited  tlie  Purbeck  bods,  and  sands  and  clays 
of  tlie  Wealden  formation  (amounting  together  to  nearly  1000  feet),  and  subsequently 
beneath  the  salt  water  of  on  ocean  of  sufficient  depth  to  accumulate  all  the  great  marine 
formations  of  green  sand  and  ciialk  that  rest  upon  it. 

(8.)  Chalk  formatinn  with  green  sand.  This  great  deposit  consists  principally  of  chalk, 
with  less  extensive  subjacent  beds  of  green  sand  and  tuffiiccous  chalk.  It  stretches,  with 
little  interruption,  from  Flamlwroiigh  Head  on  the  coast  of  Yorkshire,  to  near  Sidmouth  on 
the  coast  of  Devonshire ;  forming  a  range  of  hills  often  of  some  hundred  feet  high,  and  of 
which  the  most  precipitous  face  is  generally  on  the  nortii-wcst  side.  From  this  long  range 
several  ranges  sliiwt  toward  the  east  and  soutli-east.  Chalk  does  not  often  bear  the  charac- 
ter of  a  level  or  flat  country ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  is  subject  to  perpetual  undulation  of  sur- 
face, tJio  liills  being  remarkable  for  their  smooth  rounded  outline,  and  the  deep  hollows  and 
indentatiuiiB  on  their  sides. 


759  /;., 
■'rom  thJ 
ihosc  /ii[ 
•cry  bol 
''"0'  fe  J 
"|<J  sj)ccr 
f'"  frequJ 
cloy,  nfi 
known  s 
cocoa-mj 
fcrrdo  ] 
"'o  sea.-) 
ff'oenishi 
fjochi  nnJ 
Pre.'^hwaJ 
"y  the  prj 
supposed 
Paris.    T 
of  fnigme, 
'ooth  of  al 
marly  bed! 
pne/iydpnif 
%'  the  iij 

"1  (lio  lowJ 

have  hoeiil 

"^  .vo!),mii 

Vol.  I. 


■* 


in 

ever 

B  the 
gated 
y  rest 
moral 
lie  cW 
lontiil. 
great 
mine* 
)f  solid 
ids  are 
a  mile 
rcester- 
18  eand- 
of  cop- 
s  marls, 
irn  bank 
,e  great 
incipally 
y  various 
larnwood 
the  same 
ian  lime- 
il-field  ol 
tion  lime- 
■ar  Broms- 
;1{.    Some 
xeter,  and 

nearly  30 
rth-east,  to 
mmber  and 
not  only  in 
tesfieW,  the 

many  vast 
lells,  many 

eans  so  fte- 

the  organic 

'ilices,  Cy- 
occur  m 

iiitely  upon 
lie  remains, 
ngrare.   In 
bed  of  black 
>f  coniferous 
black  eartli, 
;nt  Purbeck 
to  the  black 
ic  3Uiface  of 
.forest;  and 
ens,  remains 
nth  the  fresh 
ids  and  clays 
subsequently 
great  marine 

illy  of  chalk, 

[retches,  witli 

1  Sidmouth  on 

I  high,  andol 

Is  long  rang" 

It  the  charac- 

tlation  of  sur- 

|p  hollows  and 


Book  I. 


ENGLAND. 


3a5 


The  upper  part  of  this  formation,  through  a  great  imrt  of  England,  ia  characterised  by 
the  presence  of  common  gun-flint,  arranged  in  thin  beds  or  in  variously-gjiaped  masrios,  dis- 
posed more  or  less  in  parallel  lines.  In  the  lower  part  of  the  formation  the  flints  beconiu 
Jess  and  less  abundant,  and  at  length  entirely  disappear.  'This  arrangement,  however,  is  not 
nlway.s  to  be  observed,  for  in  some  places  the  lower  chalk  abounds  in  flints.  In  the  chalk 
formation,  the  upper  and  middle  parts  are  of  clialk,  while  the  lower  and  under  are  of  sands, 
sandstones,  and  clays.  The  upper  part  may  be  considered  an  original  dciwsit,  the  matter 
derived  from  the  interior  of  the  earth ;  the  lower  of  a  mechanical  and  alluvial  nature. 
Chalk  abounds  in  fossil  remains  of  animals,  and  also  contains  fossilised  plants.  Corals  in  great 
variety,  radiated  animals,  particularly  cchinites,  are  in  vast  numbers ;  shells  of  all  the  grand 
divisions  and  in  great  variety  add  to  the  zoological  interest  of  the  formation,  which  isfurthei 
heightened  by  llie  fossil  crabs,  (ii<hes,  and  reptiles,  occasionally  met  with  in  it.  The  plants 
are  Conferva,  Fuci,  Zosttree,  Cycadea,  with  dicotyledonous  woo<l  perforated  by  some 
boring  animal.  The  formation,  as  it  occurs  in  England,  appears  to  have  b<}en  variously 
elevated  and  depressed  at  different  times  by  some  subterrnnean  actions ;  but,  aa  far  as  we 
know,  it  does  not  anywhere  occur  in  contact  with  trap  or  other  Plutonian  rocks. 

III.  Tertiary  rocks  Hitherto,  in  England,  these  deposits  have  been  found  only  in  what 
are  called  the  London  basin  and  the  Isle  of  Wight  basin  ;  two  spaces  conjectured  formerly 
to  have  had  the  basin  shape,  but  now  more  or  less  filled  with  tertiary  rocks;  an  opinion, 
however,  which  the  late  observations  of  Professor  Buckland  have  shown  to  be  less  plausible 
than  has  been  generally  believed.  Tim  boundary  of  the  first  of  these  supposed  basins  may 
be  stated,  generally,  as  a  line  running  from  the  inner  edge  of  the  chalk,  south  of  Flam- 
borough  Head,  in  Yorkshire,  nearly  south,  till  it  crosses  the  Wash,  then  south-west  to  the 
upper  part  of  the  valley  of  the  river  Kennet,  near  Hungerford,  in  Wiltshire  ;  and  thence 
trending  south-east  to  the  south  of  tl;3  Thames,  and  the  north-west  angle  of  the  Isle  of 
Thanet:  in  all  these  directions  the  boundary  line  is  formed  by  the  chalk  liills;  on  tivt  east 
side,  the  boundary  is  the  coast  of  the  German  Ocean.  The  boundaries  of  the  Isle  of  Wight 
basin  may  be  stated  as  follows :— on  the  north,  a  few  miles  south  of  Winchester  ;  on  the 
south,  a  little  north  of  Carisbrook  in  the  Isle  of  Wight;  on  the  east,  Brighton ;  and  on  the 
west,  Dorchester.  It  is  everywhere  circumscribed  by  clialk  hills,  excepting  whe-e  broken 
in  by  the  channel  between  the  Isle  of  Wight  and  the  main  land.  The  difftrent  members 
of  tlie  tertiary  series  met  with  in  England,  are  named  Plastic  clay,  London  clay,  Bairshot 
sands,  the  Freshwater  formations  of  tho  Lsle  of  Wight,  and  the  Crag.—,Plastic  clay.  This 
deposit  consists  of  a  plastic  clay  with  gravel  beds,  alternating  with  beds  of  sand  (sometimes 
in  a  state  of  sandstone)  and  clay.  Its  organic  remains  are  principally  marine  shells,  with 
layers  of  lignite  or  brown  coal. — London  clay.  This  is  a  bluish  or  blackish  clay,  sometimes 
so  much  impregnated  with  carbonate  of  lime  as  to  form  a  kind  of  compact  marl.  Layers  or 
noilules  of  septjiria  (a  calcareous  concretion)  frequently  occur  in  it.  It  is  the  great  clayey 
ileposit  on  which  I/jndon  is  built.  It  has  been  bored  to  a  depth  of  700  feet,  without  rouch- 
'iiig  its  bottom.  The  highest  point  it  attains  is  the  summit  of  High  Beach  in  Essex,  being 
759  feet  above  the  sea.  It  abounds  in  fossil  organic  remains  from  the  animal  as  well  as 
from  tho  vegetable  kingdom.  Crocodiles,  turtles,  fishes,  and  crabs  have  been  observed ;  but 
vhese  are  few  in  number  compared  with  the  host  of  fossil  shells.  These  shells  are  often 
.•ery  beautifully  preserved,  frequently  retaining  the  appearance  of  recent  species.  There  are 
very  few  genera  of  recent  shells  which  have  not  some  representative  in  this  formation,  but 
the  siwcific  character  is  usually  diflerent;  on  the  other  hand,  but  few  of  the  extinct  genera, 
so  frecjueiit  in  the  older  formations,  occur  in  this.  The  Isle  of  Sheppey,  formed  of  London 
clay,  afliirds  a  vast  variety  of  fossil  fruits  and  seeds,  very  few  of  which  agree  with  any 
known  seed-vessels ;  many  of  them  are  conjectured  to  belong  to  tropical  plants,  some  to  the 
cocoa-nut  and  spice  trites.  Fragments  of  wootl  pierced  by  a  shell  animal,  resembling  the 
Teredo  navalis,  are  met  with;  a  fact  which  shows  that  the  wood  may  have  floated  about  in 
the  sca,.-^  Hair  shot  satids.  These  rest  upon  the  London  clay ;  they  consist  of  stiiid,  with 
greenish-coloured  clay,  variously  coloured  marls,  containing  grains  of  grenn  sf.nd,  and  fossil 
trtxihi  and  pcctinites. — Freshwater  formations  of  the  Isle  of  Wight  and  Hampshire.  The 
Freshwater  strata  of  the  Isle  of  Wight  are  divided  into  two  deposits  by  a  rock  characterised 
ny  the  presence  of  marine  remains,  and  named  the  nppir  marine  formation,  from  being  a 
supposed  equivalent  to  the  sands  which  intervene  between  the  two  freshwater  deposits  of 
Paris.  The  lower  freshwater  deposit  of  Binstead,  near  Ryde,  consists  of  a  limestone  formed 
of  fragments  of  freshwater  shells,  white  shell  marl,  siliceous  limestone,  and  snnd.  One 
tooth  of  an  Anaplotherium  and  two  teeth  of  a  Palaotherittm  have  been  found  in  the  lower 
marly  beds  of  the  quarries  at  Binstead.  In  the  same  quarriop  several  rolled  fragments  of 
pachydprmatous  animals,  and  tho  jaw  of  an  animal  allied  to  the  mn^k-deer  tribe.  In  Col  well 
Bay  tlio  upper  part  of  thi.s  deposit  contains  a  mixture  of  freshwater  and  marine  bIioUs. — The 
upper  marine  formation.  This  deposit  of  calcareous  beds  aimunds  with  freshwater  shells 
in  the  lower  part,  but  in  the  upper  part  we  find  marine  shells;  hence  it  is  conjectured  to 
liave  been  formed  in  an  estuary. —  Vpp''rfreshwat(r  formation.  This  consists  principally 
of  vellowish  wliite  marls.     The  orcjanic  reiiiiiins  are  either  freshwater  or  land.     The  geo- 

Vol.  I.  -^^ 


m 


■\-¥ 


:  \-t\ 


^ 


828  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  in. 

logical  history  of  tlio  tertiary  dcnositfl  in  England  Iihh  not  yet  been  placed  in  direct  con- 
nexion with  tiiat  of  similar  dcpositti  on  the  continent  of  Europe.  No  trap  or  granite  rocka 
have  hitherto  been  met  witii  in  England  in  any  way  connected  with  tlie  tertiary  strata. 

IV.  Alluvial  rocks.  Nearly  tlie  wiiole  of  England  k  more  or  loss  covered  with  alluvium, 
or  debris  of  previously  existing  rocks :  tlius  it  occurs  on  mountain  ridges,  and  on  the  sides 
and  bottoms  of  valleys ;  it  is  spread  over  plains,  fills  up,  wholly  or  partially,  fissures  in  rocks, 
and  caves,  and  caverns,  and  forms  beaches  and  otlier  accumulations  of  greater  or  lesser 
extent  on  the  sea  coast.  It  varies  in  age,  from  the  oldest  called  diluvium,  which  stands  in 
immediate  connexion  with  the  crag  or  upper  tertiary  deposit,  to  the  newest,  tliose  terming 
at  present  tlirough  the  agency  of  the  atmosphere,  springs,  lakes,  rivers,  and  the  waves  and 
currents  of  the  ocean.  It  encloses  numerous  remains  of  plants  and  animals,  either  more  or 
less  mineralized,  or  simply  bleached :  those  of  the  oldest  deposits  appear  to  be  of  animals, 
and  sometimes  of  plants,  which  are  cpparently  extinct ;  while  the  newer  enclose  remains 
only  of  living  animal  and  vegetable  species.  Although  our  limits  do  not  allow  ua  to  enter 
into  'ntttils  on  thia  very  important  and  curious  department  of  geology,  we  may  remark,  that 
the  churacters  and  modes  of  distribution  of  these  alluvia  arc,  m  many  instances,  intimately 
connected  with  risings  and  depressions  of  the  land ;  and  consequently  with  apparent  sinking 
and  rising  of  the  waters  of  the  ocean,  and  the  violent  agitations  sometimes  induced  in  the 
great  mass  of  the  ocean,  and  also  in  lakes,  by  changes  in  the  level  of  the  solid  parts  of  tlie 
globe. 

^j.    .  SuBSECT.  2. — Botany, 

The  botany  of  the  different  parts  of  the  British  empire  is  so  similar,  that  we  propose  to 
treat  under  one  head  that  of  England,  Scotland,  Ireland,  and  their  adjacent  islands. 

Extending  tlirough  eleven  degrees  of  latitude,  Great  Britain  includes  a  considerable  vari- 
ety op  climate,  but  everywhere,  more  or  less  tempered  by  the  surrounding  ocean ;  so  that, 
in  no  part  of  the  island,  except  on  the  mountains,  or  '  irh  table-lands,  can  the  temperature 
be  compared  to  similar  latitudes,  upon  the  European  uich  less  upon  the  American  conti- 
nent Yet,  from  its  proximity  to  the  former,  the  veguiution  is,  with  few  exceptions,  similar 
to  that  of  tlie  adjacent  districts  of  Europe.  Although  in  consequence  of  the  un&vourable 
summers,  the  frequent  obscurity  of  the  sun,  the  damp  and  foggy  atmosphere,  it  is  not  pos- 
sible, without  artificial  heat  and  protection,  to  bring  many  ofthc  fruits  of  more  favoured 
climates  to  perfection;  yet  the  mildness  of  the  winter  renders  it  easy  to  introduce  and  to 
naturalise  plants  of  much  more  southern  latitudes :  so  that  the  gardens,  parks,  shrubberies, 
and  even  forests,  are  adorned  with  the  most  varied  vegetation,  producing  the  most  beautiful 
flowers,  or  the  most  valued  timbers. 

On  the  extreme  southern  coast  of  England  and  Ireland,  the  native  vegetables  of  the 
warmer  temperate  zone  are  successfully  grown  in  the  open  air,  and  come  to  considerable 
perfection.  In  the  south  of  Devonshire,  the  orange  and  lemon  trees  are  loaded  with  fruit 
of  the  finest  kind,  trained,  indeed,  to  a  wall,  but  without  protection,  or  only  provided  with  it 
during  a  very  short  portion  of  the  winter  months ;  the  Lemon-scented  Vervain  (Lippia 
citriodora,  formerly  called  Verbena  triphylla,  becomes  quite  a  tree,  without  any  artificial 
protection ;  the  American  Agave,  the  creeping  Cereus,  the  Prickly  Pear,  myrtles  from  the 
south  of  Europe ;  the  Tea,  Camellias  and  other  Chinese  and  Japanese  plants,  thrive  well  in 
the  open  air,  as  well  as  the  Magnolias,  and  many  other  trees,  from  the  southern  states  of 
North  America,  whose  native  latitudes  lie  many  degrees  nearer  to  the  tropics. 

The  only  two  floras  of  Great  Britain,  which  are  so  complete  as  to  demand  particular  atten- 
tion, are  Sir  J.  E.  Smith's  English  Flora,  ond  Gray's  Arrangement  of  British  Plants ;  the 
former  classed  according  to  the  Linnmun  system,  extending,  however,  only  to  the  end  of  the 
class  Polygamia,  and  the  first  order  of  the  class  Cryptoganiia  Filices.  Gray's  Flora  includes 
the  whole  of  the  British  vegetables,  arranged  according  to  the  natural  method,  and  is  the 
only  one  tliat  approaches,  however  deficient  it  may  still  be,  to  any  thing  like  a  catalogue  of 
our  present  state  of  knowledge  of  the  Cryptogamia.  Among  the  Pha;noganiou8  plants, 
however,  Mr.  Gray  has  included  a  great  number  that  are  only  known  in  a  state  of  cultiva- 
tion, as  has  been  done  by  De  Candollc,  in  Iiis  Flore  Francaise,  and  many  other  continental 
botanists.  Wo  have,  therefore,  deemed  it  convenient  tnus  to  give  a  list  of  tlie  plants, 
according  to  each  of  these  authors;  and  the  increased  number  in  the  columns  of  species, 
according  to  Mr.  Groy,  will  be  thus  easily  accounted  for. 


♦  Draw 
tTh..  1 

Ml  ih(?  n 

t'nptnin 
ill  thosd  ; 
were  prcv 


?  llri 


Tin. 

t  con- 
)  rocks 
a. 

uvium, 
e  sided 
1  rocka, 
:  lesser 
:amls  in 
forming 
ives  anil 
more  or 
animalsi 
remaina 
to  enter 
ark,  that 
jtimntely 
t  sinking 
>d  in  the 
rts  of  tlie 


propose  to 

B. 

rablc  vari- 
n ;  so  that, 
jmperature 
ican  conti- 
jns,  similar 
nfiivourable 
t  is  not  pos- 
re  favoured 
diice  and  to 
shrubberies, 
)st  beautiful 

ibles  of  the 
•onsiderable 
\A  with  fruit 
ided  with  it 
lain  {Lippia 
[ny  artificial 
[es  from  the 
irive  well  in 
im  states  of 

licular  atten- 
IPlants;  the 
lo  end  of  the 
\ora  includes 
R,  and  is  the 
[catalogue  of 
nous  plants, 
[e  of  cultiva- 
continental 
Uie  plants, 
is  of  species. 


Book  I. 


ENGLAND. 


327 


A  LiiT  of  the  Number  of  Spccici  of  Dritlih  Plants,  arranged  according  to  the  Cla«*ci  and  principal  Fomiliea  to 
which  they  belong;  exiiibiling  the  relative  |iropurti<iii  wliich  those  latter  bear  to  the  whole  uf  the  rcipectiva 
Claaaei.* 


Nam^  nf  the  Natural 
Familiea. 


Fungi 

Algo 

Lichenea 

HepaticB,  ny  Hoolier.. 

Muxi,  by  Hooker 

Filicet 

ACOTTLEDONM 

Oraniinen 

CyperaceaB 

Juncen  and  Rcatiaeec  . . . 

Glumaccie 

Orchidcn 

Monocotyledonca  ciBteroi 

MOHOCOTTLEDOXaa   ■ . . 

Cunifem 

Amentacea 

Eupliorbiacen 

Scrophul.  and  Orobanches 
Labiato  and  Vcrbens.  ■ . 

Boragineie 

Ericineae  and  Fyrolec  ■ . 

Canipanulaceie 

Composite 

RubiaceiB 

UmbelliCcra 

Rosaces! 

Leguminoaai 

Malvacen 

Cnryophylleee 

Crucireroe 

Ranuncniacea 

Dicotyledoncs  cetera  . . . 
D1COTVLSDONE8 


It  must  be  remarked,  that  in  Cyperaceen,  Juncea,  Salix,  Saxifraga,  Rosa,  Rnhus,  and 
some  others,  tlie  species  are  not  formed  on  the  same  rules  as  in  Smith's  English  Flora  ; 
and  therefore,  before  drawing  a  parallel  between  these  orders  in  Scotland,  and  in  the  whole 
of  Britain,  a  considerable  number  of  species  ought  to  be  added.  To  make  this  comparison, 
then,  about  twenty  species  may  be  added  to  the  Monocotyledoncs,  and  about  fifty  (say  forty- 
seven),  to  the  Uicolyledonous  plants,  making  tliese  two,  280  and  870 ;  whence  tlie  Monoco- 
tyledones  of  Scotland  are  to  the  wliole  of  those  in  the  British  dominions  as  one  to  one  and  a 
quarter,  or  as  four  to  five ;  and  the  Dicotyledoncs  as  eight  to  eleven. 

Ireland  possesses  a  flora  which  partakes  of  the  nature  of  those  of  England  and  Scotland. 
A  list  of  the  phoinogamous  plants  has  been  recently  published  by  Mr.  J.  T.  Mackay,  of  the 
Dublin  College  Botanic  Garden.  It  exhibits  a  much  poorer  vegetation  tlian  its  sister  island, 
including  only  934  species;  of  which  tiiere  are,  41  Filices;  211  Monocotyledoncs,  and  682 
Dicotylcdones.  So  that  the  proportion  of  Filices  to  Pha?no{ramou8  plants  is  as  1  to  2I4 ; 
Monocotyledoncs  to  Phojnogamous  plants,  1  to  4| ;  Dicotylcdones  to  Phoinogamous  plants, 
1  to  I5.  The  proportion  of  Irish  ISIonocotylodones  to  British  Monocotyledoncs  (according 
to  tlie  species  of  Smith)  is  as  1  to  1 5,  or  as  3  to  5 :  of  Irish  Dicotylcdones,  1  to  1  fj,  or  as  3  to  5. 

♦  Drawn  up  by  O.  A.  W.  Arnott,  Esq.  of  Riliiiburijh. 

tTho  prnportinna  in  the  Cryptocaniin  \v\\\  ho  foiinil  probnhly  nmrh  more  rnrrrrt  f()r  Srotlnnd  than  Ihofie  (riven 
in  lh(!  ltriti:*h  tahU*  nro  Tor  tlio  \vlii>li>  nf  Britain  ;  nwini;  (o  tlie  resnnrrhcs  niailn  in  Hint  tribe  hy  Dr.  Grcville,  and 
('aptnin  (.'nrmirhacl ;  particularly  by  the  latter  in  the  Ftinifi  and  Al}zu* ;  the  iljscoveries  of  that  ^eiitteinnn  nione 
in  those  Iwii  jiniiips.  in  one  shiall  ilistrirt  (.VppiiO  in  the  west  liiehlninl.H  iifSi^otland,  amount  to  more  speci'is  than 
were  previously  described  as  inhabiting  the  whole  of  the  British  douiiniuiis. 


■»■     !' 


?rf 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGUAI'lIV. 


Part  III 


Few,  indeed,  of  tlio  species  of  plnnts  now  uiiimior.iti'il  iis  niitivc.i  of  Eiijfliinif,  Kcotlnnd, 
and  Ireland,  und  tlio  udjucent  isleto,  cun  bo  conHidored  as  i-xckiwivcly  l)cloiii;itii;  to  tliOHe 
countries.  For  tliougii  tliere  are  rnuny  whicii  ure  not  referred  to  as  t-pncies  in  the  works  of 
other  aiitiiors,  yet  thny  are,  for  tiie  most  jxirt,  anionij  such  timiilifs  as  nro  nut  well  under- 
Btood,  and  nliout  wliicij  there  will  always  exibt  a  dillbrence  of  opinion ;  us  ainoiifj  tlio  Grasses, 
Willows,  Brambles,  &c. 

Many  plants  reach  their  northern  limits  in  the  south  of  Englnnd  and  Ireland.  We  must 
particularly  mention  the  Strawberry  Tree  {Arbntu*  IJniilo,  Jig.  107.).  which  forms  so 
chorming  a  feature  in  that  most  beautiful  of  all  scenery,  the  Lake  of  Killarney.  Some  have, 
indeed,  supposed  that  it  was  introduced  into  Ireland  by  the  monks  of  Mucrusa  Abbey,  at 

108 


Sbawbernr  Tim. 


Cornith  llealh. 


Ciliitad  Hettb. 


^ 


some  very  remote  period.  Its  appearance  is,  Iiowever,  altogether  that  of  an  aboriginal  native, 
coming  to  a  great  size,*  perfecting  its  bright  scarlet  berries,  which  are  disseminated  over  the 
rocks  and  islands  in  every  direction.  The  Erica  vagans,  or  Cornish  Heath  (Jig.  108.  a),  is 
found  nowhere  in  Britain  except  Cornwall ;  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  the  newly-disco- 
vered E.  ciliaris  (6),  and  the  following,  of  great  beauty  or  rarity :  Lobelia  Dorlmanna, 
Pkyleuma  orbicularis  and  P.  spicata,  Sibthorpia  europaa  and  Isnardiu  pahistris,  are  quite 
southern  plants  in  the  British  dominions. 

The  Wiitcr-Soldier  {Stratiotes  aloides) ;  the  Water  Violet  {Hottnnia  palitstris) ;  the  small 
Maidenhair  Grass  {Briza  minor) ;  the  Sweet  Violet  (  Viola  odorala) ;  several  Mulleins ;  the 
Primrose-peerless  (AarmsMs  ;joericMs  and  biflorus);  the  common  Snake's  Head  {Fritillaria 
tneleogris) ;  the  Agrostis  setacca,  the  Star  of  Bethlehem  {Ornithogulum  pijrcnaicim);  the 
two  spocies  of  Squill  (Scilla  autumnalis  and  bifolia) ;  the  Mountain  Spiderwort  [Antheri- 
cum  xerolinmn);  the  Solomon's  Seal  (jCanvallaria  polygonalum);  and  Sweet  Sedge  (ylcorus 
Calmnns) ;  the  Yellow-wort  {Chlora  perfoliata) ;  the  Mezereum  (Daphne  Mezirettm) ;  tlie 
Flowering  Rush  (Bulomvs  umbellatus) ;  the  Yellow  Marsh  Saxifrage  (Saxifraga  Hircuhts) ; 
though  on  the  Continent  a  very  arctic  plant,  the  Clove  Pink  (^Dianthus  caryophylhis) ;  and 
D.  prolifer;  several  Catchflys  (Silene);  Euphorbias,  Cistuses,  Anemones,  the  Traveller's 
Joy  (Clematis  Vitalba);  the  GroHnd  Pine  (AjugaChama:pitys);  the  Woo<l-Sago  (  7'cucnttm 
Scorndonia) ;  the  crested  and  field  Cow-wheat  (  Helampyrxtm  cristalvm  and  arvense) ;  some 
Orobanches,  the  Vella  annua,  Draba  aizoides,  and  Iberis  ama.Ti,  some  Fumitories  (Fximaria 
solida,  liitca,  and  parvijlora') ;  the  yellow  and  crimson  Vetchlings  (Lathyrus  Aphaca  and 
Nissolia) ;  tlie  Vicia  hybrida,  lievigata,  and  bithynica,  Hippocrcpis  comosa ;  Orchis  ]Morio,t 
pyramidalis,  ustulata,  fusca,  militaris,  tephrosanthos,  hircina;  Aceras  anthropophora,  Her- 
minium  monorchis;  all  the  species  of  Opfirys,  Epipactis  rubra,  Malaxis  Loeselii ;  the  beau- 
tiful and  rare  Lady's  Slipper  (Cypriperftum  Calccobis);  the  Birthwort  (Aristolochia  Clema- 
tills') ;  the  Roman  Nettle  ( Urtica  pilulifera) ;  the  Xanthium  strumarinm  and  Amaranthus 
Blitum;  the  Spanish  Chestnut  Tree  (Fagus  caslanea);  and  Misseltoe  (Viscum  album); 
the  Sea  Buckthorn  (Hippophae  rhamnoides) ;  and  White  Poplar  (Popnlus  canescens)  :  these 
are  some  among  the  most  striking  of  the  British  plants,  which  do  not  reach  the  middle  of 
the  kingdom,  and  fail  below  the  south  of  Scotland. 

The  most  interesting  of  the  Scottish  plants  are,  principally,  such  whose  types  are  found 
on  the  continent  of  Europe,  in  high  northern  latitudes,  or  in  the  extreme  arctic  regions  of 
both  Asia  and  America;  such  as  Veronica  fruticulosn,  saxatilis,  and  alpina,  several  alpine 
grasses,  and  other  glumaceous  plants;  such  as  Phlcum  alpinum  and  Alopncurns  alpinus. 
Eriophornm  alpinum ;  Juncus  castancus,  arcticiis,  and  biglumis ;  and  Luzula  nrcticn,  Primula 
scotica  (Jig.  109.  a),  the  Myosotis  alpestris  (d),  Azalea  procumbens,  (lentianii  nivalis  (c) 
Sibbaldia  procumbens,  Convallaria  verticilhita,  Epilo'Dlum  alpinum,  Arbutus  alpina,  Pyrola 
uniflora  (b),  Saxifraga  nivalis  and  rivularis,  Stellaria  scKpigera  (the  latter  is  exclusively 

*  Mr.  Mackay  iiirnsiirfMl  n  trunk  vf  tluB  fini!  rvorirri'iMi  troc  on  R*hi^Ii  lijlund,  iioarly  o|ipo»itu  O'Siilliviiirti  Caji- 
cadc,  nliicli,  in  IHI5,  wiis  tl^  rent  in  Kirlli.  nt  n  t'niit  rriiiu  thi'  l'MujiiI. 

t  On  tlin  antliortty  (•{  I.iL'lttfoot,  in<I<M^il,  tliiK  plnnt,  an  alMiinliinttv  foiinrt  in  England,  is  fiveii  as  u  native  nf 
£>colland ;  biit  no  living  buliiiiit!t,  tliut  I  iim  aware  of,  lias  I'ver  wen  it  tlietc. 


Voul. 


1; 

I  'i; 


r  HI 

tlnn('., 
thowo 
rks  ut" 

rasses, 

I'  mvist 
rnis  BO 
0  Imve, 
ibey,  at 


-^ 


ml  native, 
d  over  the 
108.  a),  ia 
wly-di'ico- 
orlmonna, 
I,  are  quite 

;  the  small 
lleins;  the 
Pritilli'i''" 
icim);  the 
t  [Antheri- 
pp  (Acorus 

Hirciilus); 
,)llus);  and 
Traveller's 

\nse);  some 
{Fvmaria 
iphaca  and 
fhis  Morio,t 
phora,  ller- 
;  the  bcau- 
hia  Clema- 
Amnranthus 
7«  album); 
lens),  these 
e  middle  of 

Ifs  are  found 
regions  of 

Loral  alpine 
|rns  nlpinus. 
■en,  Primula 
1  nivalis  (c) 

liina,  Pyrola 

T  exclusively 

B,i\livim'«  Cos- 
las  II  n»i»ve  of 


Book  I.  .  ENGLAND.  326 

British),  Aronaria  rubella  and  fastigiata.  the  Chcrleria  sodoides.  Lychnis  Viscaria  and  alplna, 
Spergula  Haginoideg,  Potontilla  oixicn,  Nuphar  Kalmiana,  Ranunculus  alpestris,  Ajupa  pyra- 
inidttliB,  Cardiunino  bcllidiflora,  Orobus  niger.  Astragalus  nralensis  and  campestris,  Eriareron 

lUU 

b      mm^.        .  sj^        110 


a,  ScollMi  Primrow.  t,  Rock  Scorpion  Oram,  a,  TrHM-Loaved  Cinqueroil. 

e,  Single-Flowered  Water-Green,    d,  Smnli  Alpine  Gentian.  b,  Jointed  Pipewort. 

alpinum,  Corallorliiza  innata,  Achilliea  tomentosa,  Goodyera  repena ;  the  most  alpine  Carices 
and  Salices,  and  the  Dwarf  Birch  (Betula  nana). 

There  are  two  plants  whicli  deserve  particular  notice,  as  natives  of  Great  Britain,  and 
found  nowhere  else  .'n  Europe ;  but  these  are  a,nrain  met  with  in  North  America ;  the  one  is 
Potentilla  tridentata  (Jig.  110.  a)  abundant  in  arctic  America  and  upon  the  Rocky  and  White 
Mountains,  the  other  tlie  Eriocaulon  septangulare  (jUff.  110.  6).  This  latter  genus  is  mostly 
tropical,  or  a  native  of  tiie  warm  temperate  zones  in  America,  the  East  Indies,  and  Australia. 
The  only  exceptions  to  tliis  rule  are  the  Eriocaulon  pellucidum  of  Michaux,  and  tiie  plant  in 
question;  the  former  being  found  in  North  America  as  high  as  Canada;  and,  upon  exanii- 
nation,  the  two  species  prove  identical.  In  these  instances,  the  Eriocaulon  and  the  Poten- 
tilla seem  to  have  overcome  many  obstacles  in  their  migration,  and  to  have  reached  their 
eastern  boimdary.  The  Eriocaulon  is  confined  to  a  few  lakes  in  the  Hebrides,  where  we 
have  been  surprised  in  the  month  of  September  at  the  liigh  temperature  of  the  water,  which 
probably  never  freezes ;  and  in  some  spots  in  the  south  and  west  of  Ireland :  tlie  Potentilla 
is  only  found  on  one  hill  in  Angusshire. 

It  is  wortliy  of  remark,  that  the  genus  Pedicularis,  which  is  so  numerous  in  species,  in 
the  eastern  and  southern  parts  of  Europe,  almost  wholly  disappears  in  Britain;  for,  notwith- 
standing the  vast  numbers  of  it  which  arc  found  in  Siberia,  the  South  of  Russia,  Switzer- 
land, extending  even  to  the  Pyrenees,  and  Germany,  Great  Britain  possesses  but  two, 
which  are  equally  abundant  upon  the  Continent ;  and  although  almost  wholly  an  alpine 
genus,  the  British  mountains  possess  not  one  really  alpine  species.  It  would  appear  that  the 
climate  is  peculiarly  unsuited  to  their  nurture:  for  in  North  America,  in  the  same  and  espe- 
cially in  still  higher  northern  latitudes,  they  again  become  abundant. 

Ireland  exhibits  a  few  striking  peculiarities  m  some  of  its  vegetable  productions.  Besides 
the  Strawberry  tree  {Arbutus  unedo)  already  mentioned,  it  can  boast  of  Pinguicula  grandi- 
flora  (Jig.  111.  a),  a  beautiful  flower,  native  of  PYance  and  the  Pyrenees ;  Menziesia  poll- 

111 


■'  .!   I! 


W'^] 


HI  f 


VouL 


a.  Large-flowered  BuUerwort. 
d,  Naked-italked  Vcllow  Puppy. 


b,  Irish  Mcnziesin. 
r,  Marih  Ludum. 

28* 


c,  Kidner-Ieaved  Suirraec 


•W    111 


sw 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  in. 


I  ,    1 


I 


,  I'nio  Maidwn-IUir. 

,  tfliiiri-ilyli-il  Ilri«ili)-Fcrn. 


folia  (h),  n  »iiH'i;i('M  liolonffinff  to  llio  Inttor  country  nnd  to  Spnin,  nnd  t'oiiml  in  n  wilii  Htato  in 
no  otlior  purls  of  the  world  ;  it  ia,  too,  a  inoBt  lovely  one  :  iiImo  St.  PiitrickV  (.'abl)af{n  {Saxi- 
jfrafra  uin/irnsn)  nnd  the  Ixindoii  I'rido  (.S.  Ueum,  c)  and  their  varieties,  which  are  scarcely 
known  tci  exist  but  in  Hwit/.erlaml  and  the  PyreneeM;  Areiiaria  ciliiita,  a  unlive  of  tho 
mountaitiH  (ni  llie  continent  of  Europe;  and  to  tliest;  raritiex  iiave  lately  been  added  by  Pro- 
fessor (iii'Mecke,  the  Yellow  Poppy  {Pupavfr  nudicaiiU,  (/),  and  the  Ledum  |mluHtro  (r,) 
both  of  llu'ui  peculiarly  arctic  productions,  and  plentiful  on  the  northern  extremity  of  Ame- 
rica and  (Jreeulaiid;  and  with  Uiese  wo  must  be  permitted  to  number,  thouijh  Cryptotramic 
-s^Jf  plants,  the  TrichoiimiieH  brevisetum  {^ff,  ny.  l,\  which 

Bcarccly  jjfrows  nnyw  here  else  in  the  world  but  in  Ma- 
deira and  in  Yorkshire  (if  it  be  not  '.low  extinct  in  the 
latter  habitat),  the  Adiantuni  Capillus  Veneris  (rt),  whoso 
only  locality  in  the  nritixli  dominions  w  the  west  of  Ire- 
land, and  one  spot  in  Wales,  but  which  is  frequent  in 
the  south  of  Europe,  nnd  even  in  the  tropical  parts  of 
America;  and  two  mosses,  Hookcria  latevirons,  and 
Dnltonin  splanchnoides,  entirely  peculiar  to  Ireland. 

That  country  also  possesses  lliree  remarkable  voge- 
tjible  productions,  now  pretty  generally  distrilmtcd  in 
gardens  and  shrubberies  tliroughout  the  kingdom,  and 
universolly  known  by  the  names  of  the  Irish  Broom, 
Irish  Furze,  and  Irish  Yew.  The  former  we  believe  to 
be  the  Spartium  patens  of  Linnieus,  a  Spanish  species, 
with  very  hairy  pods;  and  it  is,  probably,  not  wild  in 
that  country.  The  Irish  Furze  has  an  appearance  very 
different  from  that  of  the  European  or  J)warf  Furzes 
(_Ulcx  tiiropaiis  and  namm),  having  very  erect  short  branches,  and  closely  placed  spines; 
.so  that  the  whole  plant  has  a  remarkably  dense  and  compact  habit,  appearing  almost  as  if 

it  were  kept  close  clipped  with  shears.  It  blossoms  rarely, 
but  we  have  seen  both  flowers  and  soed-vessols,  which  do 
not  differ  in  any  material  point  from  those  of  Ule.\  nanus. 
In  some  gardens  it  is  called  U.  curopams  var.  strictus;  but 
Mr.  Mttckny  considers  it  to  be  quite  a  distinct  species,  and 
hn  has  called  it,  in  his  "Catalogue  of  the  Indigenous  Plants 
of  Ireland,"  Ule.\  strictus.  Still,  the  only  stations  for  this 
plant  are  in  the  Marquess  of  Londonderry's  park  and  shrub- 
beries, at  Mount  Stew  art,  county  of  Down,  where  there  are 
sonie  very  largo  bushes;  but  whence  it  came,  no  one  can 
tell.  This  would,  however,  be  a  very  valuable  plant  to  the 
agriculturist ;  for,  it  has  been  plontcd  (it  increases  readily 
by  cuttings)  in  dry  hilly  pastures  in  the  north  of  Scotland, 
and  in  the  early  spring  throws  up  an  abundant  crop  of  suc- 
culent shoots,  which  are  greedily  eaten  by  sheep,  when  there 
is  little  or  no  grass  to  support  them. 

The  third  Irish  botanical  curiosity  is  the  Irish  Yew  (Jig, 
113),  Florence-Court  Yew,  as  it  is  called  in  that  country, 
from  its  being  first  di.*covered  at  Florence  Court,  the  seat  of 
Lord  Enniskillen.  Mr.  Mackay  does  not  consider  it  to  be 
wild ;  but  Mr.  Hervey,  in  the  Agricultural  Magazine,  for 
October,  1828,  says,  that  it  is  an  undoubted  native,  and  plen- 
tiful in  tlie  neigljbourhixxl  of  Antrim,  where  there  are  trees 
at  least  a  century  old.  It  is  distinguished  by  its  upright 
branches,  which  give  the  whole  plant  somewhat  the  habit  of 
a  Cypress;  by  the  leaves  growing,  not  in  a  distichous  man- 
ner, but  from  all  sides  of  the  stem  :  the  drupe  or  berry,  too, 
is  of  a  different  form  from  that  of  the  common  Yew. 
The  trees  that  are  aboriginal  natives  of  Britain  are  the  Oak  (two  species);  the  Elm  (five 
species);  the  Boccli,  the  Ash,  the  Maple,  Sycamore,  Hornbeam,  Limo  (throe  species)  ;  the 
Spanish  Chestnut  (!)  ;  the  Alder,  Birch,  Poplar  (four  species)  ;  nnd  the  Scotch  Fir ;  to  which 
may  be  addnl  the  Mountain  Ash,  which  ir  some  parts  of  Scotland  attains  to  a  great  size. 
Of  these,  then,  the  Oak,  the  Beech,  Birch,  and  Scotch  Fir,  live  in  society,  forming  vast, 
forests,  almost  to  the  exclusion  of  otlier  trees.  The  finest  forests  of  Oak  and  Beech  are 
to  be  seen  in  tliu  southern  parts  of  England ;  the  latter  flourishing,  in  an  extraordinary 
degree,  in  tlie  chalk  and  deep  clay  soils  of  Sussex  and  some  of  the  neighbouring  counties. 
In  Scotland,  the  oak,  though  there  may  be  some  exceptions,  generally  forms  copse  v'oods, 
and  is  mostly  confined  to  the  valleys.    Its  northern  limit  is  scarcely  within  the  British  domi- 


Iriih  Vow 


•  ^       t- 


*  r 


iter  Ut 

Btato  in 

!  (Srtxi- 

scarcoly 

.  of  tho 

by  Pro- 

iHlro  (r,) 

of  Amc- 

|)togiiniic 

!»),  which 

t  in  Ma- 

ct  in  the 

a),  whoso 

!8t  of  Ire- 

cqucnt  in 
porta  of 

rnns,  and 

eland. 

ible  vcgo- 

rilmtcd  in 

i(rdoin,  and 

sIj  Broom, 

!  believe  to 

isli  BpecicB, 

lot  wild  in 

iruncc  very 

^■urf  Furzos 

ccd  spines; 

diuost  as  it 

Boins  rarely, 

i»,  which  do 

Ulcx  nanus. 

<tricUw;  but 

species,  and 

enous  Plants 

ions  for  this 

k  and  shrub- 
ire  there  are 
,  no  one  can 
plant  to  the 
jases  readily 
of  Scotland, 
crop  of  BUC- 
I,  when  there 

Lh  Yew  (Jig. 
that  country, 
tt,  the  seat  of 
[idcr  it  to  be 
Ifriifrtztn''  for 
hvo,  and  plen- 
Icro  arc  trees 
[y  its  upright 
It  the  habit  of 
Miclious  nmn- 
for  berry,  too, 
J  Yew. 

Itlie  Elm  (five 
Ispccies) ;  the 
JFir ;  to  which 
1  a  jrreat  size, 
forming  vast 
Jnd  Boecli  are 
[extraordinary 
Ting  counties, 
[copse  V'oods, 
I  British  aomi- 


BooK  1. 


ENGLAND. 


sai 


Scotch  Fir. 


nioiiB.    It  extends  to  lot  00",  on  tlie  continent  in  Russia,  and  64°  in  Norway;  and  if  in  Scot- 
land oukN  ure  not  found  in  th(!  extreme  north,  it  is  rather  owing  to  want  of  slicltcr  and  of 
suitable  Hoil,  timn  to  any  otiier  circuitiHtiince. 
The  Pine,  {Pimm  Syhi:stris,Jig.  114.)  constitutes  noble  forests  among  the  nmuntainoua 

districts  of  North  Britain,  liiling  tho  valipys, 
and  ascending,  probably,  to  the  height  of  '2.')0U 
feet  upon  tho  hills,  among  the  norlliern  (irani- 
pians,  and  exhibiting  individual  s]x>ciinens  of 
great  size  and  beauty. 

Of  the  fruit  trees  which  are  successfully  cul- 
tivated in  the  o|)en  air,  tlio  number  is  limited. 
In  tho  south,  exclusively,  or,  perhaps,  as  far  as 
tho  centre  of  the  kingdom,  imder  favourable 
cii'cumstances,  the  Vino,  the  Fig,  the  Quince, 
the  Mulberry,  Chestnut,  Wolruit,  and  Medlar 
may  bo  advantageously  planted.  Tho  Apple, 
Peai,  the  Plum  nf  various  kinds,  the  Peach, 
Nectariii";  and  Apricot;  all,  according  to  soil, 
exposure,  and  other  local  circumstances,  ripen 
their  fruit  in  the  open  air,  if  afforded  the  protec- 
tion of  a  wall,  as  nigh  north  as  Inverness,  and 
some  of  the  most  hardy  ones  much  higher ;  but 
the  want  of  sun  must  ever  be  a  hindrance  to  the 
thorough  perfecting  of  good  fruit  in  tho  north  of  Scotland. 

Of  the  various  kmds  of  Com,  which  are  used  as  food  for  man  or  cattle,  Wheat,  Barley, 
Bere,  Bigg,  Oats,  and  Rye  are  the  universal  crops ;  and  these  all  succeed  in  situations 
not  too  much  elevated  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  as  far  to  the  northward  as  Ifivcrness, 
beyond  which  the  wheat  becomes  a  very  uncertain  crop;  and  even  considerably  south  of 
Inverness,  to  tho  north  of  the  Forth  and  Clyde,  in  lat.  66°,  the  cultivation  ot  wheat  is 
almost  wholly  confined  to  tho  eastern  side  ot  the  country,  the  west  being  tho  district  for 
posture. 

In  regard  to  ihe  height  at  which  certain  plants  will  grow  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  the 
southern  and  midland  parts  of  Great  Britam  do  not  contain  mountains  upon  a  sufficiently 
lofty  scale  to  render  their  investigation  particularly  interesting.  The  northern  parts  of 
England  pos.jess  mountains  of  upwards  of  3000  feet ;  and  as  Winch's  "  Essay  on  the  Geo- 
graphical distribution  of  Plants  througho'  ,  the  Counties  of  Northumberland,  Cumberland,  and 
Durliam,"  of  which  tho  lat.  .55°  may  bt  considered  the  medium,  embraces  a  very  great  pro- 
tion  of  this  very  country,  which,  from  its  situation,  may,  in  point  of  cUmate,  be  considered  as 
intermediote  between  the  more  northern  and  southern  floras  of  Great  Britain,  we  select 
from  his  work  what  concerns  the  more  valuable  and  more  striking  vegetable  productions. 

The  Oak,  in  lat.  .55°,  attains  a  large  size  ui  the  valleys  ;  it  ascends  tho  hills,  but  gradu- 
ally becomes  of  stunted  growth  in  Weardale  and  Teesdule,  to  the  elevation  of  16()0  and 
1700  feet. 

The  Common  Elm  ( Ulmus  CumpcMris)  is  not  indigenous  north  of  the  Tees ;  its  place 
being  taken  by  the  Wych  Elm  {if.  montana),  which  skirts  the  mountains  at  a  height  of 
2000  feet. 

The  Beech  and  Aspen  flourish  beautifully  in  the  low  sheltered  spots,  but  do  not  climb 
the  hills  to  equal  heights  with  the  oak.  The  White  and  Black  Poplars  (Populus  alba 
and  niffra)  are  doubtful  natives  of  the  north  of  England,  as  of  Scotland  ;  tiiough  the  White 
Poplar  is  remarkable  for  withstanding  the  north-easterly  winds,  which  are  so  destructive  to 
vegetation  in  the  counties  of  Northumberland  and  Durham.  The  Lime,  (Tilia  Europaa), 
the  Ciiestnut  {Castanea  vesca),  and  tho  Hornbeam  (Carpinus  Betulus),  stand  in  tho  same 
predicament. 

Holly  trees  are  among  the  chief  ornaments  of  the  woods  in  Durham,  Northumberland, 
and  Cumberland,  as  is  the  Yew  (Taxus  Baccala).  The  Birch  {Bctula  alba)  is  not  ibund 
on  the  mountains  at  a  greater  elevation  than  the  Sycamore  (Acer  Pseudo-platanus),  which 
ill  the  sulmlplnc  regions  seems  to  be  as  vigorous,  and  to  attain  as  great  a  size  as  it  does 
near  the  sea-coast.  The  Mountain  Ash  {Pyrus  aucuparia)  is  found  on  the  hills ;  the  White 
Beam  {Pyrus  Arid)  may  be  traced  from  the  High-Force  of  the  river  Tees  to  the  coast ; 
the  Alder  {Alnus  glutinosa)  and  the  Guelder  Rose  ( Vibxtmum  Opulus)  accompany  the 
streams ;  and  the  Hazel,  Black  Cherry  {Prunus  Cerasus),  Bird  Cherry  (Prumis  Padus), 
tlie  Spindle-tree  {Enonymus  europtcus),  the  Raspberry  (Riibus  idaus),  and  the  common 
Elder,  {Sambucus  nigra),  are  found  in  all  the  woods  from  the  sea-shore  to  those  situated  on 
an  elevation  of  1600  feet :  but  the  common  Muple  {Acer  campestris)  occurs  only  in.  the 
hedges,  in  some  parts  of  the  flat  country. 

Tlic  Ash  tree  {Praxinus  fxrrhior),  the  White  Thorn  {Mespilus  Oxyacantha),  the  Crab 
tree,  or  Wild  Apple  {Pyrus  Miilus),  and  Black  Tliorn  (Primus  spinosa),  abound  throughout 


!'       * 


8U 


DEaCRlITIVR  OROC.riAPlIV. 


I'ART  in. 


r 

■*  ■ 

■A  ♦ 


f    ] 


f 


■  ?f  I: 


m 


tho  diatrirt  in  (luoHlion.  Tho  Riillncc  (I'riniiin  iimililin)  it*  ran' ;  mid  tlin  riiim-lri'i'  (l'ninn» 
diimvilini),  I'ciir  {I'ynm  cnmmitiiii),  Ucd  ciirriiiil  {ItihiB  riihniiii),  tin-  lliTlirrry  {llirtirriii 
vulMtiris),  iiiul  (icmsclKTry  (Ki/xo  (Inmsiilitriii),  iIidiihL  of  Iri'iiiH'iit  tici'iirrrm-i',  iiiipiiir  not 
tu  bt>  uriKiiial  niitiviti  ol'tlio  Moil.  Hut  tlii!  Itiwrk  Ciirriint  {UHhh  j»lr<r,im),  tin!  Ai  ul  .Mdiiii- 
tain  ('iirruiit  (RUhm  ipieatum),  Alpini-  ('iirriiiit  {liilim  iiljiiiniin),  IHiic  k  Ciirniiit  {Uilnn  ni- 
fSruin),  and  I'rivot  (Liffutlrum  vittffarv),  iiro  indijfciiDiiM,  mid  imt  iinrrt'i|iiriil. 

'J'lio  Fur/.u  {Ulcx  funinaut,)  attjiiiiH  to  mi  cIcviiliDri  nf  "JOdO  l'(!ot  in  wiiiic'fili'rcd  npotx, 
nccoinpiinicd  l)y  tiie  llriuiildn.  Jimi|M'r  niiiy  Iw;  triiccd  fnm  the  cmiHt  to  llic  lii'lylit  cif  I.*"!*!*! 
fet't.  TIh!  tMi)iidlM<rry  (.Ruhim  Vhnmamnrun),  the  HciirlM'rry  (IrAii/iM  Vva  I'mi),  iind  Smid 
Wiiliiw  {Salijc  iirrnaria),  iitliiin  tlio  wiino  cli'viition ;  wiiilt^  tlio  DwiirC  Willow  {Suli.r  hir- 
bacea),  but  witliout  itji  uniiiiI  attcndiint  tho  Kctiriiliitcd  Willow  (S.  ritiiiilala),  roiiclic* 
to  tlio  tup!)  of  t)io  lortit'Bt  moiintiiinH,  iipwnrdH  ot'.M(l(M>  foot  nl)ovo  tlic  lovol  of  tlio  moii. 

Cuurw)  OnuiHOH,  Sodgcd,  and  UuhIiom  Uki  oUrn  cover  llio  wot  in(K)rii  with  a  Kcunty  md 
olmoHt  UHoleiB)  vojjetiition.  To  tho  affriciiltiirint  tho  difToroni  Iloatlw  uro  Hcarceiy  nioro 
accoptahio;  but  tlicv  uro  uiiqucHtioimbly  anion);  tho  most  boiiutil\il  of  the  nittivo  plniitx,  iiml 
their  iibundanco  and  tho  voMt  oxtoiit  uf  );roiiiid  which  ihov  clotho,  jfivo  ii  (Kjculiiir  oharactor 
to  very  many  parts  of  Grout  Britain,  OHpocially  in  tho  North.  In  llio  di.«trictH  in  (pioHtioii, 
tho  common  Heather  (0<//una  vKJ/ifari*)!  the  Fir-lcavod  I  loath  (LViVm  Ciinn'a),  mid  tho 
CroHH-louvod  Uoath  (Erica  Telrulix),  tho  latter,  however,  lean  tVaKrmit,  and  preferring  nioint 
situutioiiH,  floiiriidi  in  various  situntionH,  iVoin  l(NN)  In  ;<(MM)  feet  above  tlie  level  of  tho  Kon, 
but  never  in  calcarfX)U8  noil,  which  circuinstanco  oeooHionH  the  strikinjj  difforonco  lM>twocn 
tlio  hcatlis  of  Durham  and  Nortlmuiborland,  and  tho  Yorknliiro  Woldx  aH  they  aro  called, 
where  tho  substratum  is  chalk. 

The  most  considerable  elevation  to  which  tho  cultivation  of  wheat  extends  in  tho  north 
of  England. does  not  exceed  l(KK)  feet  above  tho  level  of  tho  sea.  Oafs  fjrow  at  nearly 
double  that  lioinrht;  but  in  unfavourable  years  tho  sheaves  may  often  lie  seen  wtamlinpimnonjf 
tlie  snow,  which  not  uncommonly  covers  the  tops  of  the  mountains  in  October,  and  is  never 
later  in  fallin)|f  than  tho  middle  of  Novcmb<!r.  Tho  limits  of  Hnrley  nnd  Rye  iiro  between 
those  of  wheat  and  oats ;  but  Bij^p,  a  more  hardy  kind  of  fjrain  than  either  of  the  tormer,  is 
no  louf^er  cultivated.  Turnips,  though  of  small  siso,  and  I'otatoes,  grow  at  the  wiiiie  heiifht 
as  Ottts.  On  tho  soil  of  tho  moors  being  ploughed  for  the  first  time,  and  lime  applied.  White 
Clover  ( Trifolium  repfns)  coinci.'  up  in  abundance. 

ScBSECT.  3. — Zoology  of  Great  Britain. 
Tho  Zoofo/j-y  of  tho  United  Empire  mij^lit  be  treated  of  under  tho  three  kingdoms  of  which 
it  is  com|K)sed,  wore  our  materials  sufficiently  ample  to  mark  tho  peculiarities  of  eiicli.  Hut 
although  every  year  witnesses  an  accession  of  new  npecies  to  the  British  fauna,  no  attempt  lios 
yet  been  made  to  generalise  these  discoveries,  with  reference  to  the  geographic  range  of  groups 
or  species.  The  zoology  of  Ireland  has  been  sadly  neglecteil,  and  wo  are  still  .vithout  a 
Fauna  Scotica.  We  must  therefore  consider  the  natural  history  of  Britain  in  the  aggregate; 
noticing  such  species  as  more  particularly  belong  to  tho  northern  ami  the  southern  extre- 
mities. 

Of  Quadruped.'^,  the  most  recent  catalogue  contains  sixty  living  species,  including  the 
whale  tribe;  besides  those  which  progressive  civilisation,  and  tho  eil'erts  of  the  chase,  have 
now  extirpated  from  the  islands.  Nine  species  of  Bats  have  been  detected,  four  of  which 
'<avo  as  yet  boon  found  only  in  the  southern  and  western  counties;  two  belong  to  the  division 
of  horse-shoe  bats,  so  named,  from  their  nostrils  being  furnished  with  a  complicated  nieiiihrane, 
like  a  horse-shoo;  an  apiicndago  which  is  probably  intended  to  act  as  a  sucker  to  assist  tho 
animal  in  retaining  its  prey.  Tho  Vesportilio  murinus,  or  common  bat,  has  been  so  fiir 
tamed  as  to  take  flies  out  of  its  master's  hand,  carefully  throwing  aside  the  wings,  The 
woods  and  heaths  still  shelter  the  Hedgehog  (_/f^.  ll.'j.),  a  harmless  and  a  motit  useful  animal 
in  destroying  snails,  slugs,  and  worms;  but  persecuted  by  the 
vulgar  for  a  long  list  of  imaginary  and  nonsensical  properties. 
Those  prejudices  have  been  extended  to  the  Mole,  whosi;  liitlc 
hillocks  form  the  best  top-dressing,  as  a  sensible  fiirmer  once 
assured  us,  to  poor  lands,  that  can  possibly  lie  given :  their  soft 
fnr  has  long  been  mixed  with  that  of  the  Beaver,  in  the  making 
of  hats.  Allied  to  the  Mole,  in  general  conformation,  are  tho 
Shrew  Mice,  of  which  two  species  arc  natives,  the  common  and 
tho  Water  Shrew  {Sorex  aranviix  and  fodiens) ;  Iwth  these 
appear  to  be  widely  distributed.  Of  true  Mice  there  are  three 
di.*»nct  sorts:  the  Common  or  House  Mouse,  the  Field  Mouse,  and  tho  Harvest  Mouse;  the 
lattei'  being  as  destructive  to  the  farmer  as  the  first  is  to  the  housewife.  The  Brown  and 
the  Black  R.it  infest  dwellings,  and  aro  equally  injurions:  tho  latter  is  known  by  the  tail 
being  longer  than  the  body;  whereas,  in  the  Brown  Rat,  both  these  pirts  are  eipinl.  The 
pretty  little  normoiiso  (.yft/oxus  avdlunarius),  like  the  Squirrel  and  JerlKja,  eats  its  fixid  in 
an  erect  attitude,  sitting  on  its  haunches,  and  using  its  forefeet  as  hands.     The  Water  Itat 


HeilKchoK. 


sIlUIIIl 


'AHT  ni< 

{I'riinui 
l\,rl»ri» 
\\w:\y  IU)l 

„;  Miiiiii- 

■rod  snotH, 

,t  of  ir)0(i 

,  iiiitl  Siiiul 
Sillir  liir- 
i),  roiiclies 

Hciiiity  a'ul 
reply  ii>"f" 
plniitH,  and 
r  ohiiriicter 
in  tuii'Htioii, 
«■).  nnd  Uiu 
nrrini*  nmii*t 
of  the  »<!ni 
ico  l«<tween 
r  nru  cnllwl, 

in  tlio  north 
w  lit  nciirly 
udiiijtamonR 
and  iH  never 
lire  liotween 
ihe  former,  is 
.  Hiiu\e  \ieiuht 
pphed,  White 


loms  of  which 
of  piich.  But 
in  iiltenipt  iiaa 
in),'e  of  firoupa 
ft  ill   .vitlioiit  a 

lutiiern  extrc- 

Jincliidini;  the 
le  chuwe,  liave 
Ifonr  of  which 
Ito  the  division 
led  nieiiibrane, 
\r  to  iissist  the 
{s  been  so  fiir 
winiTM.    The 
useful  animal 
lecuteil  by  the 
:(U  propcrtieB. 

J(',  wIloNi;  l.liiO 

I.  fiiriner  once 
Ion :  tlieir  soil 
lin  the  nmkinff 
[ntion,  lire  the 
common  and 
;   lioth  tliesi! 
liero  are  thrci; 
Lt  Mouse ;  tiie 
1)0  Brown  and 
Ivn  by  the  tail 
\  (M|unl.     The 
tats  its  food  in 
[he  Water  Rat 


Book  I. 


KN(H,AN1). 


aaa 


mid  Shiirt-talli'd  MoiiHe  of  Pi'iiimnl  (now  pijiccil  in  thi'  ^i'Iiii.h  AniiDhi)  iK'ciir  in  T'liiijhiiiil ; 
nut  tliii  liiriiirr  iH  nluliMl  not  lo  have  liei  ii  louiid  in  llm  tiortliern  iflniicU;  the  l:itter  i»  a  imomI 
dcftriictivo  litllo  aiiiniai  mi  ({iirdiiiH,  where  it  ^riiliH  up  mi'i'iIx,  |Hirlic:uliirly  ni"!",  ju--t  alter 
tliey  liave  he^uii  to  i^triniiiali!,  A  few  years  liack,  the  dhort-ludid  luoiise  ^udtlriily  iippearcMl 
in  iinineiiHe  iiuuiht'rH  in  the  New  Forect,  and  iiotwithxtundjii);  every  artillie  eiiiployrd  to 
Htoji  their  rava^en,  tliey  di'Htroyed  many  tiioiisandii  uf  yonii){  trei'»,  and  devastated  whuiu 
tcreH  of  voiui);  plantations. 

TIki  ihiilfiir  IS  a  nocturnal  fiH'der,  sleeping'  in  its  hole  diiriii((  the  day,  yet,  when  atlarked, 
is  remarkalilv  ipink  in  its  motions,  and  Mii'eestttiil  in  its  defeiict).  If  uiidisturlH-d,  it  is  h.<riii- 
less  and  iiiolli'iiMve,  chielly  siibsistin;;  u|i<in  veMriaaliles,  althoiit;h  it  will  likewise  devour  trie's 
and  shifts.  The  Olltr  has  become  much  lens  freipient  tliun  torinerly  ;  it  was  euire  I'luisiiiered 
as  u  beaHt  of  chase,  as  old  ifaiiie-lxMiks  inentioii  otter  hounds  jiarlicnlarly  truini'd  t'or  himtinir 
this  animal.  It  feuds  entirely  upon  fish,  which  it  dives  uller  with  ^reat  celerity  ;  and,  unless 
pressod  by  extreme  liun){ur,  invariably  leaves  the  tail  extremity  nntonclied,  'I'Ik;  lejrii  are 
very  short;  and  the  t^M.'s  [w'\\\fi  connected  to){etiiur  by  a  nionibrune,  giwn  to  the  animal  tlio 
[WW  er  of  Nwimniinff  very  rapidly. 

Tiio  rapacious  or  carnivorous  ipiadrupeds  of  Britain  arc  very  few,  and  from  their  small 
«izu  tix)  iiisi)rniii(.vtnt  to  inlliet  imu'h  piTsunal  injury  n|)on  man.  The  Uiar  and  the  \Vii{f' 
have  lonjT  been  extinct  in  Uriliiin,  oiid  the  Fox  iui(,'lit  liavi?  shiirtMl  the  name  Hite,  liail  it  not 
been  preserved  im  a  beast  of  the  cluwu  since  the  extirpiiti.m  of  more  formidable  >ramo. 
Pennant  mentions  three  vari(<ties  of  this  animal  fouiiit  in  Wales  and  other  mountainous  parta 
of  Britain:  —  1.  Tho  Milf(ri,  or  (ireybomid  Fox,  is  the  lar>;est,  tallest,  and  iMitdest,  and  ia 
distin^ruisbed  by  a  white  tuj(  or  tip  to  the  tail.  '2.  The  MastiH'Fox,  which  i.s  less,  but  more 
8tron){ly  built.  .').  The  Curgi,  or  Cur  Fox,  of  n  still  smaller  size,  ami  having;  the  tip  of  thu 
tail  black.  (Wri/.  Zool.  i.  87.)  The  varieties  do  not  ap|)uar,  however,  to  have  fallen  under 
the  actual  observation  of  subsoouent  naturalists. 

Tlu!  Ferret  tribe  coinprehcnds  the  I'olecat,  Weasel,  Stoat  or  Ermine,  the  Common  Marten, 
and  the  I'iiic  Mart(<n. 

The  I'olecat  {I'litoriun  vnlguris  Cuv.),  called  al'io  tho  Fitchia,  Fitchew,  or  Foumart, 
mcotiureLi,  with  tiio  tail,  iilHiut  twenty-three  inches.  Its  fetid  smell  is  proverbial.  Alfliounh 
included  in  the  list  of  British  quadrupeds,  it  appears,  according  to  Striibo,  to  liavo  been 
uiiptrted  from  the  north  of  Africa.  Like  all  it.s  conjjeners,  its  habits  are  san;ruinary  ;  lor  it 
will  destroy  and  suck  the  blood  of  many  victims,  befiiro  it  attempts  to  carry  oil"  their  liodies. 
Tho  well-known  Ferri.'t  is  considered  only  a  variety  of  this  species.  The  Weasel  is  much 
smaller,  and  althoiiirh  repulsive  from  its  (nlour,  is  yet  an  elefjant-shaiM'd  animal.  It  feeds  on 
mice  and  small  birds,  but  will  occasionally  attack  animals  of  a  much  larfjer  size.  Few 
persons  suspect  that  tho  skins  they  see  nailed  ajjaiiust  farm  out-houses  freijuently  belimjf  to 
an  animal  wiiose  fur,  in  another  state,  tbrms  a  most  cle(,miit  and  expensive  ornament  to 
female  dres.s.  This  animal,  despised  in  one  state,  and  valued  in  another;  is  the  Stoat 
(Jig.  llfi.),  the  iH;st  of  the  farmer,  and  tho  destroyer  of  his  poultry.  In  the  teinporiitu  and 
llfl  117 


.Sioiil.  Pinii  Mnrtcn. 

•outhcrn  parts  of  Europe,  its  fur  is  yellowish-brown  uliovc,  and  pale  yellow  beneath ;  yet 
■M  soon  as' its  {{cographic  range  enters  on  tho  more  northern  countries,  ns  Russia,  Norway, 
and  Siberia,  these  colours  vanish,  leavinjr  tiio  fur  of  a  pure  white  in  every  part  but  the  tail, 
which  is  tipped  with  deep  black ;  and  in  this  state  tho  skin  is  called  ermine.  In  Scotland 
the  animal,  durinjr  winter,  is  fre(iiiently  found  in  an  intermediate  stuifo  of  summer  and  win- 
ter clotliiiifr.  Although  small,  it  will  attack  large  rats,  and  has  licen  known  to  pursue  a 
young  hare  by  tho  scent. 

The  Common  or  Beech  Marten  (.V.  Fagnrum  Ray)  seems  to  prefer  dwelling  near  habita- 
tions, choosing  tho  shelter  of  out-houses  and  t'lrin-buildings,  as  convenient  retreats  for  carry- 
■tig  on  its  depredations  among  poultry,  of  which  it  is  a  great  devourcr;  it  also  breeds 
occasionally  in  the  hollows  of  trees. 

Tho  Pino  Marten  {M.  AbirtumRiyy,Jig.  117.)  is  rather  larger,  and  is  further  distingnishod 
from  the  last  in  having  the  throat  and  breast  yellow,  histe.id  of  white.  It  is  wild  and  solitary; 
shunning  mankind ;  and  only  dwells  in  thick  womls  and  forests,  princiiwilly  those  composed 
of  pines.  It  climbs  with  great  fucility ;  preys  ajHrn  birds  and  their  eggs,  and  also  upon 
bquurela ;  the  female  generally  making  use  of  Uie  nest  of  one  of  her  victima  for  the  rearing 


1 '  I' 


'  -i! 


'f. '  b 


f  k 


m^ 


iii 


1!^ 


11 


r 


"  \ 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


of  her  own  young.    The  skin  of  this  is  much  more  prized  than  that  jf  the  common  Marten, 
and  appears  to  have  been  formerly,  at  least  in  Scotland,  a  lucrative  article  of  commerce. 

The  Wild  Cut  closes  our  list  of  these  small  but  ferocious  indigenous  animals.  Its  mannem 
are  similar  to  those  of  the  lynx,  and  Mr.  Pennant  justly  calls  it  the  British  tiger.  In  its 
savage  stale  it  appears  to  be  much  larger  tlian  the  ordinary  domestic  cat ;  and  the  teeth  and 
claws,  for  the  size  of  the  animal,  are  tremendous.  It  is  still  found,  although  rarely,  in  the 
mountainous  and  woody  partii  of  Great  Britain.  Formerly  they  appear  to  have  been  mcih 
more  numeroiis,  and  to  have  been  considered  a  beast  of  chase.  The  best  authorities  agree 
in  considering  this  species,  common  to  the  forests  of  Europe,  as  the  origin  of  our  domestic 
breed,  the  usual  varieties  of  which  are  well  known.  Another,  which  seems  peculiar  to 
Cornwull,  is  witliout  any  visible  tail,  and  is  stated  to  be  an  hereditary  variety.  {Cuv.  ii.  489.) 

To  enumerate  the  varieties  of  the  Dog  now  domesticated  in  Britain  would  be  tedious, 
particularly  after  the  luminous  manner  in  which  this  subject  has  been  treated  by  Pennant 
{Brit.  Zool.  i.  70.).  Britain  has  been  famous  for  her  dogs  from  remote  antiquity.  Ihe  British 
mastiffs  were  held  in  such  estimation  by  tlie  Romans,  that  their  emperors  appointed  an  officer 
in  the  island,  with  the  name  of  Procurctor  Cynegii,  whose  business  was  to  transmit  thence 
such  as  would  prove  equal  to  the  ferocious  combats  of  the  amphitheatre.  Strabo  also  men- 
tions that  the  mastiffs  of  Britain  were  in  great  repute,  being  trained  for  war,  and  used  by 
the  Gauls  in  their  battles. 

The  Bloodhound,  during  the  troubled  periods  of  English  history,  was  in  high  estimation, 
and  much  used  to  track  the  footsteps  of  robbers  and  marauders ;  but  the  breed  is  now  extinct. 
A  remarkable  variety  of  the  Greyhound,  more  peculiar  to  Ireland  (hence  called  the  Irish 
Greyhound  or  Wolf  I)og),  is  nearly  lost,  a  few  couples  alone  having  been  preserved  in  one 
of  the  parks  in  that  island.  The  Terrier  is  the  best  house  guard ;  while  the  Shepherd,  the 
Water,  and  the  Newfoundland  dogs  are  probably  the  most  sagacious. 

Of  ruminating  animals  now  existing  in  a  state  of  nature,  there  are  but  three;  the  Stag  or 
Red  Deer,  the  Fallow  Deer,  and  the  Roebuck.  It  would  appear,  however,  that  the  first  two 
are  not  indigenous  to  these  islands.  Mr.  Pennant  writes — "We  have  two  varieties  of  fallow 
deer,  which  are  said  to  be  of  foreign  origin :  these  were  introduced  by  King  James  I.  out  of 
Norway,  which  he  visited  for  his  mtended  b'ide,  Anne  of  Denmark.  He  first  brought  some 
iuto  Scotland,  and  from  thence  transported  them  to  his  chases  of  Enfield  and  Epping,  to  be 
near  his  palace  of  Theobald's."  The  only  memorial  of  this  palace  is  probably  preserved  in 
tiio  name  of  The  'lald's  Road.  M.  Cuvicr,  indeed,  expresses  a  doubt  whether  the  stag  was 
originally  European;  but  Major  Hamilton  Smith,  with  much  better  reason,  considers  the 
Fallow  Deer  {Cervtis  Dama)  as  indigenous  to  Europe ;  adding,  that  it  is  still  found  wild 
from  Sweden  to  Gibraltar,  and  from  Ireland  to  Constantinople.  The  Stag  {Cervus  Elaphug) 
seems  to  be  unquestioned  as  an  indigenous  species;  and  although  the  wild  breed  is  yearly 
duninishing  in  numbers,  it  is  still  found  in  Gloucestershire,  the  north-west  part  of  Devon, 
and  in  some  of  the  remote  districts  of  Scotland.  Pennant,  by  some  unaccountable  mistake, 
has  placed  the  Stag  and  the  Fallow  Deer  as  varieties  of  one  species. 

The  Roebuck  (Cervus  capreolus  Ham.  Smitli)  is  much  less  than  the  two  preceding,  and 
is,  indeed,  the  smallest  of  European  deer.  It  is  remarkably  graceful  and  active,  habitually 
preferring  the  sides  of  elevated  woods  or  forests.  As  he  leaves  a  strong  scent,  nature  has 
given  him  peculiar  sagacity  to  perplex  his  pursuers :  he  begins,  after  a  forward  dash,  bv 
doubling  over  his  track,  to  mislead  the  hounds,  and  then  by  some  great  bounds  he  springs 
forward  to  a  cover,  where  he  lies  down  to  let  the  chase  pass.  The  roebuck  is  now  become 
very  scarce  in  Britain,  and  was  equally  so  in  Scotland,  but  we  are  told  it  has  re-appeared  of 
late  years  in  Fifeshire,  in  consequence  of  the  increased  plantations.    {Brit.  An.  p.  26.) 

The  Ox  is  the  only  remaining  animal  of  this  order  which  claims  a  place  among  the 
indigenous  quadrupeds.  We  have  before  observed,  that  in  remote  ages,  a  gigantic  race  of 
oxen  was  numerous  throughout  Europe  ;  and  that,  although  now  extinct,  there  is  reason  to 
Iwlieve  that  the  colossal  species  mentioned  by  Ciesar,  as  existing  in  his  time,  was  cf  this 
race,  now  only  known  by  its  fossil  bones.  Those  remains  lie  scattered  through  the  whole 
of  temperate  Europe,  in  the  same  strata  with  the  lost  species  of  Elephant  but  that  the  race 
was  preserved  to  a  much  later  period  is  proved  by  similar  bones  occurring  in  more  recent 
formations,  as  in  peat  mosses,  drained  lakes,  marshes,  and  beds  of  sand.  The  wild  races, 
of  inferior  size,  belonging  to  this  species,  may  probably,  as  Major  Smith  observes,  even  now 
exist  in  Asia.  However  this  may  be,  it  appears  certain  that  the  real  Urus  was  found  wild 
in  the  Vosges  mountains,  and  in  the  forests  of  Ardennes  and  Germany;  while  its  existence 
in  England  is  incontestably  proved  by  Fitz-Steplien,  vho  speaks  of  the  Uri  silvestres,  which 
in  his  time  (that  is,  alxiut  11.50)  infested  the  great  forests — round  I/)ndon ! 

The  only  existing  breed  of  wild  oxen  now  known,  is  the  white  Urus,  or  Urus  grnficns  of 
Ham.  Smith.  Its  skull  agrees  with  the  fossil  breed  in  being  "  square  from  the  orbits  to 
Ihe  occipital  crest,  .somewhat  hollow  at  the  forehead,  and  the  horns  showing  a  peculiar  rise 
fiom  their  root,  at  the  side  of  the  above  crest,  upwards,  and  then  bending  outwards,  then 
iorwanl  and  inward  :  no  domestic  race  shows  this  turn."    The  true  Urus  was  further  di» 


Book  I. 


ENGLAND. 


336 


Wild  Scotliib  Ox. 


tinguished  by  a  mane,  which  iB  still  observed  about  two  inches  lon^,  in  old  bulls  of  the  Scot- 
'■"^  tish  race  (^g'.  118.).    When  this  breed  was  exterminated 

from  the  opNBn  forests  is  not  known ;  but  it  was  confined 
to  parks  long  before  tlie  Refonnation.  The  colour  is  en- 
tirely white,  with  the  muzzle  wholly  black.  Tiieir  man- 
ners are  singular :  upon  perceiving  a  stranger,  they  gallop 
wildly  in  a  circle  round  him,  stop  and  gaze,  toss  their 
heads,  and  show  signs  of  defiance ;  this  is  repented  seve- 
ral times,  each  circle  being  made  smaller,  lill  they  ap- 
preach  sufficiently  near  to  make  an  effective  charge.  The 
cows  conceal  their  young  eight  or  ten  days:  and  when 
one  of  the  herd  is  wounded  or  enfeebled,  the  others  gore 
it  to  death.  The  breed  is  still  preserved  at  Chill  ingham 
Castle,  near  Berwick-upon-Tweed,  Wollaston  in  Notting- 
ham, Gisbume  in  Craven,  Limchall  in  Cheshire,  and  at  Chartley  in  Staffordshire. 

The  domestic  0»  (Bos  Taurus),  considered  by  some  as  a  variety,  and  by  otliers  as  a  dis- 
tinct species  from  the  last,  is  supposed  by  Hamilton  Smith  to  have  been  first  domesticated 
by  the  Caucasian  nations  of  western  Asia.  It  is  stated  to  have  fourteen  ribs,  whereas  tliose 
of  the  B.  Urus  are  but  twelve ;  a  distinction  sufficiently  important  to  sanction  the  belief  of 
a  specific  difference.  Whether  or  not  this  parent  of  our  domestic  races  ever  existed  in  these 
islands  in  a  state  of  nature,  is  very  doubtful.  The  various  breeds  for  which  Britain  has  long 
been  Justly  celebrated  will  be  noticed  under  the  head  of  domestic  animals. 

The  marine  and  cetaceous  mammalia  are  few,  and  are  not  very  generally  dispersed.  Two 
species  of  seal  have  been  noticed  by  Pennant.  The  Piked  Whales  {Baltcnoptera  musculus 
and  boops),  the  Razor-back  Whale,  and  several  others  of  the  great  norther"  i  cetacea,  wander 
near  the  Hebrides  and  Orkney  islands,  and  occasionally  visit  the  shores  ol  Northumberland 
and  Yorkshire.  The  Porpoise  and  the  Grampus  have  a  wider  range,  and  large  shoals  roam 
unmolested  near  all  the  coasts. 

Exterminated  native  animals.  In  every  country  the  increase  of  civilization  and  agricul- 
ture is  marked  by  the  progressive  diminution  and  final  extirpation  of  the  larger  quadrupeds, 
particularly  of  such  as  are  injurious  to  man.  Among  those  which  history  clearly  informs  us 
were  once  living  in  Britain,  the  most  remarkable  are  the  Bear,  the  Wolf,  the  Beaver,  and 
tlie  wild  Boar.  To  the  writings  of  Pennant  and  Hamilton  Smith  we  are  indebted  for  the 
following  notes  on  these  lost  inhabitants  of  our  forests. 

It  appears  that  Bears,  in  the  time  of  Plutarch,  were  transported  from  Britain  to  Rome 
where  they  were  much  admired.  They  appear  to  have  been  extinct  in  Britain  long  before 
Queen  Elizabeth's  time. 

Wolves.  It  seems  to  have  been  a  vulgar  error  that  the  wolf  was  extirpated  in  Britain 
by  tlie  salutary  edicts  of  King  Edgar,  who  accepted  their  tongues  and  heads  as  tribute,  or  as 
a  commutation  for  certain  crimes;  for  in  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  these  animals  had  again 
increased  to  such  a  degree,  that  officers  were  appointed  to  promote  their  destruction,  and 
lands  were  held  by  hunting  and  destroying  them.  Wolves  infested  Ireland  many  centuries 
after  their  extinction  in  England ;  some  having  been  killed  so  late  as  1710.  In  Scotland, 
the  last  on  record  was  destroyed  in  1680. 

The  Beaver  was  still  an  inhabitant  of  the  Welsh  rivers  in  1188,  as  is  attested,  according 
to  Pennant,  by  Giraldus  Cambrensis ;  but  even  at  that  remote  period  they  must  have  con- 
siderably diminished,  as  the  historian  only  mentions  their  being  found  on  tlie  river  Teivi. 
Local  names  of  other  waters  in  the  principality  attest  their  existence  in  other  places.  Fossil 
remains  of  this  species  are  stated  to  have  been  found  in  beds  of  marl,  under  peat  moss  in 
Berkshire ;  and  similar  bones  have  occurred  in  Perthshire  and  Berwickshire. 

The  Wild  Boar,  from  which  have  sprung  the  domestic  breeds  of  swine,  must  be  reckoned 
among  indigenous  quadrupeds,  although  now  extinct  in  Britain.  Willium  the  Conqueror 
punished  those  who  killed  the  Wild  Boar,  the  Stag  and  the  Roebuck,  by  the  loss  of  their 
eyes.  Fitz-Stephen  affirms  that  the  vast  forest,  which  in  his  time  stood  on  the  north  sideiSf 
London,  was  the  retreat  of  Stags,  Fallow  Deer,  Wild  Boars  and  Bulls.  At  a  more  recent 
period,  Charles  the  First  turned  out  Wild  Boars  in  the  New  Forest ;  but  they  were  destroyed 
duruig  the  civil  wars. 

Fossil  quadrupeds.  The  splendid  discoveries  that  have  resulted  from  the  investigations 
of  Buckland,  Mantell,  Conybeare,  and  other  eminent  geologists,  have  opened  a  field  of  re- 
search, which  in  Britain  had  long  been  overlooked  or  neglected.  Without  entering  into  the 
question  whether  tliese  fossil  remains  belong  to  animals  which  did  or  did  not  at  some  period 
inhabit  the  spots  wherein  their  bones  have  been  found,  it  is  sufficient  to  confine  ourselves  to 
simple  facts.  The  remains  of  the  cave  bear  of  Dr.  Buckland  occur  in  several  caverns,  and 
are  sufficient  to  prove  the  living  animal  must  have  equalled  a  horse  in  size.  The  Kirkdale 
and  Plymouth  caves  abound  with  the  bones  of  an  extinct  liya>na,  somewhat  resenililing  in 
its  osteology  tliat  now  existing  in  South  Africa ;  with  these  have  been  found  the  bones  of  n 
tiger,  which  must  have  been  as  large  as  the  Bengal  species.    The  tusks,  teeth,  and  other 


"%, 


descriptive:  geography. 


Part  HI. 


i  ■ 


The  long-hornod  Ox. 


MP 


(rogments  of  an  extinct  .species  of  elephant,  totally  different  from  tliose  now  in  existence, 
119  __  have  been  detected  in  marl  clay,  &c.  joined  with  tliose  of  two 
other  gigantic  quadrupedfl,  a  rliinoceros  and  hippopotamus;  while 
the  jaw  of  a  Qiarsupial  animal,  unknown  among  the  existing 
race  of  beings,  has  been  found  in  the  Stoncafield  slate  quarries 
(Jff.  119.) 

Domestic  tpiadrupeds.  No  nation,  perhaps,  has  been  more 
Jow  of  Mnr'upmi  Aiiitnni.  BoHcitous  to  improvo  their  originally  poor  breeds  of  domesti- 
cated quadnipeds  than  the  British ;  and  hence  their  present  superiority  over  most  of  those 
on  the  Continent.  Under  this  liead  we  commence  with  the  ruminating  animals,  as  the  ox, 
the  sheep,  and  the  goat,  e>o  essential  in  supplying  food  and  clothing  to  man ;  while  the  horse, 
tlie  ass,  and  the  dog  assist  Iiim  in  his  labour,  or  protect  his  property. 

The  principal  breeds  of  oxen  more  peculiar  to  Great  Britain  have  been  arranged  by  Major 
Hamilton  Smith  under  nine  divisions.    Of  these,  three  belong  to  England,  three  to  Scotland, 
two  to  Wales,  and  one  to  Guernsey. 
The  long-horned  or  Lancaster  breed  (Jig.  120.),  as  the  name  implies,  is  remarkable  for 

long  horns;  they  have  firm  thick  hides,  long  close  hair, 
large  hoofs,  and  give  in  proportion  less  milk,  but  more 
cream.  They  are  of  various  colours,  but  are  in  general 
finched,  that  is,  with  a  white  streak  above  the  spine, 
and  a  white  spot  inside  the  houghs.  The  improved 
Leicester  is  a  slight  variety,  originally  bred  near  Co- 
ventry. 

The  short-horned  breed  includes  those  that  are  named 
the  Holderness,  Tecswater,  Yorkshire,  Durham,  and 
Northumberland.  This  has  been  the  most  improved, 
producing  usually  twenty-four  quarts  of  milk  per  day, 
and  three  firkins  of  butter  per  season.  Their  colour  varies,  but  is  generally  red  and  white 
mixed ;  called  by  the  graziers  flocked. 

The  middle-horned  includes  the  Devon,  Hereford,  and  Sussex  breeds :  they  are  active, 
hardy,  and  much  esteemed  for  draught :  but  altliough  they  fatten  early,  do  not  milk  so  well 
as  tlip  last,  The  pure  Dcvons  are  of  a  high  red  colour,  without  spots,  a  light  dun  ring 
round  the  eye,  fine  m  bone,  clear  nock,  thin  ftced,  and  tlie  tail  set  on  high :  the  north  Devon 
is  most  esteemed  for  eating.  The  Sussex  and  Hereford  are  larger,  the  ox  weighing  from  60 
to  100  stone. 
The  Scottish  breeds  may  be  arranged  under  the  Polled,  the  Highland,  and  the  Pifeshire. 
The  Polled  Galloway  is  tiie  most  esteemed :  it  is  straight  in  tlio  back,  the  hair  soft,  the 
colour  black  or  dark  brindled,  and  the  size  not  large.  They  travel  well,  and  reach  the 
Ijondon  markets  witliout  deterioration.  The  Suffolk  Dun  is  a  variety  of  this  race.  The 
Highland  race  includes  several  varieties,  the  most  valuable  ones  being  the  West  Highland, 
Argyle,  or  Skye,  and  the  Kyloe  from  the  Hebridea  The  Norlands  is  anotlier  variety,  with 
coarse  hides,  long  legs,  and  of  a  narrow  make.  The  Orkney  or  Shetland  are  very  diminu- 
tive :  an  ox  weighing  about  60  lbs.  a  quarter,  and  a  cow  40  lbs.'  Their  colours  are  various, 
and  their  shapes  bad ;  but  they  give  an  abundance  of  excellent  milk,  and  fatten  rapidly. 
The  Fifcsliire  appears  an  improved  breed  of  the  Highlands,  crossed  witli  tlie  Cambridge- 
shire ;  they  arc  black,  spotted  witli  gray ;  tiie  horns  small,  white,  and  very  erect :  a  variety 
occurs  in  Aberdecn.shire. 

The  Welsh  liave  two  breeds :  the  first  is  large,  dark  brown,  with  some  white ;  tlie  legs 
long  and  slender;  tlie  horns  wliite,  and  turned  upwards:  those,  next  to  the  Devon,  are  the 
best  in  yoke,  and  are  a  cross  of  the  long-horned :  tiie  second  is  lower,  well  formed,  black 
with  little  wliite,  and  are  good  milkers.  The  Alderney  or  Guernsey  race  is  proverbially 
email :  their  colour  is  mostly  yellow  or  light  red ;  marked  with  white  about  tiie  face  and 
limbs,  and  witli  crumpled  Iiorns  The  true  breed  is  known  by  being  yellow  within  tlie  ears, 
and  at  the  root  of  tiie  tail  and  ita  tuft. 

Respecting  draught  Oxen,  we  cannot  refrain  from  here  inserting  an  excellent  and  judi- 
cious remark  of  Pennant.  "  It  is  now,"  observes  this  sensible  writer,  "  generally  allowed, 
that,  in  many  ca-sen,  oxen  arc  more  profitable  in  tiie  draught  than  horses :  tlieir  food,  harness, 
ond  slices  being  clicaper ;  and  should  they  be  lamed  or  grow  old,  an  old  working  beast  will 
be  as  good  meat,  and  fatten  as  wpII,  as  a  young  one;."  {Brit.  Znol.  i.  2**.) 

The  Sheep  is  scarcely  inferior  in  utility  to  the  ox:  and  the  breeds  now  cultivated  in 
Britain,  tiikiiig  all  tiioir  qualities  into  consideration,  are  perhaps  tlio  most  viiluablo  in  the 
world.  It  is  a  curious  fact,  that  tiie  famed  Merino  sheep  of  Spain  originated  from  tlic  Eng- 
li.^li  breed,  sent  to  tliat  country  by  Edward  IV.  as  a  present  to  King  Jolin  of  Arragon.  (Wrt^. 
Chron.  p.  2iHi.)  Major  II.  Sniitli  estimates  tlie  present  annual  value  of  wool  HJiorii  in  Eng 
land,  at  five  millions  sterling. 

Tlie  British  slionp,  according  to  Mr.  Culley,  may  be  arranged  under  fourteen  different 
breeds,  and  some  otiicrs  might  also  be  enumerated.    These  may  be  classed  under  two  prin- 


H' 


i\ 


pabt  ni. 

existence, 
lioscof  two 
Linus;  while 
he  existing 
ite  quarries 

been  more 
of  domesti- 
ost  of  those 
g,  as  the  ox, 
le  the  horse, 

[cd  by  Major 
to  Scotland, 

markable  for 
ig  close  hair, 
ilk,  but  more 
re  in  general 
ve  the  spine, 
'he  improved 
red  near  Co- 
hat  are  named 
Durham,  and 
est  improved, 
milk  per  day, 
red  and  white 

.ey  are  active, 
)t  milk  BO  well 
light  dun  ring 
)C  north  Devon 
ighing  from  60 

the  Pifeshire. 

jc!  hair  soft,  the 

[and  reach  the 

Ills  race.    The 

.  est  Highland, 

■r  varietjr,  with 

e  very  diminu- 

irs  are  various, 

fatten  rapidly. 

the  Cambridge- 

[rcct :  a  variety 

vhite;  the  legs 
Devon,  are  the 
[l  formed,  black 
is  proverbially 
It  the  face  and 
Ivithin  the  ears, 

lollcnt  and  judi- 
Vmlly  allowed, 
[r  food,  harness, 
rking  beast  will 

Iv  cultivated  in 
1  valunblc  in  the 
from  tho  Eng- 
lArrnjron.  {Bak. 
1)1  Kliorii  in  Eng 

Inrtccn  different 
1  under  two  prin- 


DooK  I. 


ENGLAND. 


337 


oipaj  divisions;  those  derived  from  the  ancient  race  being  fiimishcd  with  horns,  while  tlio 
others  in  general  have  none. 

Of  the  liorncd  breeds,  th'  most  ancient  is  the  biack-faced  {fff.  121.),  still  met  with  in 
some  licnthy  parts  of  Yorkshirr  and  tho  adjacent  northern  counties :  tlie  wool  is  coarse  and 
shaggy.  The  Norfolk  and  Suffolk  sjieep,  also,  have  the  horns  large  and  spiral,  with  the  face 
black,  but  the  wool  is  short  and  fine :  they  have  a  voracious  appetite,  and  a  restless  dispo- 
sition. In  the  Dorset  the  fiice  is  no  longer  black,  but  botli  sexes  are  usually  homed.  This 
breed  is  remarkable  for  producing  lambs  at  almost  every  season,  and  is  therefore  highly  valu- 
able for  supplying  the  London  markets  with  house  lamb.  The  Wiltshire  is  a  much  larger 
variety,  having  no  wool  on  the  belly.  The  Hertfordshire  is  a  fine  productive  variety,  with 
short  tails.  The  Exmoor  comes  from  Devonshire :  it  is  small,  the  wool  long,  and  the  face  and 
legs  white.  Scotland  furnishes  three  breeds  of  horned  sheep;  the  Dun-faced,  the  Siietland, 
and  the  Hebridean. 


Tha  Black-Faced  Sheep. 


The  Herefurd  Sheep. 


ths  1 

The 

;eg;. 
and  a 


The  hornless  race  may  be  divided  into  nine  breeds.  The  Lincoln  has  long  wool  and  a 
white  face:  in  the  Tecswater  the  wool  is  shorter  and  lighter,  and  tlie  legs  longer.  The 
Dishley,  or  new  Leicester,  is  distinguished  by  a  clean  head,  ond  the  excellency  of  its  flesh. 
Tlie  Devonshire  Nets,  like  the  three  preceding,  are  long-wooUed ;  tiiev  have  white  feces  and 
legs,  tliick  necks,  short  legs,  and  large  bones.  The  short-woolled  hornless  breeds  are  the 
follr .,  ■  ■  ; — The  Hereford  (fig.  122.)  have  very  fine  wool,  wliich  grows  close  to  their  eyes, 
,u  *'ace  being  white :  tho  fitore  sheep  of  this  country  are  called  CoUings  or  Rylands. 
'  -wn,  principally  cultivated  on  the  chalky  downs  of  Sussex,  have  the  face  and 
■'n  i  are  highly  esteemed  for  the  table.  The  Cheviot  have  the  head  bare  and  clean, 
...lutimes  spotted  v/itli  gray  or  dun ;  the  fleece  is  very  short  and  fine.  The  Hin'- 
wicke  is  peculiar  to  the  rocky  districts  of  Cumberland,  and  is  speckled  en  the  face  and  legs. 
The  Goat,  which  in  some  parts  of  Italy  supplies  the  only  milk  and  butter  known  to  the 
inhabitants,  is  of  little  utility  in  a  country  abounding  in  sheep  and  o.xen.  But  to  the  Welsh 
inountaincer.s  it  is  a  valuable  animal :  the  suet  will  make  excellent  candles ;  the  meat  is 
little  inferior  to  venison,  and  those  who  have  habitually  feasted  upon  mountain  kid,  know 
how  superior  its  flavour  is  to  lamb. 

The  Horses  of  Britain,  improved  as  they  have  been  by  the  most  sedulous  care,  ne.xt  to 
tlie  Arabian,  are  the  finest  in  the  world.  Tlic  British  breeds,  originally  but  ill  adapted  for 
the  saddle,  have  progressively  improved;  ond  the  crossing  of  the  indigcnou.a  kind  with  those 
of  other  countries  has  pnxluced  four  principal  classes  of  horses, — the  Racer,  the  Hunter,  the 
Roadster,  and  the  Dray  Horse;  to  these  may  be  added  the  Poney,  one  of  the  original  breeds. 
The  Ornithology  of  Great  Britain,  ofter  the  general  observations  already  made  on  that  of 
Europe,  will  be  hero  but  briefly  dwelt  upon.  The  native  birds  may  be  arranged  under  throe 
natural  divisions: — 1.  the  rapacious;  2.  the  perching;  and  3.  the  walking,  running  an<l 
swinnning  orders. 

Tho  rapacious  birds,  as  in  all  otlier  countries,  are  the  smallest  in  number,  but  the  most 
formidable  in  strength.    Among  these  the  Golden  Eagle  {Aquila  chrysailon,  fig.  123.)  is  the 
12;j  largest  known  in  the  British  islands:  tliis  noble  bird 

weighs  twelve  pounds,  and  is  still  fbund  among  the 
higliest  of  the  Welsh  and  Cumberland  mountains ;  it  is 
said  also  to  breed  in  Orkney.  The  Erne  or  Sea  Eagle 
is  somewhat  smaller,  and  is  principally  confined  to  the 
maritime  rocks  of  Wales  and  North  Britain.  The  Fal- 
con tribe  is  more  numerous  in  species ;  but  tiie  destruc- 
tion to  which  they  are  doomed  by  game  preservers  has 
long  been  diminishing  their  numbers :  some  species  are 
GoUou  Eojie.  almost  extirpated,  and  nearly  all  are  now  become  rare. 

Tiio  Osprey  (I'andion  ITaluctus),  or  Fishing  Eagle,  is  now  seldom  met  with.  The  two 
species  of  I  lenharrie  (Cirrus  cyanent  and  cinrrascens)  were  first  discriminatpd  by  ]Montagu. 
Tlio  Owls  am  similar  to  those  of  the  Continent,  but  the  great  Snowy  Owl  has  only  of  late 
years  been  dntncted  in  the  north  of  Scotland  as  a  native  bird.  The  Eagle  or  great  horned 
Owl  is  of  tlii>  same  size;  the  former  hunting  by  day,  the  latter  by  night.  The  Bam  oi 
White  Owl  is  Imown  to  every  former,  and  appears  to  be  distributed  over  the  whole  habi 
table  glolx*. 
Vol.  I.  28  2  S 


■>i- 


■'"...  Ji 


mi 


i^u-    pi 


■.ikf 


338 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  111. 


iM 


The  toothed-bill  or  perching  birds  (Dentirostres  Sw.)  are  those  fiimished  witli  a  notch  to 
thnir  bill,  by  which  their  food  is  held  iirm  before  it  is  swallowed.  Some  are  formed  to  climb, 
others  to  hop  on  the  ground,  and  a  few  catch  their  food  (like  the  swallows)  upon  the  win^. 
Tiicy  are  united  to  the  rapacious  order  by  the  shrikes  or  butcher-birds,  so  called  from  their 
>>ing(ilar  custom  of  impaling  insects  and  small  birds  upon  the  tlioms  round  their  nests.  Three 
Kpecies  of  these  birtls  are  known  in  Britain.  The  melody  of  the  Blackbird  and  Song-thrush 
ne(\l  not  be  eulogised;  and  during  spring  and  summer  the  woods  and  hedges  are  enlivened 
by  numbers  of  warblers,  or  small  insectivorous  birds,  which  visit  them  in  the  breeding  season : 
uinong  which  the  Nightingale  is  most  conspicuous.  Large  flocks  of  Finches,  and  similar 
linnl-billed  birds,  feast,  in  winter,  upon  the  red  berries  of  the  black  and  white  thorn;  while 
Crows,  Starlings,  and  Fieldfares  devour  prodigious  quantities  of  slugs,  worms,  and  other 
animals  noxious  to  the  farmer.  The  Woodpeckers,  Creepers,  and  Titmice  prey  only  upon 
those  insects  prejudicial  to  trees ;  the  Swallows,  during  summer,  join  with  the  warblers  in 
Keeping  within  due  bounds  the  myriads  of  insects,  which  would  otiierwise  increase  to  an 
ulanning  extent 

The  entire-billed  birds  {Curtipedes  Sw.)  are  those  which  have  no  notch  at  the  end  of  their 
bill,  and  never  seek  their  food  among  trees :  they  are  united  to  the  former  by  the  Pigeons, 
and  comprise  the  gallinaceous,  wading,  and  swimming  tribes.  Among  the  first  Britain  pos- 
sesses the  Partridge,  Grouse,  and  Quail,  but  more  particularly  the  Great  Bustard,  the  largest 
of  the  European  gallinacea:  its  weight  is  about  25  lbs.,  and  its  flesh  excellent.  To  enume- 
rate the  wading  and  swimming  birds  would  far  exceed  our  limits :  they  visit  the  coasts  prin- 
cipally in  winter,  and  depart  in  spring. 
The  exterminated  birds  are  very  few;  for  although  some,  as  the  Egret  (Jis.  124.)  and  the 
Crane,  are  no  longer  common  in  Britain,  yet  individuals  are  some- 
times met  with,  showing  that  man  and  not  nature  has  scared  them 
from  their  hereditary  range.  Perhaps  the  only  extirpated  species 
is  the  cock  of  the  wood,orcapercaillie  grouse  (TctraolVo^aZ/usL.), 
a  noble  bird  of  game,  weighing  near  thirteen  pounds;  once  com- 
mon in  the  fir  forests  of  Scotland,  but  which  has  not  been  seen,  it 
is  said,  since  1760. 

Of  domesticated  birds  the  Pheasant  originally  came  from  Asia 
Minor;  the  Guinea  Hen  from  Africa;  the  Peacock  and  Fowl  from 
India:  and  the  Turkey  from  America. 

The  fishes,  both  marine  and  freshwater,  are  numerous:  most  are 
edible,  and  many  highly  esteemed.  Whale,  and  other  cetacea,  arc 
mostly  confined  to  the  northern  shores:  but  those  of  the  west  art 
famous  for  the  herring  and  pilchard  fisheries.  The  John  Doree  is 
as  remarkable  for  its  grotesque  form  as  for  its  exquisite  flavour. 
The  Tiirbot,  Cod,  Sole,  &,c.  are  well  known.  The  chief  river  fish 
are  the  Salmon,  Trout,  and  Char;  and  these  are  principally  fbr- 
nished  by  the  northern  counties.  The  salmon  fisheries  are  highly  important,  and  have  long 
engaged  the  attention  of  the  legislature:  the  eggs  of  one  fish  will  often  exceed  15,000. 
The  Cliar  is  con!iiied  to  the  lakes  of  Cumberland  and  Westmoreland ;  those  of  Windermere 
are  the  best,  and  when  potted  become  a  great  delicacy.  The  Herring  and  Sprat  supply  the 
poor,  during  winter,  with  a  wliolesome  dish ;  while  the  citizens  of  London  consider  another 
f^pecies,  called  the  White  Bait,  as  possessing  a  peculiarly  line  flavour.  The  Anchovy  is  not 
unknown  in  some  of  our  estuaries;  and  even  the  Flying-*'^h  has  occasionally  wandered  to 
the  Welsh  coast. 

The  reptiles  of  Britain,  known  in  a  living  state,  are  very  few.     Besides  the  Warty  Eft 
{L'ircrta  palustris  Lin.,  Jiff.  12.^.)  there  are  two  other  water  lizards,  and  probably  as  many 
125  126 


Egret. 


VViirtr  Efi.  Cumfflon  Viper. 

.-|i(cics  inhabiting  the  land.  Of  the  Frog  and  Toad  two  sorts  of  each  occur.  The  snakes 
iniil  thi'  blind-worm  are  harmless;  the  Common  Viper  (fff.  126.)  being  the  only  venomous 
r(>|)tili' :  yft  this  species  varies  so  much  in  its  colours,  that  naturalists  have  described  it  under 
Kpvi  ral  names.  The  Great  or  Gigantic  Frog  of  Pennant  is  only  a  variety  of  the  common 
-.oad. 

Extinct  rrptik.i.  The  researches  of  geoloirists  have  brought  to  light  the  remains  nf  such 
(.'igantic  and  extraordinary  reptiles,  that,  but  for  such  indiibitnlilo  prwfs,  their  existence 
tniglit  Ite  thought  fibiilous.  At  the  head  of  llifse  wi<  nrny  place  the  Mr(ralosaiirns,  rosem 
Wiuf  both  a  lizard  anil  a  crocodile,  wlio'^p  piubible  length  was  near  40  feet!     The  Ichthyo 


muddy  bi 
plants ; 
shady  sti 
Native 
are  the  p 
raon  in  n 
British 


<;V 


BOOE  I. 


ENGLAND. 


iiaurus,  uniting  the  cliaractera  of  a  lizard  with  the  snout  of  a  dolpliin,  the  teeth  of  a  croco- 
dile, the  fins  of  a  turtle,  aod  the  vertebrte  of  a  fisti,  ia  scarcely  less  wonderful.  The  Plesio- 
Baurua  is  still  more  extraordinary ;  for  with  the  fins  of  a  turtle,  it  had  the  head  of  a  lizard,  and 
a  long  neck,  formed  like  the  body  of  a  serpent.  Lastly,  the  remains  of  several  distinct 
species  of  crocodiles  have  been  discovered  in  similar  strata.  All  these  attest  the  existence, 
lit  some  unknown  period,  of  a  stupendous  race  of  aquatic  monsters,  which  have  long  been 
swept  away  from  tlio  existing  animal  creation. 

Among  the  radiated  animals,  vast  shoals  of  transparent  Medusm  wander  about  the  coast 
during  summer,  and  are  frequently  by  a  sudden  change  of  wind  cast  up  on  the  beach  in 
great  numbers.  But  the  deep  recesses  of  the  ocean  frequently  give  to  the  nets  of  the 
fisherman  animals  still  more  singular.  The  Black  Line  Worm,  or  Sea  Long  Worm  (Lm- 
n«M«  longits,  lu  Sow.,  Jf^.  127.),  whose  mouth  is  hardljr  a  quarter  of  an  inch  wide,  is  said, 
by  the  fisiiermun,  to  measure  twelve  fathoms  in  length :  it  is  soft,  and  so  fragile,  that  the 
entire  animal  seems  not  yet  to  have  been  procured. 


Black  line  Warm. 


Mir-bloaom  Coral. 


Ellis  was  the  first  to  make  known  the  true  nature  of  those  plant-like  productions  generally 
termed  corallines.  Of  Corals,  the  British  seas  afford  few  native  species ;  the  largest  and 
most  elegant  is  the  May-blossom  coral  {Caryophyllia  ramea),  (Jig.  128.),  common  in  tho 
Mediterranean,  and  occasionally  found  upon  the  Cornish  coast :  it  is  cinnamon-coloured ;  and 
retains,  for  many  years,  a  slight  scent,  like  that  of  hawthorn. 

The  Conchology  of  Britain,  in  the  number  and  interest  of  its  species,  compensates  for  its 
deficiency  in  large  or  richly  coloured  objects.  The  beautiful  varieties  of  Per'.en  opercti- 
laris  are,  nevertheless,  frequently  variegated  with  the  most  lovely  tints  of  yellow,  orange, 
pink,  and  deep  red ;  they  also  afford  a  nutritious  food  to  the  lower  classes.  The  most  cele- 
brated edible  shell-fish  is  the  oyster,  well  known  and  highly  prized  by  the  luxurious  Romans ; 
and  every  one  is  acquainted  with  the  superior  excellency  of  those  from  Colchester  and 
Milton.  Fluviatile  shells,  in  a  country  so  humid  and  watered  as  Britain,  are  more  abundant 
than  towards  the  south  nf  Europe.  Most  of  the  rivers  produce  Unio  pictorum  (Jiff.  129.  a), 
and  Unio  ovatus  (6) :  Cyclas  cornea  (rf)  is  generally  found  in  the  same  situations.  The  ponds 
and  stagnant  waters  are  frequently  covered  with  Lymneus  palustris  (e),  ovatus  (jf),  and 
Planorbis  comeus  (Z) ;  while  the  large  Duck-mussel  {Anodon  anatinus)  (c)  burrows  in  the 

129  I  - 


Unio  Mariwiliicra. 


Fluviatile  Bhclli. 

muddy  bottom,  A  little  fragile  shell,  Succinea  amphibia  (/),  crawls  ujion  ruslies  and  aquatic 
plants;  and  Physa  fontinalis  (A),  Ancylus  lacustris  (t),  and  Planorbis  vortex  (k)  prefer  clear 
shady  streams  and  ditches  overhung  with  wood. 

Native  pearls  were  reckoned  by  the  Romans  among  the  productions  of  Britain.  They 
are  the  produce  of  a  fluviatile  bivalve  shell,  the  Unio  margaritifera,  (Jig.  130.),  still  com- 
mon in  many  of  the  nortliern  counties ;  but  it  was  on  tlie  btuiks  of  the  Welsh  rivers  that  the 
British  pearl  fishery  was  chiefly  carried  on. 


f  *i 


340 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


i  I 


,,w2^  j*V..  Considerinff  the  nature  of  the  climate,  it  may  excite  surpriae,  that  more  than 
10,(K)0  diflerent  species  have  actually  been  found  to  inhabit  Britain.  Yet  the  bee  may  ho 
reckoned  the  only  insect  whose  services  are  immediately  and  obviousW  beneficial  to  man. 
Ainong  the  butterflies,  are  many  of  great  beauty;  while  Eurymus  Eurodomo,  or  the  Clouded 
Sulphur  (fg.  131.),  18  considered  one  of  the  rarest  British  insects. 


Clouded  Sulphur 


Red  Grouse. 


Scotland.  The  zoolo<ry  of  Scotland  exhibits  many  arctic  animals  as  common  inlmbitantR, 
which  are  only  known  as  rare  visitants  to  the  western  shores  of  England ;  in  other  respects, 
it  does  not  materially  differ  from  that  of  South  Britain.  The  northern  ii^lands  give  shelter 
to  innumerable  wild  fowl,  and  to  many  peculiar  land  birds,  as  the  Ptarmi^n  and  the  Golden 
Eagle.  The  great  horned  or  Eagle  Owl,  is  found  to  breed  in  Orkney.  The  Highlands  are 
famous  for  an  abundance  of  Grouse,  the  red  species  {Lagopus  sroticus,  fig,  132.)  being  the 
only  bird  peculiar  to  Great  Britain. 

The  domestic  animals  are  of  a  small  size ;  in  other  respects,  they  are  highly  valuable. 
The  polled  or  honiless  cattle,  with  the  Highland  and  the  Fifeshire,  have  already  been  noticed. 
The  Kyloe  breed  are  so  named,  because  m  their  progress  to  the  south  from  the  Hebrides, 
they  cross  the  kyloes  or  ferries  in  the  main  land  and  Western  Islands.  {Ham.  Smith.) 
The  same  writer  considers  that  the  sheep  of  this  kingdom  spring  from  three  principal  breeds : 
tlie  first  is  generally  named  dun-fiiced  sheep ;  they  are  a  small,  homed  race,  said  to  have 
been  originally  imported  from  Denmark  or  Norway,  and  are  still  found,  with  slight  varia- 
tions, in  the  North  of  Scotland  and  the  isles.  In  Kincardineshire,  this  breed  is  known  by 
its  yellow  face  and  legs,  and  by  the  dishevelled  texture  of  its  fleece,  which  is  in  part  coarse, 
and  in  part  remarkably  fine  wool ;  its  flesh  also  is  delicate  and  highly  flavoured.  The  Shet- 
land breed  carry  a  very  fine  wool,  in  three  different  successions  yearly,  two  of  which  resem- 
ble long  hair  more  than  wool,  and  are  called  Fors  and  Scudda.  The  wool  is  of  various 
colours.  The  Ilebridiun  sheep  is  the  smallest  animal  of  its  kind ;  its  horns  are  usually  short 
and  straight,  the  face  and  legs  white,  the  tail  very  short,  and  the  W(X)1  of  different  colours. 

The  Highland  Ponies  and  Shetland  Ponies  (fig.  133.),  notwithstanding  their  diminutive 
size,  are  greatly  esteemed  for  their  activity  and  strength. 

133  134 


Highland  Pony.  Soottah  Grejhound. 

Among  the  numerous  breeds  of  dogs,  there  appear  to  be  three  more  particularly  found  in 
Scotland:  the  true  Shepherd's  Dog,  or  Colly,  is  still  preserved,  unmixed,  in  many  of  the 
sheep  districts:  the  Shetland  Hound,  approuchos  in  character  to  the  Greenland  Dog;  while 
the  Scottish  Greyhound  (.fig.  134.),  common  in  the  Highlands,  is  possessed  of  great  sagacity, 
strength,  and  swiflness. 

The  Zoology  of  Irclnnd  lias  boon  much  neglected ;  nor  are  we  prepared  to  show  what 
Mculiarities  belong  to  its  natural  history.  The  Irish  Wolf  Dog,  called  also  the  Irish  Grtjy- 
liound,  has  generally  been  thought  peculiar  to  this  island ;  but  others  consider  it  the  sanie 
breed  as  the  French  mittin  (Ciinis  laninrius  L.)  It  is  a  noble  animal,  standing  near  four 
feet  in  height,  and  seems  to  have  been  mainly  instrumental  in  clearing  the  country  of  the 
numerous  wolves  which  once  over-ran  it.  The  cattle  and  sheep  arc  inferior  to  tliose  ol' 
Britain.  Yet  Ireland  exiwrts  va.st  quantities  of  salted  provisions,  besides  the  supplies  fiir- 
nifthed  to  the  navy  and  shipping  interests.  The  remains  of  the  Fossil  Elk  (fig.  135.)  are  of 
frequent  occurrence  in  beds  of  shell  marl,  beneath  peat.  Its  antlers  measure  from  the 
extreme  tip  of  each,  no  less  than  ten  feet  ten  inches,  and  from  the  tip  of  the  right  horn  tc 


LET 


IH. 


ira  than 
may  lie 
to  man. 
CloudfJ 


habitants, 
:  respects, 
ve  shelter 
he  Golden 
hlands  are 
being  the 

y  valuable, 
en  noticed. 
I  Hebrides, 
m.  Smith.) 
pal  breeds : 
mid  to  have 
light  varia- 
I  known  by 
part  coarse, 

The  Shet- 
ihich  rescm- 
j  of  various 
isually  short 
ent  colours. 

diminutive 


irly  found  in 

[iiiany  of  the. 

Dog;  wliil« 

|eat  saf^city, 

,  show  what 
J  Irish  Grey- 
fit  tlie  same 
]ig  near  four 
luntry  of  the 
4  to  those  of 
Isupplics  fur- 
1 135.)  are  of 
lire  froui  tlie 
liglit  horn  tc 


UOOK  I. 


ENGLAND. 


341 


its  root,  five  feet  two  inches.  Remains  of  tlie  same  animal  have  been  also  found  in  England, 
and  u  very  perfect  specimen  in  tiie  Isle  of  Man.  Tiie  Irish  sliores  furnish  the  concliologist 
with  several  native  shells,  seldom  seen  on  the  British  coasts,  particularly  the  Isocardia  cor, 
or  Heart  Cockle  (Jg.  136.). 


,  FowllElk. 

Iletn  Cackle. 

Sect.  III. — Historical  Oeography. 

Britain  was  originally  peopled  from  Gaul,  by  inhabitants  of  the  Celtic  race.  For  a  long 
time  it  appears  to  have  bt'cn  noticed  only  as  a  country  supplying;  tin ;  a  rare  and  useful  metal, 
not  then  found  in  any  other  part  of  Europe,  or  in  Western  Asia.  To  obtain  this  valuable 
mineral,  the  coasts  of  Britain  were  at  an  early  period  sought  by  the  ships  of  various  mer- 
cantile states,  especially  the  Carthaginians  ;  and  the  tin  of  Tarshish,  mentioned  by  Ezekiel, 
was  doubtless  brougtit  from  the  mines  of  ('ornwall. 

Britain  was  invmled  by  the  Romans,  about  filly-five  years  before  the  Christian  era.  Of 
the  thirty  tribes  of  barbarians  amo'  »vliom  the  country  was  then  divided,  the  most  consid- 
erable were  tlie  BelgnJ  in  the  west,  the  Brigantcs  in  the  north,  the  Silures  in  South  Wales, 
tlie  Iceni  in  Norfolk  and  Suffolk,  and  the  Cantii,  who  occupied  Kent  and  part  of  Middlesex. 
The  latter  had  made  some  progress  in  agriculture  and  the  arts  of  civilized  life;  but  tlie 
other  inhabitants  derived  tiicir  sul.distciice  from  flocks  and  herds,  clothed  themselves  in  skins, 
and  painted  their  bodies.  The  precarious  authority  of  the  chiefs  derived  support  from  thi- 
influence  e.vercised  by  the  Druids,  in  one  of  the  most  terriiile  forms  of  superstition  tliatevor 
enslaved  the  human  iniml.  Besides  the  ordinary  implements  of  wor,  they  had  armed  chariots, 
wiiich  thoy  maimged  with  surprising  dexterity;  and  tlicy  were  united  in  a  species  of  polili- 
cal  confedoniry,  of  which  Cassivelaunus  wos  the  Iicad.  They  could  not,  however  prcvciit 
the  landiiifr  of  Julins  ('ipsir.  but  that  conqueror  was  prevented  by  more  urgent  aft'airs  fruisi 
prosecutinir  an  enterprise  of  which  the  difficulties  were  not  likely  to  be  componhuted  l.y  its 
t'lory.  In  the  reign  of  Claudius  the  hardihofid  of  Carnctacus,  and  tlie  heroic  desperation  ot" 
Boadicea,  failed  of  exciting  an  effectual  resistance  to  tlie  disciplined  legions  of  Rome,  whose 
victorious  progress  was  continued  during  the  reiu'ii  of  Nero.  In  that  of  Domitian,  the  Ro- 
man dominion  was  extended  by  the  wisdom  and  valour  of  Agricola,  who  defeated  tlie  Cale- 
donians under  Galgacus,  at  the  foot  of  the  Grampians ;  and  the  only  part  of  the  island  which 
remained  unsubdued  was  the  region  which  lies  north  of  that  natural  rampart. 

The  Britons  now  subjected  to  the  Roman  empire  were  compelled  to  cultivate  the  habits 
and  arts  of  peace :  but  when  that  empire,  weakened,  distracted,  and  verging  to  its  decline!, 
was  compelled  to  withdraw  its  protection  from  its  distant  provinces,  the  Scots  and  Picts, 
emerging  from  their  mountain  fastnesses,  then  broke  in,  and  committed  dreadfiil  devastations 
among  their  unwarliko  neighbours.  The  Romans  had  recourse  to  the  expedient  of  frontier 
walls;  first,  one  between  the  Forth  and  Clyde,  called  the  Wall  of  Antonine,  and  afterwards 
a  similar  rampart  between  the  Tyne  and  Solway,  called  tiie  Wall  of  Severus.  About  the 
middle  of  the  fifth  century,  the  Roman  forces  were  finally  withdrawn,  and  the  Briton." 
were  left  to  depend  entirely  on  their  own  resources. 

The  Saxons  wore  called  in  as  allies,  about  forty  years  after  the  dissolution  of  the  Roman 
government.  These  hardy  adventurers,  originating  from  the  north  of  Germany,  and  occupy- 
ing the  line  of  coast  from  Jie  mouth  of  the  Rh'ne  to  .Jutland,  hail  long  infested  by  their 
piracies  the  neitrhb-'iring  parts  of  Britain  and  Gaul.  Thoy  eagerly  accepted  an  invitation 
to  a  country  so  superior  to  their  own.  In  the  year  V)0,  16(K)  men  under  Ilengist  and  Horsa, 
arrived  in  Britain,  and  obtained  an  easy  victory  over  the  Scots  and  Picts.  The  success  of 
the  two  brothers  attracted  numerous  bands  of  their  countrymen;  and  in  the  course  of  a  cen 
ttiry,  colonies  arrived  from  the  mouths  of  the  Ell)e,  the  Weser,  and  the  Rhine,  chiefl) 
comjitised  of  three  valiant  trilics,  the  Jutrn,  the  Old  Saxons,  and  the  Angles.  From  iillies, 
they  becaino  fiinnidahle  enemies  to  the  Britons;  whom,  afler  a  long  and  sanguinary  struggle 
of  one  huiiilrod  and  fitly  years,  thoy  compelled  to  retire  into  Wales  and  Cornwall. 

Thus  was  established  the  Heptarchy,  or  Sevou  Saxon  Kingdoms  in  Britain:  viz.  1.  Kent, 
2.  Sussex,  including  Surrey  ;  tl  Eas-t  Englas,  including  Norfolk,  SnlToIk,  the  Isle  of  Ely,  and 
'Cambridgeshire;  4.  Wesscx,  including  all  tiie  southern  counties  trtnn  Ik'rkshire  toCornwall ; 
5.  Nortlniiiilii'riand,  inclnilin!r  all  tlie  nortliprii  counties  of  England,  ;nd  tlie  southern  coun- 
ties of  Scotland  to  t!ii>  I'Yith  of  Forth;  6.  Essex,  including  Essex,  Middlesex,  -ind  part  of 


m 


m 

n 

tiki' 

w 

It-  ^ 

w 


I 


I.-  t 

H 


I 


;■'  ivi 


DESCRirTIVE  GEOGRAPHY, 


Part  III. 


HcrtforJsiiiro ;  7.  Mcrcryc,  or  Mnrcia,  tliu  largest  ilivitfion,  includin{;  the  midland  district* 
of  Eiifrland  to  the  coiitines  of  VViilua. 

About  the  ynur  8()0  thoHc  email  Htutea  wore  united  into  one  kingfdoin,  uniler  the  name  of 
Kiiiflunil,  by  Egbert,  king  of  VVestiox.  The  Anglo-Siixon  dynasty  derived  its  uliief  lustro 
Irnni  AUml,  one  of  the  wisest  and  most  virtuous  inonarchs  that  have  appeared  in  any  age  or 
country.  He  delivered  his  country  from  the  thraldom  of  the  Danes;  but  in  the  course  of 
the  ensuing  century,  however,  they  regained  the  ascendency;  and  in  1017,  Canute,  kin#( 
of  Denmark  and  Norway,  added  England  to  his  dominions.  It  was  held  successively  by  his 
sons,  Harold  and  Hardicanute;  but  on  the  death  of  the  latter,  it  waa  restored  to  the  Saxon 
dynasty,  and  Edward  the  Confessor  ascended  the  throne. 

The  conquest  by  William  of  Normandy,  in  1006,  overthrow  for  a  time  tlie  liberties  of  the 
(leople  of  EnelanJ.  Claiming  the  crown  by  virtue  of  a  pretended  grant  from  Edward  th(! 
Confessor,  and  acquiring  it  by  victory  over  Harold  II.,  himself  an  usurper,  to  the  prejudice 
of  Ekl^rar  Atheling,  the  rightful  heir,  ho  maintained  by  tyranny  a  dominion  gained  by  fraud 
and  violence.  One  of  the  consequences  of  the  acquisition  of  the  English  crown  by  William 
was  to  convey  to  the  kings  his  successors  certain  claims  on  the  French  territory,  which  led 
to  long,  expensive,  and  sanguinary  wars. 

Henry  the  Second,  surnamcd  Plantagenet,  son  of  Geoflry  of  Anjou,  who  married  Matilda, 
daughter  of  Henry  I.,  in  the  right  of  his  father,  was  master  of  Anjou  and  Touraine;  in  that 
of  his  mother,  of  Normandy  and  Maine;  in  that  of  his  wife,  of  Guicnnc,  Poitou,  Saintonge, 
Auvergne,  Perigord,  Angoumois,  and  the  Limousin.  To  these  states  he  atlcrwards  annexed 
that  ot  Brctagne.  The  possession  of  provinces  composing  above  one-third  of  the  French 
monarchy,  and  superior  in  opulence  to  the  rest  of  the  territory,  rendered  this  vassal  more 
powerful  than  his  liege  lord,  and  contributed  to  provoke  that  rivalry  which  for  ages  existed 
between  England  and  France.  Henry  the  Second  acquired  the  sovereignty  of  Irclimd ; 
Edward  tlie  First  annexed  Wales  to  his  dominions,  and  for  a  time  subjugated  Scotland. 
The  contending  claims  of  the  houses  of  York  and  Iioncaster  for  the  crown  of  England,  after 
n  civil  war  of  nearly  sixty  years,  were  adjusted  by  the  marriage  of  Henry  the  Seventh  with 
Elizubctli,  daughter  of  Edward  the  Fourth.  Among  the  memorable  events  that  occurred 
under  the  Plantogenots,  may  be  noticed  the  signature  of  Magna  Charto,  extorted  by  the 
Imrons  from  King  John;  the  rise  of  the  House  of  Commons  in  the  reign  of  Henry  tiie  Third; 
and  tlie  reformation  of  the  church,  commenced  by  John  Wicklifle,  in  1369. 

Tlie  reign  of  Henry  the  Seventh  was  signalized  by  the  overthrow  of  the  feudal  sway,  and 
by  tlic  introduction  of  the  modern  system  of  polity.  The  emancipation  of  the  kingdom  trom 
papal  dominion  was  effected  by  his  successor.  In  tlie  reign  of  Elizabeth,  the  most  strenuous 
exertions  were  made  to  strengtlien  the  maritime  power  of  England,  and  extend  her  com- 
mercial intercourse.  The  result  of  these  measures  was  to  raise  the  nation  to  a  very  pros- 
perous and  flourishing  condition,  and  to  overturn  the  lawless  domination  of  the  nobles, 
substituting  for  it,  however,  an  autliority  almost  absolute  on  the  part  of  the  sovereign. 

The  union  of  the  two  crowns  on  the  accession  of  James  the  Sixth  of  Scotland  to  the  throne 
of  England,  terminated  those  animosities  which  had  proved  alike  injurious  to  both  countries. 
Tiie  despotic  conduct  of  Charles  the  First  led  to  a  struggle  in  which  he  lost  both  his  crown 
!ind  his  life.  In  the  interregnum  wliich  ensued  under  the  Commonwealth,  the  vigilant, 
energetic,  end  decisive  policy  of  Oliver  Cromwell  exercised  a  commanding  influence  over 
every  cabinet  in  Europe.  Charles  the  Second  suftered  England  to  lose  the  ascendency 
wliich  .she  had  attained,  and  the  infatuated  conduct  of  James  Uie  Second  led  to  the  revolu- 
tion of  l(i88,  from  which  epoch  to  the  present  time,  the  industry,  commerce,  and  wealth  of 
<irivit  Britain,  rapidly  rose  to  a  height  unparalleled  in  any  other  nation,  ancient  or  modern; 
lint  lior  political  power  sustained  various  fluctuations.  She  acquired  in  the  East  and  in  the 
West  two  empires,  each  far  more  extensive  tlian  her  own  territory.  That  in  the  East  she 
rotJiins  and  is  rontinually  extending ;  that  in  tlio  West,  having  become  independent,  is  hei 
rival  in  commerce,  and  manifests  a  disposition  to  dispute,  at  no  distant  period,  her  maritime 
supremacy.  Among  the  memorable  transactions  and  events  of  this  period  may  be  ranked 
the  union  with  Scotland  in  1707 ;  that  with  Ireland  in  1801 ;  tlie  Scottish  rebellions  in  1715 
imd  1745 ;  the  Irish  rebellion  in  179H ;  and  a  scries  of  wars  with  France,  occurring  at 
intervals  rarely  exceeding  eight  or  ten  years.  The  contests  arising  from  the  French 
revolution  were  distinguished  by  the  most  brilliant  naval  achievements,  and  afterwards  by 
.successes  which  raised  the  military  glory  of  England  to  a  level  with  her  maritime  renown, 
rendering  her  influence  paramount  among  the  states  of  Europe. 

Sect.  IV. — Political  Geography. 
Tiio  constitution  of  Great  Britain  centres  in  the  laws  by  which  the  country  is  governed, 
and  in  the  union  of  powers  by  which  the  laws  are  made  and  the  government  is  administered. 
Tlio  Irfrisliitive  power  is  vested  in  the  Parliament,  consisting  of  the  Kino,  an  hereditary 
■iovereign ;  the  I/)Rns,  an  hereditary  aristocracy ;  and  the  Hovsr  of  Commons,  consisting  of 
iimmbers  chosen  by  the  |)eop!o  from  among  themselves,  and  theretorc  said  to  represent  tho 
commons  of  the  realm.     The  exrculice  p<wer  is  entrusted  to  the  kinL'. 


!  ,       V-   ■     .'t 


"F 


Part  HI. 

1  (llatricU 

3  name  of 
lief  lu«tro 
my  age  or 
course  of 
imte,  kinj? 
trcly  by  Ilia 
the  Saxon 

rties  of  thu 
Wward  the; 
B  prejiidicc 
cd  by  fraud 
l)y  William 
,  which  led 

led  Matilda, 
ine ;  in  that 

Saintongc, 
.rds  annexed 
the  French 
vassal  more 
ages  existed 

of  Ireland ; 
;d  Scotland, 
ngland,  after 
teventh  with 
hat  occurred 
orted  by  the 
ry  the  Third ; 

lal  sway,  and 
tingdom  from 
ost  strenuous 
jnd  her  com- 
)  a  very  pros- 
f  the  nobles, 
ereign. 
to  the  throne 
ath  countries. 
3th  his  crown 
the  vigilant, 
ifluence  over 
„  ascendency 
to  the  revolu- 
nd  wealth  of 
[jt  or  modern ; 
ast  and  in  tho 
the  East  she 
endent,  is  hei 
her  maritime 
lay  bo  ranked 
illions  in  171.'J 
occurring  at 
,.  the  French 
afterwards  by 
itime  renown. 


is  governed, 
1  administered. 

an  hereditary 
I,  consisting  of 

represent  tho 


Book  I.  ENGLAND.  843 

Of  the  three  «  Jites  of  tho  realm  thus  coiniHwing  the  legislature,  tJie  King  is  the  liigjiost: 
he  is  tiie  head  or  chief  of  the  parliament:  aiul  except  in  extrenio  case-s  a  [Kirlianicnl  cannot 
be  held  unless  convoked  by  him,  nor  can  it  except  by  him  be  disM)lved  or  prorogued.  His 
assent  is  requisite  to  give  the  tbrce  of  law  to  any  incasure  proposed  by  either  of  tho  two 
houses,  and  agreed  upon  by  them.  I'ropositiona  of  laws,  or  bill*  aa  they  are  technically 
called,  may  be  brought  forward  in  either  house ;  all  money  bills  must  take  their  origin  in  tlie 
House  of  Commons;  but  only  in  one  instance  con  the  king  initiate  an  act  of  parliament,  and 
that  is,  an  act  of  grace,  for  the  pardon  of  persons  after  a  rebellion,  or  tor  tho  reh^ase  of  insol- 
vent debtors. 

The  King  is  not  supposed  to  hold  his  throne  by  divine  right,  or  in  virtue  of  any  indefea- 
sible hereditary  claim.  The  nation,  by  its  supreme  council,  has  dictated  certain  rules  of 
exclusion  with  regard  to  the  succession,  of  which  the  most  important  is,  that  tho  sovereign 
shall  maintain  tho  Protestant  reformed  religion,  and,  cither  at  his  coronation  or  on  tho  first 
day  of  the  first  parliament,  shall  repeat  and  subscribe  the  declaration  against  popery.  On 
the  death  or  demise  of  the  king,  his  heir  becomes  instantly  invested  with  the  kingly  office 
and  regal  power. 

By  a  constitutional  fiction  accordant  with  the  feudal  policy,  all  lands  are  held  mediately  or 
immediately  from  tho  crown.  Thus  the  king  is  entitled  to  all  lands  left  by  the  subsiding  of 
the  sea ;  and  estates  may  revert  to  him  by  escheat,  ft'om  the  commission  of  crime  by  tneir 
possessors.  He  is  sovereign  in  ull  seas  and  great  rivers ;  he  alone  has  a  prerogative  to  erect 
beacons  and  lighthouses;  he  is  entitled  to  all  royal  mines  of  ^old  and  silver, and  is  entrusted 
with  the  coinage.  All  persons  born  in  his  dominions  ore  his  subjects,  and  owe  to  him  an 
allegiance  which  they  can  neither  renounce  nor  transfer  to  an"  foreign  prince.  He  is  su- 
preme head  of  the  church  within  his  dominions;  and  as  pat-i  .  paramount  of  all  tho  benefices 
in  England,  he  has  a  right  to  present  to  all  dignities  and  iienefices  of  the  advowson  of  arch- 
bishoprics and  bishoprics  during  the  vacancy  of  thoir  respective  Be>.'  He  is  the  fountain  of 
justice,  and  has  an  undoubted  prerogative  in  creating  officers  of  suUe, ;  'nisters,  judges,  and 
other  functionaries.  To  him,  as  parrnn  jmtriee,  belongs  the  ciirc  of  all  wi.^  are  unable  tn 
take  care  of  themselves;  he  has  an  original  right  to  superintend  the  disposal  of  c!-"''ti.:.., 
and  in  all  such  cases  the  application  is  to  the  Court  of  Chancery.  Ho  has,  in  certain  caso;^, 
the  high  prerogative  of  pardoning,  and  likewise  that  of  is.suing  spctial  proclamations  fi)r  tho 
prevention  of  offences.  The  power  of  making  war  or  peace  is  lodged  singly  in  the  king.  He 
IS  held  to  be  incapable  of  doing  wrong,  and  if  an  unlawful  act  be  dont,  the  minister  instru- 
mental in  that  act  is  alone  obnoxious  to  punishment.  By  virtue  of  his  prerogative  the  kin^ 
may  make  grants  and  letters  patent,  conferring  various  rights  and  priv'lcgcs.  I^astly,  tiio 
king  cannot  be  attainted,  and  is  never  a  minor;  though  when  the  crow.i  has  devolved  to  u 
very  young  heir,  it  has  been  thought  prudent  to  appoint  a  regent,  or  council  of  regency. 
Tho  same  expedient  has  been  adopted  when,  by  reason  of  grievous  illness,  the  exercise  of 
the  royal  functions  has  been  interrupted. 

All  supplies  granted  by  parliament  are  given  to  the  king ;  but  of  these  the  largest  pro- 
portion belongs  to  the  public  or  its  creditors;  that  which  pertains  to  the  king  in  his  distinct 
capacity,  called  the  Civil  List,  is  the  provision  for  the  support  of  the  honour  and  dignity  of 
the  crown.  On  the  commencement  of  the  reign  of  William  IV.,  the  civil  list  was  entirely 
new-modelled,  being  limited  to  the  personal  expenses  of  the  sovereign,  and  the  maintenance 
of  his  state ;  while  the  branches  of  administration  hitherto  defrayed  out  of  it  were  charged 
upon  the  Consolidated  Fund,  The  sum  of  510,00(M.  was  granted,  under  the  following 
heads : — 

Privy  purse.  King's, £60,000 

Queen's, .50,000 

Maintenance  of  royal  establishment,  ..--... 171,000 

Salaries  in  the  departments  of  Chamberlain,  Steward,  Master  of  the  horse, 

home  secret  service,  &c.  -.--....-------    154,000 

Pensions,-    - 75,000 

£510,000 
Thus  the  royal  prerogative  is  counterbalanced  by  the  control  which  the  representatives 
of  the  people  in  parliament  exercise  over  the  public  purse.  Tho  king  has  the  prerogative 
of  commanding  arniies  and  equipping  fleets;  but  without  the  concurrence  of  his  parliament 
he  cannot  maintain  thein.  Ho  can  confer  appointments  to  offices ;  but  without  his  parlia- 
ment he  cannot  pay  the  salaries.  He  can  declare  war;  but  without  the  aid  of  parliament 
he  cannot  carry  it  on.  He  has  the  exclusive  right  of  assembling  parliaments;  but  by  law 
he  must  a."!semble  a  parliament  every  three  years.  Though  head  of  the  church,  he  cannot 
alter  tho  established  religion,  or  call  individuals  to  account  for  their  religious  opinions.  He 
cannot  create  any  new  office  inconsistent  with  the  constitution  or  prejudicial  to  tlio  subject. 
He  has  the  privilege  of  coining  money ;  but  he  cannot  alter  the  standard.  He  has  the  power 
of  pardoninsr  offenders ;  but  ho  cannot  exempt  them  from  making  compensation  to  the  injured 
parties.     Even  with  the  military  power  he  is  not  absolute,  since  it  is  declared  in  the  Bill  of 


:s; 


U44 


DEHCRIl'TIVE  CJE(XiUAI'llV. 


I'AKT  III. 


Rights  tliBt  II  Hlniuliiijf  army  witliout  ilii;  cotmunt  (ifixirliamt'iit  i»  illopil.  Tlio  kiiiij  liimwlf 
cannot  In?  arriiij^inMl ;  but  ii"  uny  nbiise  of  (Kjwer  bo  cuiniailtcil,  iIidki'  who  worn  citlier  the. 
ndvUiTH  or  the  inslriimontJ)  ot"  tlio  iiioaMiire  may  bo  iiii|K!ai:'ioil  iinil  trii.'d  bofon-  Iho  Kouho  ot" 
Lorils ;  in  wbicb  caav  it  in  of  no  avail  to  pleud  tiio  kin);'8  coiiiiiinnd,  or  to  prtHliicc  IiIh  purduii. 
A  (liawjlution  of  [Nirlianiunt  ilocs  not  ubutu  an  iuipouclimcnt,  ncith(^r  cun  tlio  royal  uiithority 
intor]K)rio  to  Htay  or  snsi>L'n(l  its  coufHU.  Other  roHtraint«  on  tlie  prtiroKut'vo  i^xist  in  tlio 
uncontrolled  freudoin  of  HiM'ech  in  parliuincnt,  ucciired  by  the  Bill  ot  Uit'hts  mid  in  tlip  iin- 
{lortunt  provisions  by  which,  durinjr  the  ruign  of  Ouorjfo  111.,  the  indopondcncu  of  rho  judfji'i* 
wiiH  cfitiiblishod. 

The  Ilonao  of  Lords  in  composed  of  the  lords  spiritual  and  toriiporal  of  Eiijjliuid ;  sixteiMi 
tLMnporal  peers  of  Scotland ;  one  archbishop,  three  bishops,  and  twenty-eight  t('tn|ioral  peers 
of  Ireland.     The  roll  of  the  lords  spiritual  and  tcni|H)ral  forming  the  llouse  of  I'eers,  in  the 


session  of  18i)d,  exhibits  420  lords,  including  the  Cutholic  peers  of  England, 
distinguished : — 


Tliey  are  thil-s 


Rnval  diikfii 4 

AKlibiHhiipii  . . '  "  ■ 3 

DiikiM  with  Biiglith  lltica SI 

MarqucKwa 10 


Earlii loa 

ViMriiitntH. IH 

niiihi>|i!< 'J7 

Ramus IHI 


Pouri  nf  Hcntland  . 
of  IrfcUnil. .  ■ 


10 


Tc.lnl. 


4M 


The  Ix)rda  Spiritual  are,  for  Eiiiflaiid,  t wo  archbishops  and  twenty-four  bisliops ;  and  for 
Ireland,  one  archbishop  and  tiree  bishops;  the  English  hold  their  »r;at»  for  lite,  the  Irish  by 
rotation.  The  archbisho|)s  rank  above  all  dukes  except  the  princes  of  the  blood ;  the  bishops 
next  below  viscounts. 

The  Ijords  Temporal  are  not  limited  in  number,  it  l)cing  the  prerogative  of  the  king  to 
raise  to  the  peerage  any  of  his  subjects  whuni  he  thinks  deserving,  They  consist  of  dukes, 
marquesses,  carls,  viscounts,  and  barons.  The  sixteen  peers  of  ScotLand  are,  by  the  articles 
of  union,  elected  by  tho  peers  of  that  country  from  among  themselves:  the  election  is 
renewed  for  every  parliament.  The  Peers  of  Ireland  are,  as  established  by  the  act  of  union, 
tour  lords  spiritual  sitting  by  rotation  of  sessions,  and  twenty-eight  lords  temporal  elected  for 
life  by  tho  peers  of  Ireland.  As  a  supreme  court  of  judicature,  the  House  of  Lords  exercises 
jurisdiction  in  civil  causes  u|Hjn  apiwals  or  writs  of  error  from  tho  inferior  courts ;  and  in 
criminal  questions,  when  brought  before  them,  by  presentment  of  the  House  of  Coinnions,  in 
the  form  of  an  impeachment. 

All  members  of  jNirliament  have  the  privilege  for  themselves  and  their  menlul  servants  of 
being  fri'c^d  from  arrests  or  imprisonment  for  debt  or  trespass ;  but  not  from  arrests  for  treason, 
ll'lony,  or  breach  of  tho  jjoace.  The  poors  have  other  privileyis  peculiar  to  thoMiselves.  In 
all  cases  of  treason,  felony,  or  misprision  of  felony,  a  nobleman  is  tried  by  his  i)eers;  but  in 
inisdemcanonrs,  he  is  tried  like  a  commoner.  In  judicial  proceedings,  a  peer  gives  his  ver- 
dict not  upon  oath,  but  u]x>n  his  honour;  ho  answers  also  to  bills  in  cliaiicery  upon  his  honour; 
but  when  examined  as  a  witness  in  the  inferior  courts  or  in  the  high  court  of  parliament, 
either  in  civil  or  criminal  cases,  he  must  be  sworn.  Slander  against  a  peer  subjects  the 
offender  to  very  lieavy  punishment,  being  ffranilcd  by  the  law  with  llio  term  satu<'aluin  mag- 
nalum.  Every  peer,  by  licen.se  from  the  king,  may  make  a  proxy  to  vote  for  him  in  his 
absence,  <t  privilege  which  cannot  be  held  by  a  member  of  the  lower  house.  All  bills  which 
may  a.Tect  the  rights  of  the  peerage,  are,  by  the  custom  of  ])arlianient,  to  originate  in  the 
House  of  Peers,  ond  to  suffer  no  changes  or  amendments  in  the  lower  house. 

The  House  of  Commons,  as  a  distinct  branch  of  the  legislature,  is  the  peculiar  boast  of 
the  British  constitution.  In  the  earliest  times  of  which  any  record  exists  in  English  history, 
tliere  appear  to  have  been  assemblies  of  the  nation,  convciked  to  deliberate  on  occasions  nf 
great  emergency ;  but  it  was  not  until  (A.  D.  1266)  atlor  the  overthrow  of  Simon  Montfort, 
earl  of  Leicester,  that  the  people  were  regularly  summoned  by  tho  king  to  send  represent- 
atives to  tho  great  council  of  Mie  nation.  The  crown,  little  upprehonsivo  of  the  formidable 
character  which  tho  House  of  Commons  was  artcrwnnls  to  assume,  liivoured  nil  the  sti'jw  of 
its  early  progress,  hoping  by  those  means  to  coutiter|xiiso  the  overbearing  sway  of  the  great 
iKirons,  and  at  the  same  time  to  obtain  supplies  of  money  from  the  growing  wealth  of  tho 
people.  Tho  decline  of  the  feudal  system  had  for  some  time  fiivoured  such  a  course  of  policy. 
Baronies  escheated  by  forfeiture  or  for  want  of  issue  had  been  subdivided ;  hence  arone  a 
class  of  men  called  minor  barons,  holding  by  knight's  service ;  and  these  being  too  numerous 
and  too  poor  to  be  all  called  to  iMirliament,  and  to  rank  with  the  greater  barons,  were  allowed 
to  sit  by  representatives.  Of  Uieso  knights,  each  shirr  was  summoned  to  send  two;  writs 
to  that  effect  being  addressed  to  the  sheriffs  of  the  several  counties.  The  Cinipie  Ports 
probably  alwut  the  same  period  sent  their  barons,  and  tlie  cities  and  boroughs  their  l>Hrg<sscs. 
In  early  times  these  representatives  appear  to  have  considered  attendance  in  parliament  as 
M  hardship  rutiier  than  an  advantage.  It  was  expensive,  ""d,  from  the  iin[M'rfect  jiolice  then 
established,  olleii  insecure;  and  tho  summons,  being  always  the  prelinle  to  a  demand  for 
money,  was  by  no  means  welcome.  With  the  granting  of  supplies,  howeviT,  was  neces- 
sarily C(iiiiliiiii«l  the  right  of  petition,  of  staling  grievances,  and  demanding  giinranlees;  and 
Uiesc  could  not,  by  a  tovoreign  pressed  by  various  exigencies,  bo  always  denied. 


mr  HI. 

liimB«!lf 
lier  Uin 
louao  of 

purdon. 
lUlliority 
I  ill  till) 

llip  im- 

;  sixtrci) 
iiiil  peers 
r8,  ill  tlio 
,  are  thiw 

W 

w 

1 ~m 

j;  and  for 
o  Irish  liy 
ho  bifthopii 

10  kinff  to 
;  of  dukes', 
ho  articles 
election  is 
;t  of  union, 
elected  for 
K  exercises 
rts;  and  in 
uinniuns,  in 

servants  of 
for  treason, 
iselvcs.    In 
.{■rs ;  but  in 
vcs  his  vcr- 
his  honour ; 
))iLrl  lament, 
subjects  the 
\iilum  mag- 
liiin  in  his 
bills  which 
linatc  in  the 

iur  boast  of 
[lish  history, 
occasions  of 
m  Moiitfort, 
rcpresent- 
forniidiible 
[tiie  f^tep  of 
|)f  the  frrcat 
[oalth  of  the 
se  of  policy, 
luce  urose  a 
,.  nuinerotis 
-ere  allowed 
two;  writs 
iiuine  Ports 
|r/<i<rA'-f.'i»f!!. 
lirliiimonl  as 
police  then 
(liMTiand  for 
was  ncces- 
Lnlccs;  and 


Book  I.  ENGLAND.  n4fi 

The  election  of  the  Commons  never  rested  on  any  principle  of  nniversnl  or  nvcn  gonon) 
MiflVaKe,  excepting'  perhaps  that  of  knights  liir  each  yiiirc,  As  the  kings,  however,  could 
only  attain  their  obiecls  by  assembling  the  niont  powerful  and  iiiHuential  of  the  peujilc,  they 
endeavoured  to  make  an  ecpml  distribution  of  the  riglit  of  election,  so  ftir,  at  least,  as  related 
to  property  and  inttuenco,  at  the  time  when  such  a  meusuru  was  adapted  to  countervail  tlio 
)irepon<k'ninee  of  the  lurons.  In  atlcr-tiiiies,  when  seats  in  parliament  ciiiiie  to  be  uppre- 
'^iiiti'd  us  conferring  a  desirable  privilege,  and  as  constituting  a  |)oworful  churk  on  the  pro 
nigative  of  the  monarch,  it  would  huvi;  been  irregular  to  have  allowed  to  the  king  an  Drbi> 
trary  selection ;  and  all  parties  adhered  to  the  rights  conferred  on  tlinm  by  early  gill  or  long 
usage  This  |)ermanence  of  the  elective  frunchiHC,  amidst  the  local  changes  that  ensued  in 
the  course  of  ages,  gave  rise  to  some  very  striking  anomalies.  Manchester,  Leeds,  and 
i^uveral  other  towns,  which  within  the  last  century  have  become  the  commercial  capitals  of 
the  kingdom,  did  not  send  a  single  repn^sentativo ;  while  places  once  im|)ortant,  but  now 
dwindled  into  insigniticancc,  returned  each  two  members.  Cornwall,  at  a  period  when  the 
rest  of  the  kingdom  was  (loor  and  rude,  enjoyed  an  abundant  source  of  opulence  in  its  tin 
mines,  and  retained  a  number  of  chartered  boroughs,  beyond  all  proportion  greater  than  those 
of  any  other  county.  Ttie  places  holding  the  right  'a  election  were  in  many  instances  so 
small,  that  what  is  called  the  patronage  of  them  was  easily  acquired;  and  that  patronage  of 
rourso  involved  the  advantage  of  nominating  one  or  both  candidates  for  the  reprcKentation. 
These  were  called  close  boroughs,  or,  more  reproachfully,  rotten  boroughs.  Another  anomaly 
ronsiste«l  in  a  number  of  what  were  called  treasury  boroughs,  the  nomination  of  which  rested 
with  the  administration.  With  the  view  of  remedying  these  defects,  the  Reform  Bill  wus 
l>assed,  in  1892,  atler  long  discussion  and  opposition.  By  this  bill  iifVy-six  of  the  smallest 
boroughs  were  entirely  disfranchised,  ond  thirty  were  reduced  from  two  members  to  one, 
while  Weymouth  and  Alelcombe  Regis  were  reduced  from  four  to  two ;  a  reduction  was  thii.s 
made  of  144  members.  In  the  room  of  these,  twenty-two  large  places, — Manchester,  Uir- 
muigham,  Leeds,  ShetHcld,  Greenwich,  Sunderland,  Devonport,  Wolverhampton,  Bolton, 
Blackburn,  Bradford,  Brighton,  Halifax,  Macclesfield,  Oldham,  Stockport,  Stoke-u|)(m-Trent, 
Stroud,  and  four  districts  of  the  metropolis,  viz.  Marylebone,  Tinsbury,  Tower  Hamlets, 
and  Ijambeth, — received  each  the  right  of  electing  two  members ;  while  twenty  smaller 
towns, — Ashton-under-Line,  Bury,  Chatham,  Cheltenham,  Dudley,  Prome,  Gateshead,  IIiiil- 
liersfield,  Kidderminster,  Kendal,  Rochdale,  Sulford,  South  >-iliieMs,  Tynemouth,  Wakefield, 
Wal.sall,  Warrington,  Whitby,  Whitehaven,  and  Merthyr  Tydvil, — acquired  the  right  of 
nominating  one  member  each.  At  the  same  time  twenty-seven  counties  acquired  the  power 
of  sending  each  two  additional  members,  and  seven  that  of  sending  one  additional  member. 

The  representation  of  Great  Britain  now  stands  as  follows ; — 

English  mombors  <br  counties 143 

iiiiivcrsiticii 4 

cities  and  buroughs 324 

471 

Welsh  members  for  counties 15 

cities  and  buniughi 14 

29 

Scotch  members  fur  counties 30 

cities  and  boroughs 23 

63 

Irish   members   for  counties 64 

university 2 

L'ilies  and  boroughs 39 

105 

Making  in  all 658 

The  qualifications  requisite  for  a  member  of  the  House  of  Commons,  in  respect  to  pro- 
perty, are  th.ose : — A  person  to  bo  eligible  as  a  member  for  a  county  must  have  a  freehold  or 
copyhold,  or  must  have  been  mortgagee  in  possession  at  least  seven  years,  of  a  clear  estate 
of  the  value  of  600/.  per  annum ;  and  to  be  eligible  for  a  city,  borough,  or  other  place, 
except  the  universities,  of  the  value  of  liOOl,  per  annum.  The  person  so  qualified  is  also  to 
be  of  mature  ago,  and  must  take  the  oatlis  imposed  as  indispensable  to  a  member  of  the 
legislature.  Among  the  persons  who  cannot  sit  in  the  House  of  Commons  are  judges,  cler- 
gymen, persons  holding  certain  offices  under  the  crown,  and  persons  having  pensions  under 
tne  crown  during  pleasure  or  for  any  term  of  years;  sherifli  of  counties,  and  mayors  and 
bailitfs  of  boroughs,  are  ineligible  in  their  respective  jurisdictions;  but  a  sheriff  of  one 
county  is  eligible  as  knight  for  another. 

The  qualifications  required  in  electors  differ,  as  they  relate  to  counties  or  to  boroughs.  In 
the  election  of  county  members  every  member  must  have  a  freehold  of  the  clour  yearly 
value  of  forty  shillings,  over  and  above  all  rents  and  charges  payable  out  of  and  in  respe^'-.t 
of  the  same,  and  must  have  been  in  the  actual  possession  of  it  for  twelve  calendar  months, 
unless  it  came  to  him  within  that  time  by  descent,  ma.-riage  settlement,  devise,  or  promotion 
to  a  benefice  in  the  church,  or  to  an  office.     To  tliese  freeliolders  the  new  bill  has  added  all 

Vol.  I.  2T 


i: ' 


i 


Mil! 


ilJ 


■:-  !J 

! 


•N 


»46 


nKSCRH'TIVR  CJKOfiUAPlIY. 


Past  III. 


il 


!: 


'i: 


pcnoiiM  lioltlini;  pmjx^rty  t<>  tlio  miiotint  of  ten  [KnimlM  on  copyholil,  nr  nii  Icimn  of  not  leu 
than  lixty  ytmrN;  luul  iiIm)  tlitxH!  <x.-ciipyin(f  IiiiiiIh  or  ttMiciiiuiita  titr  any  pitriixi,  at  a  rent  of 
not  IcttM  tliiin  CAU.  por  aiiniiin. 

Tim  <iimlillcutiiiiii  of  elcctorH  for  ritiog  and  iHirou^'liN  wpri>,  prnviinix  to  tlii<  proMont  act, 
nxtruiiii'ly  viiriiiim.  Thn  rij^lit  of  voting;  in  dilK-rnit  plitrcM  nmiilod  variously  in  tin*  tV(<«)- 
holdorv,  tlio  coriMinitionis  tlm  hnri^iiKo  tonantM,  ami  Homi'tiiucH  in  tlio  wlioln  Ixxly  of  roiiiricnt 
liouM'liiildi'rM.  riiit  ni^w  act,  howovor,  ndmitM  imly  tliu  Miinpio  ipialiflcution  of  occMipyin|i(  a 
lnmHi'  riiliul  ut  ni)t  Ii<mm  than  KM.  pt'r  nnnnm,  Tliimp,  liowcvcr,  who  wcrn  (Vj-i-nion  nndfr  the 
tormcr  NyHttmi  nro  iitill  entitliMl  to  vnti-,  althun);h  not  putu<OHMf>d  of  tliu  10/.  ipialiticiition, 
providnl  tlioy  roHidn  within  the  lK)rr)U);h. 

The  iiiikIo  of  prococdinj;  to  un  cipction  for  a  county  and  for  a  horonprh  in  nearly  tlio  aainf. 
On  a  (liHHohition  of  parlimnvnt,  writx,  pununnt  to  a  warrant  from  the  kinjf,  arc  iNHiit'd  iindor 
the  ^reiil  mml,  addreiwed  tu  the  Hherini)  of  countieM,  directing;  them  to  Huiniiion  the  people  to 
elect  two  kni^htM  liir  each  county,  and  one  or  two  huTgcuium  for  ennh  honni(;h.  To  Niipply  a 
vnciincy  while  (Nirliairicnt  is  Hittiiif;,  the  wiirntnt  tiir  the  writ  proceodx  from  the  IIoiimo  of 
(\)iniiiuns.  A  certain  day  utler,  the  date  or  tfilf  of  the  writ  irt  fixed  tor  the  election  to  com- 
mence ;  and  on  that  day  the  candidate  or  candidiitcii  are  put  in  nomination,  at  the  nlaco 
iip|)()inted,  in  the  preHenc(!  of  the  rctnrninff  otHeer.  In  a  county  election,  the  Hhrriff  or 
the  iinder-Hheritf  in  the  roturnin);  officer;  in  a  city  or  horoiiirh,  the  mayor  or  Imilitf.  If  there 
Im?  rival  cundidnteH  put  in  nomination,  the  returninjf  officer  rallB  on  the  voters  for  a  decinion 
by  a  hIiow  of  the  hiindx,  after  which  the  friend  of  any  candidate,  if  diiuuitiHlled,  may  demand 
a  |H)ll.  The  poll  waH  tiirmorly  taken  at  only  one  place,  nnd  ini)(ht  last  for  Htleen  diiyM;  hut 
under  the  new  uct,  the  citioH  and  connticn  arc  divided  into  diHtricts  with  tie|)arate  iMxithn,  or 
pollinjj-plncoH,  iippnipriated  to  each.  The  poll  in  allowed  to  continue  only  tor  two  days, 
which  must  Im)  tniccenNive,  luid  it  niunt  clone  at  four  o'clock  in  the  atlern<x)n  of  the  Kccond 
day.  Poll  clerks  attend,  to  record  the  names  of  the  votern,  and  their  accuracy  Ih  watchml 
by  iiiHpectora  nouiinnted  on  each  side.  The  roturninjf  officer  who  presideK  muHt,  if  required, 
oblif^c  the  candidates  to  xwoar  to  their  nualiHcations.  At  the  close  of  the  election,  or 
on  the  followinj;  day,  the  returnin);  officer  (leclares  the  namos  of  the  personn  who  have  the 
majority  of  voles;  and,  iinlcHs  a  scrutiny  be  deniand(!d,  he  forthwith  makes  his  return. 

The  duration  of  a  Parliament  has,  for  more  tliiin  a  century,  Ix-en  extended  to  the  term  of 
seven  years,  t'rom  that  of  three,  to  which  it  was  liirmerly  limited.  The  kin>f,  however,  has 
the  power  of  dissolving  |)arliament  at  any  time;  he  can  also  prorof^uo  it  at  any  time  nnd  tiir 
any  periixl ;  nnd,  as  such  proropntion  concludes  the  session,  it  puts  an  end  to  nil  hills  or  other 
proceedinjfs  depenilin);  in  either  house,  which  must  in  the  next  session  bo  again  instituted, 
as  if  they  had  never  liccn  U^gun.  Either  house,  or  Ixitli  houses,  may  adjourn  of  their  own 
accord,  anil,  at  their  meeting  again,  may  take  up  the  bills  and  other  proceedings  in  the  state 
of  advancement  in  which  they  were  left.  A  session  of  parliament  usually  commences  in 
January  or  February,  and  continues  until  Juno  or  July. 

At  the  commencement  of  every  session  committees  of  the  whole  house  aro  appointed;  one 
called  the  Committee  of  Supply,  to  consider  the  amount  recpiired  by  the  crown  for  the  ser- 
vice of  the  army,  navy,  ordnance,  and  other  departments ;  nnd  the  other  the  Committee  of 
Way»  nnd  Means,  to  devise  mcxles  of  raising,  by  (axes  or  loans,  the  sums  which  the  liouso 
have  j^Tanted.  In  this  committee  of  ways  nnd  means,  the  chancellor  of  the  exche(|iier,  in 
an  exjiosition  technically  called  the  Rudprri,  demonstrates  to  the  house  in  detail  that  ttu; 
sums  voted  are  sutficient  to  justify  the  committee  in  imposing  such  taxes,  or  sanctioning 
such  loans,  as  are  then  recommended.  When  the  two  committees  are  closed,  the  House  of 
Commons  pass  a  bill  in  which  the  grants  made  in  the  committee  of  ways  nnd  means  are 
recapitulated,  and  directed  to  lie  applied  to  the  services  voted  by  the  committee  of  supply, 
specifying  the  jxirticular  sums  granted  for  each  service. 

Parliament  have  the  sole  right  of  making,  altering,  and  amending  all  the  laws  of  tlie 
kingdom,  and  by  their  authority  olone  can  taxes  be  imposed  or  levied.  An  annual  vote  of 
the  House  of  C'Ommons  is  requisite  to  maintain  the  land  and  sea  forces  at  the  degree  of 
strength  which  is  every  year  fixed  and  determined  upon.  By  these  and  other  privileges, 
the  annual  meeting  of  parliament  is  secured  without  any  express  stipulation  to  that  eftect. 
By  withholding  these  annual  votes  they  may  testify  liieir  disapproliation  of  the  measures  of 
government,  and  even  compel  it  to  change  its  ministers;  indeed,  the  principle  has  now 
become  indisputable,  that  the  minister  who  cannot  rely  on  a  majority  of  votes  in  parliament 
is  disabled  from  conducting  the  affiiirs  of  the  nation. 

The  Privy  (council  is  composed  of  persons,  ap|iointed  by  the  king,  who  aro  bound  by  oath 
to  advise  their  sovereign  to  the  l)estof  their  judgment  with  all  the  fidelity  and  secrecy  which 
their  station  prescribes.  The  king  with  the  advice  of  his  privy  council  pubhshus  proclama- 
tions binding  on  the  subject;  but  they  are  to  bo  consonant  to,  and  in  execution  of,  the  laws 
of  the  land.  The  jiower  of  the  council  is,  to  inquire  into  all  otTences  against  the  govern- 
ment, and  to  commit  the  oflenders  to  safe  custrxly  for  trial  in  some  of  the  courts  of  law;  but 
persons  so  committed  are  entitled  to  flieir  hnheas  eorpiis  as  much  as  if  they  had  been  com- 
mitted by  an  ordinary  justice  of  the  peace.    The  privy  council  is  a  court  of  appeal  in  plant- 


>' 


'1^ 


Boor  I. 


ENGLAND. 


847 


ation  iinil  niliniriilty  cnunrn,  whii'li  nrixo  out  dt'  lint  jtiriMlictioti  of  tlio  kiiit;ili)tii,  nn  oImu  in 
CBHOK  of  i<lniti:y  niKi  liiimcy.  Wlmii  <|iii>iitionH  nrUo  Ix'twci'ii  two  i'dIomk-h  riwiM't'titiK  the 
uxltMit  ot"  tlicir  <-liitrti!r,  "  Mr  kinu  in  rmiuril"  rxftcutcn  ori|;iniil  jiiriHilictinn  in  tlinni,  on  thn 
prinoi|ili>H  of  li'(Hlit|  mivi)ri>i|fiity  ;  Iim  uIihi  dctormitioM,  on  th<!  hhimo  |)rinci|ilc,  tlir  valiilitv  of 
claiiiiH  to  uii  JHliinil  or  proviiiuu  IoiiiiiIimI  iiikhi  (;riuit  tVom  tlio  kini;  or  hiu  iiiiccbtorH.  Rut  Irum 
all  tlio  iloiiiiiiioim  of  thu  crown  oxri>|itinK  Urniir  Hritnin  ami  In'liiiiil,an  ii/i/W/dfr;  jiirJMliction, 
in  the  limt  rcHort,  in  voxtivd  in  tlin  jrrivy  eoiiitcil.  Thn  jiiiliciiil  tiiitliority  Im  cxcruixeil  in  a 
coniinittiMt  of  tlio  wholu  privy  couiirjl,  who  himr  itlli!|{iitioni«  luiil  piootx,  nnil  niiiku  tli«!ir 
rp|iort  tu  Am  majmlij  in  rouiioiI,  by  wliotn  iuilffinont  is  finally  given.  Tho  diiNolution  of  the 
privy  roiincil  dt>|M<n(lii  on  tlio  plniiHiir))  of  tho  king,  who  iniiy  nt  hiv  own  (ilNcrclion  illHchari^e 
any  ini'iiib4!r,  or  tho  wholn  of  tliiMii,  anil  ap|H>int  anothor  cuuncil.  It  conllnuuH  hIx  inonthM 
ullcr  tilt!  iluinlRO  of  tho  crown,  iiiiIiihh  Noonor  detorminc«l  by  tho  HUCccHwir.  Any  nuturuU 
born  Hiiliji'ct  uf  Kn^land  Ih  cn|>ahlo  of  iHiintf  a  nioinlior  of  tho  privy  council,  tukin((  tho  pruiier 
ootlw  Hir  Hociirity  of  tho  Kovornincnt  and  tost  for  flio  iincurity  of  tho  church,  A  privy  coun- 
icllur,  if  ho  bu  only  it  privuto  i^vntliMiiun,  in  Htyli.'d  rif(hl  honmtrable,  and  takoN  precedence 
of  all  knl(;liti*,  baronets,  and  tho  younffor  Miim  of  all  buroiw  and  viMcouiitit. 

A  cnbinnt  council  in  not,  Htriclly  Hpoakinif,  rccoxniicd  by  tho  conflitulion,  but  by  UHa^e 
it  ix  r(<);iiril('d  iih  a  iKidy  Mnlcctcd  by  tho  Hovi'rni((n  to  conduct  the  busii.i'M  of  tlio  state;  and 
till'  iniMiilicrs  comp<Min}r  it  am  liolcl  to  Iw  tho  ro.>i|wnNible  adviserM  of  thr  -rowi.,  Tho  cabinut 
couiirll  imiiiilly  coiiMiHtM  of  thoxo  niiniMtPrH  of  atato  who  oxorciHo  the  nv»  iniportnnt  fund'  <nii 
of  iho  oxocutivo  authority ;  their  number  and  Boloction  depend  only  on  ilie  kiiij"  s  ple-wuro; 
and  each  niombor  rei-eivoM  a  HUiniiionH  for  every  uttendniice.  Thoii{;li  this  bu'  '.  us  co-  •!.i- 
tiitinj?  what  Ih  oHHontially  the  ffowrnmrnt,  bo  coinponod  princi|mlly  of  officerii  ol  ntato;  yet 
a  privy  counsellor  Heleeted  by  the  kin{f  as  a  membor  of  his  cabiiiot  couiici'  may  hold  ;  '  i»eat 
an  Huch,  without  acceptinf;  any  particular  office.  Tho  offlcera  of  ittato  are  thoBO  enuMcratod 
in  tho  following  lists: — 

Qffittn  >/  Stalt  forming  Ihi  Cnbintt. 

Firit  I.iiril  of  1)10  Treaiury.  Hi^cri'inry  o(  Htaf  for  Cnlnniei  and  War. 

Liird  Cliiuicc'lliir.  ('Iiiiii)'c'lli>r  <ir  Itic  l'1xi'li>'i|iii'r. 

Ijiiril  I'rivy  B«al.  Firal  l.ijril  iif  lliu  Adiiiirnlty, 

Pn'milc^iit  of  Ihn  Coiincll.  '  MualiTuc'iiMrnl  nl'  thu  OriiiinnrB. 

Hvrruliiry  (if  Kliilo  I'nr  tlio  llnmR  Dopartiiiont.  Hnxlili'iit  nl'  tli<'  Iliuiril  iif  ('(iiitrdl. 

Hcrrt'liiry  (if  Htiili.'  Air  Ihn  Fnri'lKii  Dfpartmi'iil.  C'liuiirt'llor  i>r  the  Diiiliy  of  I.nix'aitrr. 


Iiiird  riiniiilM'rlnin 
Lnril  Hlcrwnril. 
IVtiiKliT  c>r  thn  lloric. 
H«cri:tiiry  nt  Wiir. 
TrcoHuriT  of  thn  Navy. 
Prcildeiit  iif  ihii  Hnnril  of  Trade 
Paymaater  iif  ihu  I'uruo. 

Lord  LirMiliinant  of  Ireland. 
Iiord  Chancellor, 
(.'inninaniler  of  the  Forcnii. 
Chief  Secrotiiry. 


Offlitn  i/  male  not  oflhiCahliirl. 

Vii'i'-I'roiiidi'nt  of  tho  Board  of  Trade. 

FnKliiiiKli'r.noni'ral. 

I.iciitiMiunt-Gniiiral  of  Iho  Orilnanrn, 

Firnt  roiiiinliaioiior  of  tho  Land  Revvniie. 

Altnrnoy-nonoral, 

Bollcltor-aeiioral. 

trelani, 

VircTrcnaiirrr. 

AltunioyOHiioral. 

BollcltorOeiioral. 


That  officer  of  state  who  holds  the  appointment  of  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury,  is  by 
eminence  tho  minister.  In  tho  event  of  a  change  of  minJHtry,  tlie  person  who  is  directed 
by  the  kin^r  to  form  another,  receives  an  implied  offer  of  that  hiji;h  office,  and  is  generally 
placed  ot  the  head  of  tho  administration.  The  first  lonl  of  the  treasury,  that  is,  tho  first  of 
the  five  lords  commissioners  for  executing  the  office  of  lord  high  treasurer,  possesses  most 
of  the  |)owcrs  formerly  held  by  the  lord  high  treasurer,  and  is  .  i.  "t'ines,  though  not  in- 
variably, chancellor  and  under  treasurer  of  the  exchequer.  Th  .  •  .uio  applicable  to  the 
general  purposes  of  the  state  is,  with  a  trifling  exception,  deriveil  <;iitirely  from  taxes.  In 
tho  course  of  the  lust  century  it  increased  to  an  amount  unpiirallelcd  in  the  history  of  any 
other  country ;  but  in  consequence  of  the  wars  in  which  Great  Britain  wos  engaged  with 
little  intermission  until  tho  year  1815,  it  did  not  keep  pac^  with  the  expenditure,  and  an 
enormous  debt  was  gradually  contracted,  the  interest  on  ■'  Ijich  occasioned  a  correspondent 
incrimsu  of  taxation. 

Since  1817,  a  deduction  has  been  made  of  about  »iiiy  millions  from  the  principal  of  the 
debt,  and  about  Jive  millions  from  the  annual  charge  on  its  account.  This  diminution  has 
been  principally  effected  by  taking  advantage  of  the  fall  in  the  rate  of  interest  since  tho 
peace,  and  offering  to  pay  off  the  holdeit'  of  different  stocks,  unless  they  consented  to  accept 
a  reduced  payment. 

The  systetn  of  funding  by  which  tho  debt  has  been  rendered  national,  rests  on  the  prin- 
ciple of  assigning  for  the  amount  of  a  loan,  an  equivalent  amount  of  nominal  capital,  bearing 
interest  charged  on  tho  national  revenue  in  half-yearly  payments  called  dividends,  or  of 
temiinHble  annuities  also  payable  half-yearly.  Annuities  granted  for  an  indefinite  perio<l 
are  called  rcdrrmablc  rfrft^  being  redeemable  at  the  option  of  government  when  at  par; 
those  jrrantod  for  a  limited  period  are  called  irredef-mnldr  debt ;  they  exist  only  for  a  certain 
number  of  years,  and  a  portion  of  the  capital  is  annually  nb.sorlied  in  the  interest.     The 


1 


v» 


348 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pabt  UI. 


funds  are  respectively  designated  according  to  tlic  rate  per  cent,  they  bear;  and  tlm  slurc 
which  a  public  creditor  holds  in  any  of  them,  being  trii.nsferable  by  sale  under  the  name  of 
slock,  they  constitute  a  kind  of  circulating  capital. 

The  rate  of  interest  grunted  on  certani  portions  of  the  national  debt,  thougli  nominally 
lower  than  that  of  five  per  cent,  allowed  by  law,  bus  been  rendered  advantageous  to  tlie 
lender  by  being  charged  on  a  larger  amount  of  nominal  capital  than  the  sum  iwrrowed. 
jjoans  liave  been  mode  in  funds  at  four  and  five  per  ccnl.,  but  the  greater  purt  has  been 
made  in  a  fund  bearing  tliree  per  cent,  interest  on  the  nominal  capital,  and  commonly  called 
the  three  per  cent,  consolidated  annuities.  Tlie  prices  of  these  and  other  annuities  consti- 
tuting the  redeemable  debt  are  rated  according  to  the  money  value  of  one  hundred  pounds 
on  such  stock ;  terminable  annuities  according  to  the  number  of  years'  purchase  which  they 
are  supposed  to  be  worth. 

Particular  taxes  were,  at  an  early  period  of  the  funding  system,  appropriated  to  defray 
the  interest  of  different  descriptions  of  debt ;  but  in  the  year  1786,  the  whole  were  collected 
into  one  fund,  called  the  Consolidated  Fund.  The  particular  branches  of  rcveiuie  included 
in  it  were  the  custotns  (with  the  exception  of  a  certain  amount  applicable  to  other  public 
services),  the  excise,  the  stamps,  the  land  and  assessed  taxes,  and  the  post-office.  To  this 
fund  are  applicable  moneys  arising  from  other  resources,  specified  in  the  annual  accounts. 

The  following  statement  sliows  the  progress  of  the  national  debt,  from  the  Revolution  to 
the  present  time: — 


Diibta  at  the  RRVoliition  in  1680 

£.Tcc9s  nf  ilcbt  cnntr.icted  during  the  reign  of  William  III.  nlmve  debt 
paid  off. 

Debt  at  tlie  acccuion  of  Queen  Anne,  in  1703 — 

Debt  at  the  acceuion  of  George  I.  in  1714 

Debt  at  the  accruion  of  George  II.  in  1737 

Debt  at  the  peace  uf  Farii,  in  1703 

Debt  at  the  commencement  of  the  American  nar  in  1775 

Debt  at  the  conclusion  of  the  American  war  in  17f4 

Debt  at  the  commencement  of  tlio  French  war  in  17!I3 

Debt  contracted  iluring  Uie  French  wur 


Principal. 
£ 

15,730,4.19 


lutereal. 


I«,S94,70i 
54,145,3113 
52,092,238 


138,805,430 


128,583,835 


249,f51,028 


£ 

3!i,85,'i 

],071,0S7 
1,310,942 
3,351,358 
2,217..'i51 
4,852,051 


4,471,.'i7I 


Total  funded  and  unfunded  debt.  5lh  Jiinunry,  1817,  when  the  Eni;li!<h  and 
Irish  Kxchequern  were  coiitiolidated .' 


239,3.'i0,148 
008,1)32,329 


848.282,477 


9,451 ,7?J 

9,208,495 
34,(145,971 


33,854,400 


A  sinking  fund  for  the  gradual  reduction  of  tlio  debt  had  been  formed  by  Sir  Robert  Wul- 
pole  in  1716,  but  hod  been  so  fl-equently  encroached  upon,  that  in  the  course  of  half  a  cen- 
tury, it  had  not  extinguished  above  fifleen  millions.  Its  revival  formed  part  of  tiie  financial 
arrangements  of  Pitt  in  1786.  Out  of  the  aggregate  of  the  taxes  applicable  to  the  consoli- 
dated fund,  government  then  pledged  itself,  that  one  million  annually  should  be  paid  to  the 
commissioners  for  the  reduction  of  the  national  debt.  To  this  annual  million  were  added  tho 
amount  of  government  annuities  as  they  successively  expired,  and  the  interest  of  sucli  stock 
as  was  annually  redeemed.  In  1792,  Pitt  obtained  an  act  of  parliament,  declaring,  that 
besides  a  provision  for  the  interest  of  any  loan  that  might  be  thcncerorward  contracted,  taxes 
.should  be  imposed  for  a  sinking  fund  of  one  per  cent,  on  the  capital  stock  created  by  it, 
which  should  be  exclusively  employed  in  tiie  li(iuidation  of  such  particular  loan;  and  tliatno 
relief  should  be  afforded  to  the  public  from  the  taxes  wliich  constituted  the  one  por  cent, 
sinking  fund,  until  a  sum  ot  capital  stock,  equal  in  amount  to  that  created  by  tiio  loan,  had 
been  purchased  by  it.  That  being  accompli-shod,  botli  tlie  interest  and  the  sinking  fiind  were 
to  be  applicable  to  the  public  service.  It  was  calculated  that,  under  the  most  uiifiivourablc 
circumstances,  each  loan  would  be  redeemed  in  forty-five  years  from  the  periwl  when  it  wns 
contracted.  Tlie  provisions  in  this  act,  and  in  the  former  act  of  1786,  were  altered  by  sub- 
sequent enactments ;  but,  by  an  act  passed  in  1813,  those  alterations  were  rescinded;  and 
it  was  provided  first,  that,  as  a  sum  equal  to  the  debt  of  1786,  and  bearing  an  intc^n^st  nearly 
equal  to  the  interest  of  that  debt,  was  tiion  vested  in  the  hands  of  the  commissioners,  the 
debt  of  1786  sliould  bo  doclared  disclmrgod  as  soon  ns  the  interest  of  tlie  delit  redeemed 
should  become  fully  equal  to  that  debt ;  the  sums  appropriated  to  it.s  interest  and  sinking 
fund  applied  tn  the  cliarge  of  future  loans,  and  no  new  ta.ves  imposed  for  interest  nnd  sinking 
ftind  of  those  loans,  till  the  same  should  nmtiiint  to  a  sum  ecpial  to  the  interest  of  tint  con- 
sidered as  released.  Secondly,  tiiat.  insfoii'l  of  applyiuff  the  one  per  cent,  sinkin:.'  fund  on 
each  loan  to  the  separate  disdiarj'e  of  thul  loan,  the  whole  funds  of  that  kind  iiuitod  should 


-f-   .-• 


'■*; 


Book  I. 


'4' 
ENGLAND. 


%.. 


'M9 


be  applied  to  the  discimrg'c  of  the  first  contracted  loan,  and  successively  to  the  redemption 
of  all  the  loanB  contracted  since  1792 ;  tlie  whole  sinking  fund  created  in  1786,  or  subse- 
quently, bein^  continued  for  the  redemption  of  all  debts  then  existing  or  to  be  created.  The 
system  established  by  this  act  continued  until  Marcii,  1823,  when  an  act  of  parliament  was 
passed,  directing  that  on  tlie  5th  of  April  of  that  year,  all  payments  out  of  the  consolidated 
t'und  to  the  commissioners  for  the  reduction  of  the  national  debt  should  cease,  all  stock  in 
their  names  be  cancelled,  and  that  in  future  the  annual  sum  of  five  millions  shall  be  payable 
quarterly  to  the  commissioners,  and  set  apart  tor  the  reduction  of  the  debt,  not  to  be  infrmged 
upon  until  the  accumulation  of  this  sum  shall  amount  to  one  hundredth  part  of  the  debt  then 
existing:  at  present,  however,  the  sinking  fund  is  declared  to  be  the  excess  of  income  over 
expenditure,  whatever  that  may  be.    In  1830  it  amounted  to  2,792,707i.  14».  Old. 

On  the  consolidated  fund  are  likewise  charged  the  annuities  for  forty-five  years,  created 
in  the  year  1822,  for  the  purpose  of  apportionmg  the  burden  occasioned  by  the  military  and 
naval  pensions  and  civil  8uperannuatit>ns  (collectively  called  the  Dead  Weight),  amounting 
to  5,000,000?.,  into  equal  annual  payments.  The  original  intention  was  to  contract  with 
parties  wlio  might  be  willing  to  engage  to  pay  into  the  exchequer  within  forty-five  years  tlie 
sum  wanted,  for  a  fixed  amount  of  annuity  for  forty-five  years;  but  no  capitalists  being  found 
to  accept  these  terms,  it  was  agreed,  instead  of  assigning  the  fixed  annuities  to  any  corporate 
bo<ly,  or  to  private  individuals,  that  they  should  be  vested,  namely,  2,800,000/.  terminable  at 
the  end  of  forty-five  years,  ard  charged  upon  the  consolidated  fund,  in  trustees  appointed  by 
parliament ;  payable  at  the  exchequer  half  yearly  (viz.  October  10.  and  April  5.),  and  to 
cease  in  April,  1867.  In  March,  1823,  a  portion  was  sold  to  the  Bank  of  England  by  the 
trustees,  on  condition  that  the  bank  should  undertake  the  payments  to  bo  made  in  pursuance 
of  the  act,  from  tlie  5th  of  January,  1823,  to  the  5tli  of  January,  1868,  upon  tlie  transfer  to 
the  bank  of  an  annuity  of  585,740/.,  to  commence  firom  the  5th  of  April,  and  to  continue  for 
the  term  of  forty-five  years.  The  total  amount  of  payments  undertaken  to  be  made  by  the 
bank  in  consideration  of  the  said  annuity  is  13,089,419/. 

Besides  the  funded  debt,  there  is  generally  a  considerable  amount  in  exchequer  bills, 
navy  bills,  and  ordnance  bills,  denominated  the  unfunded  or  floating  debt.  Excheciuer  bills 
are  issued  in  consequence  of  acts  of  parliament,  for  obtaining  part  of  the  money  required  for 
public  service.  They  are  sometimes  granted  on  the  credit  of  supplies  for  the  current  year, 
and  the  produce  of  the  annual  taxes  is  in  this  way  often  anticipated.  Sometimes  they  are 
charged  on  the  supplies  of  the  following  year;  and  in  time  of  war,  a  large  sum  to  be  tlius 
raised  is  generally  authorised  by  a  vote  of  credit  previous  to  the  rising  of  parliament.  New 
exchequer  bills  are  often  issued  in  discharge  of  former  ones ;  and  it  has  frequently  been  found 
necessary  to  fund  them,  by  granting  capital  in  some  of  the  stocks  on  certiiin  terms,  to  kucIi 
holders  as  are  willing  to  accept  them.  Exchequer  bills  are  issued  for  1(K)/.,  5(>'3/.,  l(MM)/., 
and  upwards,  but  none  for  less  than  100/. ;  and  they  bear  interest  at  two-pen';e  a  day  tor 
every  100/.  After  being  in  circulation  they  are  received  in  payment  of  ta.xes  or  other  debts 
due  to  government,  and  sometimes  they  are  paid  ofl"  pursuant  to  previous  notice  by  advertise- 
ment. The  daily  transactions  between  the  bank  and  the  exchequer  are  chiefly  carried  on 
by  bills  of  1000/.  each,  which  are  deposited  by  the  bank  in  the  exchequer,  to  the  amount  of 
the  suras  received  by  them  on  account  of  government ;  they  remain  in  the  exchequer  as 
pledges  or  securities,  of  course  bearing  interest  until  the  advances  on  which  the  bank  first 
received  them  are  paid  oft'.* 

Number  of  persons  deriving  incomes  from  the  funds.  It  appears  fi-om  the  regular 
returns,  that  in  1830  (and  the  number  has  not  sensibly  varied  since),  274,823  dividend 
warrants  were  issued  to  persons  deriving  incomes  from  the  fiinds.  The  number  of  persons 
dependent  ujwn  the  funds  for  support  is,  however,  much  greater  than  appears  upon  the  face 
of  this  account:  for  the  dividends  upon  the  funded  property  belonging  to  public  establish- 
ments, are  paid  upon  single  warrants,  as  if  they  were  due  to  so  many  private  individuals. 

The  customs  and  excise  fonn  the  two  main  branches  in  the  collection  of  the  revenue;  the 
former  relating  to  goods  imported,  the  latter  to  those  produced  and  manufactured  within  the 
country.  Among  the  accomiiKxlations  to  trade,  establisilind  by  Mr.  Pitt,  is  the  bonding 
system,  by  which  the  goods  of  merchants  are  warehoused  under  the  joint  custody  of  the 
proprietor  and  of  government ;  payment  of' duty  not  being  demanded  until  a  sale  is  efltcted. 
This  has  been  also  extended  to  British  spirits. 

Tlie  navy  is  the  force  on  wiiich  Great  Britain  mainly  relies  for  maintaining  her  own 
independence  and  her  ascendency  over  foreign  nations.  By  it  slie  has  acquired  the  sover- 
eignty of  the  sea.s,  and  the  advantuges,  wliich  that  sovereignty  confers,  of  securing  her  pos- 
sessions in  the  most  distant  (luartcrs  of  the  globe,  of  protecting  her  commerce,  and  sustaining 
the  exertions  of  her  armies  during  war.  During  the  mast  active  period  of  the  las^t  maritime 
war,  the  number  of  seamen  in  employment  amounted  to  140,(K)() ;  and  there  were  in  com- 
mission 100  sail  of  the  line  and  150  frigates,  with  30,000  marines.    The  estimate  tor  1831 


14  ] 


i\ 


iS 


lit 


it 


Vol.  I. 


-eoc  Stntisticnl  Tahlon,  nt  cud  ofChiip.  tV. 

30 


■sr 


''  1'  I 


IH 


i 


'« 


350 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pabt  in. 


comprehended  22,000  seamen  and  10,0tH)  marines.  The  pay  of  these  men  amounts  to 
1,081,000/. ;  their  BubHistence,  to  fl03,(KK)/. ;  wliich,  witli  the  cost  of  stores,  and  allowance 
for  wear  and  tear,  raised  the  regnlnr  current  expense  to  nearly  2,000,000/.  The  building 
and  repair  of  vessels,  the  charges  of  the  dock-yards,  pay  of  ofticers  connected  with  the  navy, 
and  a  variety  of  other  items,  amounted  to  about  an  equal  sum.  These  charges,  with 
1,088,000/.  in  half  pay  and  pensions,  mode  up  the  sum  of  4,657,000/.  as  the  entire  navy 
estimate  for  the  year  1831. 

The  military  ti)rcc  of  the  nation,  at  the  close  of  the  French  wars,  amoui.ted  to  200,000 
regular  troops,  cxcliiHive  of  about  100,000  emljodied  militia,  a  large  amount  of  local  militia 
and  volunteers,  to  which  might  also  be  added  a  number  of  regiments  employed  in  the  terri- 
torips  of  the  Ea-st  India  Company,  and  in  ita  pay.  After  the  peace  of  1815  a  rapid  reduction 
of  tlie  military  establishment  was  effected.  The  militia  were  disembodied;  the  regular  force 
was  reduced,  and  in  1835  the  estimates  were  for  81,271  men,  independent  of  19,720  employed 
in  India,  and  paid  out  of  tlie  land  revenue  of  that  country.  The  charge  for  these  forces  was 
5,784,808/. ;  but  about  half  of  this  simi  consisted  of  half-pay,  retired  allowances,  pensions, 
and  other  charges  consequent  on  the  former  immense  establishment 

The  laws  of  England,  established  during  ten  centuries  of  legislation,  constitute  the  most 
extensive  system  of  jurisprudence  ever  constructed.  The  municipal  law  is  divided  into  two 
kinds,  the  unwritten  or  common  law ;  and  the  written  or  statute  law.  The  common  law 
derives  its  force  from  immemorial  usage ;  and  its  evidences  exist  in  the  records  of  the  seve- 
ral courts  of  justice,  as  well  as  in  books  of  reports  and  judicial  decisions.  It  includes  not 
only  the  system  by  which  the  ordinary  courts  of  justice  are  guided  and  directed ;  but  certain 
portions  of  the  ancient  civil  and  canon  laws  which  are  used  in  the  ecclesiastical  courts,  the 
military  courts,  the  court  of  admiralty,  and  the  courts  of  the  two  universities.  The  written 
laws  are  tiiose  made  by  the  king,  lords,  and  commons,  in  parliament  assembled ;  they  are 
judicially  called  Statutes,  and  are  either  declaratory  of  the  common  law,  or  remedial  of 
some  of  its  defects.  The  statutes  are  also  distinguished  as  either  general  or  special,  public 
or  private. 

The  high  court  of  parliament,  independently  of  its  legislative  functions,  is  the  supreme 
court  of  judicature  in  the  kingdom.  The  House  of  Lords  exercise  jurisdiction  in  civil 
causes,  upon  appeals  or  writs  of  error  from  the  inferior  courts,  and  in  criminal  questions, 
when  brought  before  them  by  presentment  of  the,  House  of  Commons,  in  the  form  of  an 
impeachment. 

The  high  Court  of  Chancery,  in  which  presides  the  Lord  High  Chancellor,  has  two  dis- 
tinct tribunals:  the  one  ordinary,  being  a  court  of  common  law;  the  other  extmordinary, 
being  a  court  of  equity.  From  the  ordinory  or  legal  court  issue  all  original  writs  that  pass 
the  great  seal,  all  commissions  of  charitable  uses ;  as  also  of  bankruptcy,  idiotcy,  and  lunacy ; 
tor  such  writs  it  is  always  open  to  ■  iie  subject  In  the  extraordinary  court  or  court  of  equity, 
the  chancellor  exercises  a  most  extensive  jurisdiction,  determining  causes  beyond  the  reach 
of  the  ordinary  tribunals,  and  others  in  which  reason  and  justice  require  that  the  rigorous 
application  of  tiie  rules  of  common  law  should  be  mitigated.  These  decisions  emanate  from 
tlie  judgment  of  tlie  lord  chancellor  alone.  An  assistant  judge,  called  Vice-chancellor  of 
England,  has  power  to  hear  and  determine  all  causes  depending  in  the  court ;  all  his  decrees 
are  valid  and  effectual,  subject  however,  to  reversal  by  the  lord  chancellor,  and  not  to  be 
enrolled  until  signed  by  him ;  nor  are  they  to  discharge,  reverse,  or  alter  any  decree  of  the 
lord  chancellor  or  of  the  Master  of  the  Rolls.  The  Master  of  the  Rolls,  who  ranks  next  to 
him  in  dignity,  and  holds  his  office  for  life,  acts  in  a  judicial  capacity  as  assistant  to  the  lord 
chancellor,  and  also  hears  and  determines  causes  on  certain  appointed  days ;  but  his  orders 
and  decrees  cannot  be  enrolled  until  signe<l  by  the  lord  chancellor,  who  has  the  power  to 
discharge  or  alter  them.  The  masters  in  ciiancery  are  twelve  in  number,  including  the 
Master  of  the  Rolls,  who  is  their  chief,  and  alw)  including  the  Accountant-Gcneral.  They 
arc  assistants  and  associates  of  the  lord  chancellor  and  the  master  of  the  rolls,  nnd  sit  with 
them  in  court  by  tu'  s,  two  at  a  time.  In  1820  the  projxjrty  of  suitors  in  chancery  amounted 
to  more  than  40,0(M(,()00/.  The  masters  make  up  their  accounts  with  the  Acccuntant- 
gencral,  and  pay  into  the  Bank  of  England  all  moneys  remaining  in  their  hands,  to  be  place<l 
to  his  account  He  merely  keeps  the  account  witli  the  bank,  the  governor  and  company 
being  answerable  for  such  moneys. 

The  Court  of  King's  Bench  is  the  supreme  court  of  common  law  in  the  kingdom,  and 
takes  cognisance  both  of  criminal  and  civil  causes:  the  former  in  what  is  called  the  crown 
side  or  crown  office ;  the  latter  in  the  jilca  siili-  of  the  court.  It  is  also  n  court  of  appeal, 
into  which  may  be  removed,  by  writ  of  error,  detcrininntions  of  all  the  courts  of  record  in 
England.     The  court  consisits  of  a  chief  justice,  and  f  hreo  pui*ne  judges. 

The  Court  of  Common  Pleas  takes  cogiiisance  of  all  civil  actions  dpp«inding  lK.'tweon  sub- 
ject and  subject  Many  questions,  however,  may,  by  legal  contrivoncet.,  be  bruught  info 
this  or  into  the  Court  of  King's-  Bencii  at  tlic  option  of  the  parties.  The  Court  of  Common 
Pleas  consists  of  a  chief  justice,  and  three  puisne  judges. 


I 


Book  I. 


ENGLAND. 


351 


voon  8ub- 
iifiht  into 
Common 


The  Court  of  Exchequer  has  jurisdiction  both  in  law  and  erjuity.  In  it  are  tried  all  ques- 
tions relating  to  the  revenue,  and,  by  fict- jn.?  of  law,  various  civil  aclions  and  personal  suits. 
The  judges  are  four;  a  chief  baron  ar  1  three!  puisne  barons. 

Trial  by  jury,  an  institution  coeval  ..'ith  the  origin  of  the  constitution,  and  justly  valued 
by  the  people  as  the  bulwark  of  their  liberties,  is  employed  in  all  cases  between  the  crown 
and  the  subject,  in  all  criminal  cases,  and  in  all  those  for  which  damages  are  awarded.  The 
jury  in  England  consists  of  twelve  persons,  whose  verdict  must  be  delivered  by  their  fore- 
man as  unanimous,  or,  in  the  technical  phrase,  as  agreed  upon. 

Courts  of  Assize  and  Nisi  Prius  are  auxiliaries  to  the  superior  courts  at  Westminster  fur 
tlie  trial  of  causes  in  every  county  in  England,  twice  a  year  in  most  counties,  once  a  year 
in  others.  The  counties  are  comprised  in  six  circuits:  1st,  the  Home  Circuit;  2d,  the  Mid- 
land ;  3d,  the  Norfolk ;  4th,  the  Oxford ;  5th,  the  Northern ;  and  6th,  the  Western  Circuit. 
These  circuits  are  supplied  by  the  twelve  judges,  two  being  appointed  to  each.  In  these 
courts,  the  senior  or  superior  judge  generally  sits  on  the  crown  side  for  the  trial  of  criminals, 
and  the  junior  or  inferior  judge  on  the  ni$i  prius  side,  for  the  decision  of  cases  of  property. 

A  Court  of  General  Quarter  Sessions  of  tne  Peace,  held  in  every  county  once  in  every 
quarter  of  a  year  is  the  most  important  of  the  minor  tribunals.  Its  jurisdiction  extends  to 
all  felonies  and  trespasses ;  but  capital  felonies  are  usually  remitted  to  the  assize.s.  The 
sheriff's  toum  is  also  a  court  of  record,  held  twice  a  year  at  some  place  within  the  county. 
The  court -leet  or  view  of  frank-pledge  is  a  court  of  record  held  once  a  year,  within  a  par- 
ticular hundred,  lordship,  or  manor,  before  the  steward  of  the  leet.  It  is  the  King's  court 
granted  by  charter  to  the  lords  of  those  hundreds  or  manors.  In  aid  of  these,  and  other 
institutions  tending  to  the  maintenance  of  order  and  tranquillity  throughout  the  country, 
subordinate  magistrates  are  appointed  in  each  county,  under  the  name  of  justices  of  the 
peace.  They  hold  special  commissions  from  the  king,  and  are  empowered  to  suppress  riots 
and  affrays,  to  take  aecurities  for  the  peace,  and  to  commit  felons  and  inferior  criminals. 
Their  jurisdiction  is  enforced  by  constables  and  other  subordinate  officers. 

Sect.  V. — Productive  Industry. 

The  productive  industry  of  England,  at  this  moment,  far  surpasses  that  of  any  other 
country,  either  ancient  or  modern.  Her  fabrics  clothe  the  most  distant  nations;  her  vessels 
traverse  alike  the  polar  and  equatorial  seas.  The  downfall  of  the  feudal  power;  the  civil 
and  social  advantages  which  the  people  acquired  under  the  last  Henries ;  and,  above  all,  the 
spirit  of  enterprise  diffused  among  them  under  Elizabeth,  gave  a  great  impulse  to  commerce, 
and  industry.  It  was  not,  however,  till  the  era  of  the  Revolution,  that  the  nation  entered 
upon  that  grand  career  of  prosperity,  in  which  she  has  ever  since  proceeded  with  accelo- 
"ited  activity. 

Agriculture,  as  the  greatest  and  most  essential  source  of  human  wealth  and  comfort,  must 
Always  claim  pre-eminence  over  the  other  branches  of  human  industry.  For  two  or  three 
centuries  the  English  tenantry  have  been  an  independent  and  substantial  race.  Such  had 
been  the  progress  of  agriculture,  that,  even  in  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  England  had 
become  a  regular  grain-exporting  country.  Still,  fifty  years  ago,  the  practice  of  this 
important  art  was  comparatively  cumbrous,  costly,  and  unproductive.  Since  tliat  time, 
nobles  and  statesmen  have  vied  with  each  other  in  their  zeal  for  the  promotion  of  agricul- 
ture. Prizes,  exhibitions,  and  other  institutions  calculated  to  excite  a  spirit  of  improvement, 
have  been  established  on  a  great  scale.  Even  royal  patronage  was  extended  to  this  most 
useful  of  arts,  and  a  board  was  formed  under  public  auspices  for  its  promotion.  An  extraor- 
dinary impulse  was  also  given  by  the  scarcity  at  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century ;  when 
the  continental  ports  were  closed,  and  grain  rose  to  an  unprecedented  price,  from  wliich  it 
has  since  been  reduced,  indeed,  but  not  to  its  former  rate.  The  old  routine  system  was, 
after  that  crisis,  broken  up,  and  every  exertion  made  to  augment  the  products  of  the  soil. 
Commons  were  enclosed,  marshes  drained,  grasses  of  the  most  useful  species  cultivated,  and 
every  process  that  multiplied  experiments  had  proved  to  be  advantageous,  introduced.  Par- 
ticular attention  was  bestowed  in  improving  the  breed  of  cattle  and  sheep ;  and  for  the 
accomplishment  of  this  purpose,  the  best  species  were  imported  from  abroad.  At  the  same 
time,  economical  farming  was  greatly  studied ;  the  disproportionate  number  of  horses  and 
oxen  was  reduced ;  and  machinery,  particularly  the  threshing-machine,  came  into  general 
use.  Thus  a  great  augmentation  took  place  in  the  produce  of  the  soil ;  still  greater  in  the 
profit  of  the  farmers,  and  much  the  greatest  in  the  rent  of  the  landlord,  which,  in  many 
instances,  was  more  than  tripled.  The  reduced  prices,  however,  which  have  ultimately 
been  the  result  of  tliis  augmented  production,  have,  at  last,  rendered  it  difficult  to  suppor 
the  great  advance  in  this  last  particular. 

Tlie  natural  fertility  of  England  is  not  equal  to  that  of  the  countries  in  the  south  of 
Europe.  Her  pastures,  however,  are  richer;  and  her  soil  is  capable  of  yielding  all  the 
valuable  kinds  of  grain  in  abundance,  and  of  good,  if  not  superior  quality.  Those  natural 
advantages,  improved  by  her  extraordinary  industry,  raise  tiie  agricultural  products  of  Eng- 
land to  a  mucii  greater  amount  than  those  of  any  other  country  in  Europe. 


M''.i 


i>.h 


\ 


*v 


352 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  IH. 


The  surface  of  England  is  tliirty-sevon  millions  of  acres.  About  half  a  million  is  occu- 
pied by  roads ;  and  if  we  also  make  ollowanco  for  waters,  natural  and  artificial,  &c,,  we  may 
probably  have  to  deduct  two  millions  from  the  part  which  forms  the  proper  subject  of  agri- 
culture. Of  this,  half  is  under  the  plougfh,  and  half  devoted  to  pasturage;  upwards  of- tlirec 
millions  arc  in  wheat;  about  three  millions  in  oats  and  beans,  and  between  two  and  three 
millions  in  barley.  About  30{),(M)0  cwt.  of  hops,  of  the  value  of  jC  200,000,  and  4,400,000 
gallons  of  cider,  arc  annually  produced. 

The  manufactures  of  Britain,  still  more  than  even  the  immense  products  of  her  agricul- 
ture, have  astonishc  I  the  world,  and  raised  her  to  a  decided  superiority  over  all  other  nations. 
This  distinction  clio  has  attained,  not  so  much  by  their  extreme  fineness;  for,  as  to  this 
particular,  France  c.vcols  not  only  in  silks  and  cambrics,  but  even  in  woollens;  and  British 
porcelain  does  not  oipial  that  of  Dresden.  But  she  stands  unrivalled  in  the  immensity  of 
useful  and  valuable  products,  calculated  for  the  consumption  of  the  great  body  of  mankmd; 
and  above  all  in  the  stupendous  exertions  made  in  contriving  and  constructing  the  machinery 
by  which  they  are  produced. 

The  woollen  manuf..  ture  is  the  old  staple  of  the  country.  As  soon  as  England  began  to 
exercise  any  kind  of  industry,  her  first  aim  was  to  manufacture  her  own  wools,  instead  of 
leaving  this  openition  in  the  hands  of  the  Flemings.  The  fobric  began  in  Kent  and  Sus- 
sex ;  but  swn  spread,  and  fixed  itself  in  the  interior  districts ;  that  of  coarse  woollens  in  the 
West  Riding  of  YorkHhire,  and  that  of  the  finer  cloths  in  Gloucestershire  and  Wiltshire.  In 
1800,  tiie  total  value  of  the  fabrics  was  20,00(),000/.,  of  which  not  much  less  than  half  was 
exported.  In  the  course  of  the  century  it  has  continued  increasing,  though  not  with  the 
same  rapidity  as  some  other  fabrics.  The  quantity  exported  has  not,  however,  been  aug- 
mented in  proportion.  In  1802,  it  exceedeil  7,000,OOOJ. ;  but  in  1832  was  only  5,240,000/. 
This  manufacture,  however,  depending  chiefly  upon  home  consumption,  is  less  liable  to  vicis- 
situde than  those  which  have  their  principal  market  in  foreign  countries. 

The  wool  is  partly  produced  in  Britain,  partly  drawn  from  abroad.  English  wool  is 
ilividc'l  into  long  and  short.  The  former  was  long  considered  as  exclusively  adapted  to 
worsted  slufT:;;  but  the  recent  improvements  in  machinery  have  enabled  the  manufacturer  to 
jinvliice  these  stufls  almost  equally  well  from  shorter  wool.  The  short  wool  is  fitted  for 
clolli  and  hats;  but  all  that  is  produced  in  England  is  of  secondary  fineness.  Eflbrts  were 
niiide,  about  the  close  of  the  last  century,  to  introduce  the  merino  breed  from  Spsiin,  and  not 
without  success;  hut  the  flesh  being  bad,  the  farmers  gave  it  up,  and,  devoting  themselves 
to  the  improvement  of  the  carcase,  have  allowed  the  wool  even  to  degenerate,  though  the 
increased  quantity  is  supposed  to  indemnify  them.  The  best  short  wool  is  that  of  Sussex 
(Southdown)  and  Norfolk;  the  best  long  wool  that  of  Lincoln.  The  number  of  short- woolled 
sheep  throughout  England,  in  1828,  amounted  to  about  14,8r)0,0(X1,  that  of  long-woolled  tc 
4,150,000;  and  the  produce  was  204,000  packs  of  long,  and  120,000  packs  of  short  wool ; 
to  whicii  might  be  added  09,000  jiacks  of  lamb's  wool,  and  9000  for  Wales ;  making  in  all 
463,(M)0.  The  defect  of  English  wool  renders  it  necessary  to  import  a  large  quantity  from 
abroad.  The  fleece  chiefly  valued  is  that  of  the  merino,  long  confined  to  Spain :  and  Spanish 
wool,  in  the  early  part  of  this  century,  was  introduced  to  the  extent  of  6,000,000  lbs.  annu- 
aliy,  but  in  1827  it  fell  short  of  4,000,000  lbs.,  and  in  1832  did  not  exceed  2,026,000  lbs.  It 
has  been  supplanted  by  the  wool  of  Saxony,  and  other  parts  of  northern  Germany,  where  the 
merino  breed  has  been  introduced  and  propagated  with  the  greatest  success.  The  importa- 
tion from  Germany,  which  in  1810  was  only  778,000  lbs.,  was  in  1830  so  high  as  26,073,000  lbs., 
though  in  18:32  only  19,832,000  lbs. :  Ntw  Holland  and  Van  Diemen's  Land  in  that  year 
furnished  2,377,000  lbs.  of  very  fine  wool ;  and  the  supply  is  increasing.  The  entire  im- 
port amounted  in  18:30  and  18531  to  about  32,000,000  lbs. ;  in  1832  to  only  2«.140,()00  lbs. 

The  annual  value  of  the  wix)llen  manufacture  appears  to  he  about  20,000,000/.  sterlinqr, 
and  the  persons  employed  between  400,000,  and  500,000.  There  were  exported,  in  18132, 
390,661  pieces  of  cloth;  23,453  pieces  napped  coatings,  duffels,  &c. ;  40,984  pieces  of  ker- 
seymeres ;  34,874  pieces  baize ;  1,800,714  stufTs  or  worsted ;  2,3(34,750  yards  flanpcls ; 
1,681,840  yards  blanketing;  690,042  yards  carpetinc,  &c.  There  were  exported  also 
4,1!39,000  lbs.  of  British  wool,  and  2,204,000  lbs.  woollen  yarn. 

The  cotton  manufacture  n  of  much  more  recent  introduction,  and  for  a  long  period  the 
progress  of  this  branch  of  '.ndustry  was  slow.  In  1760,  the  value  of  the  fabric  was  only 
20(),000/.  In  1707,  .lames  ?iargreaves,  a  common  Lancasliire  weaver,  invented  the  spinning 
jenny,  by  which  at  first  8,  and  fin;illy  120  spindles  were  moved  by  a  single  spinner.  Ilar- 
groaves  became  exposed  to  the  persecution  of  the  working  people  employiMl  in  this  operation  ; 
was  obliged  to  flee  t/j  Nottingliam ;  .•mil  died  in  poverty.  Richard  .\rkwright,  a  liarbcr  of 
Nottingham,  invont(!(l  the  wntcr-twist,  or  "  perpetual  twist,"  spinning  frame,  in  whicli  the 
whole  process  was  performed  by  the  machine,  .and  the  workmen  h:id  only  to  s^upply  the  material 
and  watch  its  progress.  Samuel  Crompton,  in  1775,  produced  the  machine  called  the  mule, 
a  combination  of  the  two  preceding,  which  it  soon  superseded  liotli  in  the  finer  and  more 
valuable  articles. 

That  macliinory  should  weave  as  well  as  spin,  was  necessarj-  to  consummate  the  triumpi" 


Book  I. 


ENGLAND. 


)lled  tc 
wool ; 
in  all 
y  from 
■misli 
iinnu- 
Ibs.  It 
ere  the 
niporta- 

00()11)H., 

lat  year 
tire  ini- 

Ibs. 
itorlii'?, 
in  1832, 
of  kor- 
anjiols ; 
ted  also 

riod  the 
•as  only 
ipinning 
liar- 
eration ; 
irlicr  of 
lich  the 
iiatcrial 
10  mule, 
id  more 

triumpl" 


of  art.  This  waa  accomplishod  by  tlie  Rev.  Mr.  Cartwright,  a  clergyman  of  Kent,  who  in- 
vented a  machine  by  which  cloth  waa  woven ;  but  the  first  trial  was  unsuccessful  as  to  profit, 
and  an  impression  long  prevailed  that  cottons  could  be  woven  cheaper  by  the  hand.  Within 
the  last  few  years,  however,  the  system  of  power-loom  weaving  has  been  adopted  to  an  im^ 
inense  extent ;  it  is  estimated  that  there  are  in  Britain  80,000,  absorbing  10,000,000/.  of  fixed 
and  ij,0(K),(KH)?.  of  floating  capital,  employing  160,000  operatives,  and  working  up  124,800,000 
pounds  of  cotton. 

The  steam-engine,  the  moving  power,  tlie  greatest  of  all  these  discoveries,  remains  to  be 
mentioned.  Machines  moved  by  horses  and  water,  originally  employed  in  manufacturing 
and  other  processes,  were  cumbrous,  expensive,  and  often  unmanageable.  The  steam-engine, 
brought  to  perfection  by  Watt,  became  at  once  the  moving  power  of  all  this  machinery,  and 
the  principal  cause  to  which  its  vast  results  may  be  attributed. 

The  cotton  wool  imported  into  Britain,  which  in  1781  little  exceeded  5,000,000  lbs.,  rose 
in  1809,  to  93,000,000;  in  1817,  to  126,000.000;  and  in  1832,  to  288,000,000.  The  finest 
is  that  called  Sea  Island,  a  name  given  to  what  is  grown  on  the  coast  of  Georgia  and  Caro- 
lina. The  bowed  Georgia,  produced  in  the  interior,  is  not  of  equal  value.  Next  to  the  Sea 
Island  rank  the  West  India  and  Brazil.  Of  the  quantity  imported  in  1831,  there  came 
from  the  United  States,  219,333,000  lbs. ;  from  Brazil,  31,695,000;  from  the  East  Indies, 
25,805,000;  from  the  West  Indies,  2,401,000;  and  from  Eg;ypt,  7,714,000  lbs.  The  con- 
sumption of  printed  cottons  has  diminished  in  England,  silk  being  preferred  as  an  ornamental 
dress,  and  the  use  of  cotton,  printed  or  dyed  previously  t6  weaving,  having  become  preva- 
lent. The  demand  abroad,  however,  is  still  extensive,  so  that  the  amount  of  pieces  printed 
is  about  4,500,(KK),  giving  employment  to  100,000  persons. 

The  produce  of  the  cotton  manufacture  is  34,000,000/.  annu  .lly.  Of  this  18,000,000/.  is 
paid  in  wages  to  800,000  persons  employed  in  its  different  brai  hes ;  and  allowing  for  those 
who  are  dependent  upon  them,  and  for  the  subsidiary  employmt.its,  it  afibrds  subsistence  to 
not  much  fewer  than  1,400,000  people.  The  value  of  cotton  manufactures  exported  in  1831 
was  13,282,000/.;  of  twist  and  yarn,  3,975,000/.  They  were  chiefly  of  the  following 
descriptions: — Calicoes,  cambric  muslins,  dimities,  &c.,  299,597,000  yards;  lace,  gauze-net 
and  crape,  48,164,000  yards;  cotton  and  linen,  mixed,  1,668,000  yards;  velvets  and  vel- 
veteens, 404,000  yards ;  counterpanes  and  quilts,  number,  23,000 ;  hosiery,  shawls,  handker- 
chiefs, &.C.,  ."^SfltOOO  dozen ;  tapes,  bobbins,  &.C.,  99,000  dozen  ;  thread,  1,105,000  lbs. ;  twirt 
and  yarn,  48,098,000  lbs. 

The  working  in  metals  is  also  one  of  the  branches  in  which  England  has  attained  to  a 
most  decided  pre-eminence.  About  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  it  rose  to  the  rank 
of  a  staple;  and  within  the  last  half  century  it  has  greatly  increased  in  importance.  Shef- 
field, perhaps  the  original  seat  of  the  trade  in  England,  is  still  distinguished  for  the  most 
solid  and  useful  articles,  knives,  grates,  and  their  appendages,  agricultural  implements,  &.C.; 
while  Birmingham  adds  to  these  utensils  a  variety  of  small  articles,  ornaments,  and  toys, 
which,  though  minute  in  detail,  amount  to  a  vast  value  in  the  aggregate.  Each  of  these 
two  great  cities  forms,  as  it  were,  the  centre  of  a  large  circle  of  population,  all  employed  in 
the  same  manner.  The  number  of  persons  employed  in  the  product  and  manufacture  of 
metals  is  estimated  at  350,000,  and  the  entire  produce  at  17,000,000/.  The  export  of  hard- 
ware and  cutlery  in  1831  amounted  to  16,799  tons,  value  1,620,000/.;  in  1832,  it  was  15,294 
tons ;  value,  1,433,000/. 

The  silk  manufacture  was  of  late  origin  in  England ;  but  it  was  considerably  improved  by 
tlie  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes,  which  drove  a  number  of  French  weavers  into  that 
country.  It  is  established  in  a  quarter  of  the  metropolis,  called  Spitalfields,  where  it  em- 
ploys about  25,000  men :  at  Macclesfield,  Manchester,  Coventry,  and  in  other  parts  of  the 
country,  the  number  occupied  in  it  may  amount  to  40,000.  The  entire  value  of  the  manu- 
facture was  estimated  some  years  ago  at  4,000,00l«. ,  and  may  now,  probably,  be  between 
."1,000,000/.  and  6,000,000/.  Notwithstanding  the  removal  of  the  prohibitory  duties  on  the 
importation  of  foreign  silks,  the  British  manufacture  has  maintained  its  ground,  and  gone  on 
increasing.  The  importation  of  raw  and  thrown  silk  in  1832  was  4,224,000  lbs. :  of  which 
1,814,000  lbs.  were  from  the  East  Indies  and  China;  1,006,000  lbs.  from  France;  564,000  lbs. 
from  Italy ;  and  458,000  lbs.  from  Turkey.  The  exports  amounted  in  1832  to  525,000/., 
chiefly  to  North  America  and  the  West  Indies. 

In  the  manufacture  of  earthenware  and  porcelain,  England  has  of  late  made  vast  ad- 
vances, and  brought  its  various  products  to  a  high  degree  of  beauty  and  elegance.  Burslem 
in  Staflbrdshire  had,  for  centuries,  been  noted  for  its  fabrication  of  a  coarse  kind  of  ware ; 
but  it  was  reserved  for  Mr.  Wedgwoml  to  carry  this  art  to  perfection  by  a  combination  of 
elegance  and  cheapness.  Fine  white  clay  from  the  south-western  counties,  and  ground  flint, 
are  the  chief  materials  of  this  celebrated  ware,  which  hears  the  name  of  its  inventor.  The 
white  ware  of  Derby  and  the  porcelain  of  Worcester,  tiiough  on  a  smaller  scale,  are  still 
finer  productions.  The  latter  is  composed  of  a  mixture  of  13  different  materials,  and  each 
cup  passes  through  23  hands.     Earthenware  pavs  no  duty,  so  that  its  amount  cannot  be  olfi- 

VoL.  I.  30*  2U 


.'■^nj^- 


Ml 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Past  III. 


<!• 


cially  ascertained ;  the  cj  port,  however,  has  diminished  from  nearly  700,000/.  in  181.5-16, 
to  only  490,000/.  in  1832. 

Hitlns  arc  imported  from  all  quarters  of  the  world ;  the  entire  quantity  in  1824  was 
300,0(K)  cwt.,  value  700,(K)0/.  In  IS.'JO  only  225,000  cwt.  were  imported.  In  that  year  the 
hides  tanned  or  otherwise  manufactured  amounted  to  40,800,000  lbs.,  value  .3,900,(K)0/. ;  and 
ua  the  value  of  tiie  finished  article  is  supposed  to  bo  tliree  times  that  of  the  material,  this 
value  will  amount  to  nearly  12,000,000/.  The  shoes  made  in  England  arc  estimated  at 
6,8(K),000/.  and  the  whole  manufacture  employs  about  250,000  persons. 

Beer,  glass,  soap,  and  candles  are  branches  of  production  which  employ  a  large  capital 
and  numerous  workmen,  and  yield  a  yearly  amount  of  great  value.  In  London  the  quantity 
of  malt  liquor  annually  brewed  is  1,700,000  barrels,  of  which  38,000  are  exported.  This  is 
chiefly  porter,  a  liquor  peculiarly  appropriate  to  Ix)ndon,  and  for  which  she  is  famous  through- 
out tlie  world.  In  all  England,  therfi  were  brewed,  in  1829,  about  7,400,000  borrels,  of  the 
value  of  upwards  of  22,(K)0,000/. ;  without  including  1,500,000  barrels  of  table-beer.  Can- 
dles,— In  1829,  the  manufacture  amounted  to  110,(100,000  lbs.,  which  would  make  a  value 
of  3,208,000/.  Soap. —  The  manufacture,  in  1829,  was  100,000,000  lbs.  which  would 
amount  to  3,17.5,000/. 

The  linen  manufacture  is  that  in  which  England  is  most  deficient ;  for  though  she  is  sup- 
posed to  produce  the  value  of  1,000,000/.  a  year,  this  does  not  supersede  the  necessity  of 
large  imports  from  Scotland  and  Ireland.  Of  late,  the  elegant  manufacture  of  lace  has 
been  carried  to  great  perfection  by  means  of  bobbinet  frames.  By  this  manufiicture  a  value 
of  160,000/.  in  silk  and  Sea  Island  cotton  is  wrought  into  lace,  estimated  at  1,890,000/.  and 
employing  208,000  persons.  Distilled  litjuors  or  spirifg,  too,  though  they  produce  a  revenue 
of  2,000,000/.,  are  neither  equal  in  quality  nor  amount  to  those  of  the  sister  countries  of 
Scotland  and  Ireland,  whose  produce,  if  it  had  not  been  excluded  by  national  jealousy,  would 
probably  by  this  time  have  driven  thot  of  England  out  of  the  market.  The  quantity  distilled 
in  1831  and  1832  averaged  7,:350,000  gallons. 

Mines  form  one  of  the  most  copious  sources  of  the  wealth  of  England.  The  useful  metals 
and  minerals,  those  which  afford  the  instruments  of  manufacture  and  are  subservient  to  the 
daily  purpo.ses  of  life,  are  now  drawn  from  the  earth  more  copiously  there  than  in  any  other 
country.  Her  most  valuable  metals  are  iron,  copper,  and  tin ;  her  principal  minerals  are 
ccal  and  salt. 

Iron,  the  material  of  so  important  a  class  of  manufacture,  abounds  in  England,  particularly 
in  Wales,  Staffordshire,  and  Derbyshire.  While  it  was  supposed,  however,  that  the  blast 
furnaces  could  be  composed  only  of  charcoal,  the  limited  supply  of  wood  depressed  the  pro- 
duce, and  in  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  the  iron  made  in  England  from  fifty  new  fur- 
naces did  not  exceed  17,000  tons.  It  was  then  found,  however,  that,  furnaces  filled  with 
coke  might  be  heated  to  the  same  degree  as  those  of  charcoal,  and  the  inexhaustible  supply 
of  coal  might  he  employed  in  bringing  the  iron  mines  into  value.  Hence,  the  increased 
production  has  been  astonishingly  rapid.  In  1796,  it  amounted  to  12.5,000  tons;  in  1806,  to 
2.50,000  tons;  in  18,'10,  it  was  680,000  tons,  worth  5,100,000/. ;  and  which  the  additional 
labour  of  forming  it  into  bar  iron  may  raise  to  6,300,000/.  The  export  amounted  in  1832  to 
about  1.50,000  tons,  worth  1,120,000/.  It  is  exported  chiefly  in  the  forms  of  bar  iron,  to  the 
amount  of  74,024  tons ;  bolt  and  rod  iron,  6938 ;  pig  iron,  17,566 ;  cast  iron,  12,495 ;  hoops, 
9417;  nails,  4347,  &c. 

Copper,  also,  has  risen  to  importance  in  the  course  of  the  la.st  half  century.  It  is  found  chiefly 
in  Cornwall,  to  the  amount,  in  18.32,  of  11,947  tons,  and  is  carried  thence  to  Swansea,  to  be 
smelted  with  the  coal  of  North  Wales,  which  itself  produced  1320  tons  of  copper.  The 
total  produce  is  14,440  tons,  which,  at  90/.  per  ton,  will  be  1,300,410/. 

Tin,  tt  rare  and  peculiar  metal,  is  found  only  in  Cornwall  and  part  of  Devon.  So  early 
was  it  known,  that  we  find  the  British  Islands  first  recognized  by  its  name,  and  it  is  enu- 
merated among  the  articles  with  which  the  Carthaginians  supplied  the  markets  of  Tyre. 
As  Cornwall,  with  the  exception  of  the  Indian  island  of  Banca,  is  the  only  tract  known  to 
produce  tin  in  large  quantities,  there  is  a  considerable  export  to  most  countries  of  Europe, 
particulfirlv  France  and  Italy.  The  annual  produce  of  the  mines  amounts  to  83,000  cwt. ; 
of  the  value  of  115,000/. 

Lead  is  found  in  Cumberland,  Derbyshire,  and  Northumberland,  to  the  supposed  amount 
of  about  16,000  tons  annually ;  which,  at  20/.  per  ton,  will  be  worth  320,000/.  In  1833,  the 
British  lead  exported  was  13,898  tons. 

Coal,  the  most  valuable  of  all  the  mineral  subs-tances  from  which  Britain  derives  hor  pros- 
perity, exists  in  almost  inexhaustible  quantities  in  the  counties  of  Northumberland,  Derby, 
and  Stafford,  and  in  that  of  Glamorgan  in  South  Wales.  It  fuses  the  metals,  produces  the 
steam  which  sets  the  machinery  in  motion,  and  is,  indeed,  instrumental  in  bringing  almost 
every  substance  into  a  nsefiil  and  merchantable  form.  By  superseding  also  the  neces- 
sity of  extensive  plantations  fiir  fuel,  it  enables  a  much  greater  proportion  of  the  soil  to  be 
devoted  to  cultivation.  The  Northumberland  and  Durham  field  has  been  estimated  at  732 
'sqaare  miles,  the  South  Wales  field  is  1200 ;  which,  allowing  for  the  average  depth,  will. 


UOOE  I. 


ENGLAND. 


355 


it  18  calculated,  be  sufRcicnt  to  supply  all  England  for  1700  or  2000  years.  At  all  events,  it 
seems  certain  that  she  is  secure  for  many  centuries  against  any  deficiency.  The  quantity 
shipped  from  Durham  and  Northumberland  is  stated  at  3,300,000  tons ;  and  the  whole  em- 
ployed as  fuel,  and  in  the  manufactories  and  mines  throughout  England  (adding  700,000 
exported  to  Ireland),  at  not  less  than  15,500,000  tons.  The  mines  on  the  Tyne  employed 
8491  persons  underground,  and  3403  above ;  those  on  the  Wear,  about  three-fourths  of  this 
number :  the  conveyance  of  these  coastwise  employs  1400  vessels  and  1.5,000  men ;  while, 
in  London,  7i)00  whippers,  lighter-men,  factors,  agents,  &c.  are  engaged  in  landing  and 
distributing  it.  Taking  into  view  the  whole  of  Great  Britain,  Mr.  M'CuUoch  considers  that 
the  coal  trade  will  give  occupation  to  not  less  than  100,000  persons.  In  1829,  the  total 
quantity  shipped  was  0,22'1,125  tons ;  of  which,  5,014,132  were  sent  coastwise ;  840,246,  to 
Ireland ;  128,803,  to  the  British  colonies :  356,410,  to  foreign  countries. 

Of  salt,  Britain  possesses  an  immense  supply.  The  finest  and  most  valuable  kind  is  tiic 
rock  salt,  drawn  from  mines  and  from  brine  springs  in  the  county  of  Chester.  The  salt  is 
refined  by  being  boiled  along  with  the  brine  of  the  springs,  and  is  then  called  white  salt. 
The  annual  prwluce  is  15,0(M),000  bushels,  of  which  about  10,000,000  are  exported,  chiefly 
to  North  America,  the  Netherlands,  and  Russia. 

The  commerce  of  Britain,  like  her  manufacturing  industry,  is  now  completely  without  a 
rival.  The  exports  of  Britain  consist  almost  wholly  of  her  manufactured  produce.  Cotton 
takes  the  precedence  of  all  others.  In  1830,  the  quantity  exported,  including  twist  and 
yarn,  was  valued  at  about  15,000,000?.  sterling ;  being  two-fifths  of  the  whole  exportation. 
They  are  sent  to  every  country,  but  most  especially  to  those  from  which  the  raw  material  is 
imported.  The  United  States  take  an  immense  quantity ;  the  West  Indies  and  Brazil  im- 
port largely ;  the  market  in  the  independent  states  of  South  America  is  daily  enlarging,  and 
they  make  their  way  in  increasing  quantities  even  into  the  East  Indies.  In  Europe,  Portu- 
gal and  Italy  are  extensive  markets;  and  though  studiously  excluded  from  Spain,  large  con- 
signments are  sent  to  Gibraltar,  evidently  with  a  view  to  clandestine  introduction.  Germany 
takes  a  great  quantity  both  of  manufactured  goods,  and  of  yarn  and  twist  for  her  own  manu- 
factories. The  woollen  manufacture  has  a  diflierent  and  less  extensive  range.  The  United 
States,  the  greatest  market,  take  three-eighths  of  the  whole ;  afler  which  rank  the  East  In- 
dies, Russia,  Portugal,  and  Germany.  The  wrought  metals  find  a  great  variety  of  markets. 
Of  bar  iron,  7000  tons,  and  copper  50,000  tons,  go  to  the  East  Indies.  Ireland  takes  7000 
tons  of  bar,  700  of  cast,  and  2300  of  wrought  iron.  The  West  Indies  take  largely  both 
iron  and  copper.* 

Among  the  imports,  a  large  portion  consists  of  raw  materials,  brought  in  vast  quantities  to 
bo  manufactured,  in  many  instances  for  the  use  of  the  regions  from  which  they  come.  Under 
the  head  of  manufactures,  we  have  enumerated  the  principal  of  these  articles,  and  the 
countries  from  whence  imported.  They  are  chiefly  cotton,  wool,  silk,  and  hides ;  to  which 
may  be  added,  bark,  ashes,  and  barilla ;  cochineal,  indigo,  madder,  and  other  dyeing  stuffs. 
Although  grain  and  provisions  arc  now  produced  in  sufficient  quantity  fbr  internal  consump- 
tion, there  is  much  want  of  the  raw  produce  of  uncultivated  land.  Under  this  head  a  promi- 
nent rank  may  be  assigned  to  timber  and  naval  stores.  Fir  and  oak  timber,  and  staves,  are 
brought  chiefly  fi-oni  North  America ;  masts,  deals,  and  deal  ends,  from  Norway  and  Russia ; 
oak  plank  from  Prussia. 

The  import  trade  of  consumption  is,  afler  all,  the  most  extensive :  it  consists  chiefly  in 
obtaining  from  southern  regions,  and  those  warmed  by  tropical  suns,  the  accommodations  and 
luxuries  which  cannot  be  matured  under  a  less  genial  sky.  Wine  would  have  been  intro- 
duced to  a  very  great  extent,  had  not  its  exclusion  been  made  a  prime  object  of  fiscal  regu- 
lation. This,  however,  has  been  so  potently  applied,  that  the  use  of  wine  has  not  increased 
in  any  proportion  to  the  general  wealth  of  the  nation ;  and  it  has  been  forced  from  the  near- 
est and  best  wines  of  FrMJce,  to  the  less  palatable  produce  of  Spain  and  Portugal.  Brandy, 
also,  still  accounted  the  finest  of  spirituous  liquors,  forces  itself,  to  a  certain  extent,  into  the 
circle  of  imports.  But  the  saccharine  and  aromatic  products  of  the  tropical  plains  form  tlio 
basis  of  an  immense  commerce,  which  even  the  adherents  of  the  mercantile  system  cherish, 
under  the  idea  that  much  of  it  is  carried  on  witli  English  colonies.  The  leading  articles  are 
sugar,  tea,  coffee,  tobacco,  and  spices.  Notwithstanding  the  immense  cotton  manufacture 
of  Britain,  the  piece  goods  of  India,  by  tlieir  peculiar  e.vcellonce,  still  find  their  way  into 
the  country. 

The  shipping  by  which  so  extensive  a  trade  is  carried  on,  must  necessarily  be  very  exten- 
sive. In  1663  it  was  only  95,000  tons.  It  rose  in  1701  to  273,000 ;  in  1751,  to  609,000 ; 
in  1792,  to  1,186,000.  The  vessels  belonging  to  the  British  empire  at  the  end  of  1834,  were 
25.05>5,  of  2,716,000  tons,  and  navigated  by  168,061  men.  The  entries  and  clearances  for 
the  coasting  troJdc,  in  1832,  amounted  each  to  8,500,000  tons.  Besides  these,  in  the  same 
year,  4546  foreign  vessels,  comprising  639,979  tons,  and  navigated  by  35,399  men,  entered 
the  ports  of  Great  Britain.* 


It? 


'* 


*a«e  Blatiitical  Tablet,  at  end  of  Chap.  IV. 


.  * 


366 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pabt  UI. 


The  fiahericB  do  not  seom  to  have  been  so  much  cultivated  in  Britain,  as  Uio  hardy  enter- 
priie  of  the  nalion  might  liave  led  us  to  expect.  The  wliale  iisliery  was  considered  su  valu- 
able, both  for  its  products,  and  as  a  nursery  fur  seamen,  tliut,  till  1824,  a  bounty  was  granted 
in  proportion  to  tlie  tonnage  of  the  vessels  employed.  They  have  found  their  way  to  tlie 
antarctic  polar  sea,  ui  search  of  ui  oil  which,  tliough  not  superior  for  burning,  is  better 
adapted  to  the  purposes  of  manufacture,  tlian  that  urawn  from  the  arctic  regions.  This 
fishery,  witliin  tlie  last  twelve  years,  has  considerably  diminished  both  in  amount  and  in  the 
value  of  its  products,  owing  to  the  use  of  gas,  the  greater  cheapness  of  rape-oil  for  manu- 
tacture,  and  also  to  a  larger  part  of  the  trade  being  engrossed  by  Scotland.  In  1820  there 
sailed  from  England  only  41  vessels,  of  13,760  tons  burden ;  which  brought  in  4912  tuns  of 
oil,  and  269  tons  of  whalebone.  The  following  year  was  still  more  deficient,  owing  to  the 
disasters  encountered  by  the  vessels  engaged  in  the  fishery. 

Of  the  fisheries  in  tlie  British  seas,  that  of  Herrings,  the  most  important,  belongs  almost 
entirely  to  Scotland.  Next  to  tliis  ranks  that  of  Pilchards,  on  tlic  coast  of  Cornwall  and 
part  of  Devon.  The  fish  is  found  there  in  such  immense  shoals,  that  it  forms  the  chief  food 
of  the  people  duruig  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  and  is  also  largely  salted  for  exportation. 
The  value  annually  taken  is  reckoned  at  50,0001.  or  00,0001. 

The  interior  navigation  of  England  is  justly  regarded  as  one  of  the  prime  sources  of  her 
prosperity.  Till  the  middle  of  last  century,  the  making  of  canals  did  not  enter  into  the 
system  of  English  economy.  In  1755  was  formed  the  Sankey  canal,  a  line  of  twelve  miles, 
to  supply  Liverpool  with  coal  from  the  pits  at  St.  Helen's.  The  example  then  set  by  the 
Duke  of  Bridgowater  gave  a  general  impulse  to  the  nation.  Since  that  tune,  upwards  of 
30,000,0002.  sterling  have  been  expended  in  this  object.  Twenty-one  canals  have  been  car- 
ried across  the  cenUal  chain  of  hills,  by  processes  in  which  no  cost  has  been  spared ;  all  the 
resources  of  art  and  genius  have  been  employed ;  every  obstacle,  however  formidable,  which 
nature  could  present,  has  been  vanquished.  By  locks,  and  by  inclined  planes,  the  vessels 
are  conveyed  up  and  down  the  most  rugged  steeps ;  they  are  even  carried  across  navigable 
rivers  by  bridges.  When  other  means  fail,  the  engineer  has  cut  through  the  heart  of  rocks 
and  hills  a  subterraneous  passage.  Of  these  tunnels,  as  they  ore  called,  tliere  are  said  to  be 
forty-eight,  the  entire  length  of  which  is  at  least  forty  miles. 

The  Duke  of  Bridgewatcr  formed  the  plan  of  openuig  a  communication  between  !Man- 
chester  and  his  extensive  coal-mines,  at  Worsley,  The  obstacles  were  so  great,  both  from 
nature  and  art,  that  the  attempt  must  have  proved  abortive,  had  he  not  been  seconded  by  the 
genius  of  Brindley,  who,  from  a  common  millwright,  raised  tiimself  to  be  the  first  engineer 
of  the  age.  The  canal  was  curried  through  vast  excavations,  made  partly  in  the  interior  of 
the  mine  itself;  it  was  led  by  aqueducts  over  a  succession  of  public  roads,  and  over  the  river 
Irwcll  by  a  magnificent  bridge,  which  left  space  for  vessels  with  their  sails  spread  to  pass 
beneath.  By  deep  cuttings,  and  by  artificial  mounds,  in  some  places  supported  upon  piles, 
a  level  of  upwards  of  fifty  miles  waa  completed.  The  Duke  expended,  in  tliis  undertaking, 
his  whole  fortune,  amounting  to  350,000{. ;  and  its  failure  would  have  left  him  destitute  : 
but,  as  it  immediately  enabled  him  to  reduce  the  price  of  coal  in  Manchester  to  one  half,  the 
trade  in  a  short  time  yielded  twenty  per  cent,  upon  his  outlay,  and  rapidly  produced  an 
immense  income. 

The  Grand  Trunk  Canal,  an  undertaking  on  a  still  greater  scale,  formed  under  the 
imtronage  of  the  Marquess  of  StaflTord,  by  a  course  of  ninety  miles  through  StafiTordshire, 
connects  the  Trent  with  tlic  Mersey,  Liverpool  witli  Hull,  and  the  eastern  with  tlie  western 
coasts.  It  gave  animation  to  the  trade  of  all  the  districts  through  which  it  passed,  particu- 
larly that  of  the  Potteries,  and  served  as  a  basis  for  various  canals  and  railways  branching 
from  it.  From  a  point  near  the  commencement  of  the  Grand  Trunk,  the  Ellesmcrc  canal 
has  branched  fiir  into  Wales,  and  conveys  to  Liverpool  the  mineral  and  agricultural  produce 
of  that  principalitv.  FVom  its  eastern  termination,  large  branches  have  been  extended  to 
Derby,  to  Nottingham,  to  Grantham,  and  otlier  considerable  towns. 

The  Leeds  and  Liverpool  Canal,  by  a  more  northerly  lino  of  one  hundred  and  twenty 
miles,  connects  the  Mersey  with  the  Aire,  a  tributary  ot  the  Ousc,  and  thus  enables  Liver- 
pool and  Hull  to  communicate  by  another  line  across  the  great  cloth-nmnufacturing  districts. 
An  important  branch  of  this  canal  is  carried  to  Ijancoster,  and  on  to  Kendal. 

From  the  vicinity  of  London  the  Grand  Junction,  at  an  expense  of  two  millions,  was  car- 
ried by  a  line  of  ninety  miles  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Coventry.  Near  Daventry,  the  Grand 
Union  strikes  off,  and  joins  the  Grand  Trunk,  thus  securing  for  London  an  inland  communi- 
cation with  Liverpool,  and  with  all  the  great  manufacturing  cities  of  the  West.  A  great 
system  of  canals  was  formed  round  Birmingham,  of  which  one  result  was  to  connect  the 
Grand  Trunk  with  the  Severn,  and  thus  to  form  a  connexion  between  all  the  four  great 
rivers  of  England,  and  all  its  commercial  and  manufacturing  cities.  A  canal  hod  already 
been  formed  from  Coventry  to  Oxford.  That  of  tlie  Thames  and  Severn  joined  these  two 
main  rivers  at  the  highest  navigable  point  of  the  former.  The  Gloucester  and  Berkeley  is 
a  latcrnl  canal  to  the  Severn,  by  means  of  which  Gloucester  is  connected  with  the  Bristol 
Channel  by  a  direct  line.    The  principal  canals  to  the  south  of  the  Thames  are  the  Kennet 


'A«T  111. 

iy  cntor- 
i  8u  valu- 
8  granted 
'uy  to  tlie 
18  better 
riB.  This 
inJ  in  the 
fur  inanu- 
820  there 
l2  tuns  of 
ing  to  the 

g9  almoBt 
nwall  and 
chief  food 
Kportation. 

ces  of  her 
ir  into  the 
elve  inilea, 
set  by  the 
jpwards  of 
e  been  car- 
ed ;  all  the 
ible,  which 
the  vessels 
a  navigable 
lit  of  rocks 
e  said  to  be 

ween  Man- 

t,  both  from 

ided  by  the 

st  engineer 

interior  of 

ler  the  river 

oad  to  pass 

upon  piles, 

nuertaking, 

destitute : 

ne  half,  the 

roduced  an 

under  the 
fordahire, 
he  western 
3d,  particu- 
brancliiug 
lorc  canal 
Iral  produce 
Wtcnded  to 

Ind  twenty 
[bles  Liver- 
\g  districts. 

■s,  was  car- 
I,  the  Grand 
I  communi- 
A  great 
eonnect  the 
Tfour  great 
lad  already 
these  two 
Berkeley  is 
fthc  Bristol 
Ithe  Kennet 


Book  I. 


ENGLAND. 


307 


and  Avon  canal,  and  the  Berks  and  Wilts  canal,  tlirough  which  a  conimimication  is  formed 
from  the  Thainos  near  Abingdon  to  the  cities  of  Bath  and  Bristol.  The  total  length  of  canal;) 
in  Great  Britain,  excluding  those  under  five  miles,  is  WHl  miles. 

Railways  form  another  contrivance,  by  which  the  conveyance  of  goods  is  wonderfully 
facilitated,  by  causing  the  wheels  to  roll  over  a  smooth  surface  of  iron.  Railvvuys  were  at 
first  used  only  on  a  small  scale,  chiefly  in  tlio  coal-tnincs  round  Newcastle,  fijr  conveying 
the  mineral  from  the  interior  to  the  surhice,  and  thence  to  the  place  of  shipping ;  uiul  it  is 
reckoned  that  round  that  city  there  is  an  extent  of  about  three  lumdred  mileH  of  tlicso  rail- 
ways. They  were  gradually  employed  on  a  greater  scale,  particularly  in  Wales,  where  the 
county  of  Glamorgan  has  one  twenty-five  miles  long,  ond  in  all  two  huiulrnd  miles  of  riiil- 
way.  The  railwoy  between  Manchester  and  Liverpool  extends  thirty-one  miles,  and  is  car- 
ried over  sixty-three  bridges,  thirty  of  which,  pass  over  the  turnpike  road,  and  one  over  the 
river  Irwell.  The  entire  cost  was  about  82(),(K)0i. ;  but  the  intercourse  has  been  so  exten- 
sive as  to  atibrd  an  ample  remuneration.  The  Cromford  and  High  Peak  railway  is  carried 
over  the  high  mountainous  district  of  Derbyshire,  connecting  the  two  canals  which  bear 
these  names.  Its  length  is  thirty-three  miles,  carried  over  fifty  bridges,  and  rising  to  a  level 
of  992  feet  above  the  Cromford  canal.    The  entire  expense  has  not  exceeded  180,01KW. 

The  common  high  roads  of  the  kingdom  are  also  an  object  of  high  importance  to  trade  and 
general  intercourse.  Half  a  century  ago  most  of  them  appear  to  have  been  in  a  miserable 
state,  but  they  are  now,  perhaps,  the  best  in  the  world,  chiefly  through  the  application  of  the 
turnpike  system,  under  which  they  are  made  and  repaired  by  tolls  levied  upon  the  travellers, 
and  administered  by  county  trustees.  There  are  a  few  cases  where  roads  are  to  be  carried 
through  poor  provinces,  or  form  grand  lines  of  national  communication,  in  which  government 
judges  it  expedient  to  assist,  or  even  to  undertake  the  entire  construction  of  them.  In  1823, 
the  turnpike  roads  extended  in  all  to  24,51)1  miles  in  length.  The  amount  of  tolls  was 
1,214,(KKM.,  burdened  with  a  debt  of  5,20O,000Z. 

Bridges,  in  a  country  intersected  by  numerous  and  oflen  broad  rivers,  necessarily  attracted 
a  great  share  of  attention ;  and  the  ingenuity  and  wealth  of  England  have  been  employed 
in  making  extensive  improvements  in  this  branch  of  architecture.  Southwark  Bridge  is  the 
most  complete  of  any  yet  formed  of  iron.  This  species  of  bridge  has  the  advantage  of  being 
lighter,  and  of  requiring  much  fewer  arches  than  those  of  stone.  A  still  more  daring  form 
137  has  been  given  to  this  material  by 

bridges  of  suspension,  formed  by 
iron  chains  stretched  across,  and 
supported  by  fixed  points  on  each 
side.  This  construction,  on  a  cer- 
tain scale,  has  existed  in  China 
from  the  earliest  ages.  The  Ame- 
ricans were  the  first  to  adopt  it  of 
Mfnai  Bridge.  any  western  nation.    The  greatest 

undertaking  of  this  kind  yet  executed  istlie  Menai  Bridge  (Jifr.  137.),over  the  strait  which 
separates  Wales  from  Anglesea.  Arches  of  masonry  on  each  side,  at  the  distance  of  five 
hundred  and  sixty  feet,  are  united  by  a  bridge  of  suspension,  composed  cf  iron  chains. 

Sect.  VI. — Civil  and  Social  State. 
The  population  of  England  in  former  times  was  imperfectly  known,  being  calculated  only 
from  very  vague  surveys  and  estimates.  In  1377  the  results  of  a  poll-tax  were  given  as 
2,300,0(K) ;  but  from  the  many  evasions  to  which  such  a  census  would  give  rise,  that  number 
was  probably  below  the  truth.  In  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  during  the  alarm  of  a  menaced 
Spanish  invasion  in  1575,  a  pretty  careful  survey  was  made,  the  result  of  which  gave  4,.'500,000. 
At  the  time  of  the  Revolution,  the  increase  appeared  to  be  about  a  million.*  From  the  com- 
mencement of  the  present  century  decennial  enumerations  have  been  made,  of  which  the 
following  are  the  results: — 


ISOl. 

Increue 

perctiut. 

Popiililioii, 
1811. 

Incnme 
percciir. 

FoiHihtioD, 

per  cent. 

I'oiHiIatinn, 
1»J1. 

8,331,434 
541, .MO 
470„W8 

14} 

13 

«,551,»« 

011,788 
040,500 

17} 

17 

11,201,437 
717,43d 
310,300 

10 
12 

13,0ft8.:a8 
H)5,2.10 
277,017 

^g|()4        

Total 

i),343,578 

27} 

10,804,170 

34} 

12,2118,175 

2a    i  14,180,51)1 

•  PopKlalion  of  the  British  Empire  and  Colonia. 

r.ri'iit  nrimin  and  Ireland 24,3M,8M 

Noilli  Americun  Colonies 1,;!(HM)00 

Wi.silii.lia              "         HXl.ntW 

African                    "         M.inin 

Asiatic                      ••          l,(KM»,ni)0 

Australian               "          li.i.OOO 

Kast  India  Company 123,000,000 

Total 150,800,834      , 

TAh.  Ed.] 


T-  I 


i 


358 


DESCRIl'TIVR  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  IK 


Proportion  of  deaths,  marriaf(ri,  cjr.  to  the  pojmlation. — Ainon^r  llio  farts  that  attCHttlie 
improved  condition  ol'Uic  people  uf  England  Hince  1770,  the  uxtruordinury  diminution  in  the 
rato  ot'inurtahty  is  onuot'thu  IcoNt  i<(|uivocui.  In  17H(),  thn  (it<ntiiN  in  Enftlund  and  VVttlHH 
amounted  to  about  1  in  40  of  liiu  population  ;  in  17f)0,  to  about  1  in  'l.'i ;  in  IHll,  to  1  in  52 ; 
and  at  un  average  of  tiio  five  years  undinf;  witli  18130,  1  in  54.  The  improvement  haH  boon 
iwrticiilarly  conspicuous  in  tlio  {U^reat  townH ;  and  is  to  bo  ascribed  to  tliu  more  comlortuble 
HJtuation  of  uil  classes,  the  (rrcatcr  attention  (uid  to  cleanliness,  &.c.  The  proportion  of 
inarrioffes  to  the  |M)pulation  has  recently  declined.  In  1760,  there  was  1  mnrrin({e  for  every 
110  individuals;  in  1780,  1  in  118.  During  the  five  years  ending;  with  INIO,  it  was  as  1 
to  12*.!;  and  dnriiiff  the  live  years  cndinj;  with  1830,  it  was  as  1  to  120.  But  this  decrease 
is  to  be  oiicribcd  wlioUy  to  the  greater  prevalence  of  moral  restraint,  tlio  proportion  of  ille- 
g'itimate  births  not  having  increased.  The  number  of  births  to  a  marriage  in  England  in 
about  4.    Consumption  is  the  most  fatal  disease. 

The  national  character  of  the  English  exhibits  some  very  bold  and  marked  features.  Of 
tl.eso  thc!  most  conspicuous  is  that  love  of  liberty  which  pervades  all  cla-sses.  The  liberty 
ti)r  which  the  English  have  successfully  contended,  includes  the  right  of  thinking,  saying, 
writing,  and  doing  most  things  which  opinion  may  dictate,  and  inclination  prompt.  The 
knowledge  that  the  highest  omces  and  dignities  in  the  state  are  accessible  to  all,  redoubles 
their  activity,  and  encouraj^es  them  to  perseverance.  It  is  but  little  more  than  a  century 
since  they  began  to  be  distinguished  as  a  manufacturing  and  commercial  people,  yet  they 
have  already  outstripped  other  European  nations  in  mechanical  ingenuity,  in  industry,  and  in 
inercuntilo  enterprise.  The  enormous  increase  of  capital,  and  the  substitution  of  machinery 
for  human  labour  in  most  of  their  manufactures,  seem  likely  at  no  distant  period  topralucea 
total  change  in  the  condition  of  British  society.  Much  of  its  tone  is  given  by  the  landed 
gentry ;  a  numerous  bo<ly,  whose  estates,  though  generally  considerable,  are  not  enormous : 
while,  on  the  Continent,  landed  property  is  usually  in  one  or  other  of  two  extremes;  either 
divided  into  minute  portions,  or  partitioned  into  a  few  princely  domains.  The  English  gentry, 
unlike  their  continental  neighbours,  reside  during  the  greater  jmrt  of  the  year  at  their  coun- 
try-seats; appearing  in  London  and  at  court  only  for  a  few  months  in  the  spring.  In  this 
clas.s,  uiid  indeed  among  the  English  in  general,  an  uncontrolled  temper,  elevated  by  the 
feeling  of  independence,  often  impels  individuals  into  extremes  both  of  go<xl  and  evil.  No- 
where exists  a  purer  spirit  of  patriotism ;  nowhere  break  forth  more  violent  excesses  of 
faction.     In  no  country  of  Euro|)c,  |)erha|)s,  are  there  so  many  men  who  act  steadily  upon 

{)rinciplo;  yet  in  noru;  exists,  at  tiie  same  time,  so  large  a  proportion  of  individuals  living  in 
labitual  and  open  violation  of  all  principle,  and  frequently  in  contempt  of  legal  ordinances. 
IJomestic  life  is  cultivated  by  the  English  more  sedulously  than  by  any  of  the  continental 
nations ;  thc  sanctity  of  marriage  is  more  carefully  guarded ;  and  chastity  in  the  female  sex 
more  strictly  observed.  In  its  minor  features,  the  English  character  has  undergone  various 
changes.  The  vices  of  drinking  and  swearing,  once  so  prevalent,  are  happily  no  longer 
fashionable.  Horse-racing,  hunting,  and  rural  sports,  are  carried  to  excess  by  some  of  the 
country  gentlemen ;  and  the  more  barbarous  practice  of  boxing  still  has  cultivators.  Per- 
haps  the  most  estimable  quality  of  the  English  is  their  love  of  justice ;  the  source  of  all 
honourable  dealin;;  among  thc  higher  cla-sses,  and  of  what  is  emphatically  caWed  fair  play, 
in  the  transaction-  of  humbler  life.  The  principle,  that  a  man's  word  should  be  his  bond,  la 
acted  upon  most  rigorously  where  the  greatest  interests  are  at  stake ;  as  on  its  observance 
more  than  on  that  of  any  law  that  has  been  or  can  be  devised,  the  commercial  and  financial 
prosperity  of  the  country  depends.  The  English  are  the  most  provident  people  in  thc  world. 
RIore  than  a  million  of  individuals  are  members  of  friendly  societies,  and  the  deposits  in 
savings  banks  exceed  13,(MXt,(MK)?.  The  great  extension  of  life  insurance  affords  another 
proof  of  this  laudable  disposition.  The  English  also  deserve  to  be  called  a  humane  people, 
zealoii.s,  both  from  feeling  and  from  principle,  for  the  promotion  of  every  thing  that  tends  to 
the  welfare  of  their  fellow-creatures.  Crime  in  England  has  undergone  a  considerable 
change.  Highway  robbery,  so  prevalent  towards  the  beginning  and  middle  of  last  century, 
is  now  nearly  unknown,  and  all  sorts  of  crimes  and  violence  have  been  materially  lessened. 
On  the  oilier  hand,  there  has  been  a  very  rapid  increase,  particularly  within  tlio  last  twenty 
years,  of  crimes  against  prop»!rty.  A  material  change  has  recently  been  ellected  in  tlie 
criminal  law  of  England,  by  the  abolition  of  on  immense  number  of  capital  puiushmeiita 

Prnision  for  the  Poor.  A  riipii|iiil«iir.v  riitn  Imf  I"  i!ii  levicil  on  all  kinds  of  tixed  prnperty,  fir  thi'  mippnrt  of  nil 
iinpntctit,  iHtnr,  iiitti  liiM'riiptoycil  pt-rmtriH,  ever  t^iiirc  llin  riMKii  nf  Klixiiht'tli.  In  17UU  the  rates  ainounteil  to  iibimt 
l.ubo.flOU/ .  nnil,  notwithi'laiiiliiiv  llii'  iiicria^e  of  pnpuliitiiin  anil  tnxntiiiii  in  the  inli'rvnl,  tlii'y  witi'  litlle  morn 
than  'J.IKKI.UOIV  al  ilir  iliw  iif  tlii'  American  war.  In  I71>5  »'vpral  ill-ciinaiilcreil  I'lianiii'S  wpri'  nindc  in  thi'  nimle 
(>r  urnniini!  ri'ln-t',  aiitl  thr  pr-rtii<  U>im  prauticit  ol'  rkinir  out  watics  by  (-nntrihutiniis  tVnni  the  rati.'tt  was  tlMin  aliu> 
ailMpiril.  Friiin  lhi»  piTiml.  il.iwn  tii  tin'  li'rniinati'iM  uf  Ilic'  lali'  Fniirh  war,  thi?  pniKri'Ks  (if  Ilie  rales  was  very 
rapid,  sn  that  tin  v  anicmiiled  in  !l,:)jiMKIti/  in  llu)  year  Ii^l7-H.    They  have  Riiire  been  ndnred,  bnt  they  still 

a iiiteil  in  1KII-:I\!  tn  r'..'>li:i.U(lll/.    'I'm-  iiliiises  arisine  nut  nf  the  practice  nf  payirii!  wairvs  nut  of  rates  are  nut 

ihliiTf  nt  in  the  syKiern.    'I'hey  wer t:raned  upnn  it  eto  lati'  as  17*15,  ami  niav,  and  it  i^  to  be  hoped  will,  be  en- 

lipelv  ri ved.     A  nl'nrui  of  iln^  son  unulil  nf  itself  lake  nearly  a  third  part  from  the  rates.    [By  the  act  of  Hth 

Aiiiiijst,  IKI4.  uhieli  provides  fnr  the  eppninlnient  nf  three  pniT  lawcominiMiiiners,  with  power  to  make  rules  and 
feifulatinns  for  the  iriana^ement  of  the  pour  and  the  administration  of  the  poor  laws,  these  abuses  have  beel 
ref  iniii'd.— Am.  Ed.J 


!'l 


Book  L 


ENGLAND. 


3&e 


liippnrt  of  nil 
lite<l  ti>  nbnut 
htlle  ninrc 
■  in  tUr  inmlt 
jviii»  then  HUt> 
lli'S  wiia  viTV 
till  tliry  iitill 
Irutca  uro  not 
1l  will,  be  I'li- 
Tie  Dct  (if  14th 
Lkn  rules  and 
Es  have  beei 


The  English  arc,  in  ({enoral,  a  people  nuberly  rnli(;ioug,  tliuu^li  tho  nation,  among  ita  other 
excesscrt,  huH  proMontoil  Htrikin^  (lixnlityB  uf  ititululity  ami  tunuticism.    Tho  Church  of  Eng- 
land wuN  cutabliMhod  in  the  roi)(n  ot  Qiiocn  Elizabeth,  uhi-ii  thii  rnfimnation  wan  completed 
which  had  boon  bc((uii  in  that  of  llonry  VIII.    It  '\a  an  inti-}rnil  pitrt  of  the  constitution,  hav- 
ing  for  ita  head  the  kinj;,  who,  Oii  heud  of  the  church,  numinatits  to  vacant  bialiopnca  and 
certain  other  prcfurinuntis  coiiHtitutcs  ur  rcxtraina  cccloaiaHtical  juriiidictionH,  inflicUi  occlo- 
■iastical  censures,  and  decides  in  the  last  resort  in  all  ccclcsiaHticul  causes,  an  appeal  lying 
liltimately  to  him  in  chancery,  IVum  the  sentence  of  every  ecclesiastical  judgo,     In  respect 
to  ita  church  government,  England  is  primarily  divided  into  two  provinces  or  archbishoprics, 
Canterbury  and  York,    Each  province  contains  various  diiwescs  or  scats  of  Butfragan  bishops, 
Canterbury  including  twenty-one,  and  Yurk  three,  besides  the  bishopric  of  Sodor  and  Man, 
which  was  annexed  to  it  by  Henry  VIII.    Every  diocese  ia  divided  into  archdnaconriea, 
of  which  the  whole  number  amounts  to  sixty,  each  archdeaconry^  into  rural  deaneries,  which 
are  the  circuita  of  the  archdeacon's  and  rural  dean's  jurisdiction;  and  each  deanery  into 
parishes,  towns  or  villages,  townships,  and  hamlets.    The  principal  church  of  each  see  ia 
appropriately  called  the  cathedral  church ;  it  ia  possessed  by  a  spiritual  body  curiwrato,  called 
a  aean  and  chapter,  who  are  tho  council  of  the  bishop,  but  derive  their  cor))orate  capacity 
tVom  the  crown.    Chapters  are  usually  composed  of  canons  and  prebendaries ;  the  mainte- 
nance or  stipend  of  a  canon  aa  well  iia  of  a  prebendary  being  a  prebend.     Prebendaries  are 
distinguished  into  simple  and  dignitary.    A  simple  prebendary  hoa  no  cure,  and  nothing  but 
his  revenue  for  his  support ;  a  digiiitied  prebendary  has  always  a  jurisdiction  annexed,  which 
is  gained  by  prescription.    The  archdeacon  haa  authority  in  the  bishop's  absence  to  hold 
visitations,  and  under  the  bishop  to  examine  clerks  previous  to  ordination,  and  also  before 
institution  and  induction.     He  hiia  also  power  to  excommunicate,  to  impose  penances,  and 
to  reform  irregularities  and  abuses  among  the  clergy,  and  has  charge  of  the  pariah  churches 
within  the  diocese.    Below  the  archdeacon  and  tho  ecclesiastics  composing  the  chapter,  no 
member  of  the  Church  of  England  is  t>iititled  to  tho  appellation  of  dignitary.    The  inferior 
orders  constitiito  what  is  called  the  parochial  clergy.    The  principal  person  of  a  parochial 
church  is  entitled  either  rector  or  vicar,  that  title,  which  is  really  more  appropriate  and 
honourable,  having  become  corrupted  by  vulgar  misuse.    The  revenues  of  tlie  church  of 
England  are  very  e?:tensive ;  ond  considering  tho  different  offices  and  gradations  of  ita  mem- 
bers, very  variously  distributed.  The  rental  subject  to  tithe  has  been  stated,  in  returns  made 
to  parliament,  at  2U,000,U(K){.     Besides  the  tenth  of  this  amount,  that  is  to  say,  the  tithe, 
the  clergy  have  other  funds,  which  are  supposed  to  raise  their  entire  income  to  upwards  of 
3,t)0(),00(W.     The  Episcopal  revenues  are  of  vorious  amounts ;  that  of  the  see  of  Durham  w 
estimated  at  i3(),0(H)/.  per  annum,  and  is  usually  considered  the  largest    The  lowest,  that  of 
Ijimdafl*,  till  Is  short  of  30002.    The  prebends  enjoyed  by  canons  and  prebendaries  are  some 
of  them  very  ample ;  those  which  exceed  lOOtW.  a  year  are  called  golden  prebends.     Those 
dignitaries  are  also  compcteflt  to  hold  livings  as  rectors  and  vicars.     The  salaries  of  curates 
were  forinoriy  in  many  coses  extremely  small;  but,  by  a  legislative  provision  and  by  flinda 
allotted  out  of  the  public  revenue,  most  of  them  have  been  augmented  in  proportion  to  the 
value  of  tho  benefice  and  its  population ;  80/.  a  year  is  the  lowest  stipend,  and,  if  tho  living 
be  worth  4002.  per  annum,  the  bishop  may  allow  the  curate  of  such  living  1002.  a  year, 
whatever  be  its  population. 

In  her  intellectual  character,  England  may  be  justly  considered  aa  standing  proudly 
eminent.  Bacon,  Boyle,  Locke,  Newton,  Davy,  with  a  long  train  of  coadjutors,  have  dis- 
closed to  mankind  perhaps  a  greater  sum  of  important  truths  than  the  philosophers  of  any 
other  country.  Strong,  clear,  sound  sense  appears  to  be  tlie  quality  peculiarly  English ; 
and  her  reasoners  ■.vero  the  first  to  explode  those  scholastic  subtleties  which,  having  usurped 
the  name  of  philosophy,  so  long  reigned  in  the  schools.  It  w'as  their  merit  to  discover  and 
establish  true  philosophy,  and  apply  it  to  objects  of  real  interest  and  utility. 

In  works  of  imagination,  the  genius  of  the  English  is  bold,  original,  and  vigorous.  In  the 
drama,  Shakspearo  stands  unrivalled  among  ancient  and  nio<lern  poets,  by  his  profound  and 
extensive  knowledge  of  mankind,  his  boundless  range  of  observation  throughout  all  nature, 
his  exquisite  play  of  fancy,  and  his  irresistible  power  in  every  province  of  thought  and  feel- 
ing, the  sublime  and  the  pathetic,  the  terrible  and  the  humorous.  In  epic  poetry,  Milton 
is  acknowledged  by  common  consent  to  stand  first  among  the  modems.  Spenser  and  Dryden 
are  alike  eminent,  the  one  for  sweetness,  the  other  for  versatility;  while  in  correctness  of 
taste,  and  the  polished  harmony  of  numbers.  Pope  has  no  rival  among  the  poets  of  any 
modern  nation. 

In  historical  writing,  England  has  many  illustrious  names,  among  which  that  of  Gibbon 
deserves  an  honourable  place.  In  oratory,  some  of  her  statesmen  have  acquired  great 
renown,  tliough  tlio  general  taste  both  in  the  senate  and  at  the  bar  seems  to  delight  rather 
in  plain  sense  and  in  cogency  of  argument,  tiian  in  those  elaborate,  ornate,  and  declamatory 
flights  by  wliicli  the  groat  speakers  of  antiquity  acted  on  the  imagination  and  passions  of 
their  hearnfiJ. 
The  institutions  for  public  education  in  England  are  extensive  and  splendidly  endowed. 


11':  I.! 


*    • 


aao 


DKSCUII'TIVK  (JK0(JI{AI'I1V. 


I>ABT  III. 


Tho  two  iinivi^riiitifM  of  Oxford  niui  Cumhriilpi'  urn  not  only  tlu!  wmlthior  Imt  ilio  iiioHt 
(Uiciont  in  Kuri'|)o.  Tlicy  rnjiiy  iiimm^f  otlier  iirivilnjft-M  tliiit  of  rt'tiiriiiii;^  I'lU'li  two  iiii>iiili{irii 
to  piirliiinioiit,  uiiil  of  huliliiiif  courtit  tor  thn  ilocinioii  of  cniiNi'x  it)  wliicli  tiii<iiilH'r>«  of  thpir 
own  Uiily  iirt(  inti;ri'ntod.  Tlii-y  were  of  r»;i'l('HriiNtii!  ori^riii ;  hut  tliry  liiivd  Ion;,'  U'oii  run- 
niduruii  lis  liiy  coriionitiotiii.  Tli'Mr  rrwtiirccK  liavo  Ihuti  iiiit^tiiciitctl  liy  tlio  iiiiiiiilin'tn-o  of 
Kovurtti^'iiH,  mill  III  o|iiili'iit  itiiliviilimlri.  Tiii!  pNliililiNJiiiiiMitH  riiin|HiMin^  tlu'iii  iiri>  (liHliii);iiiMho<l 
into  fill li>(;uH  iitiil  liiillii;  tlm  |iitti>r  li(-itiu;  acaili'iiiical  liuiirti'-  not  iiu'or|)orMlt>il  or  I'liilowcd, 
tlioti|;h  thoy  hnvu  had  cotmiiji'nihli)  iMMiciiictiuiiM,  wliidi  urn  ili.-[H'iiNn(l  to  tiio  HtmirtitH  in  i'xhi> 
bitiiiiw  liniitt'il  til  a  Htiitod  |X"riiMl.  C)xtiiril  Iiiih  nitirli'cii  coIIi'^tch  iiiiiI  (Ivii  Imlis;  ('iiiiiliriilufo 
liiiH  tliirtuiMi  coll<>);('M  iind  limr  IiiiIIh,  wliioli  liint,  Imwi'vor,  jiohni'hh  tlii'  muih!  privilc^'CH  m  tno 
liiriiH'r.  Each  univpfiiity  im  nmlur  tlif  ;;ovrrniiii'iit  of  a  rlmticnllnr,  liijfh  Htiiwiiril,  vice- 
cliniirullor,  mid  otiior  otficrrH ;  tlio  porwitis  who  prciiido  ovit  tho  ditliTont  cHt^ililit^liiiiiMitH  an 
nioatora,  wnrdons,  rt'ctora,  priiici|)iilM,  or  provoxta,  Ix'iir  tlio  pnicral  dcnuiiiinatioti  of  IiciuIh  of 
colicfi^CK,  and  vacli  I'ulli'^ii  has  u  niitnbtir  of  fi'lloWMhips  to  which  lar^o  I'nioluiiiuntH  mid  rniiy 
duticM  are  attnchod.  Thoy  pogMCHH  qImo  nxtrnnivo  patrona(;o  in  church  livin^'H,  mid  u  luitnbor 
o4'  cxIiibitiotiH  or  gcholar8lii|>M.  'I'hi'tio,  tliou((h  ol  conxidenihlu  vahio,  iiro  nut  Hiip|iiniod  ode- 
quato  to  dffmy  tho  ex|N!nH(i  of  a  rcHidonro  at  n  iniivornity,  whicii,  at  tho  hiwi-st,  in  calcu- 
lated to  atiioiitit  to  irHW.  a  your.  On  the  bookH  of  each  iinivcrHity  aro  the  nunii's  of  many 
mciiiborH  who  httVd  lonff  coiiKcd  to  rPHiih;;  but,  •■xclusivo  of  tlii<Hr,  the  iuiiiiIht  actually  row- 
dent  ut  Oxford  may  bo  stjitpil  at  lUMN),  and  thoHo  at  ('nnibrid^p  anioinit  to  coriHidoriibly  inoro, 
Students,  accordinj^  to  tlinr  proficiency  in  learning,  are  entitled  to  tho  dejjrecu  of  Imchelor 
and  niiMter  of  art»,  bachelor  and  doctor  in  divinity,  and  bachelor  and  doctor  in  tiie  facultioR 
of  pliyBic  and  law.  The  time  required  by  the  HtatnfoH  to  be  occupied  in  fludy  before  each 
«tudont  can  be  iiualificd  for  takinf;  those  degrees  in  three  yean  for  a  bachelor,  iiiul  almut  four 
years  more  (or  a  master  of  arts ;  seven  years  after  that  he  may  commence  bachelor  of  divinity, 
and  then  five  years  more  entitle  him  to  take  the  degree  of  doctor  in  divinity.  In  law,  a 
student  may  commenco  bachelor  after  six  years',  and  in  physic  after  five  years'  standing. 
Only  one  year's  attendance  and  tho  hearing  of  a  single  course  of  lectures  arc  required  as 
prepiiratory  tiir  entering  into  holy  orders,  the  lownes.'i  of  the  inferior  church  livin^rs,  and  tho 
expense  ot  residence,  rendering  it  difficult  to  exact  morn  fVom  the  greater  niiinb<'r  of  can- 
didates for  ordination.  The  qualifications  tor  a  bishop  include  tho  degree  of  doctoi-  in  divinity. 

The  n?xlo  of  instruction  is  by  private  tutors,  who  teach  cloasical  literature  and  tho 
mathematics,  the  latter  branch  of  study  being  particularly  cultivated  at  Cambridge.  The 
public  exntninntions  are  conducted  with  great  diligence,  and  excite  emulation.  The  lucra- 
tive fellowships  may  sometime.M  tempt  their  possesMors  to  indulge  in  luxurious  ease;  but  to 
those  who  are  s«^riously  diufxised  to  study,  they  afibrd  facilities  for  research  hardly  attainablo 
in  any  other  spliure. 

Two  educational  establishinonts,  tho  Ix)ndon  University  and  King's  College  have  boon 
recently  instituted  in  I/indon. 

Of  the  public  scliools  of  Kngland,  tlio  most  distinguished  are  those  of  Westminster,  Eton, 
Winchester,  and  Harrow.  Although  originally  founded  as  charity-schools,  yet  being  now 
appropriated  to  the  education  of  boys  of  the  first  families,  the  habits  formed  in  them  are 
very  expensive.  Greek  and  I^tin  are  almost  exclusively  taught  there  by  masters  eminently 
qualified;  and  Englishmen  of  education  generally  excel  in  tho  knowledge  of  both  languages. 

For  boys  of  the  middle  rank,  and  thoso  destined  for  commercial  pursuits,  there  are  numer- 
ous private  academies. 

Colleges  for  the  particular  study  of  law  and  equity  have  long  been  established  in  the 
mctro|K)lis,  under  the  names  of  inns  of  court  and  itms  of  chancery.  The  principal  of  these 
aro  the  Middle  and  Inner  Temple,  Lincoln's  Inn,  and  Gray's  Inn.  n<>foro  any  person  can 
be  admitted  to  practise  as  an  advocate,  he  nnist  be  regularly  entered  in,  ond  be  a  member 
of,  one  of  the  inns  of  court  for  five  years,  and  must  have  kept  his  commons  in  such  inn, 
twelve  terms.  In  favour  of  those  who  have  taken  a  degree  of  master  of  arts  or  bachelor  of 
laws  at  an  English  university,  tlireo  years  are  sufficient  to  be  a  member  of  tho  iim.  Afler 
complying  with  these  conditions,  and  paying  the  regular  fees,  the  student  may  be  culled  to 
the  bar  without  having  been  required  to  make  any  public  demonstration  of  his  proficiency  or 
ability. 

Of  primary  schools  for  the  great  liody  of  tho  people,  there  fiirmerly  existed  a  considerable 
number;  but  the  deficiency  of  them,  at  present,  is  greatly  to  be  deplored.  The  metropiilis, 
indeed,  contains  several,  of  which  the  most  considerable  is  Christ-church  Hospital  or  the 
Blue-coat  School,  in  which  ab<iut  1100  children  are  maintainetl  and  educated.  The  number 
of  charitable  foundations  in  different  jiarts  of  tho  country  amounts  to  3,898,  yielding  an 
income  of  fir},3!>')/.  Of  these,  however,  many  give  also  board  and  lodging,  so  that  their 
advantages  can  extend  to  only  a  small  number;  others  have  been  neglected,  and  left  exposed 
to  those  abuses  to  which  old  establishments  are  generally  liable.  So  greatly  was  the  in- 
fluence of  these  institutions  on  tlie  great  liody  of  the  lower  orders  diminishcMl,  that  within 
Uie  List  30  years  the  larger  projwrtion  of  labouring  people  were  unable  to  read.    The  evils 


BOUK   I. 


ENGr.AND 


set 


It  llipir 
kxposrtl 
Itlio  in- 
witliin 
he  evils 


itriNin;;  t'ri)iii  wnnt  (ifriliiciitiiui  niiuiiiff  tlioin  liiivu,  lit  l(<n|{tli>  l>i'<'ii  itninfrlv  I'olt ;  and  very 
(rri'iit  I'xcrlioiH  Imvi!  Im-cii  iiiiiili<,  rhu'lVy  liy  thu  iNMinvulimci!  <il'|iriviit(i  iiiiliviiliiuU,  tn  roiiu-tly 

lUO  (Ipll'Ct. 

Of  tlin  H('if>ntirtc  inKtiliitii'iiN  of  Kni^laml  tlin  tbromiMit  Im  "tlio  Itoyiil  Hurii'ty  of  l,<milon 
tor  improving,'  Nnliiml  Kiiou  IciIko."  In  itM  iiifuncy  it  owiil  miik-Ii  to  tlin  {iroti't'tiuii  of  Olivur 
(.'roiMWi'll ;  mill  liiiviiitf  Miirvj^ I'll  ^'"'  ('oiiiiiioiiwi-nltli,  wiin  iiiror|)<imli'il  by  rnyitl  clwirtiT,  in 
l(MK),  Till'  Sij(!ii'iy  |ml)liHh  iiii  iiiiiiiial  vuliiiiiu  uiiilur  tint  niiiiio  of  I'liilimiiiiliiriil  'l'riin$tir- 
turn*  'I'lif  Soi'ii'ty  of  Antii|iiiirii'H  tritci'ii  itx  ori)(iii  to  tlio  rclifii  of  (Iihm'ii  Kli/,iilH<tli,  liut 
wuM  not  iiii'iir|i<>ratiiil  until  IH'JI.  It  Iiiim  )inliliHlii!il  n  M)rinitof  volniupiiniititli'il  ArilnroloffM, 
Hovi'riil  iiriMiti'  iHucii.'tii'H  liiivn  bci-n  I'ornii^il  for  tlio  nnltivittion  of  particiiliir  liriinclii'M  of 
knowloil}(i',  hy  lilt!  union  of  imlivMlnaU  i|iHtini;niHlu>ii  for  tlii'ir  iittainmontx  in  or  ili'votiori  to 
tlioHi' liriiiiclii'M.  Ik'MJili'it  tlii'HO  and  otlicr  in.-«titutioiiN  in  tlin  nu'troiMiliH,  iiiiuit  of  tlio  (fri'at 
jlrovilll;^^l  towns,  uh  MiinclicMtiT,  Hriwiol,  Dfrliy,  LivcriNxil,  nnd  Nowcnutli',  liiivn  formed 
litoriiry  iiiiil  |iliilo>io|iliirul  MKtiotJi's,  which  havu  iniulu  houiu  iiii|i(irtii!itcontribiitionK  to  hcIlmico 
and  litiTiitiiro  in  ilioir  'rrtiiiNuctuiiiH, 

Tlie  |)rimn|>iil  public  libriirniH  Imvo  owed  tlioirori(;iii  to  tlioMpirit  nifd  cntorprino  uf  private 
individuiiln;  tliu  liodloimi  Library  at  Oxford  wiih  tho  bciiuuHt  of  Sir  ThoiniiH  liiHlli'y,  nrnl 
VIM  enrirlii'd  by  HiicceMsivo  ilonatiunM.  Tho  Uritinh  Muhi'iiiii  di'rivPil  its  firHt  tri-riHiiroM  tVotn 
tho  L-olli'ctiiiiiiJof  Sir  Robert  Cotton  and  Sir  llann  SIiniiio;  biithiiHac(|uirod,  tliroii;;li  piirnliiitio 
by  piirliiuiiiMit,  tho  HarliMiin  mid  LiinMlownu  MSS,,  tho  librarios  of  Major  I']il\vardM  and  Dr. 
liurnoy,  ami  sovi-nil  valuiiblii  cidloctiotw  of  coinn  and  niincnilN.  It  Iuih  also  bi.'cn  enrii-hed 
by  tho  enliro  collection  of  (Joorno  III.,  proHonted  to  tin-  n.'ition  by  hw  nuecoHwir.  With 
tfuji  acc(wnioii,  till!  library,  which  previously  couHinted  of  ri'MHK)  voluines,  has  been  aug- 
mented by  one-liulf.  The  Muiicum  in  alw)  very  rich  in  specimcnH  of  natural  liiNtory,  par- 
ticularly of  niini'raIo)(Y. 

IntititutioiiH  of  a  hif{nly  UHoful  cliaracter  have  Npruni;  from  the  gcnnnil  desire  of  knowleilge 
which  marks  the  prenent  uge.  Their  object  in  to  coinmunicuto  know!od(»o  to  tho  coniiner- 
cial  classes,  as  well  as  to  persons  who  have  not  opjMirtunitics  for  a  regular  course  of  study, 
and  the  chief  means  cmpiovod  tor  this  purpose  are  a  library,  a  reading-rooni,  and  courses  of 
lectures.  Of  these  establishmonts  are  tho  Royal  Institution,  tho  liondon  Institution,  &c.; 
and  all  the  (rroat  cities  and  towns  have  now  tlicir  public  libraries. 

Of  the  Fine  Arts,  that  of  painting  has  been  greatly  neirlccted  in  Enjrland.  Portrait 
paintin;;,  iniicod,  always  met  with  encouragement;  yet  Vandyke,  the  leader  in  this  brnnrh  of 
art,  wa.s  a  liiroigiier.  It  was  only  toward  the  close  of  tho  last  century  that  Reynolds  formed 
a  style  ilociilt'dly  Knglish,  and  of  distinguished  excellence. 

The  Roy;il  .Academy,  under  the  iioini'iliati!  patronage  of  the  king,  consists  of  fijrty  arti.sts, 
including  the  president,  while  a  nuiubiT  of  otiiers  are  attached  in  expectancy  ns  assix'iatei). 
There  are  lour  profosstirs,  viz,  of  painting,  of  arcliitectur(>,  ofanatoniv,  and  of  pi'rs|)ectivo, 
who  annually  read  public  lectures  on  tho  subjects  of  their  several  (lonartinents.  To  the 
schools  of  this  academy  free  admission  is  given  to  all  students  properly  qimlilied  for  receiv- 
ing instruction,  and  there  is  an  annual  exhibition  of  paintings,  sculpture,  and  architectural 
designs,  to  which  all  artists  may  send  their  works  for  admission,  if  approved  by  the  commit* 
tee  appointed  to  judge  them.  The  splendid  collection  of  paintings  formed  by  the  regtut 
duke  of  Orleans  was  imported  entire,  and  tho  greater  part  of  it  now  embellishes  the  gallery 
of  the  Marquess  of  Staflbrd.  Tho  nobles  of  Italy,  olso,  on  tho  devastation  of  that  country 
were  obliged  to  strip  their  palaces  of  these  valued  ornaments,  and  to  dispose  of  them  at 
low  rates  to  English  speculators.  From  those  sources  were  tbrined  tho  Xlrosvenor,  the  An- 
gerstein,  and  many  otiii-r  private  collections.  On  the  death  of  Mr,  Angerstein,  in  18'24,  his 
collection  was  purchased  by  pailianient,  and  made  the  Iwisis  of  a  national  gallery,  which  has 
since  received  considerable  additions  both  by  purchase  and  bequest. 

In  tho  other  departments  of  the  fine  arts,  nmsie,  sculpture,  and  architecture,  the  English 
have  bei'u  tlir  excelled  by  the  continental  nations;  in  engraving,  they  have  produced  some 
distinguished  names. 

The  publishing  and  selling  of  IxKiks  (brm  one  of  tho  prmeipal  branches  of  her  productive 
industry.  Periodical  literature  has  a  very  extensive  circulation.  In  the  metropolis  nearly 
sixty  magazines  and  reviews  are  published,  of  which  the  monthly  value  has  been  estimated 
at  60()(W.  Another  important  characteristic  of  tho  national  spirit  may  be  remarke<l  in  the 
immense  circulation  of  newspipers,  notwithstanding  a  heavy  stamp-duty.  There  are  in 
London  eight  daily  morning  pap(;rs,  anil  five  daily  evening  papers;  seven  papers  published 
thrice  a  week;  and  upwards  of  forty  weekly  papers.  Of  the  latter  species  of  newspaper, 
every  provincial  city  has  two  or  three,  and  every  town  of  consequence  has  one.  The  num- 
ber of  stamps  issued  for  the  Nondon  newspaiicrs  in  IRIW  was  21,4;}2,882.  Tho  produce  of 
the  duty  in  tliit  year  was  AWA'Af, 

The  tiivoiirite  aiiiiisonipnts  of  the  En^^lish  arc  those  which  combine  the  advantages  of  air 
and  exerciso.  The  staj,fe,  though  eminently  rich  in  dramas,  and  supplieil  with  actors  of  high 
talent,  is  not  the  habitual  resort  of  the  jieople.  In  former  times  hunting  was  almost  the 
sole   busiiii.'ss  of  life  aiauuK  the  EnglLsh  squires;  and  though  their  tastes  arc  now  much 

VoKi.  "         *=        31  av 


,*«.. 


..k 


,^-' 


902 


ti 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pabt  m 


varied,  this  original  pastime,  in  ail  its  forms,  continuos  to  be  eagerly  followed.  By  the 
nobility  and  gentry,  horse-racing  is  supported  with  equal  ardour,  and  no  country  rivals  Eng- 
land in  the  liigh  excellence  to  which  she  lias  brought  the  breed  of  animals  employed  in  this 
diversion.  The  races  of  Doncaster,  of  York,  and  atove  all  of  Newmarket,  are  attended  by  the 
most  distinguished  persons  in  the  country  for  rank  and  opulence;  and  other  race-courses 
attract  great  multitudes  of  miscellaneous  spectators.  Among,  tlie  common  people  boxing 
matches  present  a  similar  occasion  of  laying  wagers.  Bull-baiting  was  pUt  down  only  by 
statute.  Of  the  national  outrdoor  games,  those  ot  cricket  and  tennis  deserve  especial  com- 
mendation, from  their  tendency  to  enliven  the  spirits  and  invigorate  the  frame. 

In  their  habits  and  modes  of  ordinary  life,  the  English  may  be  called  a  domestic  people, 
especially  when  compared  with  the  French.  In  common  with  other  northern  nations,  the 
English  retain  a  taste  for  fermented  or  distilled  liquors,  which,  however,  has  been  in  a 
great  measure  corrected  and  subdued  among  the  higher  and  middle  classes.  Beer  and  porter 
constitute  the  staple  drink  of  the  great  body  of  the  people ;  but  malt  spirit  of  a  cheap  and 
very  pernicious  kind  is  consumed  in  great  quantities  by  the  lowest  orders,  especially  in  the 
metropolis,  where  it  is  rapidly  accelerating  their  degeneracy.  Among  the  middle  classes 
the  wines  of  Spain,  Portugal  and  Madeira  are  in  general  use ;  but  the  cellars  of  the  rich 
are  stored  with  the  choicest  products  of  the  French  vineyards.  Convivial  excess,  so  long  the 
reproach  of  the  English,  has  become  comparatively  rare. 

Sect.  VII. — Local  Geography.  ■  '■ 

England  and  Wales  are  divided  into  counties  or  sliires.  Wales,  until  the  time  of  Ed- 
ward I.,  was  an  independent  principality,  but  is  now  an  appendent  territory,  of  very  inferior 
magnitude.  It  has  still,  however,  its  own  courts  of  judicature,  and  retains  some  national 
peculiarities.  The  number  of  counties  in  England  is  forty,  and  in  Wales  twelve;  making  in 
all  fifty-two.  The  following  statistical  table,  gives  a  general  view  of  the  extent,  popula- 
tion, employment,  and  wealth  of  each  county : — 


li 

Income 

in  1814-15,  arising  Oom 

CoUBtlBt. 

10/.  ard 
U|twards. 

RcDlal 

or  llOUKS. 

ti>n, 
Ibll. 

Lind. 

Tradt. 

OfliMS. 

1% 

Halo, 

Cities  ud  Towai. 

£ 

£ 

X 

X 

£ 

£ 

Bedford 

Berk!  

430 
744 

723 
3,713 

13.019 
83,573 

95,383 
145,389 

304,370 
719,889 

94,790 
399,703 

1,481 
3,317 

90,994 
129,333 

Bedford 

5  ?"»''!»« 

W'.mlsor 

Newbury  — 

0,939 

15,595 

7,103 

5,939 

Back! 

748 

1,894 

35,055 

140,529 

603,872 

232.981 

1,998 

158,483 

Biickingliam . 
Avle.sbiiry  . .. 

3,610 
3,021 

Cunbridfte.... 

086 

2,045 

49,781 

143,955 

705,371 

239,087 

5,109 

115,103 

Cninbridge . . . 

Ely 

30,917 
0,180 

Cheater  (o)  ■  •  • 

1,017 

l.TfM 

93,854 

334,410 

1,114.937 

380,309 

4,307 

30,608 

144,102 

(  Chenlcr 

1  Maccli'shiild  . 

31,363 
23,129 

Cornwall 

1,407 

2.853 

48,117 

303,440 

932,358 

330,113 

3,233 

77,086 

121,202 

1  l.nuncefttoii. . 
FalniiMith — 

2,231 
4,760 

Cumberland  . . 

1,497 

3,400 

42,040 

109,081 

737.438 

179,752 

3.447,40,297 

58,830 

Cnrliwlc 

Wliitrhnveii . 

20,000: 
11,393 

Derby (»).... 
Devon 

Dorset 

1,077 

2.488 

1.129 

3,287 
12,397 

3,031 

45,033 
237,000 

57,868 

237,170 
494,108 

159,352 

883,370 
1,934,912 

720,203 

310,583 
754,444 

341,034 

3,908 
9,471 

4,002 

43,000  108,303 
33,800'350,713 

104,822 

Dtrliy  

<  K.xeter 

\  I'lyiiiiiiitli 

(  Dcvoiiport . . . 
(  Wevinoiith  .  ■ 
f  Poil'lf. 

2;i,637 
■.7,9;i2 
40,631 
34.883 
7,6.53i 
(..439! 
4,075 

(  8lierhoriic  . . . 

Durham  (c) . . . 

1,040 

4,200 

09,471 

353,837 

88.5,.'ieO 

353,031 

3,771 

52,300  100,.M0J^-|j-, Id.-: 

10,133 
17,0<i0 

EmoiW 

1,535 

6,284 

139,800 

317,333 

1,584,108 

003,935 

8,030 

52,248 

t  ColclieMer  ... 

320,Wl|<  Harwich 

(  RnfTrnn  WMv 
I  Glourosier  . . . 

16,167 

4.297 

II  4.763 

11.9;i:i 

Gtsuceater  (<). 

1,123 

9,080 

251,974 

380.SKM  1,315,733 

307,243 

2.«» ;«'>.^'«;^^^^,.;.•^v: 

59,074 
3,780 

Hereford 

Herlfiird 

Huntingdon  . . 

«7I 
002 
US 

1.794 

3,490 

945 

30,4i4 
70.299 
10,791 

110,970 
143.341 
53,149 

()20.15fl 

•wi.ia? 

325,094 

01,851 

202,989 

08,401 

2.790 
4.319 
4,130 

70,000 
115.09-J 
50,0il2 

f  Cirencester  .. 

llcreftird 

Ilurlfnrd 

Ilinilliit!d! 
C  t'niiterbiiiv  ■  ■ 

S.l'-H) 
lO.ofi 
5.iM7 
3,'i67 
13,649 

Kent  (/)...  . 

1,402 

10,129 

.T47,110 

479,155 

1,087,442 

1,086,228 

19,342 

399,081! 

J  Di'ptrnril   mid 
i     Greeinvirli. 

44.348 

. 

f  Muidstoiie  . .. 

13,387 

(«;  Nantwich  -    -   4.886  I  M  GulnhenA    ■ 
lb)  Chocilc'ifiold    ■    .'1,77.1       lliohnp   VVoar- 
Malluck  -   -   -   3,36;i  I       niouih 


15,177       BlDcklon  -    -   7.703 1  (f)  Chi'llenliam  E2,!M2 

South  ShieWi   9,074       Htn.iiil    -    -     8.607 

14,462 1  M)  Chelnniurd    5,435    (/)  Koi:he8lcr     9,891 


Deal  7.208 

Miirunte  -    -    10,339 
liamxuto   ■     7,9(15 


m 


6,059 
15,595 
7,103 
5,059 
3,610 
5,031 
90,017 
0,180 
31,363 
2:1,129 
3,331 
4.7(» 
20,000 : 
.  11,393 
.  2;),827 
.  .7,932 
.  40,(i51 
.  34.883 
.  7,6,55 1 
.  li,4S9! 
.  4,075 
.  10,135 
.  17,0(KI 
.  111,1(17 
.  4,2!I7 
ilden  4.763 
ll.!i:i3 
511,074 
5,71-t) 
5.120 
I0.2W 
5.24 
:i,2li7 
13,(149 
ind 
cli..  '(4.34« 
i5,3B7 


7,268 
I(),:t39 
7,9tlS 


Book  I. 


ENGLAND. 
TABLE— continued. 


^:> 


C* 

Income  in  1814-15,  arising  flrom 

Countld. 

l(V.  uij 
U)jwardfl. 

Renhl 

18311 

Lud, 

Tndii. 

OOcei. 

sl 

iutn. 

CKIn  ud  Toira. 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

(  Manchester. . 

189,812 

Lamashiro  (a) 

1.806 

38,406 

795,833 

1,336,854 

3,139,013 

2,292,079 

39,030 

413,530 

1  Liverpool. .. . 
J  Lancaster  . .  • 

165,175 
12,613 

Leicester  (») . . 
Lincoln  

816 
2,787 

3,357 
4,036 

63,748 
78,694 

197,003 
317,344 

951,908 
3,096,611 

319,607 
373,071 

5,827 
6,550 

153,594 
338,053 

(Wigan 

Leicester  — 

(  Lincoln 

<  Boston 

(  Stamford  — 

20,774 
39,308 
11,843 
11,340 

5,837 

Middlesex.... 

297 

116,270 

5,143,340 

1,358,541 

5,763,373 

15,255,245 

1,174,865 

779,125 

Pan  of  London  and  1 

Monmouth  • .  • 

516 

1,088 

31,572 

98,130 

208,981 

102,571 

437 

0,300 

32,089 

Monmouth  . . 

4,916 

Norfolk  (£)... 

2,013 

5,333 

97,007 

390,054 

1,516,051 

533,010 

16,505 

338,807 

)  Norwich 

(  Yarmoiitli . . . 

61,116 
21,115 

Northamp- 
ton   

Northum- 
berland (d) 

065 
1,809 

3,337 
6,140 

40,327 
120,424 

170,276 
2«J,912 

947,578 
1,291,413 

185,301 
430.404 

1,421 
5,763 

59,900 

173,018 
88,035 

Niirthompton 
Peterborough 
NewcSBlle  . . . 
Berwick 

15,351 
5,55,. 

42,360 
8,920 

Nottingham . . 

774 

3,597 

71,396 

335,330 

751,626 

314,501 

2,073 

106,707 

Nottingham  . 

50,080 
U,SS7 

Oxford 

Rutland 

743 
200 

3,638 
841 

61,860 
4,631 

151,720 
19,385 

700.800 
138,316 

312,809 
30,938 

4,815 
799 

151,235 
13,872 

Oxford 

Shrewsbury.. 

20,649 
23,492 

Salop 

1,403 

3,402 

63,091 

232,503 

1,083,701 

279,932 

4,861 

38,905 

99,605 

JWenlock  .... 

17,435 

5,298 

Somerset  (e) . . 

Southamp.     ) 
ton 1 

Stafford  (/)... 
Suffolk 

1,540 
1,533 
1,196 
1,566 

16,508 
9,363 
6,133 
3,573 

512,909 
198,331 
108,507 
01,909 

403,008 
314,313 
410,485 
306,304 

3,308,733 
1,340,547 
1,200,3'24 
1,151,304 

1,329,365 
923,713 
536,720 
453,484 

13,887 
10,751 
10,626 
11,973 

30,100 
8,700 
48,000 

309,506 
339,123 

171,578 
299,064 

(  Ludlow 

t  Bath  

\  llridgewnter  . 
f  1'aiiiiton  .... 
I  Southampton 

<  Portsmouth. . 
(  Winchester.. 
I  Statford 

<  Newcastle . . . 

<Uc'incld 

i  Ipswich 

<  Dury  St.  Ed- 

(mind's  .... 

5,353 

38,003 

7,897 

11,139 

19,134 

50,309 

8,713 

6,956 

8,193 

6,499 

30,201 

11,436 

Surrey 

811 

33,865 

064,438 

486,330 

1,589,701 

1,564,532 

21,023 

321,304 

Soiithwnrk  . . 
Ruilill'ord 

91,501 
3,916 

Sussex (g)-..> 
Warwick  (A).. 

1,461 
084 

6,818 
9,308 

202,837 
100,603 

373,328 
336,968 

919,350 
1,269,756 

372,058 
609,309 

4,610 
12,900 

10,950 

289,051 
192,303 

ilrighton 

<  I.ew.s 

(  Chichester . . . 
i  Birtiiiogham. 

<  Coventry  .... 
1  Warwick.... 

40,634 

8,590 

8,370 

148,986 

27,070 
9,109 

Westniorc-    ) 
land i 

7S2 

1,030 

31,120 

55,041 

299.582 

52,575 

1,184 

32,044 

Kendal 

10,015 

Wilts 

Worcester  (() . 

1,283 
674 

3,622 
4,873 

68,577 
100,836 

239,181  1,215,619 
211,350    820,030 

370,070 
373.303 

6,981 
1,137 

3,100 
3,800 

220,931 
97,178 

Salisbury. .. . 

Worcester . . 

I  York 

9,876 
18.610 
28,454 

York(t) 

6,013 

20,189 

^15,539 

1,371,396  4,700,424 

1,719,886 

"4,416 

03,300 

s«-»2eilHulL:;::::; 

123,393 
36,393 

N.  Wales. 

(  Sheffield 

59,111 

Anglcsca 

403 

220 

4,080 

48,335 

94,766 

3,998 

19,190 

j  Btmiitnaris. . 
}  Holyhead . . . 

3,497 
4,382 

Caernar-        ) 

yon  (/).... 
Denbigh  (n).. 
FlintCn^ 

775 

538 

7,982 

65,753 

131,212 

30.641 

320 

23,440 

Caernarvon . 

7,649 

856 
176 
293 
60S 

4(iO 

14,411 

3,.I75 

4,578 
7,971 

7,509 

9(19 

8,:t63 

83.167 
(10  013 

312,576 
I?";  IIS 

19.677 

11.060 

7,201 

18,748 

22,783 
13,727 
30,320 

305 

795 
68 

■m 

SCO 

282 

5,301 

\'i,m 

..... 


41.13<l 
25,513 
16,700 
38,065 

20,928 
20,085 
37,957 

Denbigh  .... 
Holywell  . . . 
Dolgeliy  .... 
Welshpool.. 

Brecknock .  ■ 
Cnrdigiin  . . . 
Caermarllien 

3,788 
8,969 
4,087 
5.255 

5,036 
3,795 
9,955 

Merioneth 

Montgomery  . 
S.  Wales. 

35,(J0!li    112,510 
06,485    313,083 

47  763    161  ORO 

Cardigan  (o)  . . 
Caerniarthen  . 

720 
936 

74 
570 

64,780 
100,(155 

140.816 
382,091 

Glamor-         j 

....|     1,713 

31,368 

126,012 

372,fira 

103,203 

3,149 

55,900 

42,301 

Swansea  . . . 

13,694 

Pembroke  (?)  . 
.Radnor 

740 
174 

12,701 
2,202 

81,424 
24.051 

220.241 
101,95(1 

45.348 
3.4-.'(l 

1,531 
40 

28,308 
15,298 

Pembroke  . . 
Radnor 

6,511 
1,989 

u)  Bolton     -    - 
Siilfcird 

41,195 

Burr   -    -    - 

1.5,086 

(/)  Wolverhnmp- 

4(1,780 

Cborlejr    -    - 

9,'i»2 

lon    -    -    - 

24,7:H 

Rochdale    -    - 

35,7:i.'i 

Profcol     -    - 

5.035 

Bilslon      .    - 

14.492 

PreKton  -    -    - 

31,112 

(b)  Lonifhbo- 
rnuffh    -    - 

(iOlliwimgs    - 

10097 

Oldham      -    - 

32  381 

10,800 

Rve     -         ■ 

(A)  Leiiminirtoii 

3,715 

Ptlkin8(on 

1I,(I0() 
7.004 

(c)  Lynn  llenni 

13,376 

6,209 

Croni(i(on 

(</)  TyiiPmou(h 

10.182 

KrixKvortll  - 

3.697 

Rlnckliiin) 

27,(191 

Nnrdi  Shields 

6  744 

(il  nudli'y  ■    - 

2:i.043 

Tox(e(h  Pntk 

24.007 

llexhiiiii  -    - 

6,042 

Ki.ldi'MninsliT 

14.981 

Chorltnn  Itow 

2(l,.Vt9 

Mnrpotll  -    - 

3.1-90 

lltinilirid.'-e  • 

6.14H 

Warrington    - 

16.018 

(f)  Wells    -    - 

0,049 

Kvcslmtn 

3,991 

Drnilwich  - 
(*)  Wliiiby  - 
Scarbnrough 
Beverley  -  - 
DoiicuBter  - 
lludilribfield 
llnlit'tix  - 
Bradford  -  - 
KHrnsley  -  - 
llipon  -  - 
ron(olrac( 


2,4871 
11.725 

8.:(i() 

8.3(h! 
10,801 
I9!«:t5 
1.5,382 
23233 
1(1.330 
■>.08(1 
4,832 


{D    Bnnror    - 
(Wi)  Wrt'xlmm 

Llio)f!ol|fn  - 
(»)Miild     -    - 

Fliel  -  -  - 
(o)  Ab<'rv8twi(h 
(;))  Merlliyr  Tyd 

vil     -    -    -    32.083 

Cnrdiff    -    -      0.187 
(vllUvirfurd  wot  3,915 

Tenby      -    -     3,138 


4,751 

5,483 

3,s:io 

8.086 
9.216 
4.128 


;fM 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


pAiir  111. 


distrilnitod  nmler  the  following  subsec- 
S.  Midlimd  counties;  4.  Norihern  coun- 


The  topographical  details  of  England  mny  bo  di 
tinns: — 1.  Southern  counties;  2.  Eastern  counties;  3 
ties ;  5.  Western  counties. 

SuBSECT.  1. — Southern  Coiinlif's. 

Under  this  head,  Kent,  Surrey,  Sussex,  Bcrksliiro,  Iliimpi'liiro,  Wiltshire,  and  Dorset,  the 
counties  south  of  the  Thames,  and  along  the  Channel,  will  bo  comprehended.     Tliis  fine 
district  is,  in  general,  of  a  level  character;  but  is  traversed,  however,  by  -  vfs  of  low  hills, 
or  downs,  which  give  to  it  a  varied  and  picturesijue  aspect,     Cirilk  is  niiniint  ftaturo 

in  its  soil;  and,  on  the  coast,  forms  those  bold  clifl's,  which  cli.iriictoris  .-jiitliprn  bound- 

ary of  Britain.  Many  tracts  are  under  high  cultivation,  yieldinc,  in  perfection,  the  usual 
agricultural  products,  with  others  of  great  value,  peculiar  to  tliis  district;  parfioulurly  hops, 
in  Kent,  and  part  of  Sussex  and  Surrey.  A  prominent  feature  consists  of  large  e.xpansos  of 
downs,  composed  of  chalky  soil,  scarcely  fit  for  tlie  plough,  but  pastured  by  vast  flocks  of  sheep. 
Kent,  the  largest  and  finest  of  these  couni  ^,  holds  u  conspicuous  place  in  llnglish  annals. 
The  men  of  Kent  have  been  noted  as  mrace  peculiarly  stout,  hard)',  and  courageous.  In 
the  west  are  extensive  wealds,  presenting  still  many  finely  wooded  riistrict.s ;  also  large  marshy 
tracts,  interspersed,  however,  with  dry  cultivatec  portions,  in  wliich  the  best  grain  in  the  king- 
dom is  raised.  The  interior  around  Maidstone  and  Cantcrliury  forms  almost  a  continued 
garden,  supplying  fruits  for  the  markets  of  London ;  and  abo  >.  .dl,  hops,  that  essential  ingre- 
dient in  the  staple  beverage  of  the  English  nation. 

Canterbury,  the  chief  place  in  Kent,  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  and  venerable  of  the  English 
cities.  It  is  the  ecclesiastical  metropolis  of  the  kingdom,  the  residence  of  its  primate ;  who, 
as  such,  places  the  crown  on  the  sovereign's  head,  and  ranks  next  in  dignity  to  tiie  royal 

family.     Its  cathedral  {fiff.  138.)  is  of  early 
origin  and  of  vast  extent ;  while  revered  through 
the  Catholic  world  as  the  shrine  of  the  mur- 
dered Beckot,  il  was  visited  by  crowds  of  pil- 
grims, and  enriched  with  ofTerintrs;  but  of  these 
treasures  it  was  stripped  by  Henry  VIII.    Can- 
terbury is  built  ill  the  form  of  a  cross,  and  in- 
ter.-:ected  by  branches  of  the  Stoiir.     Manufac- 
tures of  cloth,  silk,  and  cotton  were  early  in- 
gi'9  troiluced,  and  still  subsist,  though  they  cannot 
i!^  l)ear  a  comparison  with  those  of  the  great  towns 
"  of  file  interior  and  of  tiie  norfli. 

Maidstone  and  Tiinbridsre  are  among  the 
agreeable  inland  towns  in  Kent.  The  former, 
of  great  antiquity,  has  one  of  the  most  elegant  parochial  churches  in  the  kingi'om.  It  is 
the  chief  market  for  hops;  and  has  some  nrimifactures,  particularly  of  paper.  Tunbridge 
Wells,  situated  five  or  six  miles  from  the  town  of  Tnnbridge,  have  long  been  a  place  of 
public  resort.  The  springs  arc  considered  efficucious  in  cases  of  debility  and  certain  chronic 
disorders.  The  town  hiis  also  a  thriving  manufacture  of  Tunbridge  ware,  consisting  of 
various  wooden  ornaments,  snutr-boxes,  children's  toys,  &ic. 

But  the  chief  places  of  Kent  are  maritinu',  the  most  ancient  being  those  called  the 
Cinque  Purls.  At  an  early  period,  they  were  considered  the  most  imporJant  stations  for  the 
defence  of  the  kingdom,  and  were  iKiund  to  furnish  and  ecpiip  fifly-seven  vessels,  each 
manned  with  twenty-one  sailors;  in  return  for  which,  their  citizens  held  the  rank  of  barons, 
and  sent  two  members  to  parliament  from  each  port.  Their  greatness  is  now  departed,  and 
some  of  tlieir  harbours  have  been  filled  up  by  sand. 

The  Kentish  Cinque  Ports  are  Dover,  Sandwich,  Hythe,  and  Romney.  The  first  is  still 
a  place  of  considerable  note.  The  spacious  castle  on  a  commanding  eminence,  the  white 
and  towering  cliffs,  present  to  the  approaching  mariner  an  imposing  spectacle.  As  the  main 
channel  of  communication  with  France,  it  maintains  twenty-seven  packets  in  constant  ser- 
vice.   Romney  and  Hythe  are  of  little  maritime  importance.     Sandwich  on  the  east  ^oast, 

yields  in  importance  to  iLs  nominal  de- 
pendencies. Deal,  Margate,  and  Rams- 
gate.  Deal  derives  its  prosperity  from 
the  vicinity  of  tliat  fine  ancliorage,  the 
Downs,  where  the  outward-lmuiid  fleets 
of  England  usually  remain  (lira  certain 
period,  when  fliey  olitain  supplies  and 
refresliini'iits  from  Deal.  Margate  ie 
crowdi'd,  though  not  fashionabli' ;  and 
the  estahiishment  of  steain-packets  al- 
lows daily  intercourse  with  the  metro- 
polis.   It  likewisi;  carries  on  some  trade 


Caiitorbury  Cathedral. 


>■ 


PAiir  111. 

I<)\vin<f  siibscc 
Noriliern  coun- 


and  Dorset,  the 
led.  This  fine 
'PS  of  low  hills, 
niiiiiiiit  foaturo 
jiithorn  hound- 
ction,  the  usual 
rticul;irly  hops, 
pfo  expanses  of 
flocks  of  sheep. 
l';nj,'lish  annals, 
ourapeous.  In 
so  large  marshy 
■ain  in  the  king- 
)st  a  continued 
essential  ingre- 

G  of  the  English 
!  primate ;  who, 
ity  to  the  royal 
)8.)  is  of  early 
revered  through 
ne  of  the  mur- 
'  crowds  of  pil- 
gs ;  hut  of  these 
nry  Vlil.  Can- 
a  cross,  and  in- 
,our.  Manufac- 
were  early  in^ 
igh  they  cannot 
|tho  groat  towns 

among  the 

The  former, 

;innf('o:n.     It  is 

Tunbridge 

!en  n  place  of 

certain  chronic 

consisting  of 

lose  called  the 
statmus  for  the 

vessels,  each 
riiiik  ol'  barons, 

departed,  and 

le  first  is  still 
ncp,  the  white 
As  the  main 
constant  ser- 
tho  east  toast, 
Us  nominal  de- 
to,  and  Rams- 
irospnrity  fi-om 
ncliorago,  the 
iiiund  fleets 
n  tlir  n  certain 
siii)|)li('s  and 
.Mnrgote  jg 
iiimildc;  and 
iii-i);u'kets  al- 
ilh  the  mftro- 
011  SOUK'  trade 


Book  I. 


ENGLAND. 


365 


ri 


Greenwich  llDspital. 


with  the  Baltic,  and  supplies  the  metropolif)  with  grain  and  fish.  Having  risen  within  the 
lust  half  century,  it  is  built  willi  regularity,  and  contains  twelve  marble  baths,  into  which 
the  sea-water  is  admitted  for  those  who  prefer  that  mode  of  bathing.  Ramsgate,  situated 
on  the  isle  of  Thanet,  possesses  the  advantage  of  a  smooth  and  extensive  beach.  Conside- 
rable improvements  have  been  made  in  the  harbour  at  the  expense  of  government,  with  the 
view  to  its  yielding  protection  to  vessels  naviguliug  lliis  coast,  where  the  dangerous  shoals 
of  the  Goodwin  Sands  have  often  p'oved  fatal. 

Deptford,  Woolwich,  Cliatham,  ai  d  Sheerncss,  are  grand  establishments  for  the  construc- 
tion of  ships  of  war.  Deptford  con  ,ains  also  the  Victualling  OflUce.  Woolwich  is  the  de- 
p6t  of  artillery,  and  the  theatre  of  all  the  operations  connected  with  its  construction  and 
preparation.  Here  is  also  the  Royal  Military  Academy,  m  which  an  hundred  young  men  of 
respectable  family  are  trained  in  all  the  branches  of  knowledge  necessary  for  the  engineer- 
ing department ;  and  v>lio,  after  a  strict  examination,  are  appointed  to  commissions  in  the 
service.  Cliatham  is  the  grand  magazine  of  naval  stores.  Tlie  rope-ho.  is  1128  feet  long, 
in  whicli  cables  101  fathoms  in  length,  and  upwards  of  two  feet  in  circumference,  are  con- 
structed. Twenty  forges  are  constantly  employed  in  the  fabrication  of  anchors,  some  of 
which  are  five  tons  in  weight.  This  imixtrtaut  )x)st,  with  the  exception  of  Portsmouth,  ia 
now  the  strongest  in  Britain.  Sheerness,  on  the  Isle  of  Sheppey,  is  a  smaller  station, 
chiefly  employed  in  the  repair  of  shattered  vessels. 
Greenwich,  about  two  miles  below  Depllbrd,  is  celebrated  for  its  superb  hospital  (^fig.  140.) 

for  disabled  and  superannuated  ma- 
riners. Tills  edifice  wus  begun  by 
Charles  II.,  on  a  design  of  Inigo 
Jones,  as  a  royal  palace.  It  remained 
unfinished,  until  the  reign  of  Wil- 
liiiin  III.,  when  it  wan  converted 
into  a  naval  hospital.  It  was  en- 
laiged  by  the  addition  of  three  wings, 
enriched  by  donations,  and  by  a  tax 
of  0'/.  a  month  from  every  seaman, 
and  it  now  sujiports  IKHM)  boarders, 
and  pays  pensions  to  .5100  in  dif- 
ferent ([uarters  of  the  kingdom.  In 
Greenwich  park  .stands  the  cele- 
brated observatory,  furnished  witli  the  best  instruments  that  can  be  obtained  for  perfecting 
astronomical  observations.  The  recorded  observations  of  Flainstued,  of  Ilallcy,  of  Bradley, 
and  of  Maskelyne,  rank  amomf  tiiu  mo.st  important  contributions  to  astronomical  science. 

At  Grave.send,  near  the  niouili  of  tlio  Thames,  the  ves.sels  employed  in  fijreign  commerce, 
IhjUi  in  going  up  and  down,  must  stop  :i.nd  undergo  an  examination.  Rochester,  with  an 
ancient  cathedral,  contains  in  its  vicinity  nuinorous  scats,  among  which  may  be  particularly 
noted  Cobham  Hall.  Lee  I'riory  is  also  remaikablc  for  its  works  of  art;  and  Knowle  Park- 
forms  a  magnificent  structure  of  great  extent. 

Sussex  extends  about  Ibrty  miles  along  the  Ciiannel.  It  is  covered  to  the  extent  of 
170,000  or  180,000  acres  with  noble  oaks  whicii  are  sought  tor  the  use  of  the  royal  navy. 
The  Sussex  sheep  are  peculiarly  valued  both  li>r  mutton  and  wool. 

The  capital  is  Chichester,  an  ancient  little  city  with  a  cathedral.  Winchclsca,  Rye,  and 
Hastings  are  Cinque  Ports,  which  have  lost  their  ancient  importmcc ;  but  Ilasting.s,  from 
its  fine  views  of  land  and  sea,  attracts  numerous  visitants  during  the  summer,  Brighton,  the 
gayest  of  all  the  southern  watering-places,  from  being  a  large  fisiiing  village,  rapidly  rose  to 
be  an  elegant  town.  Its  e-xtensive  lawn  called  the  Steyne,  sloping  tovv'ards  the  .=ca,  forms 
an  agreeable  promenade.  The  Pavilion,  or  palace  built  by  George  IV,,  and  the  chain  pier 
are  among  the  objects  of  note. 

The  rough  downs  and  bleak  lieailis  of  Surrey  contrasted  with  its  numerous  fine  parks 
and  wooded  districts,  give  to  its  seeni^ry  a  striking  and  picturesiiue  character.  Southwark 
IS  in  Surrey ;  but  it  is  too  entirely  a  p;irt  of  I/indon  to  bo  treated  separately  from  the  rest  of 
that  capital.  Along  the  southern  bank  of  the  Thames  ure  Ko'v,  with  its  palace  and  fine 
gardens,  containing  plants  from  every  ([uarter  of  the  world;  Richmond  and  its  hill,  which 
commands  a  magnificent  view  of  the  Thames  winding  among  wooded  parks  and  palaces. 
Camberwell,  (^lapham,  and  other  villages  in  the  vicinity  of  the  capital,  are  entin'ly  composed 
of  the  villas  of  opulent  citizens,  and  the  skiIs  are  nuiuerous.  At  St.  Anne's  Hill,  a  beautiful 
villa  on  the  Thame.-,  Fox  pas.s('d  the  latter  years  of  his  life  in  literary  retirement 

Berkshire  contains  extensive  sheep  pastures;  and  a  great  expanse  of  its  enstevn  liordev  is 
occupied  by  forests;  yet  more  than  half  its  extent  consists  of  fine  arable  land.  The  slseej) 
fair  of  Ilsley  is  the  most  considerable  in  the  kingdom,  the  animal  number  sold  averaging  twe 
hundred  and  filly  thousand.  The  hogs  also  of  this  county  are  in  high  repute.  Bi  rKshire  is 
remarkable  for  its  manutiictures  of  copper,  which  is  brought  from  Swansea  to  tlie  annual 
extent  of  six  hundred  to  ui"  thousand  tons. 


u  t  il 


J  > 


rs?  I 


li 


■i^' 


■^ 


JV*t- 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY, 


Part  III 


Reading,  the  capital  of  Berkshire,  la  remarkable  in  histur^'  -«  several  parliaments  were 
held  there,  and  a  sie^e  was  sustained  during  the  civil  war.  11  enjoys  some  prosperity, 

through  the  export  ot  the  produce  of  the  fertile  surrounding       -ict 

Wmdsor,  from  tlie  beauty  of  its  site,  on  an  eminence  near  the  Thames,  and  tlie  magnifi- 
cence of  its  royal  castle  (Jig.  141.),  forms  a  commanding  feature  in  the  prospect  for  many 


Windnr  Caatle. 

miles  around.  William  I.  constructed  hero  a  fortress  of  considerable  size ;  but  tlic  whole 
structure  was  rc-modellcd  by  Edward  III.  Since  it  ceased  to  be  important  as  a  place  of 
strength,  it  has  been  occupied  as  a  palace ;  and  is  the  only  one,  in  fact,  suifcible  to  the  dignity 
of  the  monarch.  The  noble  torraco  walk  1870  feet  in  length,  commands  a  finely  varied 
and  extensive  prospect.  George  III.  completely  repaired  St.  George's  chapel,  anil  partly 
restored  the  north  front  of  the  upper  ward;  but  in  consequence  of  his  illness,  the  improve- 
ments were  suspended  for  eleven  years.  George  IV.  resumed  them  on  a  scale  commensurate 
with  the  importance  of  so  venerable  an  edifice ;  and  large  sums  of  money  were  voted  by 
parliament  for  this  national  purpose.  The  royal  apartments  contain  an  extensive  collection 
of  paintings,  among  which  are  some  fine  portraits  by  Vandyke,  and  some  historical  pictures 
by  Guido,  Correggio,  Carlo  Dolci,  and  Leonardo  da  Vinci.  The  chapel  of  St.  George  is 
considered  one  of  tho  finest  spncimens  of  the  oriiiimentcd  Gothic  in  the  kingdom.  The  choir 
in  particular  is  if  admirable  workmanship,  and  adorned  with  banners  of  knights  of  the  garter 
ranged  on  each  side.  It  includes  also  the  imnhs  of  many  of  the  English  princes,  particularly 
their  late  ninjcsties,  and  the  Princess  Charlotte ;  and  some  of  its  windows  are  painted  after 
the  designs  of  Reynolds.  To  the  south  of  the  palace  extend  Windsor  Great  Park,  and 
Windsor  Forest,  grand  features,  first  formed  by  William  the  Conqueror.  Even  after  the 
considerable  al)ridgninnt  that  has  t.iken  place,  the  domain  is  still  fitly-si.x  miles  in  circum- 
ference, containing  witiiin  its  range  some  noble  timber.  Parts  of  it  were  devoted  by  George 
til.  to  his  fiivourite  pursuit  ofoxpcrimentTl  farming. 

The  other  towns  of  Berksliire  are  small ;  at  Newbury,  two  obstinate  battles  were  fought 
in  1643  and  Ifi'M.  Maidenhead  (formerly  Jlainluthe),  on  the  Thames,  is  beautifully  encircled 
with  villas. 

Hampshire  contains  extensive  remains  of  those  grand  forests  which  once  overspread  so 
great  a  part  of  England.  The  principal  is  the  New  Forest,  bordering  on  the  Channel  and 
the  bay  of  Southampton.  From  this  tnict  of  about  9*2,36.5  acres,  William  the  Conqueror 
drove  out  the  inlinbitants,  and  demolished  t  ic  parish  churches,  that  the  royal  sports  might  be 
carried  on  undisturted.  The  forests  of  Box,  Holt,  .Mice,  &c.,  containing  upwards  of  30,000 
iirres,  boloni"'  iilso  to  the  crown.  Tlie  wo<id  is  chiefly  nnk  and  beech;  the  former  with  a 
short  thick  trunk  and  strong  crooked  branches,  rendering  it  of  excellent  service  as  knee- 
timber  for  the  navy,  while  the  masts  and  acorns  feed  hogs  of  vast  size,  weighing  sometimes 
eight  hundred  pounds,  and  pralucing  the  best  bacon  in  the  kingdom. 

Winchester  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  and  venerable  cities  in  England.  During  part  of 
the  Saxon  periofi,  it  was  the  metropolis.  It  had  atone  time  upwards  of  ninety  churches  and 
chapels,  with  colleges  and  monasteries  attached  to  ''lem.  Being  frequented  on  accomit  cf 
its  fairs,  and  chosen  as  one  of  the  staples  for  wool,  it  became  at  one  period  the  seat  of  a  very 
extensive  commerce.  After  the  Norman  conquest,  when  Ijondon  became  the  royal  residence, 
'he  decline  of  Winchester  commenced,  and  was  accelerated  by  the  removal  of  the  wool 
trade;  but  aliovo  all  by  the  dissolution  of  the  monasteries,  in  tiio  time  of  Henry  VIII.  It 
now  owes  its  importance  to  its  rank  as  an  episcopal  city,  and  a  eoimty  town  in  which  assizes 
are  .'lold  alternately  with  Southampton.  Its  vonerahln  cathednil  (fifr,  142.)  has  been  the 
work  of  succi'ssivo  ages.  It  was  'Lyrdccl  luider  the  Saxon  kings,  enlarged  by  William  of 
Wykeliam  under  Eflward  III.,  and  completed  by  Bishop  Fox,  in  the  sixteenth  century,  when 


PART  ni 

menu  were 
prosperity, 

lie  magnifi- 
zt  for  many 


Book  I. 


ENGLAND. 


367 


at  the  whole 
s  a  place  of 
a  tlie  dignity 
finely  varied 
I,  !uid  partly 
the  improve- 
ommensuratc 
'ere  voted  hy 
JVC  collection 
rical  pictures 
St.  George  is 

The  choir 
of  tiie  garter 
,  particularly 
painted  after 
it  Park,  and 

1  after  the 
>s  in  circum- 
;d  by  George 

were  fought 
illy  encircled 

Iverspread  so 
(channel  and 
)e  Conqueror 
irts  might  hn 
•ds  of  30,000 
)rmer  with  a 
ace  as  knee- 
\g  sometimes 

liring  part  of 
Tlmrchcs  and 
account  cf 
I'at  of  a  very 
h\  rosidoncc, 
lof  the  wool 
Iry  VIII.  It 
lliich  assizes 
Ins  been  the 
IWilliaTi  of 
Intury,  whpo 


extensive  additions  were  made  to  it  in  the  highly  ornamented  and  pointed  English  style; 


of  which  several  of  the  specimens  liore  iire- 
served  are  reckoned  the  finest  in  the  kins'- 
dom.  The  college,  or  rather  school,  founded 
by  Bishop  Wykolmni  is  al.so  a  magnificCiit 
edifice,  and  is  one  of  the  four  great  classical 
schools  to  which  the  (listinguished  youth  ol 
England  resort.  Southampton  now  surpasses 
Winchester,  and  is  a  flourishing  town,  at  the 
head  of  the  bay  called  Southampton  Water. 
It  carries  on  a  considerable  trade  with  the 
south  of  Europe,  and  regular  packets  sail 
from  it  to  Havre  de  Grace. 


Winchater  Calhednil. 


Portsmouth  is  the  grand  arsenal  for  equipping  the  powerful  navies  of  Great  Britain.  The 
harbour  is  formed  by  a  considerable  bay,  with  a  commodious  entrance,  perfectly  landlocked, 
and  sheltered  from  every  wind,  affording  secure  anchorage  all  round ;  and  capable  from  its 
dimensions  of  containing  tiie  whole  British  navy.  The  Isle  of  Wight  forms  at  its  eastern 
extremity  tlie  safe  and  magnificent  road  of  Spithead,  the  principal  rendezvous  of  the  national 
fleets.  The  place  has  been  strengthened  by  fortifications,  till  it  has  become  the  strongest 
and  most  finished  fortress  in  the  empire,  and  is  considered  absolutely  impregnable.  Porte- 
mouth  itself  is  situated  on  an  island  about  fourteen  miles  in  circumftjrence,  separated  from 
the  land  only  by  a  narrow  hannel.  The  suburb  of  Portsea,  on  the  same  island,  begun  only 
a  century  ago,  has  now  outgrown  the  original  town,  and  contains  the  principal  dockyards. 
Here  are  carried  on,  upon  a  gigantic  scale,  all  the  operations  subservient  to  building,  equip- 
ping, and  refitting  ships,  and  supplying  the  navy.  The  sea-wall  of  the  dockyards  extends 
nearly  three  quarters  of  a  mile,  and  encloses  an  area  of  one  hundred  acres:  the  forge,  where 
anchors  of  huge  dimensions  are  formed;  the  ropery,  above  a  thousand  feet  long;  the  spacious 
dry  docks ,  the  endless  range  of  warehouses ;  the  gun-wharf,  the  armoury,  are  objects  which 
astonish  by  their  immensity. 

Cliristchurch  is  noted  for  a  fine  ancient  church ;  Bcaulieu  for  the  ruins  of  its  venera  .e 
abbey ;  Andover,  Basingstoke,  and  Romsey  are  considerable  towns. 

The  Isle  of  Wight  is  about  twenty-three  miles  m  length,  and  thirteen  in  breadth ;  divided 
by  a  channel  of  only  a  few  miles  from  the  coast,  on  which  are  the  bays  of  Portsmouth  and 
Southampton.  It  is  traversed  by  a  ridge  of  chalky  downs,  in  which  are  fed  about  forty 
thousand  fino-woolir '.  sheep  of  the  Dorsetshire  breed.  On  the  north  are  luxuriivnt  meadows 
supporting  valuable  breeds  of  horses  and  cattle;  while  on  ihe  south  are  fine  arable  plains, 
yielding  grain  much  beyond  the  consumption  of  the  island.  The  island  is  celebrated  for  its 
striking  ami  peculiar  scenery ;  the  grand  views  of  land  and  sea  enjoyed  from  its  high  open 
downs;  the  deep  and  dark  ravines  of  its  southern  shore,  and  the  Iwld  romantic  cliffs  which 
it  there  presents  to  the  expanse  of  the  English  Channel.  One  of  the  most  conspicuous 
features  is  the  range  of  coast  called  the  Undercliff.  This  district  presents  the  appearance 
of  a  series  of  gigantic  steps  rising  from  the  shore,  to  the  summit  of  the  great  perpendicular 
wall.  The  chines,  or  chasms,  with  torrents  bursting  through  them,  are  also  characteristic 
features. 

The  western  part  of  the  Isle  presents  tlie  rugged  and  pointe<l  clifls,  called  the  Needles, 
and  a  range  of  magnificent  white  clifTs,  rising  perpendicularly  to  the  height  of  500  or  600 
feet.  These  precipices  are  inhabited  by  gulls  and  puffins,  the  eggs  of  which  are  taken  by 
the  islander,  suspended  in  a  liasket,  which  is  fixed  by  a  rope  to  the  summit.  Tlie  eastern 
shore  presents  the  Culver  Cliffs,  a  range  of  precipices  which,  in  grandeur  and  ruggedness, 
are  not  surpassed  by  any  otlier  on  the  island. 

The  castle  of  Carisbrook  is  an  ancient  edifice,  in  which  Charles  I.  was  for  some  time 
imprisoned.     The  towns,  Newport,  Yarmouth,  Cowes,  and  Ryde,  are  small. 

Dorset  consists  of  open  chalky  downs,  fit  only  for  sheep,  wiiich  are  here  of  a  breed  callcil 
the  Southdown  {Jig.  143.),  peculiarly  fine  both  as  to  carcase  and 
wool.  The  fleece  is  very  short  and  fine ;  tiie  mutton  fine  in  the 
grain,  and  of  an  excellent  flavour.  The  number  of  sheep  is  estimated 
at  800,000,  producing  2,790,000  pounds  of  wool.  The  islands  of 
Purbcck  and  Portland  are  valuable  for  tlic  production  of  fine  free- 
stone. 

Dorj-etsliire  has  no  remarkable  towns.  Dorchester,  the  capital ; 
Pot)le,  with  an  excellent  harbour ;  and  Weymouth,  finely  situated 
for  a  bathing-place,  are  the  principal. 
Wiltshire  is  a  fine  county;  the  chalk  hills  here  terminating,  form 
the  tabie-land,  termed  Salisbury  Plain ;  a  nalii  J,  undulating  surface,  whicli  affords  pn^turage 
for  sheep.  The  northern  part  of  Wiltshire  watered  by  the  Thames,  is  chiefly  underwood 
and  pasture,  and  suppoita  a  valuable  breed  o."  cattle,  from  whose  milk  is  made  the  excellent 


Soutlidnwn  Sheep 


II  '} 


jM 


•w 


366 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


iS'l 


:\ 


cheese  l)ciiring  tlie  name  of  tlio  province.  Wiltsliire  is  a  maniifiicturinff  county.  The  pro- 
dnce  is  of  the  finest  description ;  suporfino  broadcloth,  korsryinorcs,  and  fancy  articles ;  tine 
flannels  at  Salisbury,  and  at  Wilton  the  carpets  which  bear  its  nuine. 

Salisbury,  the  capital,  is  a  handsome  and  well-built  town.     The  streets  arc  spacious  and 
regular,  crossing  each  other  at  right  angles,  and  kept  clean  by  streams  of  water,  from  the 

river  Avon.  The  pride  of  Salisbury  is  its 
catlicdral  (Jig.  144.)  completed  in  1258, 
which  is  considered  the  most  elegant  and 
finished  Gothic  structure  in  the  kingdom. 
It  has  also  the  loflicst  spire,  rising  to  the 
height  of  four  hundred  and  ten  feet. 

Wiltshire  has  a  number  of  thriving  little 
towns,  in  which  fine  woollen  manufiicturea 
are  carried  on  with  activity:  Devizes, 
Marlborough,  Cliippenham,  Malmsbury, 
Warminster,  Wilton,  &c.  Most  of  them 
are  adorned  with  fine  old  churches. 

Stonehenge  (Jiff.  145.),  in  Salisbury 
Plain,  a  remarkable  monumentof  antiquity, 
is  supposed  to  bo  the  remnant  of  a  temple 
of  the  Druids.  "  It  consists,"  says  Mr. 
Sullivan,  "of  the  remains  of  two  circular 
and  two  oval  ranges,  having  one  common 
centre.  The  outer  circle  is  one  hundred 
and  eight  feet  in  diameter,  and  in  its  per- 
fection consisted  of  thirty  upright  stones.  The  upright  stones  are  from  eighteen  to  twenty 
feet  high,  from  si.K  to  seven  broad,  and  about  three  feet  thick ;  and  being  placed  at  the 


mMt 


.tj:,---^^ 


Saliubury  Cnthedral. 


145 


distance  of  three  feet  and  a  half 
from  each  otlier,  are  joined  at 
the  top  by  imiKjsts  or  stones  laid 
across.  The  inner  circle  is 
somewhat  more  than  eight  feet 
from  the  inside  of  the  outward 
one,  and  consisted  originally  of 
forty  smaller  stones ;   of  which 


f^lnnehen^e. 

only  eleven  are  standing."  In  the  interior  of  all  are  two  oval  ranges,  supposed  to  be  the  prin 
cipal  part  of  tlio  work,  composing  the  cell  or  adytum.  The  stones  that  Ibrm  it  are  stupen- 
dou-s  some  of  them  measuring  thirty  feet  in  height.  The  wliole  number  is  computed  to  have 
btien  originnlly  une  hundred  and  forty. 

^  •  county  is  iulnrned  with  so  many  fine  seals  as  Wiltshire.  Wilton  House  contains  the 
finest  private  collection  of  ancient  .•^culi)turc  in  tiie  kingdom.  Corshiun  House  and  Longford 
Castle  contain  celebrated  collections  of  pictures.  Wnrdour  Castle  is  distinguished  for  its 
grand  terrace;  Stourhead  for  the  romantic  beauty  of  the  grounds:  Longleat  is  a  superb  seat. 

SuBSEeT.  2. —  The  Eastern  (Umnlies. 

Under  this  title  are  comprehended  the  counties  of  Esse.v,  Suffolk,  Norfolk,  Cambridge, 
Huntingdon,  ami  Lincoln.  The  surtacn  of  this  division  is  flat  and  unvaried.  Its  sluggish 
strenms  unite  in  the  shallow  marshy  estuary  of  the  Wi:sl! :  a  great  proportion  of  its  waters, 
however,  never  reach  that  receptacle;  but,  spreading  and  stagnating  over  the  land,  form  the 
Fens,  a  tract  vlu'ch  is  not  "nprotluctive  to  the  husbandman,  but  sends  forth  po'-filential 
vapours,  sidyi'cting  the  inhabiuuts  to  attacks  of  fever  and  ague.  The  district  eontiiins  wide 
portions  of  gooil  arable  land,  which  are  well  cultivated  liy  skilful  farmers  with  largo  capitals; 
and  is  noted  for  its  breeds  of  n  ttle,  ai' '  for  the  products  of  butter  and  cheese. 

Es.sex,  sit'iatpd  along  the  nuth  oi  n(!  Thame.',  i.--,  pnrhaps,  the  richest  of  tiie  English 
counties.  It  is  diversified  h}-  t'cntle  undulations,  whirl'  do  not  interrupt  tl'.e  eareful  culture 
given  to  its  rieii  alluvial  soil,  'ts  wlieaf,  with  thj'  of  Kent,  is  reckoned  Ihr  best  in  Eng- 
land ;  but  the  districts  near  the  iMetropolis  are  chielly  in  pasture,  or  artificial  griiss,  for  sup- 
plying- eiilvos  tu  rh(>  I/)ndon  marki'i,  or  fiir  (Iittening  the  cattle  brought  up  from  the  north. 

Che1nis!i)rd,  flio  county  town,  is  a  smiill  regularly  built  place,  with  a  handsome  town-hall, 
rololwstnr,  the  .".iicii'nt  Cani('lc;.;;nniin,  <'"ulains  a  strong  castle,  said  to  have  been  founded 
bv  the  Romans,  It  is  supporteil  by  a  manuficl:ire  of  baize,  and  by  the  oyster  fishery, 
llarv.-irli,  a  seiport  with  a  di-ep  niid  spiicions  iinrbour,  is  the  place  whore  tlie  government 
packets,  i'l  time  of  peace,  sail  Hir  Holland  ;',nd  iJermany.  Many  villas  have  been  erected  in 
'his  county,  in  '•(iiisei|Uonce  of  it-:  vicie'ty  to  the  metrojKjlis. 

SufKilk  is  1  ordered  by  only  a  small  portion  of  enstcrn  coast.     The  greater  part  of  it  la 


'« 


Part  III. 

The  pro- 
icles;  fine 

icious  and 
■,  from  the 
sbury  is  its 
I  in  1258, 
ilegant  and 
!  kingdom. 
Bing  to  the 
feet. 

riving  little 
mufactures 
:  Devizes, 
Malmsbury, 
ost  of  them 
dies. 

1  Salisbury 
of  antiquity, 
of  a  temple 
,"  says  Mr. 
two  circular 
one  common 
one  huiulrnd 
k1  in  its  pcr- 
;mi  to  twenty 
lacod  ut  the 
et  and  a  half 
ire  joined  at 
or  stones  laid 
Lcr  circle    is 
lan  ci^jjlit  feet 
tl\o  outward 
orijjinally  of 
^s ;   of  which 
0  be  the  prin- 
it  are  ftupen- 
mted  to  have 

contains  the 

111(1  TxinL'ford 

lished  for  its 

superb  seat. 


Cambrid|ie, 
Its  slugtrisli 
bf  its  water?, 
jind,  form  the 
pp'-tilputinl 
lontain^  wide 
lrn;e  capitals; 

,  the  Enfflish 
Ireful  culture 
.best  in  Euir- 
■riiss,  for  su))- 
Ithc  north. 
lie  town-h:ill. 
leen  founded 
Ister  fis^hery. 
1  ffovernmont 
In  erected  in 

[part  of  it  is 


Book  I. 


ENGLAND. 


30U 


capable  of  fjood  cultivation,  and  is  carefully  tilled.    The  county  is  almost  purely  agricul- 
tural, there  being  neither  trade  nor  manufactures  of  any  importance. 

Among  the  towns  of  Suffolk,  Ipswich  is  considerable,  thougli  its  employment  is  confined 
to  sending  down  the  Orwell  malt  and  grain,  the  produce  of  the  county.  Bury  St.  Edmund's, 
an  iincipiit  town,  i.^  rendered  venerable  by  some  fine  old  churches.  Lowestofl',  the  most 
easterly  point  of  England,  is  a  noted  seat  of  the  herring  fishery. 

Norfolk,  though  inferior  in  fertility  to  the  two  counties  now  described,  has,  by  its  industry, 
rendered  itself  more  flourishing  tiian  cither.  The  soil  generally  is  a  light  sand,  scarcely  fit, 
originally,  for  any  thing  but  sheep ;  beneath,  however,  is  a  bed  of  rich  soapy  marl,  which 
the  farmers,  with  great  labour,  dig  out,  and  spread  over  the  ground.  Tlie  light  sandy  loam 
tlius  formed  is  peculiarly  favourable  to  the  growth  of  barley,  in  which  grain  two-thirds  of 
the  country  is  laid  out.  Norfolk  has  extensive  manufactures ;  producing  various  ornamental 
fabrics  of  .silk  and  worsted.  The  iwrts  carry  on  a  considerable  e.xport  of  grain,  and  a  spirited 
fishery. 

Norwich  is  the  finest  city  in  the  east  of  England.  The  chief  industry  of  Norwich,  how- 
ever, consists  in  manufactures.  Towards  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  a  large  colony 
of  Flemings  settled  there,  and  established  the  fabric  of  woollens,  which  soon  reached  an 
inprecedented  height.    The  light  and  ornamented  forms  became  the  staples ;  bombasines, 

crapes,  fine  camblets,  and  worsted  damask.  In  its 
general  structure,  it  has  the  defects  of  an  old  town, 
the  streets  being  narrow  and  winding,  though  those 
recently  built  are  in  a  more  improved  style.  The 
cathedral  {fig.  146.),  founded  in  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury, ranks  among  the  finest  ecclesiastical  edifices  in 
the  kingdom.  Its  style  of  architecture  is  the  Saxon, 
of  that  broad  and  massive  character  which  prevailed 
before  the  intro<luction  of  the  pointed  arch  and  the 
light  ornamental  style.  The  castle,  placed  in  the 
centre,  is  more  ancient  still,  since  antiquaries  refer 
it  to  the  reign  of  Canute,  Its  style  is  Saxon ;  the 
keep  remains  entire. 

Yarmouth,  by  commerce  and  fishery,  has  attained 
a  prosperity  almost  e(puil  to  that  of  Norwich.  Situ- 
ated at  the  moutli  of  the  Varc,  it  is  the  chief  chan- 
nel by  which  the  manufactures  of  that  city  are 
transported  to  foreign  parts.  A  more  important 
resource  is  its  herring-fishery,  which  employs  six 
tliousand  seamen,  and  produces  annually  upwards 
of  fifty  thousand  barrels;.  Its  quay,  upwards  of  a 
mile  long:  is  said  to  be  second  only  to  that  of 
Seville.     Yarmouth  is  also  much  frequented  as  a  watering-place. 

Lynn  Regis  is  a  flourishing  seaport  on  the  Wash,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ousc,  which,  with 
its  tributaries,  brings  down  the  agricultural  produce  of  many  ricli  counties. 

Seats. — Norfolk  contains  several  of  the  most  superb  seats  in  England.  Ilolkham,  built  by 
Lord  Leicester  on  a  design  of  Inigo  Jones,  and  particularly  noted  for  a  gallery  room,  is  richly 
adorned  with  sculpture  and  paintings,  and  has  also  a  very  extensive  library.  Ilougliton  is  a 
magnificent  seat. 

Cambridgeshire  presents  a  considerable  variety  of  surface.  Its  northern  district,  called 
the  Isle  of  Ely,  intersected  by  the  lower  channels  of  the  Ouse  and  the  Nnn,  exists  almost  in 
an  intermediate  state  between  land  and  .sea.  Drainage,  however,  to  a  great  extent  has  been 
ellected,  and  many  tracts  have  been  converted  into  fine  meadow,  or  made  to  yield  large 
crops  of  outs,  though  the  danger  of  inundation  can  never  be  wholly  averted.  The  cUissic 
stream  of  the  Cam  or  Granta,  in  descending  to  join  the  Ousc,  waters  a  valley  called  "the 
Dairies,"  where  some  good  cheeses  and  long  rolls  of  excellent  butter  are  prepared  for  the 
tables  of  llii;  Cambridge  students.  Tb.e  soutliern  and  western  (districts,  encroaclicd  upon  by 
the  downs  irom  the  soutli,  are  only  fit  tor  the  pasture  of  sheep. 

The  capital  of  Cambridge  is  the  seat  of  one  of  the  two  great  universities.  There  are 
thirteen  colleges  and  four  hall:*,  in  which  the  masters,  tutors,  and  students,  not  only  teacii 
and  are  taught,  but  are  lodged  and  boarded.  Some  of  the  largest  of  these  endowmiMits  are 
stated  to  be  for  "  poor  and  indigent  scholars ;"  but  are  filled  with  the  sons  of  opiilent  fiuiuliftf, 
wlio  cannot  live  there  but  at  a  very  considerable  expense.  Yet  the  resort  continues  to 
increase,  and  'uhe  existinir  colleges  are  insufficient  to  contain  the  applicants,  who  wmA  otlen 
wait  several  years  previously  to  admission.  These  cidlegos  are  large,  and  generally  fine 
And  handsome  buildings;  yet  they  do  not  prinluco  the  saiwe  noble  and  imposinji;  eflbct  as 
tlioss  in  the  sister  university.  There  are,  however,  two  structures  such  as  its  rival  cannot 
Vol.  I.  2  W 


Norwich  Cathedral. 


.■:  fj 


V   \\ 


370 

match. 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III 


117 


Tho  first  of  tliesc  is  tho  chapel  of  KinjT's  Collofro,  (ftff.  117.),  built  botwoon  tlio 

reigiiB  of  llonry  VI.  iind  Henry  V'lll.  Its 
interior  hns  bcnn  en  1  led  miitrblesH;  tho  roof 
is  of  the  niopt  perfect  workrnnns^hip,  nmi  its 
8up[)ort  without  pillarH  iiiia  been  viewed  nH 
»n  arcliitoctural  inyHtory.  But  the  most 
strikinjf  clmractnrihtic  is  tlic  .  prodijriouH 
blaze  of  pninteil  pbiHH,  on  ench  side,  I'roni 
twelve  briiliiintly  tinted  window.><  filly  feet 
hiffh,  {.'ivinpr  to  the  fiihric  tho  iii)i)earaiico  of 
boingr  walleil  with  painted  glum.  The  other 
is  Trinity  Colleffp,  particularly  admired  for 
its  libmry,  two  hundred  feet  lonfr,  dosipneri 
by  Sir  Cliristopher  Wren,  and  porhap.s  the 
moHt  clepant  library-room  in  tlie  kinjrdom. 


King's  College  Chapul. 


The  hall  is  also  the  largest  in  Cambridge;  and  the  roof  i.s  ornamented  with  fine  specimens 
of  old  wood-work.  Its  chapel  is  marked  by  a  beautiful  simplicity,  and  contains  Roubiliac's 
statue  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  supposed  the  best  resemblance  thnt  exists  of  that  great  man. 

The  principal  library  contains  lOO.CMK)  volumes,  many  of  which  are  scarce  and  valuable. 
Trinity  college,  in  its  ornamental  hall,  has  40,0(M).  Earl  Fitzwilliam,  from  his  seat  near 
Richmond,  presented  lately  a  hondsome  library,  some  line  picture!',  and  a  large  collection  of 
engravings.  Tho  botanic  garden  is  inferior  to  none  in  the  kingdom,  except  those  of  Kew 
and  Liverpool.  The  collection  of  valuable  manuscripts  and  antiquities  is  likewise  extensive. 
Since  the  university  was  adorned  by  the  inmiortal  name  of  Newton,  mathematics  and  natural 
philosophy  have  been  the  ruling  pur^'uit'^;  and,  notwitlistiinding  tho  lustre  reflected  on  it  by 
Milton,  as  well  as  byBentleyand  Porson,  it  has  loft  to  0.\ford  the  foremost  place  in  classical 
knowle<lpe. 

At  Newmarket,  horsn-rarinff  has  rhosen  its  most  fiivonrito  ground.  This  town  lios  amid 
bleak  hills,  that  have,  however,  a  sufficient  extent  of  level  heath  to  make  the  finest  course 
in  tho  kingdom.  It  consi.sts  of  one  long  street,  cliiefly  filled  with  inn.'J  and  coftbe-hoiises  for 
tho  reception  of  the  sporting  world,  who  crowd  tliitlicM-  in  the  appropriate  seasons,  which  are 
April,  July,  and  October.  The  hustle  is  then  immense.  "Trains  of  horses,"  siiys  Dr. 
^piker,  "were  led  up  and  down  the  streets.  E.xceljent  eqiiipagc.«,  gigs,  curricles,  landaus, 
.lew  past  us  and  past  each  other  with  the  suifbiess  of  an  arrow.  Horses  wore  prancing 
ibout  with  their  riders;  jockeys  were  carrying  bridles  tD  and  fro:  in  short,  all  was  life  and 
aiistle."  The  course  is  covered  with  turf,  whence  the  pursuit  of  horse-racing  itself  is  usu- 
ally designate<l  Ike  turf.  Close  to  tlie  goiil  is  drawn  on  rollers  a  small  wooden  house,  in 
which  sit.s  the  judirp,  usually  nn  experienced  groom,  who  decides  which  is  the  winner.  The 
stand  is  an  open  rai.sed  house  tor  hidies  and  other  curious  spectat<irs;  but  men  of  real  busi- 
ness crowd  round  tho  betting  jmst,  iminediatcly  behind  the  judge,  where  they  remain  closely 
wedged  together,  "and  nothiiiir  is  hoanl  but  the  continual  cry  of  twenty,  thirty,  forty,  two 
hundred  pounds  on  such  a  horse." 

The  small  city  of  Ely  rises  like  an  island  amidst  the  surrounding  fens,  and  displays  n 
magnificent  cathedral.  Wishe.ich,  a  thriving  town  on  a  navigable  branch  of  the  Ouse, 
combines  a  prosperous  trade  with  some  spirit  of  literary  encpiiry. 

Huntingdonshire  lies  to  the  eastward  of  Cambridge;  the  two  are  governed  by  the  same 
slierifT,  chosen  alternately  in  each.  Huntingdon  is  entirely  agricultural ;  the  pastures  are 
peculiarly  rich,  and  adapt  it  t()r  producing  the  (imious  Stilton  cheese.  Huntingdon,  the 
."ounty  town,  though  small,  has  an  antique  and  rosprctable  appearance.  St.  Ives  is  a  large 
village  on  the  Otisc. 

Lincolnshire  occui)ies  the  eristern  coast  from  the  Wash  to  the  Humber.  The  southern 
•erritory,  called,  from  that  circiimstnnce.  "Holland,"  comprises  more  than  half  of  the  Hed- 
lord  level,  or  fbn  country,  anil  is  natunilly  an  almost  continuous  swamp;  but  a  great  extent 
of  it  has  now  been  drained,  and  pro<liices  fine  pa.sttire  land,  and  excellent  crops  of  oats.  The 
rearing  of  live  ."tock  forms  the  chief  occupation;  and  Lincoln  has  breeds  of  every  descrip- 
tion tliii',  are  held  in  high  estimation.  The  sheep,  which  amount  to  upwards  of  2,000,0(M), 
pn)diice  the  lonp  wool,  which,  from  the  length  of  its  staple,  is  chiefly  fitted  for, worsted, 
baize,  and  other  thbrics.  Rabbits,  almost  inniimenible,  are  bred  in  the  upper  districts;  and 
The  unreclnimed  fens,  during  the  wet  season,  swarm  with  teal,  ducks,  geese,  and  aquatic 
game  of  every  form  and  description,  with  which  London  and  many  other  parts  of  England 
are  chiefly  supplied  from  this  county.  Maniifiictiires  have  entirely  deserted  it;  even  its 
own  wool,  since  tlie  late  inventions  in  inaciiinery,  is  no  longer  spun  or  carded  within  itself. 
The  Trent,  during  nil  its  course  tlirough  this  county,  is  navigable  for  largo  vessels,  and 
artificial  channels  unite  its  streams,  particularly  the  Foss  Hyke,  between  tho  Witham  and 
the  Trent.  Forei^jn  cominercn,  however,  is  much  limited  by  tho  increasing  sand-banks,  by 
which  the  coasts  and  harbours  are  obstructei' 


Part  111 

t  botwoon  tliu  . 
,nry  VIII.  Its 
•\\cm;  the  roof 
mnship,  nnd  itn 
men  viewed  ns 
But  the  most 
;hc  .  pro(li{ru)iw 
nicli  side,  I'rom 
idows  tirty  feet 

ii])l)eiirmico  of 
iiiHH.  The  oilier 
rly  udmired  for 

lon<r,  designed 
nd  perhaps  the 
n  the  kinfrdoni. 
I  line  specimenf 
aina  Iloubilinc's 
it  great  man. 
:o  and  vahiablo. 
Ti  his  sent  nenr 
•go  collection  of 
it  those  of  Kew 
ewise  extensive, 
atics  and  natural 
eilocted  on  it  by 
^lacc  in  classical 

8  town  lies  ajiiid 
he  finest  course 
coftbc-houscs  for 
lasons,  which  are 
orses,"  siiys  Dr. 
urriclcs,  landaus, 
a  wore  prancing 
all  was  life  and 
ing  itself  is  usu- 
voalen  house,  in 
he  winner.  The 
len  of  real  busi- 
ly remain  closely 
thirty,  forty,  two 

and  displays  a 
ch  of  the  Ouse, 

ned  by  the  same 
the  pastures  are 
Huntingdon,  the 
Ives  is  a  largo 

Tlio  southern 
half  of  the  Bed- 
xt  a  great  extent 
ropsofoats.  The 
of  every  descrip- 
rds  of  2,0()(»,00(», 
tted  for  ^worsted, 
ler  districts;  and 
■ese,  and  aquatic 
parts  of  England 
rted  it;  oven  its 
[led  within  itself, 
.rge  vessels,  and 
the  Witham  and 
ig  sand-banks,  by 


DooK  I.  EXOI^^ND.  vn 

The  citv  of  Lincoln  was,  during  tiic  middle  ages,  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  and  splen- 
did capitals  of  ErTland.     The  cathedral  (J^f.  UK)  htill  holds  the  first  rank  oinong  religious 
148  ,1,1  edifices.    I'Vum  a  distance  its  three  towers 

appear  cons|)icuous ;  two  of  them  180,  and 

one  y(M),  feet  high,  and  ornamented  with 

various  pillars  and  tracery ;   and  as  the 

f^th        1  structure  stands  on  a  hill,  in  the  midst  of 

-i..  ,-i;"J>\iii.'-  3irr"'TrT-;g'-'^''''^<*¥»&iL.  *  **"'  surrounding  flat,  it  has  the  most 

''^^^i^^^i^'>^iS^i^^^WA'M'i.-,^v  ■^■.H^.  '■•.      conunanding  site  in  the  county.     When 

"    ■   ^^!!\^^OB^^^WKmnjSll^'fn'^i      plundered  by  Henry  Vlll.,  it  was  found 

C^^^jAJJO^^HH9KfflHt>-r|i^^,     to  contain  nu  extraordinary  treasure,  iu 

gold  and  silver,  i)earls,  diamonds,  and 
other  precious  stones.  Lincoln,  supported 
only  by  its  county  trade,  and  by  the  re- 
f^  maming  opulence  of  the  cathedral,  now 
holds  a  moderate  rank  among  provincial 
Lincoln  Cuthudtai.  towHH.     Its  fitly  churchcs  are  reduced  to 

eleven ;  and  the  fragments  of  the  others  are  dispersed  throughout  the  town,  many  ordinary 
houses  being  adorned  with  Gothic  arches,  doorways,  and  windows. 

Boston,  on  the  Witham,  carries  on  the  trade  of  Holland,  or  southern  Lincolnshire.  It 
exports  the  grain,  and  aflbrds  a  great  market  for  cattle ;  and  has  thus  doubled  its  population. 
A  fine  Gothic  church  attests  the  early  prosperity  of  Boston. 

SuBSGCT.  3. — Central  Cotinties. 

Under  this  term  we  comprehend  that  part  of  the  interior  which  ia  bounded  on  tlie  south 
and  south-west  by  the  two  divisions  already  described ;  on  the  north  and  north-west  by  York- 
shire and  Lancashire ;  and  on  the  west  by  the  counties  of  Salop,  Worcester,  and  Gloucester. 

In  a  description  of  this  portion  of  the  country,  Ix>noon  claims  a  distinct  and  .separate 
notice.  As  the  metropolis  of  the  united  kingdom,  it  is  the  seat  of  legislation,  jurisprudence, 
and  govornmont;  the  principal  residence  of  the  sovereign,  at  which  affairs  of  state  are 
transacted,  and  relations  maintained  with  foreign  courts;  the  centre  of  all  important  opera- 
tions whether  of  commerce  or  finance,  and  of  correspondence  with  (!very  quarter  of  the  globe. 
London,  iu  its  comprehensive  sense,  includes  the  city  and  liberties  of  liondon,  the  city  of 
Westminster  ond  its  liberties,  the  borough  of  Southwark,  and  the  parishes  and  precincts 
contiguous  to  those  three  component  parts  of  the  metro])olis.  Its  extent,  from  Poplar  in 
the  east  to  Belgrave-squaro  in  the  west,  is  nearly  eight  miles;  its  breadth,  from  Islington 
in  the  north  to  Walworth  in  the  south,  exceeds  five  miles.  The  circumference,  allowing  for 
inequalities,  is  computed  at  thirty  miles.  The  buildings,  streets,  squares,  and  other  spaces. 
including  that  taken  up  by  the  river  Thames,  winding  from  the  eastern  to  the  western 
extremity,  about  seven  miles  on  an  average  breadth  of  a  quarter  of  a  mile,  occupy  an  area 
of  eighteen  scpiaro  miles. 

By  a  more  convenient  topographical  arrangement,  London  has  been  divided  into  six  grand 
portions:  1st,  the  City,  which  may  bo  tornied  the  central  division ;  2d,  the  western  division, 
including  Westminster  ;  3d,  the  north-west  division,  including  the  district  north  of  Oxford- 
street  and  west  of  Tottonham-court-road, — those  two  last  mentioned  divisions  constitute  the 
west-end  of  the  town ;  4th,  the  northern  division,  comprising  the  whole  district  north  of 
Ilolborn  and  the  City  from  Tr  ttenham-court-road  on  the  west  to  Shored  itch  and  Kingsland- 
road  on  the  east,  including  St.  Pancras,  Somors-town,  Pentonville,  Islington,  Hoxton,  and 
Kingsland ;  5th,  the  eastern  division,  including  the  whole  district  east  of  the  city  and  of 
Shoreditch ;  6tli,  the  southern  division,  comprising  the  borough  of  Southwark,  and  the 
nia.ss  of  buildings  extending  from  Rothorhitlie  to  Vauxhall,  and  rnnging  southward  for  more 
tiian  two  miles.  The  divisions  north  and  smitlinf  the  Thames  communicate  by  five  bridges, 
— London  Bridge,  Southwark  Bridge,  Blackfriars,  Waterloo,  and  Westminster  bridges. 
The  port  of  London  extends  from  London  Bridge  to  Deptford,  a  distance  of  about  four 
miles,  with  an  average  breadth  of  from  four  hundred  to  five  hundred  yards.  Its  divisions 
are  the  Upper,  Middle,  and  Lower  Pcwis,  and  the  space  between  Limehouse  and  Deptford. 
Connected  with  it  are  certain  spacious  docks,  which  will  be  hereafter  noticed. 

The  population  of  London,  according  to  the  returns  in  1831  of  the  census  in  1830,  is  thus 

stated : — 

Persons 

City  of  I/>nilcn  within  tlii'  walls.   ST.liil.'i 

witlumt  lln'  wnlls(incliiiling  llie  Iniisof  Court) ii7,*T8 

BoronBh  of  Southwark (U.-Wl 

t^ity  of  WoRtnii  nster iMKJ.lWO 

PnrishKS  within  tlie  billn  of  mortality 76I,34« 

.\(IJ8cnnt  iiarielien  not  within  thi>  bills 3U3,S(i7 

Total        1,474,009 


l^ll 


'■!    ? 


•» 


DESCRIPTIVE  OEOGRAPIIV. 


Part  III. 


m 


Tho  north  divinion  of  London,  an  viowcil  from  llie  inoet  contrnl  niiil  olovstod  [xiint,  rinon 
i;cnt)y  iVoiri  the  ThainrH,  nnd  *>xt«nd8  to  tlit!  foot  of  ti  riin^c  of  liillx  on  wliirli  are  Hitiiiiti'd 
tlin  villn^'eri  of  Ilatnpsteiid  uiid  lli|;h)(uti>.  ( >ii  tlio  uii-it  iind  wi-sl  iiro  ft^rtili*  plitinn  cxti'iulin^j 
lit  l(!iiHt  twenty  mile*,  nnd  vviUorud  by  the  windintf  iind  gently  flowing  Tliiunus.  On  tho 
wnith,  tho  dixtant  view  in  iHiiindi'd  l)y  tlio  liijjh  ffrmimlfi  of  Uiclinmnd,  Wiinhh-don,  E|)NMn, 
NofwikhI,  and  Blacklienth,  tcrminiitin);  in  tho  liorizon  by  Loith  Hill,  Uoxl.  il,  and  tho  lloi- 
Kuto  unil  VVrothiiin  llillrt,  Shooter'M  Hill  in  ii  con«|)iciiouM  objuct  to  tho  ciiMtward  ;  and,  in  a 
more  northerly  direction,  imrts  of  Eppin)^  Forost  und  other  wooded  uplu'iils  u.'  Ehhcx. 

So  nirly  an  the  reign  of  Nero,  London  liad  become  a  plucc  of  considerublo  Imftlc,  an  upiwars 
fVom  Tiicilus,  the  earliest  of  tho  Roman  hintorianii  who  mentions  it  by  name.  Tho  RuuianH 
fortific<l  it  with  a  wall,  und  made  it  one  of  their  urincipiil  Btations.  At  tho  boffinning  of 
the  third  century,  it  Ih  roprestMifi-d  uh  a  great  ana  wealthy  city,  and  conwidured  to  be  the 
metropolis  of  Britain,  In  tho  end  uf  the  Bixth  century,  it  became  tho  capital  of  the  EuHt 
SaxonH,  whoee  king,  Hcbcrt,  ia  reputed  the  founder  of  the  cathedral  chnrch  dedicated  to 
8aint  Paul,  and  of  tho  abbey  and  abbey  church  of  Westminster.  Atlor  the  union  of  the 
seven  kingdomH,  Egbert,  in  833,  held  here  his  first  wittena/fvmolr,  or  coimcil :  but  London 
was  not  constituted  the  capital  of  England  until  its  recovery  from  tho  Danes  by  Alfred. 
William  of  Normandy,  whose  interest  it  wob  to  conciliate  the  citizens,  though  he  built  the 
fortress  called  the  Tower,  to  keep  them  in  awe,  confirmed  tho  privileges  and  immunities 
which  tiicy  iiad  enjoyed  under  Edward  the  Confessor.  Notwithstanding  several  visitations 
of  fire  iiml  ])e8tilence,  I^ondon  continued  to  increase,  especially  after  the  accession  of  tho 
Tudors,  when  the  overthrow  of  feudal  va.<salnge,  and  the  more  frequent  resort  to  the  capital, 
caused  an  augmentation  so  rapid  as  to  alarm  the  government.  The  dissolution  of  monas- 
teries, of  which  Ijondon  contained  so  largo  a  proportion,  accelerated  this  increase,  while  it 
gave  an  impulse  to  industry  and  commerce.  In  the  reigii  of  Elizabeth,  the  infiiix  of  strangers 
driven  from  tho  Netherlands,  by  tho  persecutions  of  the  Duko  of  Alvu,  hoiglitened  the  alarm, 
and  tlie  queen  was  even  induced  to  issue  the  absurd  decree  that  no  more  dwelling-houses 
should  be  built:  a  prohibition  which  did  not  retard  the  growth  of  the  city.  In  10,36,  tho 
refinements  of  Pans  ami  Madrid  were  emulated  in  London  by  tho  introduction  of  hackney 
coaches  and  sedan  chairs. 

The  reign  of  Charles  If.  includes  tlic  most  memorable  epoch  in  the  history  of  London, 
In  1605,  a  plague  swept  away  100,()<)(t  persons.  In  Septemlier,  1606,  broke  out  that  grcot 
and  awful  fire  which  destroyed  4(K(  streets,  13,000  houses,  and  89  churches.  For  the  re- 
building of  the  city,  an  admirable  plan  was  presented  by  Sir  Christopher  Wren,  the  archi- 
tect: the  difficulty  of  mcMiciling  conflicting  internstn,  allowed  it  to  bo  but  very  partially 
adopted.  He  rebuilt  the  cathcilral  of  St.  Paul  and  nicst  of  the  parish  churches  in  tho 
Grecian  style,  and  ihn  front  of  Guildhall  in  tlie  original  Gothic.  Instead  of  wootl  and  ;>laster, 
the  chief  iimicrials  of  the  former  city,  the  new  buildings  were  of  brick,  in  the  substantial 
though  heavy  style  thon  in  vogue.  There  were  no  flagged  footpaths ;  the  streets  were  ill- 
paved  :  anil  as  there  was  no  system  of  drainage  by  sewers,  and  no  distribution  of  pure  water 
by  pipes,  they  were  in  some  places  far  from  endurable.  The  city,  however,  gained  by  the 
changr,  though  with  the  sacrifice  of  many  interesting  memorials  of  its  ancient  state,  and  of 
it.s  most  glorious  times. 

WoHtniiiisiter,  thougli  founded  in  the  time  of  the  Saxons,  and  chosen  at  an  early  period  as 
a  royal  residence,  did  not  at  first  keep  pane  with  Jjondon,  The  abbey  nnd  its  church,  founded 
by  Sohert,  wore  rebuilt  by  the  architects  wlio  reared  so  many  splendid  fabrics  of  Gothic 
masonry  in  tho  reigns  of  Henry  HI.  and  Edward  I.  The  celebrated  hall  was  built  by  William 
Rufus  in  1097  nnd  100^,  and  it  underwent  n  thorough  repair  in  that  of  Richard  II.  On  the 
dissohition  of  monasteries,  Henry  VIII.  converted  this  religious  establishment  into  a  college, 
nnd  aflerwar(!s  into  a  bishoiffic.  Westminster  thus  became  a  city,  and  has  ever  since  re- 
tained that  rank  by  courtesy,  though  it  never  had  but  one  bishop,  having  been  transferred  by 
Eldward  VI.  to  tho  see  of  Norwich. 

The  city  of  Westminster  is  comprised  in  the  united  parishes  of  St.  Margaret  nnd  St. 
John ;  the  lil)ertics  include  seven  other  piirislies.  St.  Martin's  in  the  Fields,  St,  James's,  St, 
Ann's,  St.  Clement  Dane?,  St.  Mary's  lo  Strand.  St.  George's  Hanover  S<iuare,  and  St.  Paul's 
Covent  Garden,  with  the  precinct  of  the  Savoy  and  that  of  St.  Martin's  le  Grand.  Several 
<)f  the  parishes  westward  of  Temple  Bar  had  each  its  church  and  contiguous  village,  com- 
municating with  each  other  by  roads  and  footpaths.  The  Strand  was  originally  a  liigh  road 
connecting  J/)nr1on  with  Westminster  by  tho  village  of  Charing.  Afler  the  Re.storation, 
the  west  end  of  the  town  rapidly  increased ;  nnd  its  inhabitants,  affecting  superior  refinC' 
ment  of  manners,  claimed  to  be  considered  as  a  distinct  class  of  things  from  the  industriou.', 
merchants  east  of  Temple  Rir.  I^y  degrees,  as  the  vacant  ground  was  built  upon,  the  two 
cities  and  their  suburbs  were  unjtetl ;  and  at  length  the  distant  villages  of  Mary-le-txme 
and  St.  Pancros  became  integrftl  parts  of  the  metropolis.  A  splendid  (piarter,  now  occupied 
by  the  most  fashionable  part  of  the  community,  has  l)een  built  to  the  west  of  St.  James's 
Park  and  the  new  ])alace.     The  villages  surrounding  Ixjndon,  formerly  at  some  distance,- 


'id 


v 


Part  III. 

IHiiiit,  riHP« 
arc  HitimU'il 
UK  I'xtiuiliniJ 
les.  On  tlio 
I'doii,  Kiwiiiii 
mil  till!  Hoi- 
ril ;  uiul,  in  n 

Ewrtt'X. 

fie,  iiH  upiwars 
Tho  RoinauH 
bcffiimin({  of 
ured  to  be  the 
il  of  tho  Ettut 
I  dedicated  to 
union  of  the 
;  but  London 
ncB  by  Alfretl. 
[h  he  built  tho 
nd  imniunitieu 
cral  viBitiitionH 
xcasion  of  the 
t  to  the  capital, 
ition  of  monas- 
crease,  while  it 
lux  of  strangers 
ened  the  alarm, 
Iwellinu-houBeB 
.    In  1036,  tho 
lion  of  hackney 

itory  of  London. 
I  out  that  great 
en.    For  the  re- 
^Vren,  the  archi- 
iit  very  partially 
churcln-H  in  the 
•ood  and  iilastcr, 
tlie  substantial 
streets  were  ill- 
m  of  pure  water 
,  jTiiined  by  tho 
mt  slate,  and  of 

.  early  period  as 
church,  founded 
ibrics  of  Gothic 
built  by  William 
fird  II.  On  the 
[it  into  a  college, 
V  ever  since  re- 
U  transferred  by 

largarct  and  St. 
I  St.  James's,  St. 
le,  and  St.  I'aul's 
llrand.     Several 
lus  village,  com- 
lally  a  high  road 
Ithe  Restoration, 
T  superior  retinc- 
L  the  industrious 
lit  upon,  the  two 
lof  Mary-le-bonc 
^r,  now  occupied 
fet  of  St.  James's 
oino  distance,- 


BooK  I. 


KNOLAND. 


373 


on  tho  oust.  Stepney  nnii  liimohnuso;  on  tho  isouth,  I'ecklmm,  ramborwell,  Ilri.vtim,  Cliip- 
hnni ;  on  the  west,  fininipton  iiml  Kni!,'hf»ihriilgc ;  on  thonnrlli,  Hackney,  Iloxton,  Inhngton, 
lligligate  and  lliimpHtciid, — bring  now  juimd  to  the  nictropohn  by  continuivl  ningcrt  of 
Htrci-lH,  may  tx;  considi-rcd  ns  mtegral  [Kirtions  of  it.  The  pcipiiiation  within  a  riimii«  of 
figlit  mill's  from  St.  I'liulV,  which  U  all  virtually  I/nidun,  does  nut  till!  short  of  l,>'(HMNHK 

'I'll''  LTiivvfli  of  Liiidiin,  an  a  (virt,  wum  iit  lirst  by  no  niians  rnpiil.  In  IKfi,  beMiilrn  bout* 
iin<l  iitliiT  rt:\\\  not  rcgiftercil,  there  belonged  to  the  |)ortof  i/milon  V!<i<i!>Hlii|N<,  of  the  liiirthen 
ot' .'iil.'i.lTl  tons;  iniinnid  by  IW.THli  men  ami  Iwys.  In  the;  same  vi-iir,  the  gross  ciistoinn 
iliity  collecti'd  in  the  |K)rt  of  Ixmilon  amoiuited  to  0,4:H,w.")U,  'I'he  |)ort  of  Londim  liaM 
iilri'uily  lii'eii  (lescrilH>d  as  extending  from  (.onilon  Bridge  to  Depftbrd,  a  diHfiiiu  e  of  lour 
tiiili-*;  tlie  average  breadth  being  tully  a  qimrter  of  a  mile.  Kven  these  limits  were  liir 
from  iitliir(iingailei|iiatn  accommmlntion  to  the  shipping;  and  the  example  of  improvement 
exhibited  by  Liverpixil  nt  length  roused  the  merchants  of  Ixtndon  to  tiirm  comimnie.s  tlir  con- 
structing docks,  with  commodioiiH  ([uityB  and  warehouses.  The  Wmt  Inilia  Ihtrks,  stretch- 
ing across  the  isthmus  forming  tlie  Isle  of  Dogs  to  the  Middlesex  side  of  the  river,  were 
o|)i'"eil  in  1H()2.  They  consisted  originally  of  an  ini|K)rt  and  exixirt  dock,  the  tbnner  con- 
tiiiiiuig  aliout  3<t  and  tho  latter  about  'J5  acres  of  water,  exclusive  of  basins.  To  tlie.se  have 
recently  been  added  the  south  dock,  fiirmerly  tho  City  ('anal.  The  wnreliouses  at  the  West 
India  Docks  are  of  vast  extent,  and  are,  in  all  respi'cts,  most  comnuHlious.  'I'lie  l.iutihn 
Diirku,  also  of  very  great  extent,  are  situated  at  Wappiiig.  The  tobacco  warehouse  be- 
longing to  them  is  tin-  largest  and  tinest  building  of  its  kind  in  the  world.  It  covers  a  s|mco 
of  near  .'■)  acres !  The  vaults  iimlcrneath  the  ground  are  li*\  neres  in  extent,  nnil  have 
stowage  tiir  (WI,(HH)  |)ipes  of  wine!  There  are  also  the  .S7,  Kulhiiriiir's  Docks,  adjoining  tho 
'J'ower;  the  /•'««<  India  Docks,  ill  Blackwell ;  and  tho  Comvurciiil  Docks,  on  the  Surrey 
side  of  till-  river, 

Southwark,  the  third  great  portion  of  the  metropolis,  (more  commonly  called  the  Ttorituffh, 
and  as  such  returning  two  members  to  parliament,)  is  situated  on  thn  south  bank  of  tho 
Thames.  Tho  Borough  was  governed  by  its  own  ImilitTs  until  Edward  VI.  granted  South- 
wark to  the  city  of  I<ondon  for  a  sum  of  money ;  after  which  it  beciitne  one  of  the  city 
wards  by  the  name  of  Bridge  Wiinl  Without.  It  is  much  freiptented  by  agricullnrisls  from 
Kent,  Surrey,  and  Sussex ;  and  is  llin  principal  hop-m:irkel  in  the  kingdom.  Numerous 
etrecta  in  every  direction  connect  it  with  the  surrounding  villages ;  and  by  the  five  magnifi- 
cent briilges  it  communicates  with  every  quarter  of  Ix)ndon  and  Westminster. 

liondon,  is  well  built,  well  paved,  well  lighted,  and  abundantly  supplied  with  water.  For- 
eigners who  visit  it  tor  tho  first  time  soon  discover  that  utility,  not  ornament,  is  the  main 
characteristic  of  the  town,  and  that  business,  not  amusement,  occupies  tho  minds  of  its 
inhabitants.  The  main  strei-ts  are  spacious ;  nnd  all  tho  streets  have  tho  advantage  of  flagged 
t!x)t-pavemenl.s  on  each  side.  The  lifiuses  are  of  brick ;  and  though  in  the  most  populous 
streets  discoloured  by  smoke,  have  by  no  means  a  glcximy  appearance.  The  charm  of  Ixjiiilon, 
as  a  great  city,  is  its  variety.  Tlifjse  who  dislike  the  narrow  streets  of  the  city,  shady  in 
summer,  and  sheltered  from  cold  winds  in  winter,  may  delight  in  the  siKicious  streets  and 
squares  of  the  west  end  ;  those  who  desire  to  contemplate  what  Dr.  Johnson  called  "  the  full 
tide  of  human  existence,"  may  visit  Cheapside,  Fleet  Street,  or  the  Strand  :  Bt^iiil  Street  is 
the  resort  of  gaiety  and  titshion ;  and  Regent  Street,  for  architectural  efl'ect,  is  uiie  of  the 
grandest  streets  in  Europe.  Great  improvements  have  been  made  on  the  north  side  of  the 
Strand  from  Charing  Cross  to  Burleigh  Street,  by  taking  down  an  immense  mass  of  small 
nnd  old  houses,  partly  in  narrow  streets  and  courts,  and  erecting  others  of  large  dimensions 
and  tbrming  wide  and  handsome  streets.  Hero  also  has  been  erected  the  elegant  and  com- 
modious structure  of  I  Inngerford 
Market.  Another  improvement  is 
that  of  opening  a  line  northward 
from  Bridge  Street,  BlacklViars, 
through  the  site  of  Fleet  Market 
and  across  Clerkenwell,  to  Isling- 
ton: it  is  intended  that  a  parallel 
line  should  extend  from  Waterloo 
Bridge  across  the  Strand,  iiast  tho 
portico  of  Coveiit  Garden  Theatre, 
and  into  the  northern  district  of 
the  metropolis. 

St.  Paul's  Cathedral  {ftfr.  149.'), 

the  masterpiece  of  Sir  Christopher 

Wren,  is  the  fine.st  specimen  of 

modern  architecture  in  tho  king- 

^'- ''»'''''•  .      dom,  and,  after  St. Peter's  at  Rome, 

inav  r:ink  as  th"  tniost  ccclesiastiral  structure  in  Christendom;  but  it  is  so  surrounded  with 

\oi,.  I.  32 


IT'     ( 


<l> 


1^' 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


// 


^. 


1.0 


1.1 


11.25 


Ui|21    125 

|30    ""^       JIIMH 

Wtat. 


^ 


>? 


HioJDgrafJiic 

Sciences 

Corporation 


23  WIST  MAIN  STRUT 

WMSTER.N.Y.  UStO 

(716)  S72-4S03 


^.V 


374 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pabt  III. 


buildings  that  the  beauty  of  its  exterior  cannot  be  appreciated.   The  style,  which  is  Grecian, 

unites  grandeur  of  design  with  just- 
i^  I  *  » A     I  1 1  I      ness  of  proportion.   TIjc  interior  of 

St.  Paul's  is  too  bare  of  ornament ; 
^^^  but  the  defect  is  partly  supplied  by 

"V*  r^  Hnan   flBrKHIsf     marble  monuments  of  various  de- 

grees of  merit. 

Westminster  Abbejr  (Jigr,  150.) 
is  a  noble  specimen  of  Gothic  archi- 
tecture. The  interior  is  grand  in 
design  and  rich  in  detail,  and  the 
interest  which  it  excites  is  en- 
hanced by  the  numerous  monuments 
of  kings,  warriors,  statesmen,  plii- 
losophers,  and  poets,  which  it  en- 
closes. The  cliapel  built  at  tlie 
western  extremity  by  Henry  VII. 
in  honour  of  the  blessed  Virgin,  is 

(xothic,  and  its  exterior  has  been  skilfully  renovated. 

Among  the  parish  churches  of  the  metropolis,  that  of  St.  Stephen's,  Walbrook,  is  distin- 
guished for  the  fine  proportions  and  finished  elegance  of  its  interior.  Tlie  stately  portico  of 
St.  Martin's,  Charing  Cross,  excites  universal  admiration ;  next  to  which  may  rank  that  of 
the  new  churcii  of  St.  Pancras;  the  steeple  of  which  is  constructed  on  the  model  of  the  Temple 
of  the  Winds  at  Athens.  The  other  public  buildings  are  too  numerous  to  be  described,  and 
a  bare  mention  of  them  would  give  little  satisfaction.  The  principal  inns  of  court,  and  their 
subsidiary  inns,  are  remarkable  rather  for  plainness  than  magnificence  of  architecture.   The 

pile  called  Somerset  House  (Jig. 
151.)  would  have  a  grand  effect 
if.  its  eastern  wing  were  com- 
pleted; and  this  desideratum  is 
partly  supplied  by  tlie  buildings 
assigned  to  "  King's  College,  Lon- 
don. The  Banqueting  House  at 
Whitehall  is  a  memorial  of  tlie 
fine  taste  of  Inigo  Jones ;  and  its 
ceiling  is  decorated  with  an  alle- 
gorical painting  from  the  pencil 
of  Rubens,  wliieli  is  still  exposed 
to  view,  though  the  apartment  has 
been  converted  into  a  chapel. 
Westminster  Hall,  of  which  the  portal  has  been  rebuilt  in  the  original  style,  is  reputed  the 
longest  hall  in  Europe  unsupported  by  pillars.  It  is  276  feet  long  by  70  broad.  Within  it, 
on  coronation  festivals,  10,000  persons  liave  dined.  On  its  south  side  arc  enlmuces  to  the 
new  law  courts,  the  King's  Bench  Common  Pleas,  E.xchequer  and  Chancery,  witli  an  addi- 
tional court  for  the  vice-chancellor.  The  House  of  Peers  is  a  spacious  and  lutty  cliamber, 
decorated  with  tapestry  representing  the  defeat  of  the  Spanish  armada.  The  subordinate 
apartments  and  passages  are  of  recent  construction  and  of  a  dig- 
nified elegance.  The  House  of  Commons,  originally  a  chapel  dedi- 
cated to  St.  Steplien,  retains,  perhaps,  too  mucli  of  tiiat  cliaractcr 
in  its  front  and  side  galleries,  the  seats  rising  on  either  hand 
beneath  them,  and  tlie  s|)eaker's  chair  exactly  in  the  place  where 
a  pulpit  might  have  stood.  The  house  was  altered  and  enlarged, 
to  admit  the  accession  of  members  consequent  on  the  union  with 
Ireland.*  The  Bank  of  England,  a  building  of  great  extent ;  the 
Royal  Excliange ;  the  East  India  House,  in  L^enhall  street ; 
the  Tower,  which  has  still  nn  arsenal  and  a  garriJion,  being  the 
depository  of  the  regalia  of  tlie  United  Kingdom ;  the  Trinity 
House,  and  tiie  New  Mint,  both  situated  on  Tower  Hill;  the 
new  Post  Office,  in  St.  Martin  le  Grand ;  the  new  Palace  in  St. 
James's  Park,  &c.  deserve  mention. 

The  Monument  (Jifc-  152.)  is  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  orna- 
ments of  the  metropolis.   The  pedestal  is  42  feet,  the  shaft  of  tim 
The  Monument.  column  120  foot,  the  Cone  at  the  top  with  the  blazing  urn  of  gilt 

brass  40  feet,  making  the  total  height  of  tlie  iiionuuient  202  feet.     It  was  erected  by  Sir 
Christophor  Wren,  to  commemorate  the  fire  of  Ijondon,  in  1066. 


Somenet  House. 


Bm 

1 
the 
row 
the 


men 

ellip 

6in( 

men 

ties 

betw 

a5f( 

arch 

and  I 

ofth 

has  ^ 


has  n 
fourt( 
arch 
piece 

with 
indiv 
Th 
requii 
Brid>j 
chose 
niagii 
Ixjdy 
the  s( 
ranki 
forme 
militi 
can  ii 
•rront 
rntioi 


*  The  Purliamont  [fousf.'s  wrru  Ijiirrit  dnvvn  in  18:t4, 


^■ 


•*#' 


W^  '\ 


Book  I. 


ENGLAND. 


375 


The  bridges  of  London  attract  attention  by  their  beauty  and  utility.  Until  the  year  1740, 
the  only  one  existing  was  London  Bridge,  built  in  the  twelflli  century,  with  arches  so  nar- 
row, unequal,  and  ill-placed,  as  to  form  a  sort  of  breakwater,  occasioning'  a  rapid  or  fall  of 
the  stream,  highly  dangerous  to  boats  and  barges.  The  new  London  Brieve  (Jig.  153.)  com- 


153 


t'r- 


■m' 


Now  London  Bridge. 


menced  in  1824,  and  opened  in  1831,  has  taken  its  place.  The  bridge  consists  of  five  semi- 
elliptical  arches ;  the  centre  arch  152  feet  span,  with  a  rise  above  high  water  mark  of  29  feet 
6  inches;  the  two  next  the  centre  arch,  140  feet  span,  rise  27  feet  6  inches;  the  two  abut- 
ment arches,  130  feet  span,  rise  24  feet  6  inches.  Tlie  length  of  the  bridge  from  the  extremi- 
ties of  the  abutment  is  928  feet ,  witliin  the  abutments,  782  feet.  The  roadway  is  53  feet 
between  the  parapets;  of  this  width,  the  footways  occupy  9  feet  each,  and  the  carriage-way 
3.5  feet.  Southwark  Bridge  leads  from  Queenhithe  to  Bnnksido,  Southwark.  Of  its  three 
arclies  of  cast  iron,  the  central  one  is  240  feet  span ;  the  others  210  feet  each.  The  piers 
and  abutments  are  of  stone,  the  rest  of  the  work  iron ;  this  is  the  most  stupendous  bridge 
of  tliese  materials  in  the  world.  Blackfriars  Bridge,  built  between  the  years  1760  and  1769, 
has  8  piers  and  9  elliptical  arches;  lengtli  995  feet.  Waterloo  Bridge  (jig.  154.),  of  granite. 


Waterloo  Bridge. 

has  nine  arches,  each  120  feet  span ;  the  piers  are  20  feet  thick.  Westminster  Bridge  has 
fourteen  piers  supporting  thirteen  large  and  two  small  arches.  The  widtli  of  the  middle 
arch  is  76  feet;  that  of  the  two  next,  72,  that  of  the  last,  52.  Waterloo  Bridge  is  the  finest 
piece  of  masonry  in  Europe:  the  expense  exceeded  l,000,0()Of.  These  immense  works, 
with  the  exception  of  London  Bridge,  have  all  been  accomplished  by  associations  of  private 
individuals. 

The  municipal  institutions  of  London  have  received  fram  time  such  modifications  as  were 
requisite  to  improve  them.  The  city  is  divided  into  twcnty-tive  wards,  the  Borough,  as 
Bridffo  Ward  Without,  making  the  twenty-sixth.  Eacli  has  for  its  magistrate  an  aldermoii 
chosen  for  life  :  and  those  persons  collectively  form  the  Court  of  AUlermen.  The  chief 
magistrate,  styled  Ixird  Mayor,  is  elected  annually,  fromtlie  Court  of  Aldermen,  hy  tiie  great 
body  of  freemen  called  the  Livery.  Tlie  Common  Council  is  an  elective  body  reprcscntiii;,' 
the  several  wards. — Those  public  Ixxlies  form  a  sort  of  parliament,  tiio  court  of  nidernion 
rankinir  as  peers,  that  of  common  council  as  the  commons.  The  military  force  uf  tlio  city 
formerly  cop.sisted  of  the  Train  Bands ;  but  under  an  act  passed  in  179-1,  two  roijimonts  of' 
militia  are  rained  by  ballot,  each  conpistin?  of  2200  men.  No  troops  can  enter  the  cit}',  nor 
can  its  own  militia  depart  frcni  it,  witliout  porniission  of  the  lord  mayor.  His  |K)Wor  is  very 
jrrent ;  and  tliouffh  his  office  lie  elpctivo,  liis  niitliority  tloos  not  cease  on  the  demise  or  abdi- 
cation oftlse  Inn;;,  aa  that  of  the  coinmi.-:sion  ollicers  does  :  and  in  such  cases  the  Lord  Mayor 


m. 


'•«[ 


■•%     "576 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Past  m. 


of  London  is  said  to  be  tho  principal  officer  of  the  kingdom.  There  are  two  ghcriffB,  one  for 
London  and  one  for  Middlesex ;  but  they  make  but  one  officer;  and  if  one  of  them  dies,  the 
office  is  at  an  end  until  a  successor  to  him  is  chosen.  The  next  officers  in  rank  arc,  the 
Recorder,  the  Chamberlain,  and  tlie  Common  Sergeant 

The  police  of  tlie  metropolis  lias  not  been  brought  to  a  very  liigli  degree  of  efficiency,  but 
is  continually  undergoing  improvements.  Tiicre  are  eleven  offices :  the  Mansion  House ; 
the  Guildhall;  Bow  Street;  Queen  Square,  Westminster;  Marlborough  Street;  High 
Street,  Mary-le-bone ;  Hatton  Garden ;  Worship  Street ;  lambeth  Street,  in  Whitechapel ;  . 
High  Street,  Sliadwell ;  Union  Street,  Southwark;  and  Wapping  New  Stairs,- for  offences  ),« 
connected  with  the  shipping  and  port.  The  Bow  Street  Police  Office  is  wholly  under  the 
direction  and  management  of  the  Secretary  of  State  for  tlie  Home  Department.  All  the 
magistrates  belonging  to  it  are  in  the  commission  of  the  peace  for  the  counties  of  Middlesex, 
Surrey,  Kent,  and  Essex,  this  being  the  chief  police  office  of  England.  Subject  to  its 
authority  is  the  body  of  foot  and  horse  patrolc  by  which  the  roads  within  ten  miles  of  the 
metropolis  are  watched  and  guarded  during*  a  considerable  part  of  the  night.  In  another 
department  of  police  a  most  important  change  has  been  effected  by  sul^tituting  for  the 
nightly  watch  appointed  by  different  parishes  without  concert  or  co-operation,  a  constabu- 
lary POLICE  FORCE,  regularly  organized,  and  subject  to  officers  appointed  by  the  Home 
Secretary  of  State.  The  men  are  maintained  by  rates  levied  on  the  different  parishes, 
and  are  on  duty  night  atid  day,  in  successive  divisions,  relieving  each  other  like  gendarmes. 

The  gaols  and  prisons  cannot  be  passed  without  notice.  The  King's  Bench  prison,  in 
Southwark,  is  under  the  particular  authority  of  the  Court  of  King's  Bench.  Tlie  liberties, 
or  rules,  comprehend  an  area  three  miles  in  circumference,  within  any  part  of  wJiich  debtors 
may  reside  on  paying  certain  fees.  The  Fleet  Prison,  chiefly  for  debtors,  is  situated  on  the 
east  side  of  Farrinedon  Street.  Whitecross-street  prison  was  erected  in  1817,  for  the 
reception  of  such  deotors  as  were  liable  to  be  confined  in  the  city  gaols  of  Newgate  and  tlie 
Compter.  Newgate,  a  place  of  confinement  for  prisoners  before  and  after  trial,  has  been 
placed  under  new  regulations  through  the  efforts  of  benevolent  persons  anxious  to  render  it 
a  place  of  reform.  Bridewell,  Blackfi-iars,  though  a  prison,  is  usually  ranked  among  the 
hospitals.  The  Middlesex  House  of  Correction,  in  Coldbath  Fields,  has  long  been  the  terror 
of  delinquents,  through  the  double  punishment  of  incarceration  and  hard  labour.  The  Peni- 
tentiary at  Milbank  is  destined  for  the  reception  of  convicts  selected  from  those  sentenced 
to  transportation  or  to  confinement  on  board  the  hulks  for  a  certain  term  of  years.  They  are 
confined  here  to  hard  labour  lor  a  shorter  term,  part  of  which  is  remitted  if  they  behave  well. 
Tothill-fields  Bridewell  is  u  large  pile  of  building,  finished  m  1833.  A  new  Ilouse  of  Cor- 
rection has  been  erected  at  Brixton,  in  Surrey. 

The  charitable  institutions  of  London  would  require  a  volume  for  their  description. 
Chelsea  and  Greenwich  hospitals  are  asylums  provided  by  national  gratitude  to  support  the 
aged  or  infirm  who  have  devoted  their  best  days  to  the  service  of  their  country  by  land  and 
sea.  St  Bartholomew's  and  St  Thomas's  hospitals  are  assigned  to  the  maimed  and  diseased. 
Bridewell  Hospital  to  the  correction  of  the  idle,  and  Christ's  hospital  to  the  support  nnd 
education  of  the  young  and  helpless.  For  the  cure  of  diseases,  and  for  the  relief  of  acci- 
dental injuries,  there  are  various  institutions ;  such  are  t!ic  Loudon,  Middlesex,  St.  George's, 
and  Westminster  hospitals ;  St  Bartholomew's,  St  Thoma.i's,  and  Guy's,  are  also  celebrated 
as  schools  of  surgery  ;  the  hospitals  of  Bethlehem  and  St.  Luke's  are  appropriated  to  in.snnc 
patients :  there  are  sixteen  medical  charities  for  particular  purposes,  as  the  Ophthalmic 
Institution,  the  Small-pox  Hospital,  the  Vaccine  Society,  &c. ;  fourteen  lyinif-iii  hospitals 
and  charities;  schools  for  the  indigent  blind,  and  for  the  deaf  and  dumb;  the  PliiI;inthroi)ic 
and  Humane  Societies,  the  Refuge  for  the  Destitute,  the  Foundling  Hospital,  the  Magdalen 
Asylum,  the  Female  Penitentiary,  &c.  To  the  class  of  charitable  foundations  belong  also 
the  alms-houses  of  the  various  city  companies. 

The  most  distinguished  schools  of  the  metropolis  are,  Christ's  Hospital,  the  Charter-house, 
Westminster,  St.  Paul's,  and  Merchant  Tailor's  scliools.  For  the  acquisition  of  the  higher 
branches  of  knowledge,  an  important  provision  has  been  made  in  the  estnWishment  of  the 
London  University,  and  in  that  of  the  institution  called  King's  College,  London. 

Of  the  scientific  and  literary  associations  of  the  metropolis,  the  most  considrrable  are  the 
Royal  Society,  the  Society  of  Antiquaries,  the  Society  for  the  Encouragement  of  Arts  and 
Manufactures,  the  Royal  Institution  for  facilitating  the  introduction  of  useful  Inventions  and 
Improvements,  the  I/indon,  and  tho  Russel  Institutions.  Tlie  College  of  Physicians,  and  the 
Royal  College  of  Surgeons,  decide  on  the  admis-sion  of  members  to  pnictise  in  each  of  those 
professions.  For  tho  cultivation  of  sciences  connected  with  them,  fiiur  eminent  societies 
e.\ist  and  looturos  are  esitiiblisliod  at  various  theatres  of  anatomy  and  hospitals.  Of  institu- 
tions for  ))arf  icnlar  hranrlies  of  knowledge,  the  more  eminent  are  the  Liimean,  the  Geological, 
the  Horticultural,  the  fieogrniihirnl,  and  the  Zoolnginil  societies.  As  a  niitinniil  re)X)sitory 
of  literature,  of  antiquities,  nnd  of  objects  belonging  to  natural  history,  the  Briti^ih  ]\lusouni 
elsewhere  dosrribed,  is  daily  rising  in  public  estimation. 

London  is  the  prineipul  literary  cmjKiriuin  of  tlie  kingdom.     Almost  all  books  of  import 


■*■,.. 


BookL 


,  ENGLAND. 


3T7 


import 


ance  are  thcro  printed  and  published ;  and  thence  distributed  over  the  kingdom ;  forming  a 
considerable  branch  of  commerce.  The  annual  value  sold  is  estimated  at  from  1,000,OUO/. 
to  2,(K(0,(KX(/.  sterling.  Being  also  the  centre  of  intelligence  relative  to  public  aifuirs,  the 
metropolis  gives  circulation  to  a  prodigious  number  of  newspapers  and  periodical  journals. 
Some  of  the  newspapers  circulate  upwards  of  8000  a  day ;  and  by  tlie  profit  derived  from 
ttuch  extensive  sale,  and  from  advertisements,  they  are  enabled  to  maintain  complete  and 
^  costly  establishments  for  obtaining  early  political  intelligence,  and  for  reporting  trials  and 

parliamentary  proceedings.    The  number  of  single  papers,  published  annually  in  London, 
as  calculated  from  the  stamp  returns,  exceeds  16,000,000. 

The  manufactures  of  the  metropolis  are  too  miacellaneoua  to  be  particularised ;  indeed, 
Iiondon  may  be  called  a  commercial  rather  than  a  manufacturing  city.  The  most  consider- 
able is  the  Spitallields  silk  manufacture,  which,  however,  has  for  years  remained  stationar]r, 
while  that  of  other  parts  of  the  kingdom  has  been  rapidly  extending.  In  household  furni- 
ture the  artisans  of  liondon  take  the  lead  both  in  the  design  or  fashion  of  the  articles,  and 
in  the  excellence  of  their  construction.  The  same  may  be  said  of  coaches,  carriages,  and 
harness,  of  watches,  of  gold  and  silver  plate,  and  of  jewellery.  Of  articles  of  consumption, 
the  peculiar  product  of  London  is  porter.  In  1823-4,  the  quantity  brewed  was  1,168,000 
barrels,  including  a  comparatively  small  quantity  of  ale ;  and  almost  the  whole  of  which 
was  produced  by  eleven  great  establishments.  The  distilleries  of  British  spirits  are  very 
extensive. 

The  foreign  trade  of  London  has,  since  the  peace,  continued  nearly  stationary.  The  vici- 
nity of  Liverpool  to  the  manufacturing  districts,  and  her  more  easy  and  frequent  intercourse 
with  Ireland,  give  her  considerable  advantages.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  tlie  vast  population 
of  London  and  of  the  basin  of  the  Thames,  her  proximity  to  the  Continent,  the  immense 
wealth  and  connexions  of  her  merchants,  will  most  probably  suffice  to  ensure  her  predomi- 
nance. The  charges  on  vessels  frequenting  the  Thames,  though  within  tliese  few  years 
veiy  heavy,  ore  now  extremely  moderate. 

The  inland  trade  of  London  is  very  extensive,  as  appears  from  the  number  of  arrivals  by 
all  the  great  roads  of  the  metropolis,  and  by  the  Regent's  Canal,  extending  from  the  Thames 
to  the  basin  at  Poddington,  a  sort  of  internal  port,  communicating  with  the  principal  canals 
of  the  kingdom.  Sixty-four  mail-coaches  and  a  great  number  of  steam-packets  maintain  a 
constant  communication  between  the  London  General  Post-Office  and  the  cities  and  towns 
in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  The  regulated  speed  of  the  mails  is  eight  miles  an  hour, 
including  stoppages. 

London  is  the  great  money  market  of  the  empire.  The  Bank  of  England,  founded  in 
1694,  has  become  the  greatest  bank  of  circulation  and  deposit  in  Europe.  Its  usual  issue 
amounts  to  about  20,000,0001.  sterling ;  it  advances  about  10,000,0002.  sterling  to  govern- 
ment, and  discounts  bills  to  the  value  of  about  3,000,OOOZ.  Though  some  of  its  privileges 
are  curtailed  by  the  late  act,  this  is  compensated  by  the  regulation  which  makes  its  notes  a 
legal  tender.  The  Stock  Exchange  is  the  place  where  purchases  and  sales  arc  effected  by 
brokers,  at  a  commission  of  one-eighth  per  cent,  on  the  amount  of  stock  purchased  or  sold. 
The  establishment  consists  of  a  certain  number  of  brokers,  about  thirteen  hundred,  elected 
annually  by  ballot,  and  bound  in  a  certain  sum  to  the  observance  of  certain  regulations, 
which  are  superintended  and  enforced  by  a  committee.  None  but  members  are  admitted  on 
the  stock  exchange ;  and  no  stock-broker  can,  by  the  regulations,  become  a  dealer,  and  sub- 
ject himself  to  the  opieration  of  the  bankrupt  laws.  If  he  becomes  a  bankrupt,  he  is  desig- 
nated a  scrivener.  The  property  bought  and  sold  in  this  market,  between  the  hours  of  ten 
and  four,  is  sometimes  enormous.  The  Insurance  Companies  are  about  twenty  in  number, 
of  which  only  three  are  incorporated  by  charter.  Of  other  joint-stock  companies,  for  pur- 
poses immediately  connected  with  London,  the  principal  are  ^e  Water  and  Gas  Light  Com- 
panies. 

As  the  seat  of  legislation  and  jurisprudence,  London  is  necessarily  the  resort  of  the  prin- 
cipal persons  in  the  kingdom  during  the  session  of  parliament,  whicii  usually  continues  from 
Christmas  to  midsummer ;  and  as  that  period  includes  three  of  the  four  law  terms,  the  afflux 
of  strangers  is  increased  by  those  who  are  interested  in  any  proceedings  before  the  courts. 

The  town  mansions  of  tlie  nobility  and  ffentry  are  not  so  remarkable  as  their  country  resi- 
dences for  architectural  beauty ;  but  some  of  them  are  celebrated  for  their  treasures  of  lite- 
rature or  art.  The  grounds  of  St.  James's  Park,  Hyde  Park,  and  Kensington  Gardens, 
emphatically  called  the  lungs  of  Ijondon,  and  the  fine  enclosure  of  the  Regent's  Park,  are 
destined  for  the  recreation  of  the  |)ublic. 

Middlesex  may  be  regarded  as  the  dairy  and  garden  of  London.  Its  soil  is  mostly  a  poor 
gravel ;  but,  by  tlie  application  of  iimnure,  it  is  fitted  for  kitchen  gardens  to  tlie  extent  of 
nearly  throe  tlioiisaiid  acres ;  the  same  extent  of  fruit  gardens,  and  about  half  that  extent 
of  nurseries,  whence  the  greater  part  of  England  is  supplied  with  choice  plants  and  exotics. 
But  the  largest  portion  of  Middlesex  is  in  grass,  partly  for  the  support  of  10,(K)0  cow>i, 
whicli  supply  Ii(Mi(lon  with  milk,  and  partly  tbr  furnishing  it  with  hay,  that  of  Middlesex 
heiiig  s;iid  to  bo  made  in  a  superior  manner  to  any  other  in  the  kingdom.    Great  profits  have 

\ou  L  32  ♦  2  X 


ly 


I 


■^ 


878 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY, 


Pakt  III. 


Himpton  Conct 


been  derivpd  from  that  species  of  clay  which  is  convertible  into  brick.     Ijarge  tracts  have 
yielded  4(M)()/.  an  iicre;  and  after  this  clayey  substance  has  been  pared  off,  the  soil  has  been 
easily  restored,  by  manure,  to  the  uses  of  agriculture. 
Hampton  Court  (Jig.  155.),  built  by  Cardinal  Wolsey,  and  enlarged  by  Sir  Christopher 

Wren,  forms  one  of  the  largest  of  the 
English  palaces.  Here  are  many  fine  pic- 
tures, among  which  are  seven  of  the  car- 
toons of  Raphael,  regarded  as  the  master- 
pieces of  that  renowned  painter.  Bushy 
Park,  the  seat  of  William  IV.  while  Duke 
of  Clarence,  is  surrounded  with  magnifi- 
cent woods.  Chiswick,  the  villa  of  the 
Duke  of  Devonshire,  ond  Osterley  Park, 
both  in  this  vicinity,  contain  fine  pamtings. 
Syon  House  is  the  seat  of  tlio  Duke  of 
Northumberland.  But  the  chief  ornaments 
of  Middlesex  are  the  villas  of  the  wealthy 
citizens  of  London.  At  Twickenham,  bar- 
barous hands  have  demolished  Pope's  villa.  Strawberry  Hill  is  a  light  fantastic  fabric,  built 
by  Horace  VValpole.  The  villas  which  cover  the  hills  of  Ilampstead  and  Highgato  com- 
mand beautiful  prospects. 

Hertford,  Bedford,  Buckingham,  Oxford,  Northampton,  Leicester,  consist  generally  of  a 
vast  plain,  varied  by  gentle  undulations ;  the  air  is  healthy  and  pure ;  the  agriculturists  are 
carefiil  and  laborious.  The  horses  and  black  cattle  of  Leicestershire  are  famous  throughout 
the  kingdom.  Bedford  and  Berks  have  some  fabrics  of  shawls,  straw  hats,  and  bone  lace. 
Silk  and  woollen  hosiery  have  found  their  way  into  Leicester  and  Oxford  shires,  and  Coven- 
try has  for  centuries  been  renowned  for  its  silk  manufacture. 

Oxford  justly  claims  the  first  rank  among  the  midland  citiea  Its  university,  the  most 
richly  endowed  in  Europe,  and  the  nursery  of  so  many  great  men ;  the  numerous  and  exten- 
sive edifices  connected  with  it,  arranged  in  such  a  manner  as  to  produce  a  truly  noble  effect, 
render  it  one  of  tlie  most  interesting  places  in  England.  The  visiter,  as  ho  passes  along 
either  of  the  two  main  streets  (Jig.  15(3.),  beholds  at  every  step  some  antique  and  majestic 

structure ;  even  the  houses  of  pri- 
IgQ  i«lSii  '^'       ^''**'    individuals,   presenting    the 

'    '  I  rll  r,  I  ("A^k  i     aspect  of  ornamented  cottagcsrising 

one  above  the  other,  have  a  better 
effect  than  the  usual  mechanical 
lines  of  street.  This  beautiful  city 
is  supported  almost  entirely  by  the 
university,  which  is  of  great  anti- 
quity, and  the  principal  buildings 
wiiich  now  ornament  it  were  built 
between  the  times  of  Henry  VI.  and 
Elizabetli.  Oxford,  in  the  reign  of 
Charles  I.,  was  a  place  of  consider- 
able political  importance;  parlia- 
ments were  summoned  to  meet 
there,  and  the  king  maintained  it 
long  as  his  last  strong-hold.  It  has 
nineteen  colleges  and  four  halls,  in  which  reside  above  three  thousand  persons,  of  whom 
about  a  third  are  maintained  out  of  the  funds  of  the  colleges;  and  many,  under  the  charac- 
ter of  masters,  fellows,  and  other  functionaries,  enjoy  liberal  incomes. 

The  Bodleian  Library  is  the  most  extensive  in  England,  after  that  of  the  British  Museum. 
In  the  spacious  quadrangle  which  contains  this  library  are  also  the  public  schools ;  a  large 
gallery  of  portraits  having  reference  to  the  university ;  the  Arundel  marbles,  and  the  Pom- 
fret  statues,  wiiich,  though  much  mutilated,  present  some  fine  specimens  of  ancient  .sculp- 
ture. The  Radclifl^e  Library  is  the  finest  library  roc^ii  in  Oxfiird ;  but  it  labours  under  a 
deficiency  of  books.  Christ-church  is  an  ample  and  venerable  edifice,  adorned  with  some 
fine  old  painted  glass.  In  an  adjoining  apartment  is  tiio  collection  of  pictures  bequeathed 
by  Geiu>ral  Giiiso,  svhich  coiitiiins  some  specimens  of  unquestioned  excellence.  New  Col- 
lege chiipnl  attracts  admiration  by  its  fine  scries  of  paintings  on  glass,  executed  by  Jervis, 
after  the  designs  of  Sir  Josliua  Reynolds.  .Ml-Souls  College,  Mag<lalcn  College,  and 
Queen's  College,  display  architectural  beauties  of  no  common  order. 

Wixidstock  lias  a  gay  aspect;  to  the  interesting  features  in  EnglisI:  history  and  romance 
it  adds  tiio  solid  benefit  of  a  large  manufacture  of  leather  gloves.  Biickinghnm  and  Da- 
ventry  arc  small  antique  towns.  Newport  Pagneil,  in  Bucks,  forma  a  sort  of  centre  of  the 
lace  trade.    Bedford  carries  on  some  manufactures  of  this  description ;  and  being  situated  in 


High  Street,  Oxrord. 


«jn^r. 


BOOE  I. 


ENGIJVND. 


370 


Blanhelm. 


II  ricli  valloy,  watered  by  tlie  Oiise,  lins  a  considerable  stir  in  transmittiiifr  its  produce.  The 
industry  of  Dunstable  is  attested  by  the  straw  hats  which  bear  its  nitiiic.  Ilorttbrd  is  a 
Hmall  provincial  capital,  chieHy  remarkable  for  the  college  which  the  Eubt  India  Company 
have  founded,  for  the  education  of  the  civil  servants  whom  they  send  abroad:  St.  Albans 
ia  venerable  for  its  antiquitv,  and  its  cathedral.  Northampton,  a  place  of  considerable  name 
in  EnjrliMh  history,  a  well-built  town  on  the  Ncn,  with  a  niarket-placo  which  has  been 
reckoned  the  finest  in  the  kin<;dom,  has  a  manufactory  of  boots  and  shoes  for  exportation, 
and  of  lace.  It  is  a  great  centre  of  the  inland  travelling  between  Ix>ndon  and  the  north; 
and  the  trade  in  horses  has  always  been  carried  on  in  great  fairs  at  this  place.  Leicester 
is  a  still  more  important  provincial  capital.  It  is  a  place  of  note  in  Englisli  history,  and 
attests  its  ancient  importance  by  some  fine  old  churches;  but  it  had  fallen  into  considerable 
decay,  till  it  was  revived  by  the  prosperity  of  the  surrounding  roiintry,  chiefly  in  conse- 
quence of  the  introduction  of  new  breeds  of  stock  into  fine  pastur  ,  Lcicei«tcr  has  also  a 
large  fabric  of  woollen  stockings,  in  which  it  is  only  excelled  by  i\ottiii;;liiiin,  and  which, 
under  favourable  circumstances,  employs  seven  or  eight  thousand  persons.  (Jukliiim,  the 
capital  of  Rutlandshire,  is  a  very  small  town. 
The  seats  of  this  extensive  district,  though  not  so  thickly  planted  as  in  the  southern,  are 
157  yet  numerous.    Foremost  stands  Blen- 

heim (Jifr.  157.)  that  proud  monument 
of  a  nation's  gratitude  to  its  long  un- 
rivalled hero.  Its  exterior  displays  that 
minuteness  of  detail  and  general  hea- 
viness, which  characterise  the  designs 
of  Vanbrugh :  some  of  the  apartments, 
however,  are  of  almost  unequalled 
grandeur;  particularly  the  great  holl^jk 
fifty-three  feet  by  forty-four,  and  sixt/'*' 
high ;  and  the  library,  one  hundred  and 
eighty  feet  by  forty-three.  The  woods, 
also,  the  lake,  and  the  general  disposition  of  the  grounds,  are  greatly  admired.   The  gallery  of 

Sictures  is  one  of  the  very  finest  in  tlie  kingdom,  containing  some  of  the  best  works  of 
Lubens,  Vandyke,  and  Titian.  Stowe,  the  seat  of  the  Duke  of  Buckingham,  is  celebrated 
as  the  most  elaborate  and  splendid  example  of  the  species  of  gardening  called  classical,  in 
which  an  attempt  is  made  to  present  nature  herself  in  an  ornamented  form.  Her  own  pro- 
per ornamente,  of  wood,  water,  hill  and  plain,  are  heightened  by  the  introduction  of  tem- 
ples, ruins,  statues,  inscriptions,  nnd  other  objects  calculated  to  excite  lofty  and  poetical 
ideas.  Modern  taste  rejects  many  of  these  accessories,  as  breaking  in  uiwn  the  idea  of 
simple  nature,  to  which  it  seeks  to  make  the  nearest  possible  approach  ;  yet,  a  space  of  four 
hundred  acres,  filled  with  groves,  temples,  and  meandering  streams,  must  present  many 
beautiful  sites.  "The  rich  landscapes,"  says  Walpole,  "occasioned  by  the  multiplicity  of 
temples  and  obelisks,  and  various  pictures  that  present  themselves  as  we  shift  our  situation ; 
occasion  surprise  and  pleasure,  sometimes  recalling  Albano's  landscapes  to  (>ur  mind,  and 
oftener  to  our  fancy  the  idolatrous  and  luxurious  vales  of  Daphne  and  Tempe."  The  house 
also  is  handsome  and  richly  ornamented,  and  contains  some  fine  paintings.  Wobum  Abbey, 
where  the  house  of  Russel,  by  princely  shows  and  festivals,  have  thrown  a  new  lustre  on 
British  agriculture,  is  a  magnificent  edifice.  The  stables,  experimental  farm,  and  other 
appendages  of  the  most  useful  of  arts,  excite  the  admiration  of  every  farmer  and  even  ama- 
teur ;  nor  is  this  residence  deficient  in  tlie  lighter  embellishments  of  painting  and  statuary. 
Althorp,  near  Northampton,  is  adorned  with  many  rare  and  valuable  works  of  art ;  but  it  is 
ui  London  chiefly  that  Earl  Spencer  keeps  his  library,  the  first  in  the  kingdom.  Opposite 
to  Stamford  ia  Burleigh,  a  noble  old  residence  of  Cecil,  Elizabeth's  minister.  It  contains  a 
fine  library  of  books  and  manuscripts ;  and  the  Exeter  family  have  enriched  it  with  a  col- 
lection of  paintiiigs,  generally  supposed  to  be  the  most  extensive  in  England.  Near  Oak- 
ham, is  another  Burleigh  on  the  hill,  once  the  seat  of  the  gay  revels  of  Buckingham.  It 
has  a  noble  terrace  in  front,  and  contains  a  good  library,  with  some  curious  paintings.  On 
the  Iwrder  of  Leicestershire  and  Lincolnshire,  stands  the  Duke  of  Rutland's  proud  castel- 
lated edifice  of  Belvoir.  From  a  lofty  height  it  overlooks  a  vast  extent  of  country,  includ- 
ing the  vale  of  the  same  name,  one  of  the  richest  and  most  beautiful  in  England.  The  col- 
lection of  paintings  is  of  great  value. 

VVorwick  is  a  noble  county.  Its  woodlands,  the  remains  of  the  wide  ancient  forest  of 
Arden,  are  still  extensive,  and  a  great  part  lies  in  fine  natural  grass.  Pasturage  predomi- 
nates greatly  over  agriculture,  occupying  nearly  two-thirds. 

Warwick,  an  ancient  and  well-built  town,  still  preserves  a  portion  of  its  prosperity  by  tlie 

.manufacture  of  woollens.    Coventry  is  a  large  old  town,  built  very  irregularly,  and  many  of 

'  the  houses  exhibiting  tho  uncouth  architecture  of  a  distant  period.    Its  ecclesiastical  monu- 

.ments.  however,  are  of  imixirtance.     St.  Michael's  is  a  very  liirht  and  elegant  structure, 

with  a  spire  rising  to  three  Imndred  feet.     The  fabric  of  silk,  introduced  more  tlian  a  cen- 


I 


?w^^ 


■»- 


980 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


tury  ago  by  tlio  French  refUgees,  has  made  a  iiio«t  rnpul  pro^frpps,  no  that  in  1819  it  rtnploywl 
2810  looinB.  In  the  nmkinjf  ol'  wutclieH,  iilso,  tliirt  city  now  riviilw  Jxmtlon,  I.uuniintfton, 
thoujEfii  its  spa  is  mentiuncd  by  Camden,  never  bcciinie  u  bC(.Mio  of  crowded  resort,  till  tho 
beginning  of  tliis  century ;  yet  so  creut  since  that  jmriod  ban  lienn  its  attnionnn,  that  it  has 
lisen  from  a  mere  villaffe  to  bo  a  flourishinff  place.  'J'liere  are  both  hot  onil  cold  bntiis ;  and 
the  waters  arc  used  cither  for  drinking  or  bathing.  Leamington  now  possesses,  on  a  hand- 
some scale,  baths,  inns,  a  theatre,  an  as-scmbly-room, — all  tho  accommodation  for  the  sick 
and  tlie  gay.  StratfonI,  a  considerable  town  on  tho  Avon,  to  which  tho  muse  has  given  a 
deathless  name,  is  tho  birth-place  of  Shakspeare ;  the  poetical  pilgrim  iicro  beholds  the 
genuine  tomb  of  the  poet,  and  the  site  of  the  house  chosen  by  him  for  his  final  residence ; 
though  the  house  itself  a  barbarous  hand  has  demolished.  Birmingham  is  in  Warwickshire, 
but  as  it  is  the  capital  of  the  iron  country,  which  is  almost  wholly  in  Stoflbrdshire,  we  shall 
class  it  witit  the  great  towns  devoted  to  the  working  of  that  material. 

There  are  two  castellated  scats  in  this  county,  Kenilworth  and  Warwick,  both  of  almost 

matchless  grandeur ;  but  the  former  presents  only  tho  picturesque  remains  of  its  pristine 

158  state  (Jg.  158.).     Founded  in  the 

reign  of  Henry  I.,  it  was  extended 
and  adorned  by  John  of  Gaunt;  and 
remained  with  the  princes  of  the 
house  of  Lancaster  till  wrested  from 
them  by  the  triumph  of  the  house  of 
York.  It  continued  thenceforth  a 
royal  appanage ;  and  was  bestowed 
by  Elizabeth  on  her  handsome  fa- 
vourite, Leicester,  whose  residence 
^^  KeoUwortb  Cull*.  here,  and  the  splendid  flBtes  and  ro- 

VV  -^ ' '^j^Vnuitic  incidents  connected  with  it,  have  been  so  happily  worked  up  by  the  greatest  romance 
writer  of  the  age.  At  the  close  of  the  civil  wars,  it  was  given  up  wholly  by  Cromwell  to 
his  soldiers  for  plunder,  and  was  reduced  to  the  totally  fallen  state  in  which  it  now  appears. 
The  walls  were  indeed  entire,  but  completely  naked  and  roofless ;  and  the  visiter  who  stands 
at  the  interior  foot  of  the  tower  can  trace  onljr  by  chimneys,  and  other  slight  marks,  the 
0k  >  auccessive  apartments  rising  above  each  other  till  they  are  terminated  by  the  dome  ot^  the 

■i  f ,  sky.     Kenilworth  exhibiif  the  feudal  age  in  its  total  downfall ;  but  the  traveller  has  only  to 

proceed  a  few  miles  in  order  to  see  it  entire  and  in  full  glory.  This  is  the  proud  mansion 
once  inhabited  by  the  king-making  Earl  of  Warwick  (Jig.  159.).    It  was  built  by  the  Earl 

.  of  Warwick,  who,   in  the   four- 

159  HDtt  teenth  century,  distinguished  him- 

self at  the  battles  of  Cresfy  and 
Poitiers.  Edward  IV.  seized  an 
opportunity  of  annexing  it  to  the 
crown.  It  was  afterwards  bestowed 
by  King  James  on  Lord  Brooke, 
who  spent  a  large  sum  in  restoring 
it  fVom  a  state  of  decay ;  and  tho 
late  earl  repaired  it  so  judiciously, 
and  made  his  additions  in  such 
harmony  witli  the  or';<'inal  pile, 
that  he  may  be  considered  almost 
the  creator  of  the  edifice  in  its 
Warwick  CuU«.  present  state.     The  entrance,  cut 

through  a  rock,  and  opening  at  once  on  three  of  the  loftiest  towers,  has  an  effect  truly 
striking.  The  interior  is  equally  grand  and  interesting.  First  is  a  passage  or  corridor  up- 
wards of  300  feet  in  extent,  seen  from  end  to  end,  and  alon^  which  the  state  apartments  arc 
arranged.  The  grand  hall,  62  feet  long,  is  wainscoted  with  oak,  hung  with  armour,  and 
maintained  in  fiill  feudal  keeping. 

Staffordshire  has  a  somewhat  bleak  and  uninviting  aspect ;  the  farms  are  smaller,  and 
improvements  less  advanced  than  in  the  other  midland  counties,  but  its  mineral  stores  are 
immense.  The  region  of  coal  is  supposed  to  be  about  5(MX)0  acres  in  extent,  and  cannot  be 
exhausted  for  ages.  Besides  its  economical  uses,  tliis  mineral  is  the  main  basis  of  the  works 
and  manufactures  of  the  county,  and  of  all  those  in  the  north-west  of  England,  which,  but 
for  this  ample  supply  of  fuel,  could  never  have  attained  their  present  astonishing  height. 
Iron,  the  most  useful  of  metals,  exists  in  equal  abundance ;  and  since  tho  discovery  that  it 
could  be  worked  with  coke,  iron  works  have  been  established  on  an  immense  scale.  Tho 
whole  district  from  Wolverhampton  to  Birmingham  may  be  called  a  Cyclopean  land,  whore 
furnaces  without  number  are  continually  pouring  out  fire  and  smoke.  The  clay.^  afford  the 
material  of  the  pottery,  which  forms  the  otiicr  great  Staflbrdshirc  manufacture.  It  is  long 
since  some  coarse  vessels  were  made  at  Burslcm ;  but  Mr.  Wedgwood  raised  this  fabric  tn 


f 


Book  I. 


ENGLAND. 


m\ 


the  tiiglicat  perfection,  and  rendered  it  an  object  of  national  importance.  Not  content  witli 
the  native  materialH,  lie  imported  the  finest  white  cluyg  and  best  llintM  from  the  southern 
counties;  and  funned  that  variety  of  articles  called  \Vcd{rwoo<rs  ware,  applicable  to  all 

fiurixwes  of  use  and  ornament,  and  auperior  in  some  respects  to  the  best  porcelain.     Hence 
las  Hprun)7  up  a  range  of  villages  forming;  u  dintrict  culled  the  Potteries,  of  which  Buralein 
is  tlio  centre,  and  which  contain  about  0(),(MM)  inhabitants. 
The  principal  cluster  of  lurjfo  towns  in  StutTordshire  consists  of  those  in  the  southern 

auarter  which  arc  employed  in  making  iron,  and  manufacturing  it  into  various  forms.  Of 
lis  district  Birmin^'ham  is  the  capital ;  and  at  the  remotest  periods  iron  is  mentioned  as  its 
staple,  but  the  grand  impulse  given  was  early  in  the  lost  century,  when  John  Taylor,  the 
founder  of  the  wealtJiy  family  of  that  name,  Matthew  Boulton,  &iq.,  and  other  individuals, 
by  tlie  spirit  of  their  undertakings,  and  by  their  liberal  patronage  of  skill  and  ingenuity  in 
every  line,  contributed  greatly  to  the  e.stablislimcnt  of  the  manufacturing  fame  of  the  town. 
Mr.  Boulton,  having  secured  the  celebrated  Mr.  Watt,  established,  in  conjunction  with  him, 
at  Soho,  near  Birmingham,  their  immense  manufactory,  in  which  talent,  science,  capital,  ex- 
perience, united  every  thing  which  could  raise  hardware  articles  to  perfection.  Pre-eminent 
above  all  is  ttie  steam-engine,  which  Mr.  Watt,  its  great  improver,  not  only  applied  to  the 
use  of  his  works  here,  but  constructed  for  the  rest  of  England.  The  copper  coinage  exe- 
cuted at  Soho  by  steam-power  for  the  use  of  government  lias  been  greatly  admired.  Under 
the  impulse  of  such  an  examplei  the  citizens  of  Birmingham  soon  produced  their  standard 
articles  of  a  cheapness  and  excellence  which  defied  all  competition.  The  articles  manu- 
factured in  Birmmghum  consist,  in  a  great  measure,  of  such  as,  individually,  appear  un- 
worthy of  being  named,  yet  astonish  and  dazzle  by  their  magnitude,  when  half  the  world  is 
to  be  supplied  with  them ;  such  as  pins,  buttons,  nails,  paper  trays,  filiifree,  and  toys.  There 
are  not  wanting,  however,  fabrics  of  greater  magnitude,  taken  even  singly,  such  as  that  of 
fire-arms,  &c.  During  the  last  war,  the  gunsmiths  of  Birmingham  met  the  demand  with 
such  energy,  that,  on  one  occasion,  they  delivered  to  government  14,000  ipuskets  in  a  we^|^ 
Of  ponderous  machinery,  none,  perhaps,  is  more  interesting  than  that  of  the  metal  rolling- 
mills.  Birmingham  is  commodiously  built,  with  suitable  churches  and  other  edifices,  but 
without  any  thmg  prominent  in  architecture,  or  any  antique  monuments.  The  town  can 
boost  of  enlightened  citizens,  under  whose  auspices  letters  and  the  arts  have  been  cultivated 
with  ardour.  The  institutions  for  the  education  of  the  poor  are  not,  perhaps,  surpassed  by 
any  in  the  kingdom  for  extent  and  efficacy.  ^ 

The  other  great  manufacturing  towns,  almost  all  in  Staffordshire,  are  Wolverhampton,  (/ 
very  populous  place,  of  considerable  antiquity,  with  a  fine  old  church ;  but  indebted  for  it.-i 
present  greatness  to  the  making  of  locks  and  keys  in  a  manner  superior  to  any  town  in  the 
world.  Wednesbury  has  a  fine  old  Gothic  chitrch ;  but  its  main  boast  at  present  is,  the 
making  of  all  tlie  hard  materials  of  coach  harness  in  an  unrivalled  manner.  Walsall  flour- 
ishes by  the  making  of  every  thing  connected  with  saddlery ;  Dudley  by  its  nails :  but  it 
has  alx>  a  castle  of  some  note  in  history,  commanding  a  view  of  seven  counties. 

The  nominal  capital,  Stafford,  is  yet  to  be  noticed ;  an  ancient  but  small  town,  of  neat 
appearance,  ornamented  with  the  usual  county  buildings.  The  Grand  Trunk  Canal,  how- 
ever, passing  by  it,  has  given  an  impulse  to  its  industry ;  and  it  carries  on  a  considerable 
manufacture  of  boots  and  shoes.  Ncwcastle-undcr-Line,  and  Tamworth,  are  both  consider- 
able towns  on  one  of  the  great  Tx)ndon  roads. 

Lichfield  is  a  more  elegant  and  interesting  place.  Its  most  prominent  object  is  the  ca'  u'- 
dral,  of  high  antiquity,  the  finest  part  of  which  was  built  in  1140;  some  particular  portiont^ 
are  equal  to  any  thing  of  the  kind  in  Britain :  such  are  the  portico,  richly  adorned  with 
sculpture;  the  choir;  and  St.  Mary's  chapel.  The  society  fixed  there  by  this  richly  endowed 
establishment,  together  with  the  neatness  of  the  town,  and  ita  pleasant  situation,  have 
induced  many  of  the  gentry  in  this  quarter  to  make  it  their  residence.  These  circumstances 
have  contributed  to  give  to  Lichfield  that  intellectual  character  which  is  so  conspicuous, 
and  has  mado  it  almost  the  literary  metro]X)lis  of  south-western  England.  The  birth  and 
early  education  of  Johnson  and  Garrick  are  alone  sufficient  to  immortalise  it.  Lichfield 
enjoys  high  privileges  as  a  city,  having  a  district  of  some  extent  round  it  considered  a  county 
of  itself. 

Derbyshire,  in  its  natural  features,  is  perhaps  the  most  remarkable  of  ony  county  of  Eng- 
land. Except  in  the  lower  and  southern  districts  on  the  Trent,  the  whole  county  is  traversed 
by  ranges  of  rugged  and  rocky  hills,  penetrated  by  vast  excavations,  and  separated  by 
narrow  valleys.  Lead  is  abundant,  chiefly  in  the  form  of  galena.  Iron  is  also  worked  very 
plentifiiUy.  This  county  is  also  celebrated  for  the  variety  and  beauty  of  its  calcareous  sub- 
stances, particularly  the  kind  called  Blue  John  (fluor  spar),  which,  by  the  skilful  application 
of  a  gentle  heat,  is  made  to  exhibit  the  most  brilliant  colours.  Lastly,  there  are  numerous 
hot  springs  variously  impregnated ;  and  tlie  county  contains  two  of  the  most  remarkable 
watering-places  in  the  kingdom,  Matlock  and  Buxton. 

In  proceeding  to  Castleton,  the  traveller  passes  through  the  Winyats,  or  gates  of  the 


J*, 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY 


Pamt  III. 


windi,  a  narrow  rood  of  about  a 
160 


Peak  Cavmi,  Dnbriblra. 


milti  in  length,  botwcnn  prrcipicrs  a  thouMUul  foot  high, 
dark,  ruvcvd,  and  porpcndiculiir.  At  uio 
end  of  tn»  ruad  opcnM  on  ono  nido  Mam 
Tor,  or  the  8hivcrmtf  Muuntiiin,  UHMIfcet 
hif(h ;  on  the  other  tlie  Hiffii  Ponk  crownml 
with  tlio  ruins  of  a  Saxon  fortreHH ;  and 
at  ita  foot,  the  wonder  of  wondcrn,  "  the 
Peak  Cavern."  (Jg.  IflO.)  Ti:ia  ia  a  huge 
gulf,  42  feet  liif^i  and  120  long,  at  the  foot 
of  perpendicular  cliifri.  The  viaitor  i« 
thence  guided  through  a  auccctmion  of 
dark  cavernous  apartnienta,  and  \»  lerrie<l 
along  a  subterrancoua  river ;  above  which 
the  rocka  riae  so  cIobc,  that  he  raUMt  lie 
flat  on  his  face.  At  the  end  of  oomcwhat 
above  2000  feet  the  cavern  terminatea,  or, 
at  least,  becomes  no  longer  posaable. 
Elden  Hole  ia  a  tisauro  near  Buxton,  which 
descends  perpendicularly  to  an  unknown  depth.  A  line  of  2052  feet  hnw  been  let  down 
without  finding  a  bottom.  Poole's  Hole,  near  Buxton,  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  the  petri- 
factions with  which  it  is  filled. 

On  descending  into  the  Low  Peak,  a  milder  grandeur  presents  itaelf.  The  most  rugged  chains 

vf  Derbyshire  are  interspersed  with  beautifhl  valleys ;  but  none  equals  that  of  Matlock,  where 

...  the  banks  of  the  Derwent  arc  bordered 

*"*  by  extensive  woods,  interspersed  with 

the  boldest  and  moat  varied  forma  of 
rock.  Dovcdale  (/^.  161.)  is  a  wilder 
scene,  where  the  river  Dove  ia  hem- 
med in  by  perpendicular  rocks,  of  forma 
so  bold,  and  covered  with  such  variety 
of  trees  and  ahnibs,  that  this  haa  some- 
times been  deemed  the  most  picturcaque 
spot  in  England. 

Derby,  the  capital  of  this  county,  on 
the  Derwent,  is  handsome  and  well 
built,  and  has  extensive  manufactures. 
Silk,  introduced  at  the  commencement 
of  the  last  century,  has  contiimed  to 
flourish.  Porcelain  is  also  manufac- 
tured here;  and  what  is  called  its  white  ware  is  considered  almost  unrivalled,  A  consider- 
able number  of  workmen  are  employed  in  cutting  and  polishing  marble ;  and  the  Derbythire 
spar  is  foshioned  into  a  variety  of  beautiful  forms. 

The  watering-places  in  Derbyshire  have  the  next  claim  to  notice.  Matlock  contains 
mineral  spring.",  efficacious  in  consumptive  and  rheumatic  complaints.  Buxton,  in  the  High 
Peak,  surrounded  by  naked  mountaina,  attracts  a  much  greater  multitude ;  and  its  waters 
are  considered  very  powerful  in  rheumatism,  gout,  and  other  diseases.  The  Duke  of  Devon- 
shire haa  here  constructed  a  superb  crescent,  occupied  by  inns,  shops,  ball-rooms,  and  every 
tiling  that  can  contribute  to  the  accommodation  and  gaiety  of  the  visitanta. 

Of  acats,  Chatsworth  haa  sometimes  been  considered  the  finest  in  England.  It  was  built 
by  William  first  duke  of  Deyonahire,  in  1702 ;  and  is  191  feet  square,  of  the  Ionic  order, 
richly  ornamented  both  within  and  without.  Keddlcstone  House  has  a  fine  Doric  front,  360 
feet  long,  considered  one  of  the  finest  nrchitoctural  features  in  England,  llardwicke  Hall 
was  long  the  residence  of  the  unfortunate  Mary ;  the  furniture  and  the  portraits  remain,  in 
many  respects,  in  the  same  state  as  during  her  residence. 

Nottingham  is  watered  by  the  broad  stream  of  the  Trent,  its  tributaries,  and  numerous 
canals.  The  Vale  of  Belvoir,  to  the  south-oast,  ranks  with  the  richest  tracts  in  tlie  island. 
The  north-western  part  contains  the  remnant  of  the  great  forest  of  Sherwood,  filmed  for  the 
revelries  of  the  merry  outlaw  Robin  Hood.  Being  covered,  also,  in  a  great  measure,  with 
the  ornamented  grounds  of  noblemen  of  high  rank,  it  is  called  the  "  dukeries."  The  manu- 
factures of  hosiery  in  this  county,  I^eicester  and  Derby,  employ  33,000  frames  and  73,000 
operatives,  producing  in  cotton  880,000/.,  worsted  870,000/.,  silk  241,000/.  The  lace  trade 
employs  150,000  embroiderers  in  tliis  county. 

Nottingham  ia  a  large  town,  boldly  and  picturesquely  situated  upon  the  Trent.  Its  streets 
are  arranged  along  tlie  face  of  a  hill  so  steep,  that  the  ground  floors  of  the  street  behind,  in 
Kome  instances,  rise  higher  than  the  roofs  of  those  in  front.  The  rocky  materials  of  this  hill 
are  ao  sofl  and  yielding,  that  they  are  cut  to  a  great  extent  into  cellars  and  wareiiouses. 
The  making  of  stockings  has  always  been  the  staple  of  Nottingham.    They  are  worked  f4i 


gr^-,^         ■'■■■* 


m-~'.. 


I  in 

imcrous 
island, 
for  the 
e,  with 
manu- 
73,000 
e  trade 

streets 
hind,  in 
this  hill 
housee. 
rked  ciii 


# 


s 


BomL 


-s^»  j;  ENGLAND.  363 

framci,  whidi,  in  the  middle  of  liut  century,  icarcely  exceeded  1200,  and  at  preiicht  amount 
to  10,(KK).  The  laco  trade  recently  uhlod  w  of  very  ffruat  importance.  There  are  stated  to 
he  l!i40  machlnen  in  the  town,  and  1070  in  the  nctiifhoourhcxxi ;  and  the  lace  aohl  in  itM  mar> 
kct  is  valui-il  nt  i:iO,(K)0/.  Nottingham  has  also  a  ((rent  inland  tra<le  hy  the  Trent  andcanalii 
connected  with  it. 

Newark  is  noted  for  its  castle,  and  for  a  pariwh  church,  said  to  be  the  finest  in  the  king- 
dom, 

Nottinghamshire  may  boast  mmo  splendid  seal*.  Worksop  Manor,  huilt  by  the  Duke  of 
Norfolk,  contains  tine  portraits  of  the  Howard  fhmily.  Cluiiil>er  Park  is  tltted  up  in  a  nm^- 
niflccnt  stylo  by  the  Duke  of  Newcastle,  with  a  very  valuable  collection  of  pictures.  Wel- 
bcck  Abbey,  a  seat  of  the  Duke  of  Portland,  is  noted  for  its  lino  stables,  Nowsteod  Abbey 
had  been  stripped  of  its  fine  ftimiture  and  paintings  before  it  came  to  the  late  Lord  Byron. 

ScBBECT  4, — The  Northern  Countie$. 

The  northern  counties  of  England  may  be  described,  generally,  as  reaching  fVom  the 
Humber  and  the  Mersey  to  tlio  isteottisii  border.  They  include  the  wide  extent  of  }or/lf«A«rr, 
divided  into  throe  ridings,  and  of  Lancathire,  Durham,  Norlhnmherland,  Cumbrrland,  and 
Weitmoreland.  The  eastern  portion  ia  interspersed  with  large  bleak  tracts  of  mountain, 
mo68,  and  moor.  Its  ports  carry  on  a  thriving  trade  in  conrse,  bulky,  and  useful  conmioditics. 
The  south-western,  comprising  Ijancoshiro  and  the  west  riding  of  Yorkshire,  by  the  vast  pro- 
duce of  its  manufactories,  leaves  far  behind  it  every  other  district  in  the  world.  The  north- 
western, or  the  country  of  the  Iiakos,  has  a  higher  dcgreu  of  picturesque  beauty  than  any 
other  part  of  England. 

The  counties  of  Northumberland  and  Durham  are  hilly  and  elevated ;  and  their  chief 
wealth  is  subterraneous.  A  species  of  coarse  coal,  mixed  with  lead,  everywhere  abounds ; 
and  the  lead  is  exported  to  the  extent  of  from  five  to  ten  thousand  tons.  But  within  tliis 
mineral  region  there  is  enclosed  a  smaller  one,  reaching  from  the  mouth  of  the  Coquet  to 
the  Tees,  a  length  of  about  fifty  miles,  and  having  its  greatest  breadth  of  about  twenty  niilea 
upon  the  Tyne.  Within  this  tract  are  found  iminterruptcd  beds  of  that  valuable  cool  with 
which  London  is  whotly  supplied,  and  of  which  great  quantities  are  either  sent  to  other  parts 
of  the  kingdom,  or  exported. 

Newcastle  was  famed  ut  an  early  period  in  the  military  annals  of  England,  It  formed  a 
leading  point  in  the  wall  of  Hadrian  and  in  that  of  Sevcrus,  Robert,  son  of  the  Conqueror, 
built  here  a  castle  of  immense  strength,  more  than  two  miles  in  circuit,  which  served  long 
as  the  main  bulwark  against  Scottish  invasion.  Scarcely  a  trace  of  it  now  remains ;  and 
the  occupations  of  Newcastle  are  entirely  changed.  Both  banks  of  the  river,  down  to  Ty  no- 
mouth,  form  an  immense  wharf,  to  which,  by  railways  ond  steam  wagons,  coals  are  conveye<l 
from  the  contiguous  pits.  In  1830,  the  quantity  exported  was  807,513  chaldrons,  about 
2,300,000  tons.  Newcastle  carries  on  very  extensive  manufactories,  particularly  tiiat  of 
gloss.  There  are  thirty-one  works  on  the  Tyne,  which  in  some  years  have  produced  gloss  to 
the  value  of  500,0001.  In  shipping  it  is  second  only  to  London,  having  belongmg  to  it,  in  1832, 
1077  vessels,  of  the  burthen  of  220,784  tons.  Foundery,  pottery,  weaving,  are  not  on  a 
very  great  scale.  Newcastle  is  now,  on  the  whole,  a  well-built  town,  thoujrli  some  of  the 
streets  are  inconveniently  steep :  it  is  highly  ornamented  by  the  spire  of  St.  Nicholas,  con- 
sidered by  the  best  judges  as  one  of  the  finest  specimens  of  the  Gothic.  It  possesses  a  lite- 
rary society,  which  has  published  valuable  transactions ;  and  an  antiquarian  society,  destined 
particularly  to  receive  the  Roman  coins,  Sec.  which  are  fVequently  dug  up  on  this  lino.  The 
large  town  of  Gateshead,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river,  though  placed  in  Durham,  is  really 
part  of  Newcastle,  and  raises  its  population  to  57,000. 

A  continued  range  of  great  commercial  towns  cluster  thick  around  Newcastle.  Near  the 
mouth  of^  the  Tyne  are  North  Shields  and  South  Shields,  on  opposite  sides  of  the  river ;  the 
lotter  being  in  the  county  of  Durham.  They  carry  on  with  octivity  the  coal  trade,  and  the 
others  propr  to  Newcastle ;  particularly  ship-building  and  the  making  of  ropes  and  sails. 
Tynemouth,  at  the  immediate  opening  of  the  river  into  the  ocean,  displays,  on  a  bold  prom- 
ontory, a  castle,  a  light-house,  and  a  fine  old  abbey ;  they  form  a  striking  and  romantic  scene, 
which  contrasts  with  those  immediately  above.  At  the  mouth  of  the  Wear,  are  Sunderland 
and  Wearmouth, — the  one  a  very  great,  and  the  other  a  considerable  port.  Their  prosperity 
is  supported  by  the  same  great  trade  of  coals,  of  which  in  1832  they  sent  600,000  tons  to 
the  port  of  London,  two-thirds  of  thot  which  comes  down  the  Tyne.  They  carry  on  oLso 
the  same  manufactures,  particularly  ship-building,  in  which  Sunderland  is  supposed  to  exer 
a  greoter  activity  than  any  other  place  in  the  kingdom.  The  bridge  there  has  long  been 
celebrated :  it  consists  of  one  arch  of  iron  framework  thrown  across  the  river,  2(X)  feet  span, 
and  100  feet  high,  allowing  very  large  vessels  to  pass  under  without  lowering  their  sailti. 
"  Nothing,"  says  M.  Dupin,  "  can  be  more  striking  than  this  view  of  the  two  cities,  and  the 
bridge  that  unites  them ;  that  majestic  arch  drawn  against  the  sky,  which  allows  large  vessels 
to  pass  under  its  vault  with  their  sails  flying."  He  afterwards  adds,  in  regard  to  these  ports 
generally :  "  It  is  an  admirable  thing,  within  an  extent  of  coast  which  a  man  may  walk  over 


!i 

ij 
I 


Hi 

8  ft  1 

H  V   'I 

p.  S  tl 

"I 


:i64 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


PAkTHL 


4 


on  fixit  ill  tlirno  nr  I'tHir  houri,  tu  hco  two  ^rrat  rivora  rccoivo  10,0(10  voweli,  and  lond 
tlirin  nwny  Imiilcil  with  tlio  prmlucu  ut'  tlirir  banki.  On  tlio  raino  iiiirrow  apace  ara  lix 
fliiuriiiliiii^;  lowiu*,  coiituinin|{  a  pupulntion  vX  f^ffXl  pcrmniii  all  dovutotl  to  coinmorco  and 
iniliiiitry." 

niirlinin  is  liiituliioninly  built,  tliuii);li  on  very  iinnvcii  ffruumi ;  Itri  vrnnd  ornnmont  b  tho 
ciithcilnil,  ri'nrcil  in  tho  olovcnth  ciMitury,  which  im  pcrimpi  unrivalled  a«  to  itM  itiluation, 
rnn((iii(;  uli>n<r  tlui  Ruinmitof  a  prccinitoua  rock  ci((hty  fcot  hi^h  abovu  tho  Wuiir,  which 
wiiiiJH  nloii;;  its  liiwo.  Thi)  dcc  of  Durham  ia  the  richcat  in  Knitlnnd ;  and  tlio  cathedral, 
lx!8iil(.'ii  a  lit'iiii,  twulvo  probimdarieri,  and  two  archdeacons,  hoa  attached  to  it  about  sixty 
npirit'inl  aorvniita  of  varioua  raiika. 

The  nuiiibir  of  amnllur  towiia  in  thoae  countica  ia  atill  conaidonible.  In  Durham,  Stock* 
ton  near  tho  nioiith  of  tho  Tooa  carries  on  tho  trade  of  that  river ;  in  1833  it  carried  n!),000 
tona  of  cuikl  to  I/iiidon,  and  has  alao  the  Baltic  trade,  and  tho  nuinuikcturo  of  Miilcloth  and 
other  naval  materiala.  Hexham,  on  the  Upper  Tvno,  ia  the  capital  of  interior  Northumber- 
land, and  of  tho  grand  ancient  acene  of  border  uebato,  Morpeth  hoa  a  weekly  market  for 
the  cattle  brought  up  ftom  Scotland. 

102  The  aeata  are  chiefly  great  iMronial 

castlei,  at  tho  head  of  which  ntands  Aln< 
wick  (fig.  102.).  This  proud  keep  of  the 
Porcies  covers  five  acres,  and  is  defend- 
od  by  sixteen  towers.  An  expense  of 
200,000/.  has  been  incurcd  in  converting 
tho  interior  fVoin  a  feudal  castle  into  the 
most  nplcndid  of  iiiodern  mansions.  Wark* 
worth  Castle,  another  seat  of  thu  Pcrciea, 
rotuiiiH  its  antique  character.     I.umley, 

_ tho  feudal  ciistlo  of  tho  Earls  of  Scar- 

Ainwiek  CittUe,  borough,  presents  entire  its  august  and 

formidable  firoiit.  Raby  Castle,  Howick,  Lombton  Hall,  and  Bishop  Auckland,  are  lino  scats. 
Yorkshire  is  next  in  order :  its  eastern  division  resembles  the  two  counties  just  described ; 
while  the  western  forms  part  of  tho  great  central  seat  of  English  manufacture.  The  York- 
■hiroman  has  n  character  of  his  own,  marked  by  shrewdness,  simplicity,  good  humour,  and  a 
species  of  drollory ;  so  tliat  tho  London  comic  stage  is  considered  incompleto  without  one  of 
his  reproHontativcs.  The  North  Riding  consists,  to  a  great  extent,  of  moorlands ;  the  hilli 
of  which  rise  ollon  to  a  considcrablo  height.  Thcso  dreary  tracts  spread  ovor  the  whole 
Riding,  ao  that  culturu  can  exist  only  in  the  valleys.  The  East  Riding,  which  extends  to  the 
Huml)cr,  is  traversed  also  by  a  range  of  high  wolds,  which,  though  rugged,  have  not  been 
able  to  resist  the  energies  of  British  industry.  These  Ridings  present  to  the  German  Ocean 
high  and  nflen  precipitous  rocks,  of  which  Flamborough  Ifead,  nearly  500  feet  high,  forma 
one  of  tiic  boldest  features  in  English  landscape.  The  West  Riding  is  composed  chiefly  of 
a  wide,  flat,  fertile  plain,  traverscid  by  tho  Aire,  the  Calder,  and  other  navigable  rivers,  which 
convey  its  profUico  to  tlie  eastern,  and,  by  means  of  canals,  to  the  westrm  sea.  In  this  tract 
is  placed  tho  inimcnse  manufacturing  district  of  Yorkshire ;  in  its  extreme  west  is  the  dis- 
trict of  Craven,  thu  most  rugged  and  mountainous  of  all  England ;  for  here  rise  Inglcborough, 
Wharuside,  Pcnnigcnt,  each  to  the  height  of  nearly  three  thousand  feet.  There  is  scarcely 
a  county  in  whicii  tho  spirit  of  agricultural  improvement  has  been  so  active  as  in  Yorkshire ; 
and  vast  tracts  of  waste  and  common  land  have  been  reclaimed  und  rendered  pro<luctive. 

Hull,  the  principal  port,  is  the  fourth  commercial  city  in  England,  only  surpassed  by  Lon- 
don, Liverpool,  and  Bristol.  It  carries  on  a  most  extensive  export  of  goods  brought  by  the 
interior  system  of  rivers  and  canals.  It  is  ihe  principal  of  tho  whale-hshcry  ports  \  though 
this  brancii  has  lately  declined.  During  tlie  nine  years  ending  with  1818,  the  average 
number  of  vessels  fltted  out  from  Hull  for  the  whale  fieihery  amounted  to  .53^ ;  while  in  1830, 
it  sent  out  only  33.  In  1832,  it  owned  557  ships,  carrying  68,892  tons,  and  there  entered 
its  port  1279  vest^ols,  of  the  burden  of  192,661  tons.  The  Old  Dock,  completed  in  1778,  the 
Humbcr  Dock  in  1809,  and  the  Junction  Dock  in  1829,  contain  a  space  of  twenty-three 
acres.  Goole,  on  the  Ouse,  a  little  above  its  junction  with  the  Humber,  is  beginning  to  share 
with  Hull  in  the  exportation  of  woollens.  Though  a  few  years  ago  a  mere  village,  ond  still, 
in  1831,  containing  only  1070  inhabitants,  it  has  two  spacious  docks,  and  in  1829  the  customs 
exceeded  40,000/.,  and  the  declared  value  of  exports  amounted  to  625,000/.  GikxIs  sent 
from  Leeds  or  Wakelield  by  rivers  or  canals  can  be  embarked  at  Goole  in  tlio  cuurso  of 
twelve  hours. 

Whitby  is  a  very  ancient  town,  with  the  remains  of  a  fine  abbey  built  soon  after  tlio  Con- 
quest. Its  modern  importance  is  derived  from  large  mines  of  alum.  The  export  of  their 
produce  forms  a  considemble  trade,  to  which  Whitby  soon  added  tho  other  branches  preva- 
lent on  tills  coast,  and  became  second  only  to  Hull. 

Scarborough,  romantically  situated  on  a  promontory  lictween  two  rocks  overlooking  the 
■ea,  is  tho  chief  watering-place  of  tlie  nortli  of  England. 


^  ' 


UooK  L 


ENGLAND. 


asA 


■o  Con- 
If  their 
Ipreva- 

|ig  tlie 


YiirkCtthrdciI. 


Yurk,  tlin  cnpittil,  in  t!io  flrHt  object  that  Htriknit  iih  m  wu  proccml  iiitn  thn  interior  of  tlie 
North  onil  \Vo«tRi(lin((M.  TIiIh  ct'lnbnitinl  city,  thuiiKh  «(>  miic-h  ccIIinukI  by  Mcvcrai  thataro 
only  of  tiwliiy,  itiil  biMuil.<<  u  ili){nity  Hii|N!riur  tu  thcin,  and  to  ulmuHt  tiiiy  other  in  Kuiflitntl. 
Fihoriiciini  wiis  ii  (liMtin{;ui)ih)til  Kturian  Mtution ;  t(>r  xuino  tiiiio  York  <liN|>uto<l  with  Iintuloii  thti 
(liMtinction  oriH'ing  tho  ciipitiii  of  Kii);laiid ;  ami  whun  uhli|{oiltoirivn  up  tluH  claim,  continu- 
ed the  uu<iiiotition<!d  inctruiioiii  of  tliu  north,  till  tho  croativu  pownm  of  trade  rained  up  rival* 
to  it  in  tho  north-went.  The  hoiiHo«  nro  hi)(h,  and  the  ntreetn  narrow  ;  ynt,  altuKetlicr,  York 
u  a  handitoinc,  re»|H!Clalile-liK)kiii);  old  city.  It  boaxlM  one  feature  of  almiMt  unrivalled 
Iwauty, — ita  cathedral.  (Jg.  103.)  Un  tho  exterior  all  the  richnuHH  and  elegance  of  Gothic 

ornament  haii  been  lavished,  particularly 
upon  the  wmtern  tVont  and  the  hir^u  win- 
dow in  tho  eaittcrn.  But  the  interior  ia 
without  a  rival  in  tho  empire ;  its  effect  in 
altogethor  iiublime :  itH  numerous  windows 
of  painted  g\Ma  nhed  a  dim,  Holemn,  reli- 
Ifious  light,  in  accorilanco  with  the  charac- 
tor  of  tho  cdiflco.  Tho  chaptc-liousc  is  of 
xingular  elegance  and  mogniHccuce;  and, 
though  of  great  extent,  haa  its  roof  support- 
ed by  a  single  pin.  The  choir  of  thin  splen- 
did edifice  suflcred  severe  injury  from  a  fire 
kindlml  by  the  hands  of  a  maniac ;  but  by 
grop.t  exertions  has  been  ftiUy  repaired.  The 
remains  of  tho  ruined  abbey  of  St.  Mary,  and  those  of  several  of  the  twenty-tlirco  churchcu 
of  York,  are  also  deserving  notice.  There  are  likewise  some  elegant  modern  edifices,  par- 
ticularly the  atiHcmbly  room,  tho  county  hall,  guildhall,  tlie  mansion-house,  and  the  museum 
of  the  YorkHhire  Philosophical  Society.  YorTt  is  still  a  gay  town,  visited  by  many  of  tho 
northern  gentry,  particularly  at  the  time  of  its  races.  It  carries  on  some  inland  trade  by 
the  Ouse,  which  ixissea  through  it. 

Doncastcr  is  much  frequented  during  tho  time  of  i*8  races.  Pontofract  is  surrounded  by 
a  great  extent  of  garden  and  nursery  ground,  tho  produce  of  which  is  sent  to  a  considerable 
distance.  Scarcely  a  vestige  remams  of  that  immense  and  powerful  keep,  covering  seven 
acrcji,  in  which  Thomas  of  ijancaster,  Richard  II„  and  many  other  fallen  chiefs  amrstntrs- 
men,  were  immured.  The  parliament,  during  the  civil  wars,  having  taken  it  utter  threo 
successive  and  arduous  sieges,  caused  it  to  be  completely  dcmolisliud. 

Ijceds  J!!  the  capital  of  western  Yorkshire,  and,  in  a  commercial  sense,  of  the  whole 
county.  Although  it  was  of  some  note  oven  in  early  times,  its  present  crcatness  is  modern, 
and  of  the  most  rapid  growth.  The  population,  which  in  177.")  was  only  17,117,  amounted 
in  1831  to  13:),303;  being  thus  nearly  quintupled.  A  peculiar  activity  and  spirit  of  enter- 
prise has  boon  observed  among  the  munulacturera  of  Leeds :  it  was,  doubtless,  greatly 
favoured  by  the  vast  extent  of  inland  navigation,  which  seemed  to  centre  hprt%  connecting 
it  with  the  capital,  with  both  seas,  and  with  tlio  counties  to  the  south,  fruMi  wiiich  it  derives 
inexhaustible  supplies  of  tine  coal.  The  woollen  inanutactitre  is  not  carried  on  wholly  in 
large  towns;  tho  cloth  ia  wrought  to  a  certain  state  of  forwardness  in  the  numerous  villages, 
thence  sent  into  Leeds,  where  it  is  purchased  and  worked  up  into  a  saleable  state.  The 
cloths  are  sold  in  weekly  markets,  held  in  the  cloth  halls,  the  most  remarkable  feature  in 
Leeds.  That  for  mixed  cloths  was  built  in  1758,  that  for  white  cloth  in  177.5.  They  form 
quadrangular  edifices  round  an  open  area,  and  are  divided  into  stands,  of  which  in  the  first 
hall  are  1800,  and  in  tho  second  1210.  Those  arc  let  at  a  moderate  rent  to  the  owners  of 
the  cloth,  who,  on  the  rin^^ing  of  a  bell,  occupy  their  stands,  and  though  tho  market  remains 
open  only  an  hour,  goods  to  an  immense  value  are  often  disposed  of.  Although  the  staple 
of  Jjceds  and  of  Yorkshire  be  common  cloth,  yet  other  bmnches  are  in  some  degree  include<l, 
as  sail-clotii,  cotton,  carpets,  and  superfine  cloths.  Mr.  Orinkwater  states  the  persons  cm- 
ployed  in  the  mills  for  wool  at  5290;  worsted,  702;  flax,  2434 ;  cotton,  80;  silk,  I'id  ;  in 
all,  8664 ;  of  whom  .')318  are  males,  and  3346  females ;  to  which  may  be  added  1814  in  the 
suburb  of  Ilolbcck.  The  town  of  Leeds  is  mostly  well  built,  with  several  broad  and  spa- 
rious  streets;  and  the  theatre,  the  new  court-house,  and  the  commercial  buildinffs,  finished 
in  1829,  are  elegant  structures.  Kirkstall  Abbey,  three  miles  distant,  presents,  in  a  beauti- 
ful situation,  the  most  complete  specimen  of  the  architecture  of  the  12th  century  that  is 
extant.  Tho  people  of  Leeds  have  formed  a  literory  and  philosophical  society,  and  an  insti- 
tution for  the  promotion  of  the  fine  arts ;  for  tho  purpose  of  whicii  a  very  handsome  and 
commodious  edifice  has  been  erected :  meritorious  exertions  have  also  been  made  for  the 
education  of  the  poor. 

Of  the  other  towns  of  the  clothing  district,  whicli  cluster  round  Leeds,  ir«A-p/ff7r?,  beauti- 
fully situated  on  the  Calder,  has  a  cloth  market,  on  a  smaller  scale,  resembling  that  of  Leeds, 
and  also  great  grain  and  cattle  markets.   Halifax,  and  the  whole  district  about  twenty  miles 
round  it,  has  been  converted  from  a  desert  into  a  populous  and  prosperous  scene,  containing 
Vol.  L  33  2Y 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


altogether  110,000  inhabitants.  Its  staples  are  what  are  properly  called  stuffs ;  shallooiu, 
ecTgea,  haize,  morceii.s,  kerseys ;  and  it  has  lately  embraced  a  considerable  share  of  tlic  cot- 
ton manufiicture.  Huddcrsticld  is  also  a  very  thriving  town,  employed  nearly  in  the  same 
branches ;  and  its  market  hall  is  supposed,  next  to  that  of  Leeds,  to  present  the  greatest 
eiiow  of  woollens.in  the  kingdom.  Bradford  and  Keighley  are  large  towns,  which  carry  on 
to  a  groat  extent  the  tnanuiiicture  of  worsted :  besides  which,  Bradtbrd  has  great  iron  found- 
-ies  in  its  neighbourliood. 

In  the  southern  part  of  tiiis  riding,  the  manufactures  of  iron  and  cutlery  take  the  place  of 
those  of  woollen ;  and  Hoiiri.'^h  to  such  an  extent,  that  they  are  second  only  to  the  great  iron 
district  nround  Birmingiium.  Sheffield  is  the  capital  of  this  district.  It  early  derived  im- 
portance from  the  fabrication  ol  arms,  but  it  has  reached  a  much  higher  degree  of  greatness 
since  it  betook  itself  to  tiie  more  useful  fabrics  of  knives,  forks,  razors,  suuflers,  scissors, 
combs,  buttons,  saws,  sickles,  and  various  instruments  of  hu-sbandry.  The  art  of  plating 
goods  with  silver  is  carried  to  a  vast  extent.  The  silver  is  soldered  upon  the  copper ;  and 
the  articles  are  wrought  by  the  hand  or  stamped.  The  cutlers  of  Sheffield  keep  many  hun- 
dred patterns  of  knives,  of  which  some  are  of  the  value  of  seven  or  eight  guineas,  contain- 
ing twenty-eight  blades  within  the  handle ;  while  others,  afl,er  passing  through  a  multitude 
of  different  hands,  are  sold  for  a  penny  eacli.  The  rapid  growth  of  ShefUeld  commenced 
about  the  year  1750,  when  the  river  Don  was  rendered  navigable  to  within  a  few  miles  of 
the  town.  Since  that  time  its  advance  has  been  steady  ;  new  branches  having  been  con- 
stantly adding,  and  the  former  ones  extending.  The  houses  are  chiefly  modern,  and  well 
built ;  and  the  town  makes  a  tolerable  appeai^nce,  notwithstanding  the  smoke  of  the  forges 
in  which  it  is  involved.  The  military  barracks  erected  here  form  an  extensive  pile  of  build- 
ing. The  infirmary  is  considered  equal  to  any  in  tlie  kingdom ;  and  great  credit  is  due  to 
Sheffield  for  the  excellence  of  the  schools  which  it  maintains  for  the  education  of  the  lower 
orders.  It  supports  also  many  public  charities;  has  a  literary  society,  a  mechanics'  insti- 
tute, and  a  library. 

Bamsley  produces  wire,  nails,  and  other  articles,  but  derives  its  chief  importance  from  the 
linen  nianutacturc.  Rotherham  has  a  great  tbundery  for  cannon.  The  first  iron  bridge  was 
constructed  here  at  the  works  of  Messrs.  Walker ;  and  they  have  since  executed  those  of 
Sunderland,  Staines,  and  Yarn).  Rotherham,  being  in  a  fine  country,  has  also  a  great  corn 
and  cattle  market. 

The  superb  seats  wliich  adorn  Yorkshire  are  so  many,  tbat  to  enumerate  even  the  most 
distinguished  can  witli  difRculty  suit  our  limits.  Castle  Howard  is  a  magnificent  pile,  noted 
liir  its  classical  collection  of  sculpture  and  painting.  Duncombe  Park  is  admired  tor  the 
noble  view  obtained  from  the  terrace  in  front,  and  for  the  ruins  of  Rivaulx  Abbey,  situated 
in  !i  beautiful  vale  at  a  little  distance;  Studley  Royal,  an  almost  unrivalled  specimen  of  an 
ornamental  park,  encloses  within  its  precincts,  Fountain's  Abbey,  one  of  the  grandest  of 
monastic  remains,  covering  several  acres.  Wentworth  House  is  generally  considered  the 
noblest  mansion  in  the  north.  The  principal  front  extends  upwards  of  600  feet,  forming  a 
centre  arl  two  wings,  in  the  middle  of  which  is  a  fine  Corinthian  portico. 

Ijancashire,  situated  beyond  the  hilly  border  of  York  West  Riding,  forms  the  capital  or 
central  seat  of  manul'acture  for  Britain,  and  even  for  the  world.  Its  soil  and  climate  are 
unfavourable;  tiie  upland  tracts  being  rocky  an  1  barren,  and  the  coast  too  low  and  flat,  while 
tlie  moisture  from  tlie  Atlantic  is  injurious  to  the  growth  of  the  finer  kinds  of  grain.  But 
coal  traverses  in  large  beds  the  south  and  south-eastern  parts  of  the  county  ;  and  being  con- 
veyed by  short  canal  lines  to  all  the  great  towns,  affords  cheap  and  abundant  fuel  for  the 
steam-engines  and  other  grand  manufiicturing  apparatus.  Canal  navigation,  which  origi- 
nated in  Lancashire,  has  been  carried  to  a  greater  extent  there  than  in  any  other  part  of  the 
kingdom.  Besides  those  smaller  canals  which  connect  all  t'lf'  great  thriving  towns,  it  has 
tho  Lancaster  Canal  running  north  and  south  tlirough  ni-^rly  ii.-!  whole  extent,  and  intc 
Westmoreland  as  fiir  as  Kendal ;  and  the  still  more  important  \i\,f  of  the  Leeds  and  Liver- 
,poa[  (Janal ;  while,  in  the  southern  boi-der,  the  Grand  Trunk  connects  it  with  London  and 
the  whole  centre  of  England.  A  most  imi)ortant  additional  r.o:umunication  has  recently 
fxien  opened  by  the  railway,  elsewhere  described,  by  which  Liv;rpool  and  Manchester,  so 
tar  as  respects  personal  conveyance,  are  brought  ahnast  into  contact. 

Manchester,  the  centre  of  British  industry,  and  the  manufacturing  capital  of  the  empire, 
is  favourably  situated  on  the  Irwell ;  though  this  stream,  navigable  for  barges,  scarcely  makes 
any  (igtirc  beside  the  vast  artificial  line."  formed  from  its  waters.  Altliough  the  cotton  maiui- 
liictHro  is  now  widely  ditliiHod  throughout  England,  Manche.-'tcr  continues  the  coiitro  of  the 
trade;  receiving  and  distributing  the  raw  material,  collecting  the  produce  wcirked  up  in 
numerous  towns  and  villages,  and  transmitting  it  to  the  various  market.-.  From  the  middle 
of  the  last  century  she  has  advanced  with  amazing  and  accelerated  rajjidity  ;aiid  the  system  of 
inland  navigation  having  afforded  copious  channels  by  which  the  material  can  be  introduced 
and  the  manufactured  article  exported,  every  obsf^iclo  to  thi;  absorjrtiou  of  the  whole  into 
this  centre  was  removed.  Its  manufacture  embraces  the  finer  nuislins  and  other  delicate 
fabrics,  with  the  plain  and  useful  forms  of  diniitie?,  fustians,  velveteens,  checks,  sliirtings 


Book  1. 


ENGLAND. 


387 


ginghams,  diancrs,  cambric  muslins,  figured  muslins,  cnlicocs  for  printing,  and  various  fancy 
goods.    Tlio  diiTcrent  cotton  fabrics  generally  denominated  Manchester  goods,  are  not  all 
manufactured  within  the  town  itself,  but  in  the  neighbouring  towns  and  districts ;  and,  afler 
being  bleached,  and  some  of  them  printed,  arc  sent  in  a  iinislied  state  to  Manchester  to  be 
«old ;  the  chief  market  days  being  Tuesdays  and  Saturdays.    Thus  Marseilles  quillings, 
cambric  muslins,  calicoes  tor  printing,  bed  quilts  and  counterpanes,  checks,  fustians,  and 
shirtings,  arc  brought  in  from  the  surrounding  towns  and  villages.     A  vast  deal  of  yam  is 
also  spun  for  exportation.     Manchester  has  extensive  establishments  for  printing  and  dyeing; 
also,  for  constructing  and   keeping   in  repoir  Eleam-ongincs,  as  well  as  omer  machines 
employed  in  manufacture.     Even  iron  founderies  are  necessary  to  supply  the  material?. 
Other  important  branches  have  recently  been  added.     Manciiester  now  rivals  Macclesfield 
and  Norwich  in  the  manufacture  of  silks,  and  Nottingham  in  tliat  of  lace.    In  1832,  there 
wore  at  work  in  the  townships  of  Manchester  and  Salford,  96  cotton  mills,  16  silk,  4  woollen 
and  worsted,  and  2  flax  mills.    The  number  employed  in  cotton  Victories  amounted  to 
20,.585 ;  of  whom,  5361  were  male  and  7035  female  adults ;  4286  male  and  3903  female 
children.     The  wages  paid  to  them  per  month  were  40,333/.,  making  about  9s.  9rf.  of  ave- 
rage weekly  earnings  to  each  individual.     There  were  7174  mule  spinners,  earning  15,106i. 
per  month,  averaging  10«.  6d.  each  per  week ;  1497  spinners  of  a  higlier  class,  earning 
?491?.  per  month,  or  II.  8s.  id.  each  per  week.    Pieccrs'  scavengers  2944,  earning  3287/. 
per  month,  each  weekly  5».  6rf.    In  the  power  looms,  women  receive  8s.  to  12s. ;  men,  13s. 
to  16s.  lOi. ;  dressers,  28s.  to  30s.  per  week.     Manchester  is  not  an  elegant  town ;  some 
parts  of  its  interior  are  narrow,  crowded,  fhll  of  warehouses  and  factories  in  huge  masses 
The  entrances,  however,  have  been  mode  handsome ;  and,  in  the  extremities  of  the  town, 
streets  of  elegant  houses  have  been  built  for  the  accommodation  of  the  opulent  merchants. 
It  has  one  handsome  Gothic  collegiate  church  of  the  fifteenth  century,  and  several  more 
modern,  that  are  creditable  to  the  taste  of  the  town,  as  the  Exchange,  which  includes  a 
news-room  and  a  good  library ;  the  Infirmary  (which  in  one  year  received  above  12,000 
patients)  ;  the  Town  Hall,  which  contains  one  of  the  most  splendid  public  rooms  in  Europe ; 
and  the  Royal  Institution  for  the  Promotion  of  the  Fine  Arts.    Tlie  prison  called  the  New 
Bailey  is  an  immense  structure, — the  inmates  of  wiiicli  ore  classed  and  provided  with 
employment  to  a  considerable  extent.     Manchester  is  remarkable  for  its  charitable  institu- 
tions ;  hospitals  of  diflerent  kinds ;  and  schools  for  the  education  of  the  poor.    Cheetham's 
Hospital,  maintaining  eighty  poor  cliildren,  has  a  library  of  18,(MK)  or  20,000  volumes,  con- 
taining rare  and  valuable  works.     In  1781,  a  literary  and  philosophical  society  was  formed 
at  Mancheste',  and  produced  several  valuable  volumes  of  Transactions,  enriched  by  the  con- 
tributions of  Percival,  Ferriar,  Dalton,  Henry,  and  other  eminent  gentlemen  there  resident. 
In  1774,  the  population  of  the  whole  parish  was  41,000 ;  the  amount  of  142,000  for  1831  by 
no  means  comprehends  all  that  may  be  considered  Manchester.     The  large  towns  and  vil- 
lages which  have  sprung  up  within  its  parish  form  really  its  suburbs,  and  raise  the  entire 
population  to  270,000.     Of  these,  the  most  important  are  Salford,  immediately  contiguous, 
and  now  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  borough ;  and  Chorlton  Row,  which  in  1801  contained  675 
inhabitants;  in  1831,  20,565. 

Huge  towns,  resembling  cities,  devoted  to  the  cotton  manufacture,  are  found  in  every 
direction  round  Manchester.  To  the  north  are  Blackburn  and  Bolton ;  the  former  chiefly 
employed  in  the  branch  of  printed  calicoes,  which  are  supjiosed  to  be  produced  to  the  annual 
value  of  2,000,000/.  A  great  advantage  is  derived  from  the  Leeds  and  Liverpool  Canal 
passing  close  by  it.  Bolton  is  a  town  anciently  of  some  strength,  but  now  supported  entirely 
by  industry.  Some  of  the  greatest  improvements  in  the  cotton  manufacture,  have  been 
made  by  Arkwright  and  Crompton,  residents  in  this  place.  Preston,  a  flourishing  seat  of 
manufacture,  elects  two  members  on  a  basis  of  almost  universal  suflirage.  Wigan  is  a  large 
town,  which  adds  to  those  of  cotton  and  linen  some  manufactures  of  brass  and  pewter. 
Bury,  very  near  Manchester,  besides  extensive  cotton  works,  has  some  of  woollen.  Oldham 
was  early  a  place  of  some  consequence,  carrying  on  a  large  fubric  of  hats ;  but  the  intro- 
duction of  the  cotton  manufacture  has  caastxl  it  to  make  an  astonishing  progretss,  so  that  in 
thirty  years  it  has  nearly  trebled  its  population,  and  the  parish,  including  Pilkington,  Cromp- 
ton, and  other  towns,  contains  67,.500  inhabitants.  There  are  here  now  65  cotton  mills  and 
140  steam-engines,  almost  all  erected  during  t'.ie  present  century. 

Some  large  towns  employed  in  other  manuliictures  than  those  of  cotton  lie  on  the  borders 
of  Jjancosliirc.  Rochdale,  near  the  western  point  of  Yorkshire,  and  in  character  a  York- 
shire town,  has  for  its  staple  woollen  stufla  and  f^.mnels,  of  which  8000  pieces  arc  made 
weekly ;  filly-sovon  steam-engines  are  employed  here,  and  about  84,000  lbs.  of  cotton  yam 
spun  in  the  week.  Warrington,  on  the  Mersey,  which  is  navigable  tor  vessels  of  eighty 
tons  from  Ijiverjiool,  in  Henry  VIII. 's  time  wan  superior  to  Manchester;  but  it  is  now  left 
far  behind.  Its  staples  of  sailcloth  and  cairsc  linens  have  been  c.vchanged  tor  cotton,  to 
which  it  adds  glass  and  pins.  Prescot  is  noted  for  the  making  of  watch- wheels,  springs, 
chains,  &c.  several  of  which  have  been  invented  and  improved  by  its  workmen.  Near  it, 
at  St.  Helen's,  is  a  great  manufactory  of  plate  glass,  employing  300  persons. 


''       u,'      I 


■'^. 


¥■ 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY, 


Part  III 


Liverpool,  the  commercial  capital  of  LAiicoahire,  is,  if  possible,  a  still  grander  object,  and 
far  surpassing  indeed  every  other  seaport,  witii  the  exception  of  tiic  metropolis.  Nothing 
can  Ini  more  rcmarlcable  titan  the  contrast  of  its  present  state  with  its  humble  origin.  In 
the  sixteentli  century,  it  is  described  as  a  small  place  with  only  a  chapel,  having  no  parish 
church  within  four  miles.  It  had  then  186  iniiabitants,  and  two  or  three  ships,  whose  aggre- 
gate tonnage  was  223  tons ;  and  in  a  petition  to  Elizabeth,  about  tho  year  1578,  it  is  styled, 
"  her  majesty's  poor  decayed  town ;"  it  continued  gradually  to  increase  during  the  seven- 
teentti  century,  till,  in  1700,  it  was  constituted  a  parish,  and  lioil  5000  inhabitants. 
Since  tiiat  time  it  has  advanced  with  rapid  and  accelerated  steps ;  in  1730,  it  had  12,000 ; 
in  1760,  26,000;  m  1800,  56,000  inhabitants;  but  the  most  rapid  growth  has  been  between 
1811  and  1821,  when  it  rose  from  04,376  to  141,487.  The  increase  to  165,000  in  1831 
appears  less  rapid ;  but  in  fact,  the  population  during  this  period  has  overflowed  into  the 
adjacent  villages,  and  swelled  them  into  large  towns ;  Toxteth-park  increased  from  2060  in 
1801,  to  24,067  in  1831 ;  West  Derby,  Kirkdale,  Everton,  form  in  fact  the  suburbs  of  Liver- 
pool, and,  added  to  it,  make  an  amount  of  203,000.  There  must  always  have  been  a  consi- 
derable port  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mersey ;  but  this  estuary,  in  its  natural  navigation,  could 
never  come  in  competition  with  tlie  Ilumber  or  the  Severn.  When,  however,  its  disadvan- 
tages as  a  seaport  were  partly  removed,  by  the  formation  of  docks, — and,  much  more,  when 
it  became  the  basis  of  a  canal  system  reaching  eastward  to  the  German  Ocean,  and  soutli- 
ward  to  the  Thames, — Liverpool  could  communicate  with  an  immense  interior  curcle.  It 
derived  benefit,  above  all,  from  the  cotton  manufacture  established,  on  such  an  extensive 
scale,  in  the  country  immediately  behmd ;  the  materials  of  which  were  brought  to  Liverpool 
fix)m  the  opposite  side  of  the  Atlantic,  and  the  finished  fabric  thence  exported,  partly  to  the 
same  quarter.  At  the  same  time  Liverpool  imported,  for  a  great  part  of  England  at  least, 
articles  of  consumption  from  America  and  the  West  Indies.  It  found  also  a  most  extensive 
employment  in  bringing  grain  and  provisions  from  Ireland,  and  returning  salt,  coals,  and  pot- 
tery. The  merchants  of  Liverpool,  meanwhile,  were  most  active  in  hnproving  these  cir- 
cumstances, particularly  by  the  construction  of  that  immense  line  of  docks,  which  M.  Dupin 
has  described  with  such  admiration.  A  dock,  or  space  enclosed  all  round,  and  fed  with 
sluices,  in  which  the  vessels  while  they  receive  or  discharge  their  cargoes  are  kept  regu- 
larly afloat,  without  being  exposed  to  swell,  tide,  or  current,  is  an  obvious  improvement  upon 
the  best  natural  harbour.  The  expense,  liowever,  is  great ;  and  it  was  not  till  1710  that 
Liverpool  began  the  first  dock  in  Britain,  called  the  Old  Dock,  which  has  recently  been  filled 
up.  Twenty  years  were  employed  in  its  completion ;  and  a  still  longer  time  in  that  of  the 
next,  or  the  Saltliouse  Dock.  The  others  were,  however,  constructed  on  a  more  extensive 
scale,  and  with  greater  rapidity: — George's  (II.)  Dock;  tho  King's  Dock,  for  Greenland 
ships  and  tobacco ;  the  Queen's  Dock,  directly  for  the  Baltic  and  North  American  trade. 
On  a  still  larger  scale  have  been  constructed  the  Prince  Regent  Dock,  opened  in  1821,  and 
the  Clarence  Dock,  in  1830.  The  Brunswick  Dock,  fi)r  the  accommodation  of  vessels  with 
cargoes  of  timber,  nearly  completes  tlie  present  plan,  when  the  whole  area  of  water  in  the 
docks  will  exceed  90  acres.  In  1832,  there  belonged  to  this  port  853  registered  vessels,  of 
the  burthen  of  166,028  tons.  Tlie  customs  paid  at  the  port  amounted,  in  1765,  to  260,000{. ; 
in  1810,  to  2,675,000Z. ;  and  in  1832  they  had  risen  to  3,925,062/.  The  following  are  the 
leading  articles  of  import  in  the  year  1830 : — 792,350  bags  of  cotton,  510,000  hides,  42,000 
hogsheads  of  sugar,  8000  hogsheads  of  tobacco,  300,500  barrels  of  flour,  7800  casks  and 
7300  barrels  and  bigs  of  coflfee,  27,000  casks  of  palm  oil,  900  seroons  and  1430  chests  of 
indigo,  12,000  puncheons  of  rum,  31,200  bags  of  rice,  22,500  barrels  of  American  ashes, 
42,500  barrels  of  tar,  51,000  barrels  of  turpentine,  6200  tons  of  logwood,  5650  logs  of  maho- 
gany. The  dock  duties,  which  in  1800  were  only  23,379/.,  amounted,  in  1832,  to  170,000/. 
In  1832,  the  ships  entered  inwards  were  10,266,  tonnage  1,361,000 ;  outwards,  8717  ships, 
tonnage  1,218,045.  Of  this,  610,000  tons  were  from  foreign  parts,  chiefly  the  United  States 
and  British  America,  the  rest  coasters,  of  which  386,000  were  from  Ireland.  The  value  of 
agricultural  profluce  from  that  country  amounted  to  4,444,000/. 

Liverpool  has  niunerous  lines  of  packets  to  all  the  principal  foreign  ports.  Every  month 
four  sail  to  New- York,  two  to  Philadelphia,  one  to  Boston,  two  respectively  to  Rio  Janeiro, 
Genoa  and  Leghorn,  and  to  Lisbon ;  one  every  tlueo  weeka  to  Oporto.  The  New- York 
packets  are  first-rate  vessels  containing  splendid  accommodations  for  jrasscngers,  and  the 
value  of  goo<ls  conveyed  in  one  of  them  has  been  known  to  exceed  140,000/.  Trading  ves- 
sels also  are  continually  sailing  to  the  above  and  to  all  other  commercial  places  throughout 
the  world.  An  almost  daily  communication  is  maintained  by  steam  packets  with  Dublin, 
Belfast,  Glasgow,  Whitehaven,  and  nil  porta  of  any  conse(iuence  in  Ireland,  and  on  the 
western  coast  of  England.  The  solid  construction  of  its  docks ;  the  powerful  iron  gates  by 
which  they  are  enclosed  ;  the  long  covered  ways  where  the  goods  may  be  landed  without 
injury  from  the  inclemency  of  the  weather ;  the  immense  magazines,  some  rising  to  the 
height  of  12  or  13  stories, — all  denote  a  gigantic  industry  and  a  magnificence  which  spares 
no  sacrifice  to  attain  objects  of  public  utility.  The  inhabitants  of  Liverpool  have  generally 
shown  the  same  spirit  in  Uieir  other  arrangements  as  in  those  connected  with  trade.    The 


iC 


Book  I. 

town  is  well  lighted  with  gas. 

164 


ENGLAND.  389 

The  public  building  have  an  elegant  and  classical  cliaractcr, 
almost  peculiar  to  Liverpool.  The  Town- 
Hall  (Jig.  164),  is  a  fine  Grecian  edifice, 
ornamented  with  a  superb  cupola  and  ap- 
propriate statues.  The  Excliunge  forms 
behind  it  an  elegant  scjuare,  in  the  midst  of 
which  is  a  sculptural  composition  by  West- 
macott,  representing  Nelson  and  liis  victo- 
ries. The  new  edifice  erected  for  a  market 
is,  perhaps,  tlic  most  spacious  and  commo- 
dious of  any  employed  in  tiie  kingdom  for 
that  purpose.  There  are  also  several  ele- 
gant modem  churches,  one  formed  of  cast- 
iron.  The  finest  view  of  Liverpool  is 
Town  Hall,  L«eipool  obtained  from  the  sea,  whore  the  vast  jmight 

and  extent  of  the  exterior  dock  wall,  the  forest  of  masts  above,  and  the  town  behind,  make 
a  most  imposing  appearance.  The  charitable  institutions  are  administered  on  a  creat  scale, 
and  with  activity.  Foremost  stands  the  Blind  Asylum,  the  first  established  in  England,  which 
receives  inmates  from  all  parts  of  the  kingdom.  The  infirmary  is  in  a  very  spacious  and 
airy  situation;  and,  among  the  other  institutions  common  to  great  towns,  the  Strangers' 
Friends'  Society  distinguishes  itself  by  its  generous  exertions.  The  Englisli  mercantile 
towns  generally  show  a  zeal  to  combine  intellectual  pursuits  with  those  of  wealth ;  but  ' 
none,  perhaps  so  successfully  as  Jjiverpool,— one  of  whose  merchants,  while  carrying  on  an 
extensive  business,  produced  works  which  rank  him  among  the  most  classical  English 
writers.  Although  this  example  be  single,  it  is  connected  with  a  general  spirit,  which 
displays  itself  in  the  liberal  procedure  of  several  individuals;  in  the  Lyceum  and  the 
Athenffium;  two  public  libraries  and  literary  institutions,  supported  by  subscription ;  and  in 
a  botanic  garden,  which  ranks  as  tlie  first  that  was  formed,  and  at  least  the  third  as  to 
eminence,  in  the  kingdom.  Both  the  Athenffium  and  the  Ixrtanic  garden  owe  their  founda- 
tion to  the  public  spirit  and  the  munificent  example  of  Mr.  R»scoe,  who  had  also  the 
magnanimity  to  exert  his  powerful  talents  for  the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade,  in  a  town  long 
devoted  to  that  traffic. 

Lancaster,  the  county  town,  is  handsomely  built  of  a  beautiful  free-stone ;  the  Town-lmll 

and  some  other  buildings  are  handsome ; 
but  the  castle  {Jig.  165.)  forms  one  of 
the  grandest  monuments  of  tlio  feudal 
age.  Its  vast  extent;  its  commanding 
site;  the  greatness  of  all  its  features, 
even  now,  when  three  of  its  seven  towers 
are  fallen  into  ruin;  produce  the  most 
powerful  impression.  If  has  been  con- 
verted into  a  well-arranged  i)ripon  for 
the  county.  Lancaster,  though  its  river, 
the  Lune,  is  not  navigable  for  vessels  of 
more  than  250  tons,  possesses  73  sail. 
It  builds  some  ships,  makes  sailcloth, 
and  manufactures,  upon  a  small  scale, 
some  cotton  fabrics.  About  a  mile  from 
i:,  the  lancaster  Canal  is  carried  over  the  Lune  by  a  very  noble  aqueduct  bridge. 

The  counties  of  Cumberland  and  Westmoreland,  or  the  countn'  of  the  Lakes,  form  a  Imid 
and  peculiar  region,  presenting  a  striking  contrast  to  those  recently  surveyed;  being  enriched 
neither  by  natural  wealth,  nor  by  human  industry.  Wide  ranges  of  high  and  rocky  moun- 
tains, enclosing  long  lakes  and  narrow  vales,  affonl  scanty  s|)ace  for  the  plough.  A  great 
proportion  of  these  fells  and  moors  is  absolutely  barren ;  in  the  more  fiivoured  spots  the  her- 
bage is  often  scanty ;  and  even  the  arable  tracts  are,  in  general,  fit  only  for  the  coarser 
grain  of  oats.  But  the  multitude  of  moiuitains  crowded  together,  their  bold,  perpendicular, 
and  ofleu  prnjccting  forms;  the  pleajiing  tliougii  not  extensive  lakes,  and  soft  pastoral 
valleys,  wliicii  they  enclose,  render  this  the  most  beautiful  country  of  England,  and  the 
fivonvite  resort  of  nil  the  rulmirers  of  the  piofurpsque  and  sublime. 

Tlircf  divisions  are  distinctly  seen  in  those  counties,  reaching  from  north  to  south.  T.  A 
plain  eastward  of  the  mountains,  through  which  the  high  rosid  nms  by  Kendal  and  Carlisle 
to  IjOikIou,  II.  The  mountains  and  lakes,  occupying  the  larger  portion  of  their  surface. 
III.  .A  sea-roast,  containing  some  harbours  of  importance. 

The  first  piirt  consists  of  a  plain,  which,  tliou^li  narrow,  is  in  many  places  fertile;  and 
cnntiiins  some  large  towns.  In  the  northern  part  is  "  merry  Carlisle,"  long  distinguished  in 
the  Ixirdor  ann:ils,  and  the  scone  of  intore.«ting  events  in  the  contest  of  1745.  Carlisle  being 
a  military  po-^t  of  the  First  consequence,  its  castle  and  walls  were  considered  a  model  oi 

33* 


Lancnsler  Caslle. 


390 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pabt  III. 


166 


strength,  according  to  the  ideas  of  the  middle  ages ;  tlie  cathedral  is  an  ancient  edifice,  still 
nearly  entire,  in  the, heavy  Saxon  style.  Carlisle  has  of  late  l)cgun  to  carry  on  some  manu- 
fiicture,  chiefly  cotton  ;  also  woollen,  linen,  and  a  few  minor  articles.  A  canal  connects  it 
with  the  Solway,  and  enables  it  to  employ  some  shipping.  Eastward  from  Carlisle  is  the 
great  debateable  line ;  and  near  Brampton  is  Naworth  Castle,  that  powerful  station  when; 
l-ord  William  Howard  undertook  to  bridle  the  license  of  the  border.  Yet,  however  strong, 
it  tbrms  rather  a  dark  border  keep,  than  a  display  of  feudal  grandeur.  Lord  Howard's 
apartments,  which,  with  their  books,  furniture,  and  armour,  remain  almost  undisturbed,  uro 
separated  by  four  strong  doors  from  the  rest  of  the  castle  ;  and  secret  passages  lead  to  every 
part,  and  to  the  dungeons  beneath.  Farther  south  is  Kendal,  the  chief  town  of  Westmore- 
land ;  a  considerable  place,  with  an  old  manufactory  of  woollens  bearing  its  name,  and 
some  of  cotton  and  leather.  Burton  and  Kirby  Lonsdale  are  small  neat  towns  on  the  border 
of  Lancashire. 
The  second  division  comprises  the  country  of  the  Lakes,  forming  the  peculiar  character- 
istic of  the  country,  and  chiefly  distin- 
guished by  its  scenery.  Ullswater,  {fg. 
166.)  divided  into  three  reaches.  The 
mountains  are  numerous,  steep  and  loft;v, 
not  broken  or  impending,  but  of  a  bold 
and  swelling  form.  The  two  highest  in 
the  region  are  Helvellyn,  and  the  sijuare 
rocky  mass  of  Stone  Cross  Pike,  rearing 
their  almost  perpendicular  forms  to  an 
amazing  height  above  the  wooded  hills 
which  cluster  round  them.  Opposite 
rises  the  immense  precipitous  steep  of 
Place  Fell;  and  the  whole  produces  a 
scene  of  solemn  and  simple  grandeur.  At  Patterdale,  though  the  features  be  grand,  the 
""■  beautiful    predominates.      From    the 

meadows  bordering  the  lake,  the  nu- 
merous glens  branching  oft',  with  the 
scattered  abodes  of  the  shepherds  and 
oalesmen,  present  one  of  the  sweetest 
of  alpine  pastoral  scenes.  Keswick  or 
Derwentwater  {fig.  167.)  is  of  equal 
grandeur,  but  a  quite  difl'erent  aspect. 
The  mountains  preserve  no  regular 
form,  but  are  broken,  shattered,  im- 
pending, shooting  into  a  thousand  fan- 
tastic shapes ;  and  though  they  do  not 
pro<luce  the  same  grand  unity  of  eflfect,  astonish  by  a  continual  change  of  scenery.    In 

the  wooded  cliffs  and  waterfall  of  Lodore  {fig.  168.), 
and  on  the  rocks  of  Borrowdale,  nature  seems  to  have 
sported  her  wildest  fancies.  Yet  exquisite  beauty  is 
here  mingled  with  horrors,  particularly  in  the  views  of 
the  lake  from  the  south,  with  Skiddaw  behind ;  and  in 
a  lovely  rural  vale,  which  runs  along  its  northern  Ixjr- 
der,  and  is  seen  to  peculiar  advantage  from  the  road  to 


Ulliwat«r. 


KMwick  IiAko 


Ludorc  \Vat4jrful). 


Windermore  Lake. 


Ambleside.  Windermore  {fig.  109.),  is  of  much  wider  extent;  not  shut  in  by  mountamous 
cliffs,  but  bordered  by  wooded  and  ornamented  hills.  Around  its  northern  banks,  however 
is  ranged  an  amphitlieatro  of  very  high  mountains,  which,  with  thi^ir  varied  summits,  fonii 
a  sublime  background  to  all  its  landscapes.  Tiioso  are  generally  i^nind,  open,  difl'usivo,  und 
extended.     The  other  lakes,  Coniston,  Gra.smoro,  Butterniere,  Cromack,  Wastdale,  Enuer- 


Book  I. 


ENGLAND 


S91 


dale,  have  attractions  for  the  admirers  of  nature.  In  tliis  district,  Iho  only  places  to  which 
the  name  of  towns  could  be  given  are  Keswick  on  Derwentwater,  an.,  ^imbleside  on  Win- 
dermere i  and  even  these  are  only  large  villages,  supported  by  the  resort  of  travellers,  and 
by  some  persons  of  distinction  wlio  are  induced  to  reside  there  by  the  beauty  of  the  neigh- 
bourhood. 

The  third  division  consists  of  the  sea-coast.  The  most  considerable  port  is  Whitehaven, 
which  has  become  flourishing  in  consequence  of  the  immense  coal  mines  found  and  worked 
in  its  immediate  vicinity.  Some  of  them  have  a  depth  of  320  yards,  supposed  to  be  greater 
than  any  other  in  the  world ;  and  some  extend  several  miles  beneath  the  sea.  The  total 
quantity  worked  is  estimated  at  100,000  chaldrons,  chiefly  exported  to  Ireland :  besides  wliich, 
Whitehaven  has  pushed  its  trade  to  Africa,  America,  and  the  West  Indies ;  and  carries  on 
much  ship-building. 

SvBsECT.  5. — Western  Counties, 

The  western  counties  form  the  last  di^sion  of  England  Proper,  comprising  the  counties 
south  of  the  Mersey,  which  form  the  western  boundary  of  England.  This  extensive  line 
has  scarcely  any  character  which  can  be  said  generally  to  apply  to  it.  We  mention  Cheshire, 
Shropshire,  Hereford,  and  Monmouth,  as  bordering  on  Wales,  and  the  last  three  partaking 
somewhat  of  its  rude  and  romantic  character ;  Worcester,  Gloucester,  and  Somerset,  occu- 
pying the  fine  valley  of  the  Severn, — a  region  filled  with  commerce  ond  cultivation,  and 
containing  several  great  cities ;  lastly,  Cornwall  and  Devon,  the  extreme  comer  of  England, 
but  marked  by  a  mild  climate,  rich  mines,  and  a  surface  agreeably  diversified. 

The  soil  of  Cheshire  is  generally  fit  for  all  the  purposes  of  agriculture,  particularly  in  the 
valley  of  the  Dee :  but  the  dairy  is  the  branch  pursued  with  peculiar  success ;  and  it  pro- 
duces the  cheese  which,  bearing  tlie  name  of  the  country,  equals  in  richness,  though  not  in 
delicacy,  any  other  in  Britain.  There  are  valuable  mines  of  coal,  and  some  of  iron ;  but 
the  mineral  substance  of  which  Cheshire  chiefly  boasts  is  salt.  The  pits  were  discovered 
about  a  century  and  o  li,alf  ago,  at  Northwich,  Middlewich,  and  Nantwich,  and  have  proved 
of  the  highest  importance  to  the  nation,  at  once  for  internal  consumption,  for  the  curing  of 
fish,  and  for  exportation. 

Chester  is,  perhaps,  the  city  in  Britain  which  bears  the  most  venerable  character  of 
antiquity.  The  very  name  implies  a  Roman  camp,  the  form  of  which  is  still  preserved  in 
the  direction  of  its  principal  streets.  The  eflect  is  heightened  by  the  mouldering  red  stone, 
of  whicli  its  most  ancient  edifices  are  built.  The  principal  streets  have  a  very  peculiar 
structure.  The  lower  story,  which  has  been  hollowed  out  of  the  rock,  consists  of  shops, 
above  which  is  a  paved  way  covered  by  the  projecting  upjier  story ;  but  the  middle  part  of 
the  house  appears  thus  retired  from  tlie  open  street  belaud  this  species  of  arcade.  The 
arrangement  is  neither  very  elegant  nor  very  convenient  The  ca.stle  of  Chester  presents 
a  very  complete  specimen  of  early  military  architecture ;  connected  with  it  is  a  range  of 
handsome  Grecian  buildings,  containing  tlie  barrncki?,  county  hall,  and  county  gaol.  The 
cathedral  displays  considerable  grandeur,  and  has  a  verj*  elegant  chapter-house.  The  im- 
provements on  the  Dee  enable  vos.sels  of  300  tons  to  come  up  to  Chester,  which  has  62 
vessels,  of  above  4000  tons;  yet  its  trade  with  Ireland  has  been  transferred  to  Livorixwl. 

Of  the  other  towns,  the  most  remarkable  are  those  near  which  the  salt  mines  are  situated, 
particularly  Northwich.  There  are  fourteen  pits  of  rock  salt,  and  between  thirty  and  forty  of 
brine  salt  The  rock  salt  is  hard  and  brown  ;  the  pit*,  after  being  dug  to  a  certain  deptli, 
are  excavated  horizontally,  leaving  a  iX)rtion  of  the  salt  for  a  roof.  They  thus  tbrm  apart- 
ments, often  of  more  than  an  acre  in  extent;  and  the  reflection  of  lights  fi'om  the  mineral, 
like  tliat  of  numberless  precious  stones,  prmluces  a  magical  effect.  Stockport  and  Maccles- 
field have  flourished  greatly  in  consequence  of  the  introduction  from  Lancashire  of  the 
cotton  jnunuliicture,  to  wiiicli  Macclesfield  adds  some  branches  of  that  of  silk. 

Among  tlie  seats  are  Eaton  Hall,  a  magnificent  Gothic  edifice,  whicli  Earl  Grosvenor  has 
erected  at  an  cxpence,  it  is  said,  of  400,000?. 

Shropshire,  or  Salop,  consists  chiefly  of  a  wide  plain  watered  by  the  Severn.  On  its 
eastern  Iiordnr  it  shares  to  a  great  extent  in  the  mineral  wealth  of  Staffordshire,  coal  and 
iron.  These  arc  carried  on  in  a  remarkable  rnanner  at  Colehrook ;  a  deep-wooded  vale  on 
the  Severn,  here  traversed  by  the  first  iron  bridge  erected  in  the  kingdom.  This  county  is 
also  interesting  to  the  student  of  English  history;  many  s|X)ts  having  been  the  scenes  of 
remarkable  event.s  on  which  the  destinies  of  the  kingdom  have  depended. 

Shrewsbury,  the  capital,  is  particularly  rich  in  momorahle  recollections.  Being  the  strong- 
est fortres.s  on  the  western  marches,  it  became  a  rendezvous  of  the  royal  army,  both  for 
overawing  the  Welsh,  and  for  northern  expeditions;  many  of  the  streets  are  narrow,  wind- 
ing, and  irregular,  and  the  old  and  new  buildings  too  closely  intermingled ;  only  a  small 
part  of  tlie  castle  remains;  St.  Mary's  church  is  elegant  and  entire.  The  free  school, 
founded  hy  Edward  VI.  and  Queen  Elizabeth,  has  produced  several  eminent  teachers  and 
pupils.  Shrewsbury  is  praised  for  its  house  of  industry,  and  for  the  arrangement  of  ita 
county  gaol. 


im 


\m 


DESCltll'TIVE  Gi:OGItAI»IIV. 


Part  III. 


i^ 


Ludlow,  an  ancient  town,  wii.s  triM|iioatly  tlic  rp.-iidcitci?  of  royalty,  and  tlin  rG<;ii1ur  station 
of  those  jwworful  officers  tlio  IjunU  Presidents  of  tiio  MurclieH.  Tlic  cawtie,  placed  on  a 
wooded  rock  overlianging  the  'J'erne,  was  amHidercd  one  of  the  stronj^est  places  in  the  king- 
dom. In  its  vicinity  occurriMl  many  of  tiio  most  distinguished  events  in  the  contest  between 
the  houses  of  York  and  I.ancaster.  It  was  altorwards  dismantled ;  yet  nnnained  a  splendid 
private  mansion,  in  wliieh  Milton's  "  Comus"  was  first  performed,  iind  where  Butler  wrote  a 
part  of  his  "  Hudibras."  It  is  now  entirely  rcKjfless  and  covered  with  ivy,  but  still  adorns 
the  town,  wliich  is  well  built  and  pleasantly  situated. 

Hereford  and  Monmouth,  two  deini-Welsh  counties,  fill  the  interval  from  Shropshire  south- 
wards to  the  Bristol  Channel.  Being  traversed  by  the  Wye,  the  most  pictures<pie  of  the 
English  rivers,  they  vie  in  bciuily  willi  almost  any  part  of  the  kingdom.  The  chief  industry 
is  in  the  rearing  of  fruit,  and  the  whole  country  is  a»  it  were  covered  with  orchards:  hence 
Hereford  draws  its  staple  prwluctionof  cider  and  perry,  in  peculiar  abundance  and  perfection. 
The  crop  is  precarious;  but  in  u  good  year  the  produce  of  an  acre  will  be  from  eighteen  to 
j-Q  twenty-tour  hogsheads,  sometimes  of  such  fine  quality,  that  it  will 

sell  from  the  press  at  2()/.  a  hogshead.  The  western  district  of 
Hereford  pro<luces  also  a  larg(!  (pmntity  of  hops,  and  has  one  of 
the  finest  breeds  of  cattle  in  the  kingdom,  both  fordraugiit  and  feed- 
ing. The  breed  of  slicep,  called  Ilyeland  (Jiff.  170.),  besides  the 
excellence  of  their  flesh,  l)ear  the  very  finest  wool  in  the  kingdom, 
Moimioutli  is  not  so  fertile:  its  chief  wealth  is  mineral,  coal  being 
most  abundant;  and  iron  works  arc  established  to  such  an  extent, 
Bjreiand  Sheep.  that  they  have  been  known  to  produce  a  thousand  tons  in  the  week. 

Of  the  towns,  Hereford  bears  venerable  marks  of  antiquity,  particularly  its  cathedral,  not- 
J.M  .>Mrtfc^A>  wftfteak      withstanding  the  tall  of  its  principal 

^•^ii^uu^  -tniirMmr*  tower.  Ross,  once  the  residence  of 
Mr.  Kyrle,  celebrated  by  I'ope  a.H 
"the  Man  of  Ross,"  is  a  beautiful 
village,  considered  as  a  sort  of  centre 
of  the  picturesque  scenes  of  the  Wye. 
The  towns  of  ^loninouthshire  are 
small.  The  capital  has  a  limited 
trade  along  the  Wye;  but  its  situa- 
tion, in  a  delightful  country,  has 
attracted  the  neighlx)uring  gentry. 
There  are  still  remains  of  its  once 
powerful  castle,  and  of  a  B(Miedictine 
priory.  A  few  miles  from  Monmouth 
IS  Tintern  Abbey  (ffr.  171.),  the  most 
Tinicrn  Aiiixy.  pictnresque,  perhaps,  of  all  the  English 

monastic  remains.  This  arises,  not  merely  ftom  its  extent  and  beauty,  although  these  be 
great:  but  from  its  roofless  and  ruined  state,  whence  the  walls,  both  within  and  witliout, 
172  aMai-  are  overgrown  with  luxuriant  ivy,  and  de- 

'**™™'  caying  art  and  nature  are  blended  together. 

In  another  direction  is  Rugland  castle,  the 
seat  of  the  dukes  of  Beaufort  (Jiff.  173.), 
and  considered  one  of  the  strongest  of  the 
ancient  fortresses ;  but,  atler  the  gallant  de- 
fbnce  made  by  the  marquess  of  \Vorcester 
for  Charles  I.,  "Cromwell,"  says  Gilpin, 
"laid  his  iron  liand  upon  it,  and  shattered  it 
to  ruins;  to  which  it  owes  it:^  present  |)ic- 
turesque  form."  Ciicpstow,  at  the  month 
of  the  Wye,  is  a  neat  town,  and  carries  on 
some  trade.  It  is  chiefly  interesting,  how- 
,.„„„,,.,.       r    II  .u       •  L     „  <'^^'''  *i"°">  ^he  remains  of  its  castle,  one  of 

the  most  strikmg  of  all  the  mighty  fortresses  of  Wales.    Five  or  six  large  towers  still  re- 
main,  with  the  outer  walls  of  a  magnificent  chapel. 

Worcester  ami  Gloucester  occupy  the  lower  valley  of  the  Severn,  which  there  becomes  a 
river  ot  the  first  magnitude.  Tliis  valley  is  broad,  smnotii,  and  fertile,  yet  nowhere  dcrene- 
rates  into  a  dead  unvaried  level.  Worcester  lias,  „„  t!,e  west,  the  Malvern  Hills,  some  of 
,  whose  summits  rise  to  the  height  of  nearly  lij<t0  feet.  Gloucestershire,  again,  has  to  the 
east  the  Cotswold  Hills,  more  rugged,  though  not  so  elev.ated ;  while  to  the  west  are  the 
nigged  remains  ot  the  Forest  <.f  Dean.  Worcestershire  has,  besides,  the  valley  of  the  I/nver 
Avon  and  ot  Lv.jsimm,  finned  for  their  beniily  and  fiTtility.  The  vales  of  tliesl>  fine  counties 
tor  produce  ot  every  description,— grain,  fruits,  pasliirau'e,  with  some  preference  of 
Gloucester  is  particularly  distinguiiihed  for  its  dairies,  which  produce  that 


RMland  Culle. 


are  fiitiv 

the  two  latter. 


Door  I. 


ENGLAND. 


S9a 


Worceiter  Cathiidral 


rich  cheese  well  known  under  its  name.  The  best,  or  double  Gloucester,  is  produced  in  the 
vale  of  Berkeley,  situated  along  the  lowest  part  of  the  course  of  the  Severn.  Both  counties 
have  flourishing  manufactures,  though  not  on  the  vast  scale  of  the  northern  districts. 
Gloucester,  in  particular,  has  a  very  extensive  fabric  of  fine  woollens,  corried  on  through 
numberless  villages,  in  what  are  called  "  the  Bottoms,"  a  range  of  territory  along  the  lower 
part  of  the  Cotswold  Hills.     Its  scarlet  and  blue  woollens  arc  in  particular  repute. 

Worcester  is  a  considerable  and  very  handsome  city,  the  principal  streets  being  spacious 
and  regular,  with  many  good  houses,  and  presenting  a  general  air  of  neatness  iinil  conitbrt. 
It  is  of  high  antiquity,  the  cathedral  (Jifr.  173.)  having  been  founded  in  the  7th  century, 

tliough  the  present  structure  was  almost  en- 
tirely erected  in  the  13lh  and  14th  centuries. 
It  is  of  great  extent,  simple  and  august, 
without  the  rich  ornament  which  distin- 
giiishes  some  others.  It  contains  the  tomb 
of  King  John,  one  of  the  moxt  ancient  in 
England ;  also  that  of  Prince  Arthur.  Wor- 
cester is  chiefly  noted  in  history  for  the 
great  battle  in  which  Cromwell  totally  routed 
the  Scots  army,  and  compelled  Charles  II, 
to  quit  England  as  a  fugitive.  The  city  has 
lost  its  woollen  manufacture;  but  has  still  . 
one  of  porcelain,  the  flnest  in  the  king- 
dom. Fifteen  difibrcnt  materials  arc  used, 
chiefly  white  granite,  and  steatite  from  Corn- 
wall ;  and  every  piece  passes  through  twenty-three  hands  bcRire  it  is  brought  to  perfection. 
Gloves  are  also  made ;  and  there  is  a  considerable  trade  up  and  down  the  Severn. 

Kidderminster  is  lar^e  and  flourishing,  in  consequence  of  a  very  extensive  manufactory 
of  carpets.  Droitwich  is  noted  for  its  salt  springs.  They  are  covered  with  a  deep  stratum 
of  gypsum :  and  for  a  long  time  the  salt  was  made  only  fron\  the  brine  whicli  penetrated  tliis 
bed ;  but,  about  a  centuiy  ago,  it  was  bored  through,  when  the  brine  rushed  up  in  vast  ijunn- 
tities,  and  a  large  salt  river  was  found  to  flow  beneath.  Thus  the  salt  can  now  be  procured 
in  any  quantity,  and  supplies  a  great  part  of  England. 

Gloucester  is  also  an  ancient  and  fine  city,  tliougii  not  quite  so  large  as  Worcester.  It 
bears,  in  the  arrangement  of  its  streets,  the  marks  of  having  been  a  Roman  station.  It  was 
formerly  also,  a  place  of  groat  strength.  The  manner  in  which  it  frequently  Imflled  the 
utmost  eflbrts  of  Charles  I.  was  one  of  the  circumstances  which  contributed  iiiotit  to  the 
downfall  of  the  royal  cause.  The  most  conspicuous  feature  at  present  is  the  cnthcdral, 
built  in  the  Saxon  and  Norman  styles,  between  the  11th  and  13th  centuries.  The  beautiful 
lightness  of  its  tower;  its  cast  window,  said  to  be  the  largest  in  the  kingdom ;  and  its  whis- 
pering gallery ;  attract  peculiar  notice.  The  gaol,  built  at  an  expense  of  40,(KK)?.,  afforded 
one  of  the  first  applications  of  the  beneficent  principles  of  Howard.  Pins  arc  the  chief 
manufacture  of  Gloucester ;  and,  small  as  the  article  is,  the  sale  is  so  great  as  to  rend<!r  the 
amount  it  returns  considerable.  Its  trade  has  been  much  obstructed  by  the  bad  navigation 
of  the  Severn;  but  since  the  parallel  line  of  the  Berkeley  Canal  has  just  been  completed,  by 
which  large  ships  can  come  up  from  the  Channel,  Gloucester  is  placed  almost  on  a  footing 
with  Bristol. 

Cheltenham,  by  the  feme  of  its  waters,  and  its  attractions  as  a  place  of  fashionable  resort, 
has  become  a  greater  and  more  crowded  place  than  Gloucester.  The  waters  are  at  onc^ 
saline  and  chalybeate ;  and,  being  thus  both  tonic  and  aperient,  are  efficacious  in  indiges- 
tion, biliary  affections,  and  similar  disorders.  Cheltenham  now  ranks  second  only  to  Bath, 
both  as  a  resort  for  invalids  and  a  gay  rendezvous  of  the  fashionable  world. 

There  are  other  interesting  towns  in  Gloucestershire.  Tewkesbury  has  in  close  vicinity 
the  "Bloody  Meadow,"  on  which  was  fought  the  great  battle  which  finally  crushed  the  for- 
tunes of  the  house  of  Ijuncaster.  Placed  at  the  junction  of  the  Severn  (ind  Avon,  it  is  a 
venerable  old  town,  contJiining  the  Abbey  church  a  remnant  of  tliat  grand  monastery,  of 
which  the  superior,  being  a  mitred  abbot,  sat  in  the  House  of  Peers.  Cirencester,  a  town  of 
great  historical  name,  covers  only  part  of  its  ancient  site,  but  contains  one  of  the  finest  parociiial 
churches  in  the  kingdom.  Stroud  is  the  centre  of  the  woollen  manufacture  carried  on,  not 
in  itself,  but  in  the  surrounding  valleys,  and  raising  the  population  of  the  parish  to  42,000. 
Bristol  we  shall  consider  as  belonging  to  Somerset. 

Of  the  seats  the  most  interesting  is  Hogley,  the  grounds  of  whicii  I-iord  I.yttnlton  adorned 
with  classic  taste.  Near  it  is  the  interesting  spot  of  the  Leasowes,  embellished  by  Shen- 
stonc  with  all  the  taste  of  a  poet.  Berkeley  Castle  is  a  grand  castellated  edifice,  almost  as 
old  as  the  Conquest,  and  the  scene  of  Edward  II.'s  death ;  retaining  still  its  antique  clia- 
racter. 

Somerset  has  vales  almost  as  extensive  as  those  of  Gloucester,  yet  it  is  crossoil  by  long 
ranges  of  those  rufrgrd  hills  which  pervade  all  the  extreme  west  of  England.    The  most 
Vol.  I.  2  Z 


V:  i;;! 


m 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III 


easterly  arc  Iho  Mendip  Hills,  rich  in  mineral  stores;  furtlier  west  are  the  Qimntock  Hills, 
while  on  tliu  iMrdors  ot  Devon  lies  Exnioor  Forest,  the  most  elevated  of  all  tlicwe  tracts — ita 
higliest  point  Uunkerry  Beacon,  being  1668  feet  high.  The  prevailing  husbundry  is  pas- 
turage, chielly  of  rich  natural  grass ;  and,  besides  a  number  of  cattle  sent  to  the  I/indon 
markets,  the  dairy  is  a  great  branch  of  industry.  Chedder  cheese  is  considered  equal  to  any 
in  Eiigliind ;  and  a  great  (luantity  of  what  is  culled  Gloucester  is  produced  in  Somerset. 
The  orchards  are  extensive,  and  cider  and  perry  nearly  as  abundant  as  in  the  counties  on 
the  Severn.  The  Mendip  Hills  yield  excellent  coal,  lead  of  fine  quality,  and  culuniine.  The 
nianutUctures  are  considerable,  both  woollen  and  linen ;  the  former  chietly  of  the  hncr  sorts ; 
the  latter,  mostly  dosvlas,  tickons,  and  suil-cloth. 

Bristol,  since  wo  have  attached  it  to  Somerset,  must  hold  the  first  place.  This  city 
ranked  long  us  second  to  tlie  metropolis  in  commercial  importance ;  but  in  the  course  of  the 
last  century,  it  has  remained  nearly  stationary  in  extent  and  population,  though  not  in  wealth. 
In  1736,  it  had  8(»,(XK)  inhabitants;  in  1821,  87,771 ;  but  in  1831,  with  its  suburbs,  104,886. 
It  has  still  a  very  extensive  trade,  chiefly  with  Wales,  Ireland,  and  the  West  Indies.  Nor 
does  its  spirit  seem  abated ;  since,  in  1800,  it  completed,  at  an  expense  of  (>0,000/.,  a  series 
of  extensive  improvements,  by  which  the  rivers  Avon  and  Frome  were  spread  out  into  vost 
basins,  for  the  commodious  reception  of  vessels.  The  manufactures  of  Bristol  are  very  con- 
siderable ;  its  glass-works  are  twenty  in  number ;  its  brass  founderiea  the  most  extensive 
in  the  kingdom;  to  which  it  adds  shot,  pottery,  &c.  In  1832  there  belonged  to  it 296  ships, 
of  the  burthen  of  46,.'J07  tons.  The  amount  of  customs,  in  1831,  was  1,168,978/.,  chiefly 
from  duties  on  VVest  India  produce ;  and  there  entered  its  port  2547  vessels,  of  the  bur- 
then of  C25,0(K)  tons.  It  has  still  the  remains  of  a  magnificent  cathedral,  and  the  beau- 
tiful church  of  St  Mary  Redclitfc,  with  many  interesting  monuments.  The  old  interior  of 
Bristol  is  ill-built  and  inconvenient ;  but  the  merchants  in  the  new  quarters  of  the  city  have 
reared  .«onie  handsome  streets  and  s<juares.  Bristol  has  wells,  considered  very  efiicacious, 
especially  in  consumptive  complaints.  Visiters  chiefly  resort  to  the  beautiful  village  of  Clif- 
ton, about  a  mile  distant,  amid  the  romantic  rocks  of  St.  Vincent.  Bristol  stands  conspicu- 
ous for  ita  beneficent  in.stitutions,  in  which  those  for  education  stand  prominent.  Chat- 
terlon,  Southey,  and  Coleridge  were  natives  of  Bristol. 

The  name  of  Bath  (Ji,v.  174.)  implies  the  circumstance  to  which  from  the  earliest  ages  it 
has  owed  its  importance.     The  Romans  made  it  one  of  their  principal  stations,  and  built 


Bath. 


splendid  baths,  of  which  the  remains  have  been  discovered.  Near  the  nii<!dle  of  the  las; 
century,  it  became  very  distinguished  as  a  scene  of  fushiomihio  re.sidencr,  mid  coiitinu-^d 
to  increase  till  recently,  when  its  attraction  was  shared  by  Cheltenham  nml  some  newer 
places  of  resort.  It  became  the  most  beautiful,  we  may  nearly  say  the  only  beautifiil,  city 
in  England.  The  houses,  built  of  a  fine  freestone,  while  tiiose  of  almost  all  the  other  groat 
towns  are  of  brick,  have  a  decidedly  superior  aspect;  and  several  of  the  streets,  as  Great 
Pulteney  Street,  tiie  ('rcscent,  the  Parades,  &c.,  being  not  only  composed  of  fine  houses,  but 
formed  on  a  regular  plan,  may  vie  with  the  finest  in  Europe.  The  city,  moreover,  rising  by 
a  gentle  ascent  from  the  Avon,  large  portions  of  it  may  often  be  seen  at  once  in  the  most 
advantageous  points  of  view.  Tlie  pump-room,  the  assembly-room,  and  every  structure 
raised  for  the  sick  or  the  gay,  are  unequalled  in  splendour.  Bath  has  a  Gothic  cathedral 
one  of  the  latest  IniiU,  nnd  on  a  small  scale,  but  the  most  highly  ornamented  in  the  king- 
dom ;  the  chief  beauty  is  in  the  west  front 


DOOK  I. 


ENGLAND. 


Other  voncrablo  and   interostinjf  citios  are  found  in  Sompfsotsliiro.     Wells  ia  chiefly 
distinguished  by  a  cathedral  (Jg.  176,),  which  ranks  with  the  llncxt  in  Enffiiind.    The 
173        tMM  weiitern  tVont,  built  in  tlie  i:)th  ccntur}', 

ia  one  of  the  moNt  splendid  tipccimena 
exiflting  of  the  li^ht  and  hliridy  orna- 
mentea  Gothic.  In  the  interior,  a  chape' 
dedicated  to  the  Vir^'in  is  much  admired ; 
the  rest  is  iSaxon,  and  heavy.  About  two 
miles  distant  is  Wookcy  Hole,  a  natural 
cavern ;  the  aperture,  at  firt^t,  merely  al- 
lows one  man  to  pass ;  but  it  soon  opena 
into  a  succession  of  large  apartments, 
filled  with  spars,  concretions,  petrifac- 
Weiii  Citiwirai.  tions  of  tlic  most  fantastic  forms.    A  sub- 

terraneous river  prevents  &rther  advance.  Glastonbury  contains  the  small  remains  of  the 
most  extensive  monastery  in  the  kingdom ;  which,  with  its  various  gardens  and  offices, 
covered  sixty  acres,  supported  5()0  monks,  and  enjoyed  a  revenue  of  2.5,000/.  Even  the 
church  attaclied  to  it  rivalled  the  greatest  of  the  English  cathedrals.  Bridgcwater  and 
Tatmton  are  towns  of  note  in  history,  which  carry  on  some  trade  and  manufuctiiros.  Wel- 
lington gives  a  title  to  the  greatest  commander  of  the  age,  in  whose  honour  a  pillar  is  there 
erected.    Fromo  is  a  large  and  flourishing  town,  employed  in  the  woollen  manufacture. 

Devonshire  is  traversed  by  ridges  of  hills,  low,  broad  and  flat,  which,  scon  from  a  heijght, 
appear  (iften  as  one  uninterrupted  plain;  but  on  minuter  inspection  are  found  separated  by 
deep  valleys  called  coomlis,  walled  in  by  the  steep  sides  of  the  hills.  This  structure  pro- 
duces many  so(|uestered  and  romantic  sites ;  it  renders,  however,  many  of  the  roads  steep  and 
circuitou.a,  and  in  some  places  scarcely  passoble.  The  forest  of  Dartmoor,  an  extensive  dis- 
trict on  the  west  of  the  county,  is  of  a  character  peculiarly  rugged,  broken  into  fantastic 
summits,  and  the  valleys  chiefly  under  wood  or  lying  waste.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Vale 
of  Exeter,  and  what  are  called  the  Hams,  in  the  southern  districts,  are  distinguished  for 
fertility,  which  is  rather  heightened  than  injured  by  the  moderate  ineipmlitiesof  the  surface. 
Grain,  cattle,  slioep,  jxitatoes,  excellent  cider,  are  raised  according  to  the  Kituation,  and  are 
all  generally  gocnl.  The  cattle  are  of  a  very  superior  breed,  botli  for  feeding  and  draught. 
Devonshire  does  not  rank  high  as  a  manufacturing  county ;  yet  woollens  arc  made  to  some 
extent  in  Exeter  and  several  other  places.  Fishing  is  carried  on  with  spirit  and  success, 
both  in  the  sea  and  in  the  rivers ;  of  which  last,  the  Exe  and  the  Tamar  arc  the  principal. 
The  Western  Canal,  joining  the  two  channels,  passes  chiefly  through  Devonshire. 

Exeter,  the  capital,  is  an  ancient  and  pleasantly  situated  town,  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Exe.  In  consequence  of  its  advantages  fiir  education  and  society,  many  of  the  gentry  from 
different  parts  of  the  county  have  made  it  their  residence.  Its  manufacture  and  export  of 
serges  and  kerseys  have  declined,  but  are  still  considerable ;  the  East  India  Company  taking 
them  to  the  annual  value  of  400,0(KW.  The  catliedral  holds  a  high  rank  among  ecclesiasti- 
cal antiquities.  Some  part  of  it  is  traced  to  the  ninth  century ;  but  the  greater  proportion 
belongs  to  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth.  The  painted  east  window,  and  the  bell  of 
r2,.'jOO  lbs.  weight,  the  gift  of  Bishop  Courtenay,  are  particularly  noticed.  Some  modern 
embellishments  have  been  added. 

Plymouth  is  the  most  important  of  the  towns  of  Devonshire,  and  one  of  the  great  naval 
arsenals  of  Britain.  The  main  and  central  depots  lie  at  Portsmouth  and  on  tlie  Thames ; 
but  it  is  important  that  the  fleets  should  have  this  exterior  station,  where  they  may  rendez- 
vous, and  receive  their  final  equipment  and  supplies  before  leaving  the  Channel ;  where 
also,  when  exhausted,  they  may  put  in  and  refit.  The  Plyin  and  the  Tamar,  at  their  junc- 
tion,, form  an  estuary  of  nearly  two  miles  broad,  composing  a  harbour,  or  ratlicr  a  scries  of 
harlwurs,  capable  of  containing  2000  vessels  in  a  state  of  perfect  security.  In  that  of  Ha- 
nioaze,  on  the  Tamar,  100  sail  of  the  line  may  be  safely  moored.  Catwater,  the  |X)rt  at  the 
mouthof  the  Plym;  and  SuttonPool,  immediately  adjoining  the  town;  are  both  excellent  and 
extensive.  Plymouth  Bay  ffarms  also  an  excellent  roadstead,  though  exposed  to  the  heavy 
swell  which  came  in  from  the  Atlantic.    To  remedy  this,  government  undertook  tliat  stu- 

176 


i 


!   n 


i| 


Plymouth  Breakwater. 


p(>ndous  work  the  Breakwater,  a  mole  formed  by  immense  stones  heaped  upon  each  other 
stretching  across  the  entrance,  ar.d  at  a  certain  distance  from  either  shore  (Jig.  176.).    The 


i' 


i 


806 


DESCRIPTIVE  QEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III 


P* 


# 


estimated  oxpenio  waa  1,17j(),0()0{.  ;  and  tho  quantity  of  iituno,  'i.OOOiOOO  tniiH.  It  liaa  rom- 
pletely  an8wero<l  oxpectation ;  anil,  in  pro|H)rtioii  as  it  Iiiih  lulvnncod,  Iiiih  rondorcd  tho 
roadHtcod  more  sociiro.  An  tho  approach  wan  ol«o  rendered  iliinj{erou«  by  the  KddyMtono 
rocksi,  a  li((ht-houiio  has,  atVcr  much  dilHculty  and  Hcveral  inwucccMsfiil  trials,  been  erected 
there  by  Mr.  Sineaton,  sniliciontly  firm  to  withittnnd  tho  ttiriuun  awuiultM  of  tho  Atlantic 
waves  to  which  it  is  exposed.  Plymouth  is  now  divided  into  two  nearly  equal  |)art« — 
Plymouth  and  Plymoutli  dock,  at  tho  mouth  of  the  Tamar,  recently  called  Dcvonport,  and 
raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  separate  borough.  The  dook-ynrd  is  most  superb ;  iVW()  yards  in 
leni^h,  and  from  lUUO  to  lOtN)  in  breadtli.  All  the  establixlunents  connectc'd  with  it,  tho 
ropery,  smithy,  saw-pita,  mast-houses,  as  also  the  victuallin(f  departments,  are  on  tho  most 
extensive  scale,  yet  conducted  in  tho  motit  ro(;ular  order.  Plymouth  is  not,  on  tliu  whole, 
a  well-built  town :  but  it  contains  some  handsome  edifices ;  as  tho  government-house ;  the 
theatre,  chiefly  of  cast-iron ;  the  public  library,  &c.  The  charitable  institutions  are  nu- 
merous. 

Barnstaple  is  a  sort  of  capital  of  North  Devon,  situated  on  a  rich  plain,  and  retaining  a 
few  manufactures.  Dartmouth  carries  on  some  foreign  trade ;  while  between  it  and  Teign- 
mouth  is  Torbay,  whore,  sheltered  from  the  heavy  gales  that  blow  up  the  Channel,  the 
British  fleet  can  ride  safely  at  anchor. 

Cornwall  is  a  peninsula  of  a  triangular  form,  bounded  by  Devon,  and  tho  sea.  The  hills 
form  a  bleuk  central  ridge,  terminating  in  tho  rugged  und  obtuse  point  called  the  land's 
End.  But  some  of  tho  narrow  volleys  wear  the  aspect  of  smiling  fertility.  In  some  se- 
cluded spots  the  climate  is  so  genial,  tliut  tiie  myrtle  and  other  shrubs  peculiar  to  the  south 
of  Europe  flourish  in  the  open  air.  Cornwall  has  from  the  earliest  ages  been  renowned  for  its 
mineral  products.  These  aro  principally  tin  and  copper ;  it  also  yields  some  lead.  These 
metals  occur  in  the  granite  chain,  extending  eastward  as  far  as  Dartmoor  in  Devon ;  but  at 
present  the  principal  mining  district  is  that  between  the  Land's  End  and  St.  Austel. 
The  most  celebrated  aro  the  tin  mines  of  Palgooth,*  about  two  miles  west  of  that  town :  in 
these  there  are  no  fewer  tlian  fifty  shafts,  of  which  twenty  or  thirty  arc  constantly  in  use. 
The  principal  vein  of  ore,  which  is  about  six  feet  thick,  runs  from  cast  to  west,  and  dipa  to 
the  north  with  an  inclination  of  about  six  feet  in  a  fathom.  The  ore  is  of  the  vitreous 
kind,  but  rarely  found  in  crystals;  the  colour  for  the  most  part  grayish-brown;  the  country 
of  the  ore  is  a  gray  killas.  The  water  is  carried  away.  Steam  power  has  been  substituted 
for  that  of  horses  in  moving  the  machinery  employed  for  raising,  washing,  and  stamping  the 
ore ;  atler  which  lost  operation  it  is  carried  to  the  smelting-houbc.  Tin  cannot  be  sold  until 
it  is  assayed  and  stamped  with  the  duchy  seal ;  for  which  purpose  meetings  are  usually  held 
four  times  a  year.  The  annual  produce  is  estimated  at  20,000  or  25,000  blocks,  each  block 
weighing  from  23  to  35  cwt.,  and  valued  on  the  average  at  ten  guineas.  Grain  tin,  which 
is  obtained  from  stream  ore,  is  deemed  superior  in  value  to  the  common  metiJ,  and  has  been 
procurc<l  to  the  amount  of  2000  or  2400  blocks  annually.  The  annual  produce  of  copper 
IS  about  13,000  tons,  estimated  at  1,300,(KHW.  The  lead  mines  arc  not  much  worked.  The 
tinners  are  in  many  respects  a  distinct  body  of  men;  they  have  a  court  and  porliament  of 
their  own.  Tho  stannary  laws,  by  which  the  mines  and  the  operations  connected  with 
them  are  regulated,  do  not  appear  to  have  undergone  any  change  singe  the  reign  of 
Charles  II.     The  mines  give  employment  to  about  16,000  men. 

The  pilchard  fishery  afibrds  another  source  of  wealth  to  Cornwall.  The  pilchards  appear 
annually  in  vast  shoals  about  the  middle  of  July ;  and  are  taken  in  large  nets  of  a  peculiar 
form,  called  seans,  each  sean  managed  by  three  boats,  containing  eighteen  men.  After  lying 
salted  in  store  for  six  weeks,  tlie  fish  are  packed  in  hogsheads,  so  closely  that  the  whole 
contents,  when  turned  out,  appear  in  a  compact  state.  The  oil  expressed  fi"om  them  is  so 
considerable  in  quantity  as  to  have  become  an  article  of  trade.  The  quantity  annually 
exported  from  the  Cornish  coast  may  be  worth  5O,00OJ.  including  the  receipts  for  oil.  The 
number  of  persons  employed  in  this  fishery  is  about  5000. 

The  towns  of  Cornwall  are  small.  Launceston,  situated  on  the  Tamar,  extends  up  the 
side  of  a  hill,  on  the  summit  of  which  are  the  remains  of  a  small  fortress  called  Castle  Ter- 
rible, where  a  vigorous  stand  was  made  to  sustain  tlie  sinking  fortunes  of  Charles  I.  Truro 
is  a  neat  thriving  town,  the  trade  of  which  consists  in  a  considerable  export  of  tin.  Penzance, 
near  the  I^and's  End,  fit)m  the  mild  salubrity  of  its  air,  has  been  found  highly  beneficial  to 
persons  of  delicate  constitutions,  particularly  of  a  consumptive  tendency ;  and  those  who 
take  up  their  residence  at  Penzance,  are  agreeably  surprised  by  the  lovely  reenery  in  its 
neighbourhood.  Falmouth,  the  westernmost  of  the  fine  harbours  on  the  Channel,  is  the  prin- 
cipal packet  station  for  Lisbon,  the  Mediterranean,  and  the  West  Indies. 

SuBSECT  5.—  Wales, 

Wales  is  a  territory  which,  though  united  to  England  by  early  conquest,  still  retains  the 
title  of  a  separate  principality,  and  possesses  a  national  aspect.     The  verdant  and  extensive 

•  Dr.  Malon'i  Obscrvntions  on  tlie  Woatorii  Coiintios. 


T 


fT- 


BookI. 


ENGLAND. 


397 


|)luinH  of  wontcni  Eiiifluiul  lioro  i^ivo  place  to  tliu  lufly  niuiintuin,  tlin  deep  viillcy,  tlio  ronr- 
iiiX  turrunt,  uiiii  tliu  tVi)r|iU'ul  pmciiiiRn,  Wnlcs  Iium  rivcrti  niiil  turrciiU  svitlumt  number, 
wliicli  ruU  tliruii^li  iU  luoimtuiu  valleys,  and  wIiuhi!  UinkM,  ailoriunl  with  vcnltiru  and  culti- 
vutiuii,  coinbinu  in  tliu  uumt  utrikinK  niunnor  witli  tlio  lutly  and  varied  NinniiiitH  wliicli  tower 
abovu  tliuni.  Tliu  IoIUumI  niountuinH  uru  in  Nurtli  VVuIoh;  itH  vullcyH  uro  dci'pcr  und 
nurrnwor;  iind  it  pruKontx  nioro  Mtrikinj^ly  nil  tlio  choructuriHtic  I'ciitiircd  ut'  W'tdi^li  Hcoiicry. 
Ill  Huiith  VVuluH,  on  tlio  uuutrury,  tliu  vulluyHiiru  broader,  nioro  t't'rtilc,  and  t'ullor  ut'  towiirf 
und  villiiijcvti ;  tlioy  utlun  uvea  ex|)and  into  widu  plaiiiH,  Htill  encircled  by  ii  niuiintain  bound- 
ary. A|;rit:ulture,  in  hucIi  u  country,  luboiim  under  many  dl8adviintu(,'uii,  niiil  iii  carried  un 
too  oflon  uiKiii  the  old  MVHtoni  ot'  intield  and  ontlield.  Munufncturea  uro  nciirly  cimlined  to 
the  article  of  tlunnel,  wliicli  Iiub  always  been  a  tlibric  of  the  VVoltili,  in  wliicli  tliuy  titill  excel 
their  VurkMhire  rivnU.  It  w  tu  niinintr,  however,  that  the  induntry  of  WaloH  liaH  been  cliietly 
attracted,  by  the  proAisiou  of  niinerul  wealth  which  nature  liua  lodged  in  the  boweU  of  itrt 
niountuins.  The  lead  of  Flint,  Cueriiurvon,  iind  other  counticH  of  North  Wnlen,  the  copp<!r 
of  Anglesey,  and  above  all,  the  iron  of  Ghiiiior^'nn  and  other  counticH  in  the  Uritish  Cliannel, 
are  objects  of  extensive  importance.  Coal  iu  tbiind  almowt  everywhere,  and  in  employed 
cither  for  domestic  puiiXMiCH,  or  in  fusing  and  refining  the  niutallic  ores. 

The  Welsh  are  a  Celtic  race,  the  dericendiints  of  the  ancient  Dritons,  who,  in  these  tnoun- 
tain  recesses,  sought  rctuge  from  the  destroying  sword  of  the  Saxons,  which  so  completely 
dis()ossc8sed  them  of  the  low  country  of  England.  They  could  not  resist  the  overwhelming 
jiower  of  Edward  I.,  who  annexed  Wales  to  the  English  crown.  In  order  to  hold  it  in  hub- 
jection,  however,  lie  was  obliged  to  construct,  not  only  on  its  fVontier,  but  in  its  interior, 
castles  of  immense  extent  and  strength.  Yet  they  did  not  prevent  fonnidoblo  insurrections, 
in  one  of  which  Owen  Glcndower  maintained  himself  for  years  as  an  independent  prince. 
Witliin  the  lust  300  years,  the  Welsh  have  been  as  peaceable  aa  any  otlier  subjects  of  the 
empire.  They  have  retained,  of  their  feudal  habits,  only  venial  failings.  Among  these  is 
national  pride,  tlirough  wliich  the  genuine  Cambrian  holds  his  country  and  his  nation  sii|)c- 
rior  to  all  others;  and  regards  the  Sasna  or  Saxon  as  a  lower  nice  of  yesterday.  With  this 
is  connected,  in  u  liigh  degree,  the  priac  of  pedigree ;  even  the  humblest  Welshman  tracing 
his  origin  far  above  any  lowland  genealogy.  Strong  ties  of  friendship  subsist  between  tliu 
landowners  and  their  tenants :  manifested,  on  one  side,  by  indulgence  and  protecting  kind- 
ness; on  the  other,  by  a  prolbund  veneration  for  the  representatives  of  the  ancient  chictis  of 
their  racL.  The  Welsh  have  many  8U])crstition8,mi.\ed  with  mtich  genuine  religious  feeling. 
They  are  liurdy,  active,  lively,  hospitable,  kind-licartcd ;  only  a  little  hot  ond  (lunrrclsoMie. 
Their  English  neighbours  complain  that  they  hive  not  yet  attained  that  pitch  of  industry 
and  cleanliness  in  which  the  former  place  their  pride. 

North  Wales  comprises  the  counties  of  Caernarvon,  Merioneth,  Montfromcnj,  Denbigh, 
and  Flint,  with  the  island  of  Anglesey.  The  characteristic  feature  of  this  division  consists 
in  the  very  elevated  chains  of  mountains  which  cross  it  from  north  to  south,  facing  the  Irish 

Channel.  The  chief  is  Snowdon  (Jig, 
177,)  which  raises  its  head  to  the  lieiglit 
of  37(X)  feet;  yet  it  is  only  the  most  ele- 
vated of  a  crowd  of  summits,  many  of 
which  rear  their  peaks  almost  as  nigh. 
They  cover  a  great  part  of  the  county  of 
Caernarvon,  at  the  northern  part  of  which 
they  present  to  the  Bay  of  Beaumaris  the 
lofty  steep  of  Penmnnmawr,  whose  broken 
fragments  threaten  to  bury  him  who 
travels  the  difficult  path  which  has  been 
formed  olong  its  almost  perpendicular 
sides.  Merioneth  is  chiefly  covered  with 
inferior,  but  lofty  and  rugged  mountains, 
till  towards  the  southern  extremity,  tlicy  tower  into  Cader  Idris,  tlic  second  summit  of 
Wales.  It  is  everywhere  steep,  craggy,  and  precipitous.  Lastly,  in  the  heart  of  Montgomery, 
towers  tlic  huge  mass  of  Plinliniinon,  with  a  crowd  of  attendant  mountains. 

The  vales  which  intervene  between  these  heights  diversify  bleak  and  barren  regions, 
otherwise  calculated  to  inspire  only  impressions  of  dreary  sublimity.  The  most  extensive 
is  that  of  Clwyd,  in  the  county  of  Denbigh,  where  the  mountain  chains  gradually  sink.  It 
is  about' twenty  miles  in  length,  and  four  or  five  in  average  breadth;  and  presents  a  more 
brilliant  picture  of  fertility,  heightened,  doubtless,  by  contrast,  than  almost  any  other  syiot 
in  Uie  island.  The  narrower  vales,  however,  present  more  of  pictiircK(iuo  beauty,  particu- 
larly that  of  lilangolen,  where  tlie  Dee,  winding  through  cultivated  and  pastoral  .scenes, 
overhung  by  high  rocks  and  cliffs,  presents  at  every  step  a  varying  landscapp.  The  island 
of  Anglesey  is  generally  level,  and  its  scenery  presents  few  striking  features,  except  the 
rocks  of  its  western  shore.  It  has  happened,  fortunately  for  the  improvement  of  this  formi- 
dable range  of  territory,  tiiat  it  lies  on  the  highway  from  London  towards  Dublin ;  and  witli 
Vol.  I  34 


SllUWdlllt. 


■^ 


4 


809 


DKHCRIPTIVE  OEOORAPIIY. 


Pmt  III 


<'iturr)ftr\itii  4'iiiil«. 


the  view  of  fiirilitatini;  tho  intprctmrno  brtwocn  thn  kin^dnniM,  |i^)Vfriiiiinnt,  nt  llii'  iiatiunal 
expcnw,  hiu  lurinctl  ono  of  the  tincit  rouAn  in  tho  world ;  iwii(mt(  lh<t  priiu'ip'il  ti'iitiircn  ol 

which  iH  thi>  iron  HiiNiipnNidfi-hrlduc, 
fornifil  BcniMM  thn  nriii  <il  the  hcii,  cailod 
tho  Mi'imi  (.'himnol.  'I'lic  chinf  crntro 
of  l)»'  llanrH'i  nianiifiiftiiro  in  in  Mimt- 
(i'diiiprv  iinil  Mi'riont'th.  The  h'nd  mint!* 
of  llolywfdl  mid  tho  ro|)|H>r  niinoH  of 
Ant;lcM'y  ))0!ii<)>ni<  an  iniuortiiiird  Mcurco- 
ly  inferior  to  Ihimf  of  Hoiith  VVuh!*. 

('iiprnnrvon  in  ii  hnndnomr,  wull-lmilt 
town.  It,-i  chief  orniimiMit  \n  thi-  cuHlu, 
(I  Htatcly  i-diticc  ( /f^.  17H.),  hiiilt  hy  Ed- 
wnrd  I.  to  curb  tlii'  npirit  of  tho  nowly 
Kiibthiod  VVi'lHh.  It  oncloMPti  an  urea  of 
two  acres  ami  a  half;  the  toworn  aro  of  HtiipondmiH  ninffnittidn,  iind  crowm.'d  by  liijht  and 
beautiful  turret».  To  tho  foiitli  of  Cacrnnrvon  Ih  tho  Bleon  ofrcnl  of  Snowdon,  waoneo  a 
view  of  BBtoniihing  extent  is  commanded ;  though  only  to  be  tieun  in  thoHo  tbrtunate  duyo 

when  the  veil  of  miHt,  which  usually 
wraps  it,  has  been  disHipated.  On 
its  declivity  ix  thn  wild  nnd  rocky 
lake  of  Mnnbieris,  with  tho  ruined 
castle  of  Dollmdnrn  overhanging  its 
bnnkn.  Nnirly  nt  tlio  opiKwitu  ex- 
tremity of  tho  county  in  Conway ; 
a  poor  town,  but  rontiiiniiig  the  walls 
of  a  Htill  more  miip'nificent  catitlo 
(fiff.  no.),  nlw)  erected  by  Edward 
I.  Tho  interior  is  in  ii  hIiUo  of  totul 
ruin;  but  tlie  view,  from  a  little  dis- 
tance, of  ilH  eight  mighty  towers, 
ninging  along  the  !<uinmit  of  a  lofty 
rock,  which  overl(K)kM  tho  Day  of 
BenunmriH,  presents  nn  image  of 
Ciinwi)'  c«iiie.  gnindour  which  scarcely  any  other 

ciistellotcd  Htructurc  in  tho  kingdom  can  rival.     About  iriidway  lictweon  those  two  castled 
sites  is  Oungor,  a  pleasant  little  town,  on  the  high  road  to  Holyhead  and  Dublin.    Here,  and 

ot  Penryn,  is  a  great  nhipment  of  .slates,  brought 
from  the  steep  sides  of  the  neighbouring  mountains. 
Merioneth  has  a  few  large  villages,  each  enclosed 
by  a  circuit  of  lofty  and  almo^^t  inaccessible  mountains. 
dala  is  8up|)orte(l  by  a  small  manufacture  of  knit 
gloves  and  stockings,  and  by  the  vicinity  of  tho  largest 
of  the  littlo  lakes  of  Wule^,  which  has  clear  water 
and  abounds  in  fish.  Dolgelly,  about  midway  between 
Snowdon  and  Cader  Idris  {Jff,  18().),  is  seated  in  the 
very  heart  of  all  the  grandest  scenery  of  Wales.  On 
the  coast,  the  castle  of  Harlech,  built  also  by  Edward, 
bears  marks  of  groat  strength. 
Montgomery,  though  its  centre  is  occupied  by  tho  "huge  IMinlimmon,"  whence  branches 
shoot  out  in  every  direction,  is  yet,  on  the  whole,  of  a  milder  aspect.  The  town  of  Mont- 
gomery is  sniall,  pleasantly  situated  on  the  declivity  of  n  hill,  crowned  with  the  ruins  of  a 
once  noble  castle.  Welshpool  is  an  ill-built  straggling  town,  but  has  u  great  market  for  flan- 
nels ;  and  connniinicates  by  a  canal  with  Chester  and  Ellesmore.  Near  Montgomery  is  Powis 
Castle,  which  dotes  from  the  twelfth  century,  and  was  long  one  of  the  proudest  fortresses  in 
Wales:  it  is  still  a  superb  modem  seat. 

In  proceeding  to  Denbigh  and  Flint,  we  come  to  broader  valleys,  and  hills  gradually  dimin- 
ishing down  to  the  level  plain  of  western  England.  Denbigh,  a  pleasant,  ancient  little 
town,  is  crowned  by  a  castle,  sauted  on  a  high  rock,  looking  down  to  tho  valeof  (^Iwyd,  pro- 
verbial for  its  smiling  fertility.  In  the  valley  of  the  Dee,  is  Wrexham,  noted  for  its  fairs,  in 
which  Welsh  flnmiel  is  the  staple  commodity.  But  the  chief  ornament  of  Denbigh  is  Llan- 
gollen VhIo,  on  the  upper  Dee,  where  the  mixture  of  culture  nnd  wildnees  produces  the  meet 
striking  variety  of  scenery.  .Among  its  leading  features  are  the  ruined  cnstio  of  Dinns  Bran, 
crowning  tho  steep  summit  of  one  of  the  principal  liills;  and  the  reiniiins  of  tho  Abl)ey  of 
Valle  Crucis.  This  last  is  situated  in  a  valley  connected  with  that  of  Iilangollen,  enclosed 
by  lofty  mountjiins  verdant  to  the  summit,  and  sprinkled  with  trees.  The  edifice  has  been 
in  the  simplest  style  of  Saxon  architecture ;  but  the  situation  renders  it  one  of  the  mwt 


DOOK  I. 


WALES. 


800 


HolyhMd. 


picturi'iiqim  iipoti  in  Rnfflnml.  Chirk  hu  nonr  if  a  cwtln,  one  of  flu-  tnoMt  pcrllTt  of  the 
mnriy  with  which  VVnIoH  in  ndoriKMl.  Nrar  it  also  is  tin  fino  acnii'duct  nf  l'iiiit-y-ry»iltp,  by 
which  Mr.  Telford  \\nn  rondiictiHl  th«  Ellentni-re  C*niil  dVi  >■  tho  J)(U',  ri»tiii(f  oa  18  pii'r», 
10()7  fi'vi  in  Iimjjth,  niul  I'M  frot  alwvo  tho  lovcl  of  itw  rivrr. 

Flint  iM  rich  in  lend  and  other  minonil  ntoro*.  Thu  wumty  town  (if  l-lim  nnd  it*  cimtlp, 
hovn  I'ntircly  iiwt  tlui  iin|iortnncn  tln-y  [losHCHiM'd  when  thoy  w^rn  tho  nrisiid  ')f  Kichard  11, ; 
ftnd  tho  if\i'ry  of  CanrwyH,  thn  nnciunt  ncono  <f  mu»icnrttn((  iHifticai  c.mU'st,  !/««  tnitircly 
[HiHHfd  iiwiiv.  Holywoll,  bcHidoH  itii  cxtnniiive  U„  '  -liMc,  curries  .  a  works  in  hriii<H  nnd 
copimr,  nnd  even  nomo  cotton  liihricH.  More  tho  mu  '"1  well  of  St.  VVirffriile,  from  which 
it  (Icrivcrt  itH  numo,  ii*  bonpficinlly  applied  to  tfio  piir[Hws  of  indnstry.  The  ImdI  inino  of 
Mnn-y-l'undnr  ia  tho  moitt  oxtnnHivo  in  tho  kingdom,  nnd  emplcys  Ibur  vaat  sti'iim-<  n^liip*  in 
cloarinK  otV  the  water.  Mold  in  a  protty  larjfo  town,  in  the  eenlro  of  u  rich  plniii  of  the 
Damn  nunie.      St.  Asaph  attrnctH  notice  by  it*  nent  cathedral. 

Tho  Iitlund  of  Antfloaey  in  (fononilly  a  nakoil  ond  ffIot)niy  flat.  It  wiis  niicii'ntly  the  cnn- 
tral  scat  of  druidicaj  Huporntition,  gtill  atteiitod  by  tho  rromlichn,  or  lnr({e,  tint,  glom  tube's 
■upportod  by  rudo  pillars,  which  aro  more  numerous  hero  than  in  any  other  pnrt  of  Bfiliufi.. 
Ita  unpgrtance  baa  rested  almoat  entirely  upon  its  copper  mines,  hut  nt  Into  they  hnvc  become 

unproductive,  and  tho  annual  amount  is  only 
ihim  750  to  05U  tons.  Deautniiris,  the  capital, 
ia  a  neat  little  town.  Much  nioru  importance 
attaches  to  HolyhRad,  now  tho  mnin  (loint  of 
communication  between  Plnf(lnnd  and  Ireland. 
To  render  it  such,  government  hns  conHlriicted 
a  noblo  road  from  Iiondon  across  the  most  ruff(;ed 
iMirt  of  North  Wales,  nnd  also  inndo  an  adinirn- 
ble  harbour.  The  neiijlibourin;,'  connt  is  very 
bold,  and  tho  promontory,  called  the  Head  (Jifj. 
181.),  consists  of  immenso  mnsses  of  precipitous 
rocks,  hollowed  into  deep  caverns.  The  town  itself  has  been  rapidly  extended  and  improved. 
South  Wales  comprises  the  counties  of  Radnor,  Cardijrnn,  Brecknock,  Cnerrnnrthcn,  Pem- 
broke, ami  Glamorgan.  It  presents  scenery  equally  romantic  with  that  of  North  Wnld, 
mingled  with  a  greater  degree  of  softness  and  cultivation ;  and  its  agricultural  and  mining 
products  aro  of  considerably  greater  value. 

Radnor  is  composed  of  bleak  ranges  of  mountains,  in  some  parts  almost  impassable;  the 
greater  pnrt  is  only  fitted  to  afford  pasture  for  sheep,  the  wool  of  which  is  valuable.  New 
Radnor,  once  u  fortified  city,  is  dwindled  into  a  village. 

Cardigan  includes  some  of  the  boldest  features  of  Welsh  scenery.  Tho  domain  of  Hnf(Hl, 
in  particular,  has  been  covered  with  extensive  plantations,  so  happily  disposed  ns  to  render 
it  almost  a  scene  of  enchantment.  At  a  few  miles' distance  is  "tho  Devil's  Bridge;"  an 
arch  thrown  over  a  deep  and  narrow  rocky  chasm,  overgrown  with  wood,  at  tho  bottom  of 
which  rolls  the  Mynach,  after  rushing  down  three  lofty  cascades ;  forming  alto^jcther  the 
grandest  scene  of  the  kind  in  the  kingdom.  The  lead  mines  of  Cardiganshire  arc  extensive, 
though  tho  want  of  fuel  has  caused  tho  working  of  many  of  them  to  be  discontinued.  Car- 
digan is  a  small  old  town,  which  carries  on  a  considerable  coasting  trade,  having  nearly  3fl<) 
small  vessels  belonging  to  it.  There  is  great  resort  to  Abcryetwith,  an  agreeable  bathing 
place ;  its  trade  abw  is  considerablo. 

Brecon,  or  Brecknock,  is  mountainous  and  rugged,  but  has  some  fertile  lands  in  tho  valleys 
of  the  Uske  and  the  Wye.  Brecon,  an  ancient  town  on  the  Uskc,  amid  lotly  mountains,  hu.s 
the  remains  of  a  castle,  which  was  once  strong,  and  held  by  Buckingham,  the  favourite  and 
afterwards  the  victim  of  Richard  III. 

Caermarthen  includes  an  ample  proportion  of  bleak  and  barren  hills,  intermixed  vvit!> 
large  fertile  valleys.  There  aro  abundance  of  coal,  and  some  iron  works  on  thn  (ilnmnrgnn 
border.  Tho  capital,  situated  on  the  Towey,  which  admits  to  it  vessels  of  3(10  tons,  is  one 
of  the  most  flourishing  and  best  built  towns  m  Wales. 

Pembroke  consists  of  a  peninsula  branching  out  between  the  Irish  and  British  channels , 
it  presents  merely  an  undulating  surface,  rising  at  most  to  elevations  of  300  cr  300  feet. 
Its  breed  of  cattle  is  in  high  repute,  and  its  indented  coasts  contain  some  of  the  finest  Imr- 
bours  in  Britain.  Two  Roman  roads  cross  this  county,  which  is  also  cich  in  druidicnl  and 
feudal  monuments.  The  ancient  city  of  Pembroke  is  strikingly  sitiintod  on  an  nlmot-t  in- 
sulated neck  of  land  on  the  bay  of  Milford  Haven,  the  highest  part  of  which  presents  tlio 
vast  remains  of  its  castle,  one  of  tlie  most  magnificent  structures  of  Wales  or  Entjland. 
Tho  town  contains  some  ancient  churches.  The  Inrgo  bay  composing  Milford  tlnven 
forms  the  most  capacious  and  secure  harbour  in  Britain.  Hence  government  have  been 
induced,  at  the  new  towns  of  Milford  and  Haberstone,  on  its  northern  shore,  to  form  dock- 
yards and  establish  packets  for  the  south  of  Ireland.  St.  David's,  the  ecclesiastical  capital 
of  South  Wales,  is  now  only  a  large  dirty  village,  adorned,  however  with  venerable  ancient 
atructurea. 


400 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  IIL 


0 


*: 


Gkmorgiin  is  the  finest  county  in  South  Wales,  and,  ns  to  wealth,  superior  to  any  other 
in  tlio  princij)ulity.  Its  coast,  along  the  Bristol  Channel,  and  tor  some  miles  inland,  is  level, 
and  fertile  iii  tiie  extreme.  Thence  the  ground  rises  into  hills  of  continually  increasing 
elevation,  till,  on  the  frontier,  they  rise  to  the  height  of  upv/ards  of  2(KM)  feet,  and  unite 
witii  the  Drocon  ciiuins.  From  these  heights  descend  numerous  streams,  which,  in  their 
progress  to  the  sou,  produce  uU  the  varieties  of  ravines,  wooded  vales,  fails,  and  cataracts; 
which,  with  the  beauty  of  the  plains  below,  and  the  fine  views  over  the  Bristol  Channel, 
render  Gluiiiorjrun  eciual  in  picturesque  beauty  to  any  other  county  in  Wales.  The  crops 
of  every  do.--cription  of  grain  are  ample;  and  there  are  good  breeds  both  of  cattle  and  sheep. 
But  these  objects  are  trifling,  when  compared  with  the  mineral  treasures  of  Glamorgan. 
It  forms  tiic  centre  of  a  vast  field  of  coal  and  iron,  fironi  which  branches  extend  into  the 
neighbouring  counties.  Since  it  was  found  that  iron  could  be  smelted  with  coke,  the  work 
in^  of  this  metal  has  prodigiously  increased,  and  the  town  of  Merthyr  Tydvil,  near  which 
it  IS  must  abundant,  has  grown  from  a  mere  village  to  be  the  most  populous  place  in  Wales. 
In  conseiiiicnco  also  of  the  abundance  of  fuel,  the  copper  ore  dug  out  in  Anglesey,  Cornwall, 
and  Ireland,  is  brought  hither  to  be  smelted  and  rehued.  The  plating  of  iron  with  tin  is 
also  an  extensive  occupation.  The  iron  is  reduced  by  rollers  to  the  requisite  thinness,  and 
is  then  cut  by  scissors  into  plates,  which  ailerwards  require  little  more  than  simple  immer- 
sion into  the  smelted  tin.  The  coal,  besides  its  essential  use  in  these  various  works,  is  in 
itself  a  most  extensive  object  of  exportation,  amounting  in  some  years  to  300,000  tons.  The 
rivers  of  Glamorgan  are  very  imperfectly  navigable;  but  this  defect  has  been  supplied  by 
industry.  From  IS'eath,  Cardiff,  and  Swansea,  canals  reach  far  into  tlie  interior ;  and  their 
benefits  being  extended  by  railways,  a  channel  has  been  opened  for  conveying  to  the  sea  the 
produce  even  of  the  most  interior  mines.  Cardiff  ranks  ad  the  county  town,  but  is  now  much 
surpassed  by  others.  Yet  it  carries  on  a  considerable  trade ;  having  a  commodious  harbour, 
and  being  connected  by  a  canal  with  the  interior  works  at  Merthyr  Tydvil.  It  is  now  much 
surpassed  by  Swansea,  which  has  risen  to  its  present  importance  by  immense  works  in  iron 
and  cop|K!r,  and  by  the  exportation  of  coal ;  which  is  furnished  in  such  abundance,  that  a 
large  vessel  may  enter  at  one  tide  and  go  out  loaded  at  the  next.    Its  pleasant  situation  on 

a  fine  bay  has  also  made  it  an  extensive  re- 
sort for  sea-bathing,  and  led  to  the  erection 
of  many  elegant  buildings.  Swansea  has 
thus  risen  into  a  sort  of  capital  of  South 
Wales;  yet  it  is  not  so  large  as  Merthyr 
Tydvil  has  been  rendered  by  the  extensive 
iron  works  in  and  round  it.  There  are  near 
it  seventeen  furnaces,  in  one  of  which  11,000 
tons  of  pig  iron  and  12,000  tons  of  bar  iron 
are  produced  annually.  Caerphilly,  a  thriv- 
ing little  town,  with  some  manufactures, 
deserves  notice  chiefly  from  the  remains  of 
'  its  immense  castle  (fig.  18ii.),  which  pre- 
sent a  most  stupendous  scene  of  ruins.  It 
is  stated  to  have  been  a  mile  and  a  quarter 
in  circumference,  and  capable  of  contain- 
ing a  garrison  of  20,000  men.  Llandaff,  the  only  nominal  city  in  the  county,  is  only  a  vil- 
lage, tlic  seat  of  tlie  least  richly  endowed  bishopric  in  Wales.  The  cathedral,  however,  is 
a  tine  ruin. 

The  small  islands  attached  to  England  are  unimportant.  Man,  thirty  miles  in  length  by 
twelve  in  breadth,  is  nearly  equidistant  from  each  of  the  three  kingdoms.  It  comprises  a 
considerable  extent  of  level  territory ;  but  rises  in  the  interior  into  high  mountains,  among 
which  Snowfell,  nearly  2000  feet  high,  stands  conspicuous.  Man  ranked  long  as  an  inde- 
pendent sovereignty,  held  by  the  Earls  of  Derby,  and  is  celebrated  for  the  gallant  defence 
made  by  the  countess  of  that  name  for  Charlos  I.  It  descended  afterwards  to  the  Duke  of 
Athol,  from  wlioni  the  sovereignty  was  purchased,  in  176.3,  by  the  British  government,  with 
a  view  to  the  prevention  of  smuggling,  and  to  the  establishment  of  a  free  trade.  The  natives 
are  a  Celtic  race.  Castletown,  the  capital,  is  the  neatest  town  in  the  island ;  and  in  its 
centre,  Ciistlc  lluslicii,  the  ancient  palace  of  the  kings  of  Man,  rears  il«  gloomy  and  majestic 
brow.  Douglas,  however,  as  being  tlie  spijt  in  which  the  whole  trade  circulates,  is  now  of 
superior  iniportjuicc,  and  has  attracted  a  great  number  of  English  settlers. 

The  Scilly  isles,  situated  at  some  distance  from  the  western  extremity  of  Cornwall,  arc 
tenanted  by  2(M)0  (xwr  inhabitants,  who  raise  a  little  grain,  but  depend  chiefly  ujwn  fishing, 
pilotage,  and  the  making  of  kelp. 

Jersey,  Gucrn.-'cy,  and  .\lderncy,  with  Sark,  form  a  group  naturally  French,  and  originally 
part  of  the  patrimony  of  the  Norman  kings,  which  the  naval  superiority  of  England  has 
enabled  her  to  retain.  They  enjoy  certain  privileges  and  immunities,  founded  on  this  dis- 
tinction, as  laid  down  by  Coke,  that,  "  though  [wircel  of  the  dominion  of  the  crown  of  Eng- 


Uacrphilly  Cutle. 


.■^ 


Book  I. 


SCOTLAND 


401 


land,  thoy  arc  not,  nor  over  were,  parcel  of  the  realm  of  England."  TIio  climate  is  mild 
and  ufTTct-nblD,  and  the  soil  generally  fertile.  Jtney,  the  finest  of  the  group,  is  so  abundant 
in  orclmrds,  that  cider  forms  the  chief  object  of  exportation.  St.  Ilclier,  the  capital  of  Jersey, 
is  a  handsome  town. 


[•nfjth  by 
pprises  a 

among 

I  an  inde- 

defcnce 

iDuko  of 

]nt,  with 

natives 
lid  in  its 
jmnjcstic 

now  of 

|val1,  arc 
1  fishing, 

jiginuUy 
luiul  has 
llliis  dis- 
lof  Enu- 


Mull  of  Galluwar. 


^  CHAPTER  111. 

SCOTLAND 

The  place  which  Scotland  holds  as  part  of  Great  Britain,  has  already  been  exhibited  in 
the  introduction  to  the  chapter  on  England.  We  shall  now  describe  in  detail  this  import- 
ant, though  secondary,  member  of  the  empire. 

Sect.  I. — Geographical  Outline. 
Scotland  is  bounded  on  the  south  by  England,  firom  which  it  is  separated  by  a  line  drawn 
along  the  Tweed,  the  Cheviot  Hills,  and  thence  to  the  Solway  Frith.    On  every  other  side 

it  ia  bounded  by  the  Atlantic,  the  Northern 
and  the  German  oceans.  The  cngth  of 
Scotland,  from  the  Mull  of  Galloway 
{Jig.  183.),  in  about  54°  40'  to  Dunnet 
Head,  Caithness,  in  58°  40',  is  280  miles. 
The  greatest  breadth,  from  Buchan-Ness  to 
a  point  on  the  opposite  shore  of  Inverness  is 
130  miles.  This  breadth  varies  little  in  tlie 
interval  between  the  friths  of  Forth  and 
Moray ;  but  to  the  south  of  the  former,  the 
average  breadth  scarcely  exceeds  100,  and 
to  the  north  of  the  Moray  Frith,  40  or  50 
miles.  The  entire  extent  of  Scotland  is 
29,600  square  miles. 
Scotland,  in  its  general  outline,  consists  of 
vwo  great  and  perfectly  distinct  parts :  the  Lowlands  and  the  Highlands.  The  former  com- 
prehends all  Scotland  south  of  the  friths  of  Forth  and  Clyde;  for  the  pastoral  hills  of  the 
southern  and  western  borders,  less  elevated  than  the  iiortliorn  mountains,  and  inhabited  by 
a  different  race,  are  not  considered  as  forming  any  tie  between  these  and  the  Highlands 
properly  so  called.  Immediately  north  of  the  Clyde,  the  highland  ranges  bosrin  to  tower  in 
endless  succession ;  but  on  the  east  coast,  the  Lowlands  extend  beyond  the  Forth  and  north- 
ward through  the  counties  of  Fife,  Forfiir,  Kincardine,  and  Aberdeen ;  though  these  last  are 
closely  encroached  upon  by  the  mountain  territory.  The  lowland  district  also  extends 
round  the  northern  promontory  of  Aberdeen,  and  along  the  borders  of  the  Murray  or  Moray 
Frith,  which  contain  as  level  tracts  of  territory,  and  enjoy  as  mild  a  climate,  as  any  part 
of  Scotland.  This  level  tract  docs  not  comprehend  quite  the  half  of  the  country;  even  the 
Lothians,  and  still  more  the  western  provinces,  are  hemmed  in  by  low  ridges  of  bleak  table- 
lands, covered,  in  a  great  measure,  with  heath  and  moss.  The  arable  lands  are  almost 
solely  comprised  in  broad  flat  valleys,  chiefly  along  the  friths,  called  straths  or  carses. 
Several  of  these  are  much  famed  for  fertility,  a  blessing  but  partially  bestowed  even  on  the 
best  districts  of  Scotland. 

The  Highlands,  which  comprise  tiie  whole  west  and  centre  of  northern  Scotland,  form  a 
region  of  very  bleak  and  rugged  aspect.  A  chain  of  long  and  lofty  ridges  extends  from 
south-west  to  north-east,  not  reaching,  however,  the  Gorman  Ocean  or  the  Moray  Frith,  but 
leaving  between  them  the  level  interval  of  the  northern  lowland.  These  mountains  usually 
dip,  almost  perpendicularly,  into  the  lakes  and  seas  on  which  they  border ;  and  even  the  in- 
terior valleys  are  on  so  high  a  level,  that  in  this  climate  they  admit  only  in  scattered  patches 
the  culture  of  the  coarser  kinds  of  grain,  particularly  oats  and  bigg.  "I'liese  mountains,  par- 
ticularly the  great  Grampian  barrier,  which  extends  across  from  Ben  Lomond  to  Blair-Athol, 
lock  in  closely  with  each  other,  and  can  be  entered  only  by  formidable  and  easily  defended 
passes.  The  consequence  has  been,  that  thoy  have  preserved  within  their  recesses  a  primi- 
tivn  people,  wlio,  in  dress,  language,  and  the  whole  train  of  tlieir  social  ideas,  differ  essen- 
tially from  the  I^iwlanders,  nnd  have  retained  antique  and  striking  characteristics,  both 
physical  and  moral,  that  are  obliterated  in  almost  every  other  pn-t  of  Great  Britain. 

The  Isles  comprise  the  third  part  of  Scotland.  On  the  east,  indeed,  and  even  on  great 
part  of  the  .south-west  coast,  only  a  few  bold  and  naked  rocks  riso  perpendicularly  from  the 
ocean.  But  the  western  highlands  an  bordered  by  tiie  Hebrides,  an  extensive  range  of 
large  islands,  some  of  which  are  separated  from  the  continent  by  such  narrow  channels,  that 
they  may  almost  be  considered  as  forming  part  of  it.  Again,  tiie  northern  extremity  of 
Scotland  is  prolonged  by  the  two  ranges  of  the  Orkney  and  Shetland  islands,  in  a  continu- 
ous line  witli  each  other,  but  at  some  distance.  These  islands  are  rocky  and  bare,  exposed. 
Vou  L  34*  3  A 


I:  i: 


1^ 


402 


MAP  OP  SCOTLAND. 


Fio.  184 


Lii«tti«lt  Wat 


^^■^. 


''"%% 


^ 


•lo.  184 


Book  I. 


SCOTLAND. 


403 


^ 
y 


'M 


to  excessive  moisture  and  the  perpetual  storms  of  the  Atlantic.  The  population  boars,  in 
language  and  features,  the  marks  of  a  Scandinavian  origin ;  dating  from  the  period  when 
the  piratical  rovers  of  the  north  made  extensive  inroads  on  the  western  states  of  Europe. 

Among  the  Scottish  mountains,  the  most  considerable  are  the  Grampians,  a  name  which 
is  given  very  generally  to  all  those  which  cover  the  surface  of  tlio  Highlands,  but  applied 
more  imrticularly  to  the  chain  running  across  the  counties  of  Perth  and  Argyle,  and  com- 
prising Hen  Ijomond,  Ben  I^edi,  Rsn  More,  Uen  Lawers,  and  otlicrs  of  tiiat  olevated  ridge 
whicii  directly  face  tho  low  country  of  Stii-ling  and  Perth.  Several  of  tliese  mountains 
exceed  tlio  altitude  of  4000  feet.  Ben  Nevis  rises  to  the  height  of  4315  feet  On 
the  borders  of  Inverness  and  Ross-shire,  Ben  VVyvis,  and  some  others,  are  of  nearly  equal 
elevation.  The  soutli  of  Scotland  is  also  very  hilly  ;  but  its  heights  are  seldom  more  than 
tJOOO  feet,  green  and  pastoral.  The  most  remarkable  are  the  boundary  chain  of  the  Cheviot, 
celebrated  in  the  annals  of  early  feud,  hunting,  and  border  warfare.  The  Lowthers,  a  steep 
higli  ridge,  including  valuable  lead  mines ;  tne  pastoral  hills  of  Ettrick  and  Yarrow ;  and 
Criifnl  and  Cairnsmuir,  in  Galloway,  form  important  objects :  the  lower  ranges  of  the  Pent- 
land  and  Lammcrmoor  border  the  Lothians. 

The  rivers  of  Scotland  are  not  so  much  distinguished  for  their  length  or  magnitude,  as 
for  tlie  pastoral  scenery  tlirough  whicii  they  wind  tlieir  early  course,  and  for  the  magnificent 
estuaries  which  tliey  form  at  their  junction  with  the  sea. 

The  Forth  rises  near  the  foot  of  Ben  Lomond,  flows  east  towards  Stirling,  near  which  it 
is  swelled  by  the  larger  stream  of  the  Teith  ;  whence,  aflcr  many  windings  through  the 
beautiful  plain  overlooked  by  Stirling  castle,  it  opens  into  the  great  frith  on  which  the  capi- 
tal of  Scotland  is  situated. 


NORTH  PART. 

1.  Uunnct 
3.  (JHnnuAhy 

3.  Freawick 

4.  Wick 

5.  Ulbaler 

7.  ThunS 

8.  Brachry 

9.  Hiruthy 

10.  Fiirr  Kirk 

11.  Riviegill 

15.  Tongue 

I'A,  Inch  KeHtiloch 
M.  Liich  Eiibull 
Mi.  nradey 

16.  Drumacray 

17.  Bcourie 

18.  Cnieirem* 
m.  Iiivor  Bavnily 
20.  lioch  Nhvit 
Ul.  I.cich  Baden 
^i,  Achnahuo 
'Si.  l.&theran 

^4.  Bfjrryilalc 
iS.  Ilolmadalo 

26.  Clyne 

27.  Achtntran 

28.  Dalmor 

29.  Lairs 
:<0.  Tullucli 
:il.  Loich  Slim 
»1.  Aisynt 
113.  Stoir 

M,  Dorncy 

;i.5.  CannahouTlih 

:)B.  i;ilap(iiil 

37.  Piirlinlick 

38.  Bra 
:t9.  (folspio 
40.  nornf>ch 
4I.Tarliat 

42.  Oomarty 

43.  Tain 

44.  Invertnrdon 
m.  Kincardine 
4fi.  Kiidrimiire 

47.  hen  Wyvia 

48.  Loclibronm 

49.  Loch  Fuir 
.V).  Tinafidino 
HI.  Melvng 
,S2.  F.rridaTe 
.U.  Gairlorh 
54.  Luch  IVIarce 
!iS.  Loch  Fannich 
,50.  Loch  Luichard 
.17.  Killearn 

.v.  Kortroie 
.■i!!.  Fort  Ocorgc 
ni.  Nairn 

01.  Forrel 

02.  F.lgin 

03.  Rothei 

04.  Fiiclinbera 
fl.%.  Oullen 
<iO.  Mamnch 
67.  Pottioir 


Referencei  to  the  Map  of  Scotland. 


OS.  BnnfT 
till.  Tiirrcff 

70.  Atwrdour 

71.  FraKfiburgh 
1i.  8trichi?n 

Tl.  Petcrliond 
74.  Crudtiii 
7.'i.  Kllon 
70.  Rnihie 

77.  Miildrum 

78.  (vtiaaliiiond 

79.  Kinnc'thniont 

80.  .\chindoro 

81.  Huntley 

82.  KinUiiL'oil 
H:l.  Aberlour 
84.  (jrantuwn 
M.  Kdomkille 
811.  Dyiner 

87.  (^airinichyle 
f¥.  luvorneii 
89.  Daroa 
00.  Obriachan 
OI.Kdinuir 
92.  Ileauly 
03.  Mucrich 
94.  Kilrtacrow 
m.  Atladale 

96,  Turridun 

97,  Vuncbano 

98,  AuplccroM 

99,  Kiililan 

100.  ninn  Shiel 

101.  Afl°arie 

102.  Diinilrnian 

103.  I^ich  Ni'ci 
lot.  Bellaluin 
10.1.  Abiirardcr 
lOO.  Avipmnro 

107.  Kincardine 

108.  Abcmclhy 

109.  Achpnriiw 
no.  Sirnlhdon 

111.  Towiu 

112.  Cluny 

113.  Kimore 

114.  Invtiruiy 
ll,*!,  Foveran 
no,  Finlray 

117.  Old  Alierdwn 

118.  Ni'w  Aberdeen 
liO,  Stonchiivcn 

120,  Ternan 

121,  Rino 
12i>,  Balmoral 
123,  Braoiniir 
12).  luck 

y2!i.  Inverniiliaven 
190.  Laf!ifan 

127.  Fort  Aiiffn^tuR 

128.  Loch  Garry 
199.  Loch  Luehy 

130,  CluncB 

131.  Luch  Arkeg 
1,32.  Rotary 
133.  Ruddrech 
1.34.  Loch  Morrcy 


I3.t,  Araiaig 
130.  Sminasary 

137,  I.och  Shell 

138,  Cromer 

139,  Strano 

140,  Hen  Ncvia 

141,  Fort  William 

142,  Aliernrder 

143,  Loch  Laifgan 

144,  Ualwhinme 
14.'i,  ninth 

140.  Clachay 

147,  Cluvu 

148,  Mcniiuir 

149.  Cruigoiir 
l.TO.  Glcnburvie 
l.^l.  Bervic 
152.  Muntroco 
I.i3  Brechin 

154.  Liinan 

155,  Oaihlaw 

150.  Gleiiiila 

157.  Moulin 

158.  Blair-Alhol 

159.  Dalniicnrdoch 
100.  Shechallion 
161,  Loch  Riinnncli 
103.  I^nch  Kriclit 

103,  Loch  Tr<-ag 

104.  KinliM'hmore 
10>.  Corriherich 

106.  Aryhoulan 

107.  Bcarnndalu 

108.  Langall 

109.  LidcreBilalo 

170.  Kinlochalino 

171.  Murven 

172.  Ardnamurehan 

SOUTH  PART. 
1.  Appin 
3.  Ardchnltan 

3.  (iliMlCO*' 

4.  Locli  F.iivo 

5.  KinK*g  llouao 

6.  Fingar 

7.  Bon  Lau'cra 

8.  Killin 

9.  I.och  Tny 

10.  Ki-nmoru 

11.  Aberli'ldy 

12.  Amubrie 

13.  Diinkeld 
K.  Blairgowrie 
15,  Cupar-Anaus 
10,  Meigle 

17.  Arhrimlli 

18.  Muirdrum 

19,  Dundee 

20,  Kihnony 

21,  ('Opar 

22.  Ncwhurgh 
93.  Penh 

34,  Crieir 
9.1.  Comrio 

36,  Loch  Earn 

37,  Craggan 


38.  Lorh  Voil 

39.  Loch  Lochart 
:10,  Glcnurchay 
31,  (;hidirk 

33,  Kilmoru 

33,  Ardmaddy 

34,  Craigniih 

35,  Kilniartin 
:I0.  Invi-rary 
:)7.  Strachur 

38,  Kilmoriah 

39,  Ben  Lomond 

40,  Lock  Kuirino 

41,  Loch  Lubnttig 
43,  Doune 

43.  Willinniflown 
41,  iMiichart 
4.'i.  Forleviot 
40,  Kiiirou 

47,  Falkland 

48,  Si,  Andrew'! 

49,  Anairutlier 
M.  Levcn 

51.  KinKhorn 

52.  DunfiTmline 
.53.  (Clackmannan 
.54.  Airth 

rt.'i.  Stirling 
.SO.  llimibrane 
57,  Milton 
.58,  Catnptifl 
59.  Loch  l.omond 

00.  Tarbat 

01.  Kilmodan 

02.  Gilphead 
0:1.  Achahuish 

04.  Carnmore 

05.  Killarraw 
00.  Kilchenzie 

07.  Southend 

08.  Camiihelllon 

09.  Siiddalo 

70.  Gorton 

71.  Skipnciia 
V->,  Ruban 

73,  Gn-enock 

74,  Kilbirnie 

75,  Dumbarton 

76,  Paisley 

77,  Renfrew 

78,  Glangow 
7!l.  Bolhwcll 

80,  Airdrie 

81,  Whitburn 

82,  Falkirk 

83,  Lintitheow 

84,  Borrowpiown- 

neis 
R5.  Kdinbiirgh 
80.  Dalkeith 

87,  Mofwelliureh 

88,  Haildinirton 

89,  North  Berwick 

90,  Dunbar 

91,  Scateraw 

92,  Bunkle 

93,  Dunw 


94,  Pailon 

95,  F.cclea 
90,  Gordon 

97.  rhannelkirk 

96,  Lauder 

99,  Middleinn 

100,  Linton 

101,  Peeblei 

102,  Carnweth 

103,  Lanark 

104,  Hamilton 
10.1,  Fagleshatn 
100,  Stewarton 
107,  Dairy 

ItH  Irvine 
m.  Ayr 

110.  Mauchline 

111.  Kilmarnock 

112.  Straihaven 

113.  Doualas 

114.  ('rawfunljohn 
11.5,  Crawford 
110,  Cultei  Fell 

117.  Galashiels 

1 18,  Melrose 

119,  Selkirk 

120.  Kelso 

191,  Yetholme 

192,  Hownam 

123,  Southdean 

124,  Jedburgh 
12,5,  Hawii^k 

126.  Bedford  Green 

127.  Kirkpatrick 

128.  Samiuhar 

129.  Kirkcunnel 
i:iO.  Ochiltree 
131,  Dalrymple 
i:<2.  Giivan 
1:I3,  llallintrae 
134.  Balliich 
i;i5,  Garry 

100.  Minihive 
137,  Don^core 
i:W.  Puniiont 

139.  Loctimalien 

140.  VVesterkirk 

141.  Laiigludm 

142.  (iretiia  Green 

143.  Annan 
M4.  Duinfriea 
145.  racrlaverock 
MO.  Douglas 
14T.  Urr 

148.  Loch  Ken 

149.  Newton  Slew- 

art 
1.50.  rraighncli 
151,  New  Luce 

1.52.  SiranraiT 

1.53.  Porlnalrick 

1.54.  Maidenkir 
1,5.5,  Ardwell 

150.  Glenluco 

1.57,  Mochnim 

1.58.  Wnitchorn 
159,  Wigton 


100,  Laiirieiton 

101,  Kirkcudbright 

102,  Colvend 

Rivers. 
a  Naver  Water 
b  Thurso  Water 
e,  Oikel 
d  Orrin 
e  Nairn 
r  Find  horn 

n  iJoveran 
i   Hon 
j  Dee 
k  Esk 
I   T«y 
mEarn 
n  Forth 
o  Tweed 
p  Annan 
q  Nilh 
r  Ken 
•  Ayr 


Ayr 
Clyde 


SKYE  ISLE. 
1.  Dig 
3.  llig 

3.  Tolnacmeh 

4.  Bnizort 

5.  Stein 

0.  RuBf 

7.  Bracadale 

8.  Druinah 

9.  Gillan 

10.  Rroadford 

11.  Kyle 

MULL  ISLE. 

1.  Kjininian 
S.  Tnhormurie 

3.  Keallun 

4.  Aros 

,5,  Aciinacraig 

0,  (.'ambui 

7.  Moy 

8.  Fidden 

JURA  ISLE. 

1,  Lenghall 

2,  Lagg 

ISLAY  ISLE. 

1,  SiuKiig 

2,  Kilchoman 

3,  Bolsha 

4,  AKkaig 

5,  Bowmore 
0,  Kildnlton 
7,  Kintra 

ARRAN  ISLE 
1  Oran 

2,  ('orrio 

3,  Kilbride 

4,  Kilmon' 


n 


104 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pabt  III 


The  Clyde  rises  on  the  borders  of  Dumfries-sliirc ;  flows  for  a  considerable  space  through 
a  wild  pastoral  valley ;  and  descends,  by  a  succession  of  most  pictures(iue  cascades,  into  the 
lower  region  of  Lanarkshire.  Atler  passing  througli  a  tract  wiiich  may  be  denominated  the 
Arden  of  Scotland,  it  enters  Glasgow,  becomes  a  broad  stream,  and  expands  into  a  winding 
trith,  not  so  broad  as  the  Forth,  but  the  scene  of  a  much  more  active  trade. 

The  Tweed  rises  irom  the  same  chain  as  the  Clyde,  and  running  eastward,  waters  the 
most  beautiful  and  classic  of  the  pastoral  districts  of  Scotland,  in  whose  verse  Tweed  is  the 
favourite  name.  Of  similar  fame  are  its  tributaries,  the  Yarrow,  the  Gala,  the  Tcviot ; 
swelled  by  whone  waters  it  forms,  on  reaching  Berwick,  a  capacious  harbour. 

The  Tay  rises  in  the  central  Highlands,  descends  into  tlie  lowlands  of  Perthshire,  and 
after  winding  beautifully  round  the  city  of  Perth,  expands  into  the  Frith  of  Tay,  and  forma 
the  harbour  of  Dundee. 

The  Spey  has  a  longer  course  than  any  other ;  but,  rising  in  the  midst  of  the  Perthshire 
highlands,  and  rolling  northward  tiirough  the  wild  recesses  of  Attiol  and  Braemar,  its  line  is 
comparatively  obscure.  The  other  rivers  of  Scotland  are  of  subordinate  rank ;  Uie  Dee  of 
Aberdeen,  the  Esk  of  Montrose,  the  Nitli  and  Aiman  of  Dumfries,  the  Ayr  and  Irvine 
of  Ayr. 

Lochs  form  a  characteristic  feature  of  Scotland ;  many  of  them  are  long  arms  of  the  sea, 
running  up  into  the  heart  of  tiie  mountauis.  Among  these,  Loch  Lomond  is  pre-eminent 
The  traveller  admires  its  vast  expanse,  its  gay  and  numerous  islands,  its  wooded  promon- 
tories and  bays,  and  the  high  mountain  barrier  at  its  head.  Loch  Katrine,  in  a  smaller 
compass,  presents  a  singular  combination  of  romantic  beauty.  Loch  Tay,  enclosed  by  the 
loftiest  of  the  Grampiaas,  presents  alpine  scenery  on  the  grandest  scale ;  while  at  Inverary, 
Loch  Fyne  unites  the  pomp  of  art  with  that  of  nature.  The  long  chain  of  Lochs  Linnhe, 
Lnchy,  and  Ness,  stret^liing  diagonally  across  Scotland,  comprises  much  fine  scenery, 
and  bus  afforded  &cilitie8  for  making  a  navigable  communication  between  the  German  and 
Atlantic  oceans. 

Sect.  II. — Natural  Geography. 

This  section  will  contain  Geology  only,  as  the  Botany  and  Zoology  of  Scotland  were  de- 
scribed along  with  that  of  Great  Britain  in  general,  under  the  head  of  England. 

SuBSECT.  I. — Geology  of  Scotland. 

Scotland  may  be  divided  geologically  into  the  following  great  districts : — 1.  Southern ;  2. 
Middle ;  3.  Northern ;  4.  Insular. 

(1.)  Southern  division.  This  division  includes  that  part  of  the  country  bounded  on  the 
south  by  the  northern  frontier  of  England ;  and  on  the  north  and  west,  by  the  comparatively 
flat  country  between  the  Forth  and  the  Clyde.  It  is  traversed  fironi  St.  Abb's  Head  on  the 
east  coast  to  Portpatrick  on  the  west  coast  by  a  high  land,  named  tiie  great  southern  high 
land  of  Scotland,  in  which  are  situated  tlic  highest  mountains  in  this  division  of  Scotland. 
This  lofty  range  sends  out  branches  in  different  directions,  many  of  which  reach  the  sea- 
coast,  while  others  terminate  in  the  lower  and  flatter  parts  of  the  country  that  lies  around 
them.  Although  abundantly  supplied  with  rivers,  the  southern  division  contains  but  few 
lakes,  in  this  respect  forming  a  striking  contrast  with  the  middle  and  northern  divisions. 
The  mountainous  regions  are  composed  of  transition  rocks,  while  the  lower  and  flatter  con- 
sist principally  of  secondary  and  alluvial  formations. 

I.  Transition  rocAs.  The  predominating  rocks  of  the  Neptunian  class  are  greywacke, 
with  subordinate  beds  of  clay  slate,  flinty  slate,  and  transition  limestone;  the  Plutonian 
species  are  granite,  syenite,  porpliyry,  serpentine,  and  trap ;  by  far  the  most  abundant  rock 
is  the  greywacke,  in  which  the  principal  load-mines  in  Scotland,  those  of  I.eadhills  and 
Wanlockhead,  are  situated.  They  have  been  worked  from  an  early  jxBriod,  and  during  a 
long  course  of  years  have  yielded  to  tlie  proprietors  n  very  rich  return.  Of  late  year.s, 
owing  to  the  disturbed  state  of  the  world,  their  prosperity  has  been  interrupted.  Copper 
ores  have  been  raised  in  Galloway,  but  not  in  considerable  quantity ;  and  the  same  may  be 
said  of  the  sulphuret  of  antimony,  formerly  mined  at  Glendinning  in  Dumfries-shire. 

II.  Secondary  rocks.  Scotland  is  distinguished  from  England  by  the  smaller  number  of 
Its  secondary  formations,  and  tlieir  more  limited  distribution;  the  southern  division  contuins 
a  greater  proportion  than  the  middle  or  northern ;  and  hence  approaches  more  nearly  to 
England  in  a  general  geognostic  point  of  view.  The  following  secondary  forin.itions  have 
been  observed : — 1.  Old  red  sandstone.  2.  Mountain  limestone.  3.  Coal  formation.  4.  New 
red  sandstone.    5.  Various  trap  and  porphyry  rocks. 

1.  Old  red  sandstone.  This  formation  skirts  the  transition  chains  of  mountains  lying 
immediately  upon  the  greywacke,  &c.  It  is  well  exposed  in  the  Pentlands,  tlic  ujjper  i)art 
of  the  river  district  of  the  river  Clyde,  in  the  course  of  tiie  river  Tweed,  in  various  points 
m  Dumfries-shire,  &c.  In  the  districts  where  it  occurs,  it  is  frequently  quarried  as  a 
building-stone. 

2.  Mountain  limestone.    The  beds  of  limestune  in  the  lower  part  of  the  coal  formation 


Door  I. 


SCOTLAND. 


405 


fwacke, 
[utonian 
lanl  rock 
hills  ami 
during  a 
tc  years, 
Copppr 
c  may  be 
e. 

umber  of 

coiAiins 

nearly  to 

ons  havn 

4.  New 

ina  lying 
Ipper  part 
bus  points 
fried  as  a 

I  formation 


in  the  neighbourhood  of  Edinburgh,  and  tlic  beds  of  iiinrstone  upon  which  the  coal  formation 
rests  in  other  quarters,  as  in  Dunifrics-thirc,  belong  to  tlie  niountnin  limestone. 

3.  Coal  formation.  This  important  deposit  occipies  considerable  ix)rtions  of  £n=%  Mid, 
and  West  Lothian,  and  e.vtends  westward  to  Glasgow.  It  forms  extensive  tracts  in  Ayr- 
shire ;  in  DumfricB-shirc ;  and  in  Berwicksliire.  Tlic  coal  mines  in  the  Lothians  and  around 
Glasgow  are  the  most  pro<luctive  :n  Scotland.  The  annual  quantity  of  coal  brouglit  into 
Glasgow  is  ."jeiitMO  tons ;  of  whicli  124,000  arc  exported.  It  iimy  also  be  noticed,  as  con- 
nected with  coal,  that  in  Glasgow,  during  twenty-four  hours  in  the  winter  moiitiis,  tlio  gas 
company  make  upwards  of  500,(HM)  cubic  feet  of  gas  from  coal ;  and  during  tlio  .siunc  period 
in  the  summer  months,  about  r20,0()().  The  pipes  extend  to  more  than  100  miles  througli 
streets.  The  great  iron-works  ut  Carron  arc  supplied  with  tlie  ore  from  which  tlie  iron  is 
obtained,  from  the  coalfields  of  this  and  the  middle  division  of  Scotland.  Tiie  ore  or  stone, 
which  is  an  argillaceous  carbonate  of  iron,  occurs  in  beds  and  embedded  masses,  and  princi- 
pally in  the  slate  of  the  coal  deposit.  The  admirable  building-stone  around  Edinburgh  and 
Glasgow  is  a  sandstone  which  occurs  in  beds  in  the  coal  formation. 

4.  New  red  sandstone.  This  formation  in  tlie  regular  succession  rests  upon  the  coal 
formation,  in  which  position  it  is  to  be  seen  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Cannoby  in  Dumfries- 
shire. 

5.  Trap  and  porphyry  rocks.  These  ignigenous  masses  occur  in  many  parts:  they 
abound,  for  instance,  all  around  Edinburgh ;  forming  part  of  the  Calton  Hill,  Castle  Hill, 
Salisbury  Craigs,  Arthur  Seat,  the  Pentlands,  &c. :  tlie  beautifUl  conical  hill  named  North 
Berwick  I^aw,  the  Bass  Rock,  the  Isle  of  May,  Traprain  Law,  are  also  formed  of  trap  and 
porphyry  rocks.  Renfrewshire  and  Ayrshire  also  abound  in  splendid  and  interesting  displays 
of  trap  and  porphyry.  In  many  parts  of  the  country  these  rocks  are  used  us  building-stones, 
and  the  greenstone  of  the  trap  series  aflbrds  an  admirable  material  for  road-making.  The 
splendid  causeways  and  roads  around  Edinburgh  are  of  greenstone. 

III.  Alluvial  rocks.  In  various  parts  of  the  country  there  occur  deposits  of  old  alluvium, 
or  what  is  called  diluvium ;  and  everywhere  tlic  modern  alluvium,  or  that  daily  fbrming 
meets  the  eye. 

(2.)  Middle  division.  This  division  of  Scotland  is  bounded  to  the  south  by  the  southern 
division ;  on  the  north  by  the  Moray  Frith  and  the  great  chain  of  lakes  extending  irom 
Inverness  to  Fort  William  and  the  Linnhc  Loch.  It  is  traversed  in  a  north  and  south- 
westerly direction  by  the  Grampian  range  of  mountains,  which  extends  from  the  Mull  of 
Cantyre  to  Stonehaven  in  Kincardineshire,  and  to  the  rocky  northern  coasts  of  Aberdeen- 
shire and  Banffshire.  The  country  in  general  falls  rapidly  to  the  west  of  this  great  moun- 
tain range,  and  comparatively  gently  to  the  eastward  of  it:  hence  the  western  acclivity  is 
steep  and  short,  the  eastern  gentle  and  long.  On  the  eastern  acclivity  and  the  low  lands 
connected  with  it  are  situated  the  Sidlay,  Ociiil,  and  Cainpsie  hills,  forming  a  pretty  conti- 
nuous range ;  and  Kellie  Law,  Ijirgo  Law,  the  Ixunonds,  and  the  Saline  Hills  in  Fifeshire, 
forming  a  less  continuous  and  lower  range  of  hills.  Water  is  abundantly  distributed  over 
this  di.strict,  in  the  Ibrm  of  rivers,  lakes,  and  springs.  Lakes,  which  are  so  rare  in  the 
southern  division,  are  here  abundantly  distributed,  and  exhibit  many  beautiful  and  splendid 
scenes.  Of  these  lakes  the  most  considerable  are  the  following:  Loch  Lomond,  Jjoch  Tay, 
IjOcIi  Ness,  and  Loch  Awe.  Tlie  rocks  are  more  varied  in  this  than  in  the  southern  divi- 
sion ;  magnificent  displays  of  primitive,  transition,  and  secondary  formations  present  them- 
selves to  our  attention. 

I.  Primitive  and  transition  rocks.  The  Neptunian  kinds  are  granite,  gneiss,  mica  slate, 
clay  slate,  talc  slate,  chlorite  slate,  quartz  rock,  grey wacke,  limestone :  the  Plutonian  rocks 
are  granite,  syenite,  porphyry,  trap,  and  serpentine.  The  iS'eptunian  rocks  generally  range 
from  north-east  to  south-west ;  most  freiiuently  dip  under  an  angle  of  about  45° ;  and  are 
variously  upheaved,  broken,  and  disturbed  by  the  Plutonian  rocks.  They  arc  principally 
confined  to  the  Grampian  high  land  and  its  branches.  The  most  remarkable  granite  and 
syenite  districts  are  Cairngorm,  Benachie,  Aberdeen,  Peterhead,  BenCruachan;  and  Ben 
Nevis  conjoins  along  with  its  slaty  Neptunian  strata,  granite,  syenite,  and  porphyry.  In 
some  quarters  the  limestone  Is  raised  as  marble,  as  in  Glen  Tilt ;  but  more  frequently  it  is 
burnt  into  quicklime.  The  clay  slate  quarries  of  Luss,  on  the  banks  of  Loch  Lomond  ;  those 
of  Balarhuli.'^li,  in  Argyleshire;  and  the  slate  quarries  in  the  interior  of  Aberdeenshire,  are 
of  considerable  extent,  and  employ  many  workmen.  There  were  formerly  lead-mines  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Tyiulruni,  where  the  lead  glance,  or  sulphuret  of  lead,  was  disposed  in 
veins  in  quartz  rock  and  mica  slute. 

II.  Siroiiilary  rockn.  These  are,  old  red  sandstone,  mountain  limestone,  coal  formation, 
and  new  red  sandstone,  and  probably  the  lias  formation:  these  strata  are  variously  inter- 
mingled with  trap  and  [wrphyry  rocks. 

1.  Old  nd  sinulsloiw.  This  rock,  in  some  parts  of  the  country,  as  in  the  vicinity  of 
Stoiiehavfu  and  ufar  Blair-Gowrio,  exhibits  iiiugiiificent  cliffs  of  conglomerate.  It  tJjrms 
the  prinripiil  reck  in  tlie  gfreiit  triict  of  country  included  between  lines  drawn  from  Stonc- 
naveii  by  ni,iir-Gowi-ip,  Coiiirie,  Cullender,  Dumbarton,  Stirling,  Kinross,  Dundee,  Arbroath, 


•I  ;.■ 


*  f1 


4 


406 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY, 


Part  III 


Montrose,  and  Bcrvie.  It  appears  again  near  InvcrnesH,  and  on  the  banks  of  Loch  Ness. 
In  many  localities  there  are  extensive  quarries,  the  sandstone  being  used  as  a  building-stone, 
and  as  a  pavement-stone.  The  Kinguddie  sandstone  and  the  Arbroath  pavement-stone,  from 
old  red  sandstone  localities,  are  well  known. 

2.  Coal  formation.  The  coal  formation  in  the  middle  division  of  Scotland  has  not  been  met 
with  farther  nortii  than  Fifeshire.  Tlie  counties  of  Fife,  Clackmannan,  and  Stirling,  abound 
m  coal ;  of  those  counties,  Fife  is  that  which  contains  the  greatest  fields  of  this  valuable 
mineral. 

3.  New  red  sandstone  occurs  apparently  in  some  points  on  the  east  coast,  and  also  on  the 
north  coast  between  CuUen  and  the  Cromarty  Frith. 

4.  Lias  formation.  Near  to  Banff  there  are  beds  of  clay,  which,  from  tlie  organic  re- 
mains contained  in  them,  may  turn  out  to  belong  to  this  formation. 

5.  Plutonian  rocks.  These  arc  various  traps,  as  greenstone,  amygdaloid,  trap  tufla,  and 
basalt;  and  porphyries,  having  a  hisis  of  claystone  or  clinkstone.  The  famous  headland  the 
Red  Head,  on  the  east  coast,  exhibits  a  fine  display  of  Plutonian  rocks,  connected  with  the 
red  sandstone.  Bervie  Head  and  the  vicinity  are  interesting  fit)m  their  porphyry  rocks. 
The  trap  rocks  of  Montrose  are  famous  on  account  of  the  agates  they  aflbrd.  Kinnoul  Hill, 
at  Perth,  is  coniiwsed  of  amygdaloid,  tuffa,  and  other  rocks  of  the  trap  series,  and  abounds 
in  agates.  The  Ochil  Hills  are  principally  composed  of  trap  and  porphyry;  and  trap  rocks 
abound  in  the  Campsie  range.  The  Fifeshire  hills,  viz.  Kellic  Law,  Largo  Law,  the  cones 
of  the  Iximond,  and  the  Saline  Hills,  are  of  trap.  These  various  traps  and  porphyries  have, 
OS  is  generally  the  case,  broken  and  changed  more  or  less  the  Neptunian  strata  with  which 
they  are  intermingled. 

III.  Alluvial  rocks.  These  have  the  same  general  characters  as  those  met  with  in  tlie 
southern  division.  In  a  few  districts,  however,  as  near  to  Peterhead,  and  in  the  vicinity  of 
Banfl*!  there  are  numerous  chalk  flints.  These,  by  some,  are  considered  as  alluvial,  an<l 
foreign  to  Scotland ;  while  others  are  of  opinion  that  they  are  remains  of  the  chalk  forma- 
tion, formerly  distributed  in  some  of  the  tracts  where  the  flints  are  found. 

(3.)  Northern  division.  This  division  is  bounded  on  the  south  by  the  chain  of  lakes 
which  forms  tlie  northern  limit  of  the  middle  division,  and  on  the  north,  the  east,  and  the 
west,  by  the  ocean.  The  high  land  ranges  throughout  its  whole  length,  from  south-west  to 
north-east.  The  western  acclivity  is  steep  and  short ;  the  eastern  comiMratively  gently 
inclined  and  long.  Rivers,  springs,  and  lakes  are  numerous.  The  whole  of  this  division, 
nearly,  is  composed  of  primitive  and  transition  rocks,  the  secondary  occurring  principally 
along  the  cost  coast  and  a  small  extent  of  tlie  north-west  coast. 

I.  Primitive  and  transition  rocks.  The  Neptunian  species  are  disposed  in  strata,  that 
oflen  range  from  soutli-west  to  north-east,  are  of  gneiss,  mica  slate,  clay  slate,  quartz  rock, 
talc  slate,  limestone,  and  greywacke.  The  Plutonian  rocks  are  less  abundant  than  in  the 
middle  and  southern  divisions  of  Scotland;  and  are  granite,  syenite,  porphyry,  and  trap. 
The  only  mines  are  those  at  Strontian,  where  the  ore  is  lead  glance,  or  sulphurct  of  lead, 
in  veins  traversing  gneiss.  The  mineral  in  which  the  Strontian  earth  was  first  tbund 
occurs  in  these  mines,  along  with  other  curious  minerals,  of  wliicli  the  cross-stone  is  the 
most  interesting. 

II.  Secondary  rocks.  The  formations  of  this  class  are  both  Neptunian  and  Plutonian. 
The  Neptunian  are  old  red  sandstone,  new  red  sandstone,  lias,  and  oolite  ;  the  Plutonian,  trap 
and  porphyry. 

1.  Old  red  sandstone.  Much  of  the  county  of  Caithness,  pnd  some  tracts  on  the  east 
coast,  and  a  few  points  on  the  west,  are  coinposed  of  this  formation. 

2.  New  red  sandstone.  The  county  of  Caitiiness  affords  examples  of  this  deposit,  which 
is  remarkable  on  account  of  the  beds  of  fossil  Jishes  it  contains. 

3.  Lias  and  oolite.  This  formation  occurs  on  the  east  coast  of  Sutherland.  The  coal 
mines  at  Brora  are  situated  in  this  deposit;  tne  coal  is,  however,  of  indifferent  quality. 

4.  The  Plutonian  rocks  are  not  frequent,  ond  consist  principally  of  trap  and  jxirphyry. 

III.  Alluvial  rocks.  These  exhibit  the  same  characters  as  in  the  middle  and  southern 
divisions. 

(4.)  Insular  division.  Tliis  may  lie  suKlivided  in  the  following  manner: — 1.  Fortii 
Mauds;  2.  Clyde  Islands;  3.  Hebrides;  4.  Orkneys:  .5.  Shetlands. 

(1.)  Forth  islands.  The  Bell  Rock  is  of  a  rod  sandstone,  having  the  same  characters  as 
that  on  the  neightiouring  coast  at  Arbroath.  The  otlier  islands  are  principally  composed  of 
trap  rocks,  occasion,dly  associnti.'d  with  clinkstune  porphyry,  and  rocks  of  the  coal  formation. 
(2.)  Clyde  Islaiiil.^  and  the  Ciimbrnys  are  composed  of  secondary  rocks  ;  the  Neptunian  rocks 
are  chiefly  old  rod  sandstone,  which  is  traversed  and  overlaid  by  different  kinds  of  trap  rocks, 
of  which  there  are  magnificent  displays  in  these  islands^.  The  southern  part  of  Bute  is 
almost  entirely  composed  <if  rocks  of  igneous  origin,  belonging  to  the  trap  series ;  the  mid- 
dle, of  old  red  sandstone;  the  northern  of  clay  slate,  mica  slate,  quartz  rock,  and  trap.  Arran 
affords  highly  illu.itrative  examples  of  Neptunian  and  Plutonian  rocks  of  the  primitive  and 


BookL 


SCOTIiAND. 


407 


the 


ita  that 
rock, 
in  the 
trap, 
lead, 
found 
is  the 


.  Fortli 

ctcrs  as 
)osod  of 
rmation. 
.n  rocka 
p  rocks, 
Bute  is 
;he  mid- 
Arran 
ive  and 


transition  classes,  viz.  clay  slate,  mica  slate,  grey  wacke,  as  Neptunian  dcpMits ;  and  frranite, 
as  a  Plutonian  rock.  The  junctions  of  the  granite,  of  which  there  are  two  formations,  with 
each  other  and  with  the  Neptunian  slates,  are  most  instructive.  Reposing'  on  these  rocka  is 
a  deposit  of  the  old  red  sandstone,  on  which  rests  the  coul  formation ;  and  the  whole  are 
covered,  more  or  less  completely,  with  new  red  sandstone.  These  Neptunian  secondary 
rocks  are  traversed  in  all  directions  by  Plutonian  rocks  of  tho  porphyry  and  trap  scries, 
affording  an  admirable  study  to  tlio  geologist.  Alluvial  deposits  occur  all  round  the  coast, 
and  covering,  more  or  less  deeply,  the  bottom  and  sides  of  valleys.  Both  old  and  new  allu- 
vium are  met  with  in  Arran.  The  Craig  of  Ailso,  which  is  900  feet  high,  is  composed  of 
secondary  syenite,  in  several  cliffs  disposed  in  magnificent  columns,  and  traversed  by  veins 
of  secondary  greenstone,  &.e. 

(3.)  The  Hebrides  or  Western  Islands  form  two  groups ;  the  one,  ranging  immediately 
along  the  coast,  the  Inner  Hebridet ;  the  other,  lying  beyond,  to  the  westward,  the  Outer 
Hebrideg. 

Inner  Hebrideg.  Gigha,  Islo,  Jura,  Colonsay,  Oronsay,  Scarba,  and  tho  Slate  Isles,  are 
principally  composed  of  Neptunian  primitive  and  transition  strata,  havinfr  frequently  a  north- 
east and  south-west  direction ;  and  variously  disposed,  from  the  slightly  inclined  to  the  ver- 
tical position.  The  rocks  are  mica  slate,  quartz  rock,  talc  slate,  chlorite  slate,  hornblende 
slate,  clay  slate,  limestone,  and  grey  wacke.  These  are  traversed  by,  and  intermingled  with, 
Plutonian  rocks  of  the  trap  and  porphyry  series.  Tho  clay  slate  is  extensively  quarried  in 
the  isle  of  Eisdale,  one  of  tho  Slate  Islands.  In  I»la  there  is  a  great  deposit  of  limestone, 
in  which  formerly  lead-mines  were  worked.  lona,  Tiree,  and  Coll  are  principally  composed 
of  gneiss,  mica  slate,  quartz  rock,  hornblende  rock,  with  occasional  intermixtures  of  granite 
and  syenite,  and  all  traversed,  more  or  loss  frequently,  by  veins  of  trap  rock.  Mull,  with 
the  exception  of  two  or  three  points,  which  are  composed  of  granite,  gneiss,  and  mica  slate 
is  composed  of  secondary  trap  and  porphyry  rocks,  with  occasional  intermixtures  of  lias  lime- 
stones, and  lias  coals.  Tlie  usual  alluvial  deposits  appear  in  different  parts  of  the  island. 
Slaffa,  which  is  composed  of  basalt,  amygdaloid,  and  trap  tuffa,  has  been  long  celebrated  on 
account  of  its  splendid  columnar  basaltic  cave,  the  Fingul's  (Jave  of  travellers.  Eigff  is 
principally  composed  of  trap  rocks,  occasionally  intermingled  w  ith  lias  limestones.  The 
Scure  Egg  is  a  remarkable  columnar  ridi»'e  of  pitchstone  porpliyry,  presenting  the  most 
splendid  display  of  the  natural  columnar  structure  to  be  met  witii  anywhere  in  the  British 
islands.  Canna  is  entirely  composed  of  secondary  trap  rocks;  and  Rum,  a  wild,  rugged, 
and  hilly  island,  besides  red  sandstone,  which  forms  a  prominent  constituent  part,  also  con- 
tains many  varieties  of  trap,  some  of  which  are  remarkable  from  their  containing  agates, 
bloodstone,  opal,  die.  Skye,  the  largest  of  the  Inner  Ilcbridf's,  exhibits  great  variety  of 
scenery  and  of  geological  arrangement.  The  southern  part  of  the  island  is  composed  of 
primitive  and  transition  rocks,  principally  of  the  Neptuni.m  series ;  namely,  mica  slate,  clay 
slate,  chlorite  slate,  hornblende  rock,  (|uartz  rock,  grcywacke,  and  limestone.  The  middle 
part  aflbrds  magnificent  displays  of  Plutonian  rocks,  as  syenite,  porphyry  and  trap,  which 
are  frequently  observed  intermixed  witii  lias  limestone,  which  in  many  places  is  seen  con- 
verted mto  marble  through  the  agency  of  those  ignigenous  rocks :  the  northern  division  of 
the  island  is  principally  composed  of  various  trap  rocks,  often  abounding  in  zeolite  and  other 
curious  minerals,  and  mterminglcd  with  lias  limestone  and  coal.  The  alluvium  here  exhibits 
its  usual  characters.  Ritsay.  The  southern  and  middle  parts  of  this  island  are  of  secondary 
formation,  principally  of  old  red  sandstone  and  lias  sandstone ;  the  northern  extremity  is  of 
primitive  rocks,  principally  gneiss.  Rona.  This  island,  which  appears  formerly  to  have 
been  a  part  of  Rasay,  is  entirely  of  primitive  formation,  tlie  prevailing  rock  being  gneiss, 
with  subordinate  mica  slate,  quartz  rock,  hornblende  rock,  &,c.,  traversed  by  splendid  veins 
of  granite. 

Outer  Hebrides.  This  group,  which  lies  in  a  north-east  and  south-west  direction,  con- 
sists of  the  following  islands ;  viz.  Lewis,  Harris,  North  Uist,  South  Uist,  and  Barra.  The 
whole  range  of  islands  is  nearly  of  primitive  formation,  and  the  predominating  rocks,  which 
are  gneiss  and  mica  slate,  range  generally  from  north-east  to  south-west.  The  following 
rocks,  which  are  generally  subordinate  to  those  just  mentioned,  viz.  quartz  rock,  clay  slate, 
chlorite  slate,  hornblende  rock  of  vaiious  kinds,  limestone  (!),  serpentine,  with  masses  and 
veins  of  granite,  syenite,  and  porphyry,  present  many  interesting  phenomena. 

f4.)  Orkney  Islands.  This  group  of  islands  is  distiniruislied  from  allotiicrs  that  lie  around 
the  coasts  of  Scotland,  by  the  uniformity  of  its  structure  and  composition.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  a  small  e.^itont  of  transition  rocks  near  Stromness  in  the  island  of  Pomona,  the  largest 
of  the  Orkneys,  that  island  and  all  tiie  others  are  composed  of  the  old  red  sandstone,  with 
some  rare  appearance  of  secondary  trap. 

(5.)  tShelland  Islands.  This  very  interesting  group  of  islands  exhibits  great  variety  in 
its  geognostical  structure  and  com|)osition.  Mainland.  With  the  exception  of  a  band  of 
old  red  sandstone  extending  from  the  line  of  Sumburgh  Head  to  Rovey  Head,  on  tlie  east 
coast   tlic  ttliolo  of  this  island  is  formed  of  primitive  rocks.     The  Neptunian  strata  are 


m'I 


>j' ' 


406 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


fS 


ffneiss,  with  Bubordinato  mica  slate,  clay  Blate,  quartz  rock,  limrstone,  nnd  hornblende  rocks; 
the  Plutonian  rocks,  which  frequently  alter  and  upraiBO  the  Nrptuninn  strata,  are  pranite, 
■yenite,  porphyry,  greenstone,  and  cpidotic  syenite.  Ydl  is  almost  entirely  comixjfed  ot 
gneiss,  variously  intersected  by  veins  of  granite.  Unut  is  compoKod  of  gneiss,  mica  slate, 
talc  slate,  chlorite  slate,  and  limestone,  which  are  variously  inturmi-xod  with  sfrpeiitino  and 
diallago  rocks.  Hermaness,  the  most  northern  point  of  the  British  dominions  in  hiiropc,  is 
composed  of  gneiss;  while  the  Land's  End  of  Cornwall,  tlie  most  south-westerly  cape  of 
Britain,  is  formed  of  granite.  Unst  and  the  neighbouring  island  of  Fetlar  abound  m  chro- 
mate  of  iron.  Hydrate  of  magnesia,  grciiatite,  precious  garnet,  and  <)th(!r  beautiful  mmerals, 
occur  in  this  island.  Fetlar  is  composed  of  serpentine  as  tlie  prrdominatm^;  rock,  with 
diallago  rock,  gneiss,  mica  slate,  chlorite  slate,  and  quartz  rock.  Whohnj  is  comptwed  of 
gneiss.  Bressay,  Nos»,  and  Mousa  arc  composed  of  old  red  sandstone.  Ihirrii  and  ITmiae 
are  composed  of  gneiss  and  mica  slate,  with  submliimto  limestone ;  Pnpa  Slniir  is  a  moss  ot 
wrphyry.  In  Foula  the  predominating  rock  is  old  red  sandstone ;  at  one  point  there  is  a 
imited  display  of  primitive  rocks  of  granite,  gneiss,  mica  slate,  and  clay  slate. 

Sbct.  III.— //wtorico/  Survey, 
To  the  Greek  and  Roman  writers,  Scotland  was  not  known  as  a  distinct  country.  Albion, 
or  Britain,  was  viewed  as  one  region,  parcelled  out  among  a  multitude  of  different  tribes. 
Agricola  first  penetrated  into  that  part  of  Britain,  which  we  now  call  Scotland.  He  easily 
over-ran  the  low  country,  but  encountered  the  most  obstinate  resistance  when  he  approached 
the  Caledonians,  who  appear  then  to  have  held  all  the  northern  districts.  An  olwtinate 
battle,  the  precise  place  or  which  hos  never  been  ascertained,  was  fought  at  the  foot  of  the 
Grampians.  All  the  rude  valour  of  Caledonia  could  not  match  the  skill  of  Agricola  and  the 
discipline  of  the  Roman  legions.  The  whole  open  country  was  abandoned  to  the  invaders, 
whose  progress,  however,  was  stayed  by  what  they  termed  the  Caledonian  forest,  under 
which  they  seem  to  have  vaguely  comprehended  the  vast  pine  woods  of  Glenniore,  and  the 
steep  barrier  of  the  Grampians.  Their  military  occupation,  however,  is  attested  by  the  form- 
ation of  numerous  camps,  of  which  that  of 
Ardoch,  {Jig.  ISiJ),  ten  miles  north  of  Stir- 
ling, is  the  most  extensive  and  complete. 
The  Romans  endeavoured  to  resist  the  in- 
cursions of  tlie  natives,  by  rearingut  different 
periotls,  two  walls,  one  between  tlie  Forth 
and  Clyde,  and  the  otiier  south  of  the  low 
country  of  Scotland,  between  the  Solway 
and  the  Tyne.  The  northern  tribes,  how- 
ever, continued  their  inroads,  now  chiefly 
under  the  name  of  Picts,  who  seem  clearly 
to  have  been  the  same  people  with  the 
Caledonians.  In  the  fifth  century  Britain 
was  abondoned  by  the  Romans,  and  over-run 
by  the  Saxons,  who  occupied  the  eastern 
part  of  the  south  of  Scotland,  as  far  as  the 
Forth. 

The  western  part  was  formed  into  the 
kingdom  of  Strathcliiyd,  It  flourished  for 
about  300  years,  and  was  rendered  illustrious 
by  the  name  and  exploits  of  Arthur  and  his 
knights,  whose  power  I'roiii  .'508  to  m^,  is 
represented  by  tradition  as  having  been  predominant  over  the  south  of  Scotland  and  tlie  north 
of  England.  The  capital  and  bulwark  of  this  kingdom  wos  Alcluyd,  called  afterwards  Dun 
Briton  and  Dumbarton,  seated  on  an  insulated  precipitous  rock  at  the  moutli  of  the  Clyde. 
The  Strathcluyd  Britons,  closely  pressed  by  their  Saxon  neighbours,  endeavoured  to  det'cnd 
themselves  by  a  lengthened /ossf,  of  which  the  traces  have  lieeu  supimsed  to  remain  in  the 
Catrail  or  Picts'-work  Ditch,  drawn  across  the  counties  of  Selkirk  and  Roxburgh.  Such 
feeble  defences  could  not  support  a  sinking  monarchy;  in  7.57,  Alcluyd  was  taken  by  the 
Saxons,  and  the  kingdom  subverted. 

The  Scots,  before  this  time,  iiad  come  from  Ireland,  their  original  seat,  which,  in  the  fourth 
century,  was  often  called  Scotland.  Even  before  the  departure  of  the  Romans,  tiie  Scots, 
joined  with  the  Picts,  are  mcntione<l  as  the  ravagers  of  defenceless  Britain.  They  appear  at 
one  time  to  have  been  driven  Irack  into  Ireland ;  but  in  .503  they  again  landed  in  Cantyre, 
and  during  the  next  four  centuries,  spread  gradually  over  the  kingdom.  At  length  under  the 
victorious  reign  of  Kenneth,  which  commenced  in  830,  they  wrested  tlie  sceptre  from  Wred 
the  Pictish  king,  and  established  supreme  sway  over  the  whole  of  that  country,  which,  from 
Vhem,  was  ever  afterwanls  called  Scotland. 


Ouiip  at  Ardoch. 


*- 


'u 


Ithe  fourth 
(lie  Scots, 
[appear  at 
1  Cantyre, 
(under  the 
lorn  Wred 
fich,  from 


DookI. 


SCOTLAND. 


409 


The  Scoto-Saxon  era,  aH  Mr.  Chahners  calls  it,  is  memorablo  rathor  for  an  insensible 
•iliange,  than  for  any  smldcn  revolution.  After  tlio  subversion  of  the  kingdom  of  Strath- 
cluyd,  by  tliu  Snxoiix,  that  people  liad  colonized  and  filled  the  whole  south;  and  the  Scottish 
kinjjs,  though  of  Celtic  origin,  iiaving  eKtublisiicd  themHelvcs  in  this  more  fertile  part  of  their 
territories,  soon  began  to  imbibe  the  spirit  of  its  occupants.  From  this  or  other  causes  the 
wliolo  lowlanils  of  Scotland  is  in  language  and  maimers  Teutonic,  and  tho  Gael  or  Celts 
were  again  contiiicd  within  their  mountain  boundary. 

An  era  of  disputed  succession  arose  out  of  the  contendinjj  claims  of  Bruce  and  Baliol, 
after  tlio  death  of  Margaret  of  Norway.  Edward  I.,  availing  himself  of  this  dissension, 
succeeded  in  introducing  liimsclf  under  tho  character  of  an  arbiter,  and  having  established 
Daliol  on  the  throne  by  an  armed  interference,  sought  to  rule  Scotland  as  a  vassal  kingdom. 
Tlio  result  was  a  struggle,  calamitous  to  Scotland,  but  which,  however,  placed  in  a  con- 
t:piciious  light  the  energy  and  heroism  of  the  nation,  and  brought  forwanl  the  names  of 
Wallace  and  Bruce,  ever  afterwards  the  foremost  in  her  annals.  The  result  was  glorious ; 
the  concentrated  force  of  the  English  was  finally  defeated  in  a  pitched  battle  at  Bannock- 
burn  ;  they  were  compelled  to  renounce  their  ambitious  pretensions,  and  allow  the  kingdom 
to  be  governed  by  its  native  princes. 

Under  tho  turbulent  and  unfortunate  sway  of  the  Stuarts,  Scotland  continued  for  several 
centuries  without  any  prominent  revolution,  though  with  a  continual  tendency  to  internal 
commotion.  This  dynasty,  from  their  connexion  with  the  French  and  English  courts,  had 
acquired  the  idea  of  more  polished  manners,  and  habits  of  greater  subordination  as  due  from 
the  nobles.  Such  views  were  ill  suited  to  the  power  and  temper  of  a  Douglas,  and  many 
other  powerful  chieftains,  through  whose  resistance  the  attempts  of  tho  monarchs  were 
followed  with  disaster,  and  often  with  violent  death.  The  introduction  of  the  reformed 
religion  especially,  in  open  opposition  to  tho  court,  which  granted  only  a  reluctant  and  pre- 
carious toleration,  was  unfavourable  to  tho  crown,  and  fatal  to  a  princess  whose  beauty  and 
misfortunes  have  rendered  her  an  object  of  enthusiasm  to  the  gay  and  chivalric  part  of  the 
Scottish  nation. 

The  union  of  the  crowns,  by  the  accession  of  James  VI.  in  1603,  to  the  English  throne, 
produced  a  great  change,  in  itself  flattering  to  Scotland,  whose  race  of  princes  now  held 
sway  over  all  the  three  kingdoms.  The  struggle  between  presbytery  and  prelacy  gave  rise 
to  a  conflict  which  still  powerfully  influences  the  temper  and  character  of  the  Scots.  The 
efl'orts  of  tho  presbytcrians,  acting  under  the  bond  of  tlicir  League  and  Covenant,  first 
enabled  the  English  parliament  to  rcav  its  head,  and  had  a  great  effect  in  turning  tho  scale 
of  contest  against  the  crown.  The  Scots  revolted,  however,  at  tiie  excesses  of  the  inde- 
pendents, and  endeavoured  to  rear  again,  on  a  covenanted  basis,  tlio  fallen  crown  of  the 
Stuarts.  These  bravo  but  unsuccessful  efforts  wore  ill  requited  by  an  embittered  persecu- 
tion against  oil  the  adherents  of  presbytery,  till  the  Revolution  finally  fixed  that  system  as 
the  established  religion  of  Scotland. 

The  union  of  the  kingdoms,  in  1707,  placed  Scotland  in  that  political  position  which  she 
has  ever  since  maintained;  and,  by  allaying  internal  contest,  and  opening  a  free  trade  with 
the  sister  kingdom,  this  union  has  pro<luccd  results  highly  beneficial,  although  the  devoted 
attachment  of  her  mountain  tribes  to  the  exiled  Stuarts  repeatedly  impelled  them  to  attempt 
to  replace  that  house  on  the  throne ;  attempts  which,  at  one  critical  moment,  spread  alarm 
into  the  heart  of  England. 

Sect.  IV. — Political  Constitution. 

The  political  system  of  Scotland  being  now  almost  completely  incorporated  with  that  of 
England,  little  is  to  be  added  to  the  statements  given  under  tlie  head  of  the  sister  kingdom. 
A  few  peculiarities,  however,  may  ho  deserving  of  notice. 

The  representation  allowed  to  Scotland  at  the  union  was  somewhat  scanty.  It  consisted, 
for  the  House  of  Commons,  of  forty-five  members,  fifteen  from  the  boroughs,  and  thirty  from 
the  counties.  The  members  were  elected,  not  by  the  burgesses,  but  by  the  magistrates, 
who  themselves  were  appointed  chiefly  by  their  predecessors  in  office ;  thus  constituting 
close  boroughs,  in  which  a  party  having  once  obtained  a  majority  might  keep  it  in  prrpetuiim. 
In  county  elections,  the  right  of  voting  was  attached  to  the  possession  of  lands  iield  im- 
mediately of  the  crown,  and  of  the  valued  rent  of  400Z.  Scots.  But  the  feudal  .fuperiority 
which  entitled  to  vote  was  separable  from  the  actual  possession  of  the  property.  Tiie  original 
proprietor,  wlio,  perhaps,  had  a  number  of  these  votes  on  his  estate,  might  either  sell  or 
distribute  them  among  his  friends,  so  as  to  multiply  his  own  elective  influence.  The  free- 
holders of  Scotland  amounted  to  not  quite  3000,  of  whom  a  certain  number,  for  the  reason 
stated,  had  no  actual  property  in  land.  The  peers  of  Scotland  are  represented  by  sixteen 
of  their  number,  elected  at  the  commencement  of  each  parliament.  There  arc,  besides, 
upwards  of  twenty  who  are  British  peers,  and  sit  in  their  personal  right. 

Vol.  L  35  3  B 


it 

u 
If 


i:   m 


.     '-i 


>m 


•^ 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pabt  III 


By  tho  Refonn  Kill  of  1832,  the  power  of  returning  membcra  to  the  IIouio  of  Coi^imoni 
is  vested  in  the  following  cities  and  burghs : — 


Eitinbiirfh  . 


Mrmbori. 
S 


Abfriloen ] 

Pnhlcy I 

nundce } 

Omenuck 1 

P«rtli 1 

Leilh,  PiirliilH'llo,  Muimlbiiri 1 

Kirkwall,  WIrk,  Duriinch,  Uinnwall,  Tain,  Cromarty 1 

Forlrcwii,  In verrii'M,  Nairn,  Furrua 1 

Elfin,  C'lilli'ii,  lluiiir,  Invrnry,  Kinlnro,  Fulerhiiad ' 1 

laverlii'rvif,  .Mniilriiw,  Arbrnnlh,  Uri'cliin,  Pnrflir 1 

Cupar.  SI.  Au>lrotv'«,  AiiHtriithur  Rniiiornnil  Wmtur,  Orall,  Kilronny,  Pitttnwsan 1 

Dyanri,  Kirkulily,  KiiiKlnirn,  RiirnlialancI 1 

Inverki'ithiiiK,  D'nifi  rnilinr'.  Kiiiriwa,  Queenaforry,  Culrnai,  Stirling  I 

RiMifri'W,  RijIlii'mliMi,  Dumbarton,  Kilinarnnck,  Port  Olaagow f 

lladclington.  Dniilmr,  Nortli  llurwick,  I.nndnr,  Judburgh 1 

Iiinlithgow,  l.aimrk.  Falkirk,  Airilrii>,  llnniilton 1 

Ayr,  Irvinn,  (Tninpbullton,  Inverary,  Oban 1 

PiimrriiM,  8ani|iinliur,  Annan,  Ix>climab«n,  Kirkcudbright 1 

Wigton,  Nuwtialluway.Slranraur,  Whithorn 1 

33 

These  members  arc  returned  by  the  inhabitants  paying  rent  to  the  vnlue  of  10/.  and  upwards. 
The  counties  continue  each  to  elect  a  member,  except  that  only  one  in  conjunction  is  re- 
turned by  Elfrin  and  Nairn,  one  by  Ross  and  Cromarty,  and  one  by  Clackmannan  and  Kin- 
ross. The  power  of  voting,  too,  is  attached  to  tlie  possession  ot  actual  property  yielding 
10/.  of  yearly  rent. 

The  Judicial  administration  of  Scotland  has  always  continued  distinct  from  that  of  tlie 
sister  kin^rdom.  The  supreme  court,  or  Court  of  Session,  consisted  until  lately,  of  fitleon 
members,  sitting  together,  and  deciding  in  all  civil  causes,  while  six  of  these  constituted  a 
Justiciary  Court  for  tho  trial  of  criminal  cases.  The  trial  by  jury  was  employed  only  in  the 
Justiciary  Court,  and  in  revenue  <|uestions,  which  are  tried  before  the  Court  of  Exchequer. 
But  tiie  supreme  court  is  now  divided  into  two  chambers,  one  of  six  and  tiie  other  of  seven 
members.  Trials  by  jury,  in  civil  coses,  have  been  introduced,  and  are  now  carried  on,  like 
others,  under  the  direction  of  tiie  Court  of  Session.  The  Court  of  Exchequer,  which  con- 
sisted of  five  barons,  the  Consistory  and  tho  Admiralty  Courts  have  been  abolished,  and  their 
jurisdiction  transferred  to  the  Court  of  Session. 

The  revenue  of  Scotland  has  bee.i  hitherto  collected  separately  from  that  of  England, 
and  by  separate  boards  for  each  branch;  hut,  under  recent  regulations,  the  whol<.  has  been 
placed  under  the  direction  of  boards  resident  in  London,  and  the  systems  have  bee.  t  a  great 
measure  incorporated  together.    In  the  year  ending  5th  January,  1831 — 


The  Scottish  excise  was 
Customs  .        -        - 
Stamps        ... 
Assessed  taxes 
Post  office    ... 


SEcn-.  V. — Productive  Industry. 


2,395,490 

1,357,000 

526,000 

292,000 

201,000 

4,771,490 


Scotland  has  always  ranked  as  a  poor  country ;  and,  for  a  long  time,  natural  obstacles  were 
enhanced  by  moral  impediments.  The  Scots  showed  an  aptitude  to  embark  in  all  schemes 
of  turbulence ;  but  indolence,  and  dislike  of  plain  hard  work,  might  be  recognized  as  a 
national  chaFactcristic.  Since  the  age  arrived,  however,  when  industry  came  into  honour, 
and  when  improved  processes  were  studiously  applied  to  all  the  useful  arts,  tiie  Scots  have 
entered  with  peculiar  spirit  and  intelligence  into  this  new  career ;  and  in  its  prosecution 
have  been  more  succossfiil,  in  some  respects,  than  their  southern  neighbours. 

The  agriculture  of  Scotland  has  to  contend  with  obstacles  which  must  be  manifest,  when 
we  look  at  its  ruarged  aspect,  and  its  vast  hills  and  morasses.  Forty  years  ago,  moreover, 
the  progrps.s  of  Scotland  in  this  primary  art  was  generally  behind  that  of  the  rest  of  the 
empire.  As  soon,  however,  as  the  great  system  of  agricultural  improvement  was  adopted 
throughout  the  kingdom,  the  Scottish  farmers  not  only  shared  in  it,  but  carried  it  farther 
than  those  of  Eiiffliind.  Tlie  farmers  of  the  I<othians,  of  the  Carso  of  Gowrie,  ond  even  of 
the  district  on  tho  Moray  Frith,  made  ii  complete  reform  in  the  whole  train  of  agricultural 
operations.  They  brought  extensive  tracts  of  common  and  waste  under  cultivatiDii,  reduced 
the  number  of  cattle  and  improved  the  breed,  cultivated  the  artificial  grasse.«i,  dismissed 


tain; 

silv( 

in  tl 

coal 

whif 

ate 

sels. 

field 


Book  I. 


SCOTLAND. 


411 


■uperfluous  hiimls,  and  adopted  tho  une  of  riiachinory,  of  which  tho  moHt  important,  tha 
throtihin?  ninrhino,  was  of  Scotliah  invention.  Tho  conBoquoncu  wan,  llmt  conHideruble 
fortanoD  wnro  miido  by  HucccaHfiil  thrmcra,  and  thut  renin  wore  in  alinoHt  every  inHtnnco 
trnbled,  nnd  in  mine  ciiNPa  raiHod  to  oi^ht  or  ten  timea  their  former  amount.  In  the  moun- 
tainoud  districts,  nlno,  a  new  Hystcm  was  introduced,  which  proved  more  protiUiblo  to  tho 
landlord,  'l'\u;  nuinerouH  little  fnrma  hitherto  held  by  tenantx  or  vuNsalH,  were  thrown  into 
extensive  Nheep-walka.  Considcrablo  dejiopnlation,  in  tho  B^rricultural  districtti,  waa  tho 
vonaetpiencu  ;  a.  groat  proportion  of  this  brave  und  wartn-hcartcd  race  were  forced  to  quit 
their  native  (;lcnH,  to  which  they  were  tbndly  attached,  and  to  Heek  Rupport,  cither  in  tho 
groat  munufactiirniK  towna,  or  in  Hottlcmentti  furnied  on  tho  other  Hide  ot  the  Atlantic. 

The  cultivated  lands  of  Scotland,  and  the  amount  of  its  produce,  aflcr  all  thcBO  improve^ 
nients,  are  Htill  limited.  Of  the  lN,g44,U(M)  acres,  its  computed  extent  of  land,  only  r),()43,(M)0 
aro  under  regular  cultivation,  and  not  more  than  1,6()0,UU()  imder  grain.  Of  these  only 
140,0U0  produce  wheat,  though  this  is  considered  tho  motit  profitable  crop,  and  is  raised  of 
good  quality,  where  the  soil  and  climate  admit.  Oats,  a  hardy  plant,  is  the  staple  produce 
of  !:)cotIaiid,  and  the  tbod  of  its  rural  population :  it  covers  1,2H(),(N)0  acres.  Barley  occupioa 
28(),(MM)  acres,  being  raised  chiefly  fur  distillation ;  but  in  the  higher  districts  it  is  the  ruder 
species  called  bear  or  biff.  The  chief  exportable  produce  consists  in  cattle  and  sheep,  which 
are  sent  in  numbers  to  the  English  markets.  Tho  sheep  are  not  equal  to  the  flno  English 
breeds,  but  the  mutton  of  the  Grampians  and  Cheviots  is  of  exquisite  flavour. 

The  maiiufltcturing  industry  of  Scotland  has,  within  the  last  century,  advanced  with  pro- 
digious rupidity,  being  quite  equal,  compared  with  the  extent  and  population  of  tho  country, 
to  that  of  England.  Woollen,  the  grand  original  staple  of  England,  has  never  obtained  more 
than  a  very  partial  footing  in  Scotland.  Linen,  with  other  products  of  flax,  is  the  original 
staple  of  Scotland.  It  was  throughout  the  country  a  household  manufacture,  and  for  house- 
hold use.  Flax,  in  almost  every  family,  was  diligently  spun  into  yarn,  which  was  then  sent 
out  to  be  woven  ond  bleached.  The  coarser  kinds  of  linen  still  form  the  staple  of  tho  eastern 
countie!),  though  Dunfermline  excels  in  fine  sheeting  and  diaper.  Tho  linen  made  in  Scot- 
land was  estimated,  in  1810,  at  26,437,000  yards,  value  LSfiTj.OOO/.  The  increase  in  the 
manufacture  has  .dnce  been  so  great,  that  in  1831,  Dundee  alone  exported  more  than 
57,000,000  yards !  By  far  the  greater  pro|x)rtion  of  the  raw  material  is  imported,  very  little 
hemp  or  flax  being  grown  eitlicr  in  Scotland  or  England ;  almost  all  the  former,  and  more 
than  half  the  latter,  is  brought  from  Russia,  the  rest  of  the  flax  fVom  Holland,  Flanders,  and 
Germany. 

The  cotton  manufacture,  though  of  comparatively  recent  introduction,  has,  in  Scotland, 
no  less  than  in  England,  risen  to  be  the  first  in  point  of  magnitude.  Glasgow  and  Paisley 
produce  fabrics  carried  to  an  extreme  degree  of  fineness.  The  muslin  of  Paisley  is  one  of 
the  most  delicate  fabrics  existing.  The  prmting  of  cottont),  particularly  shawls,  is  also  carried 
on  to  a  greater  proportional  extent  in  Scotland  than  in  England.  The  total  quantity  of  cotton 
wool  spun  in  Scotland  in  1832,  amounted  to  24,500,000  lbs.  of  the  value  of  about  4,000,000/. 

Distillation  of  spirits  fh)m  grain  has  been  long  a  characteristic  branch  of  Scottish  industry ; 
and  in  the  highland  districts,  the  quality  of  the  article  has  been  carried  to  very  great  per- 
fection. It  has  been  much  cramped  by  fiscal  restrictions,  which  have,  of  late,  been  almost 
entirely  abolished.  In  the  first  seven  years  of  the  present  century,  the  quantity  paying  duty 
averaged  2,000,000  gallons ;  it  then  gradually  approached  to  4,000,000 ;  but  in  1824,  upon 
the  reduction  of  the  duty,  it  suddenly  increased  to  above  5,000,000ki  and  in  1830  it  rose  to 
6,070,000. 

Scotland  has  various  other  ordinary  manufactures,  and  generally  supplies  itself  with  all 
the  common  necessaries  of  life.  The  ale  of  Edinburgh  and  of  some  Scottish  towns  enjoys 
reputation  even  out  of  Scotland.  In  1829,  there  were  brewed  in  Scotland  110,000  gallons 
of  strong  beer,  and  229,000  of  table  beer.  Cilasx  is  made  to  the  extent  of  nearly  double  the 
consumption  of  the  country ;  the  surplus  being  exported,  chiefly  to  Ireland.  Salt,  which 
does  not  exist  in  a  mineral  form,  is  largely  extracted  from  sea-water  by  boiling ;  and  though 
not  equal  in  (juality  to  English  rock  salt,  nor  fit  for  use  in  the  fisheries,  its  cheapness  recom- 
mends it  for  common  culinary  purposes.  Candles,  soop,  starch,  leather,  paper,"are  |)ro(Juced 
in  quantity  sufficient  for  tho  supply  of  the  inhabitants.  In  1829,  the  produce  was5,731,000  • 
lbs.  tiillow  candles;  12,721,000  lbs.  hard  soap,  and  2,332,000  lbs.  soft  soap;  812,000  Ibs.l 
starch;  0,002,000  ll>s.  hides;  7,162,000  lbs.  paper.  J       J^^ 

The  mineral  wealth  of  Scotland  is  chiefly  of  an  humble  and  useful  description.  (Itsmoun- 
tains  are  not  metalliferous.  In  Lanark  and  Dumfries  is  a  large  deposit  of  load  mixed  with 
silver,  which,  together  with  some  sumller  mines  in  the  Hebrides,  is  supposed  to  yield  136,O0OZ. 
in  the  former  metal,  and  10,000/.  in  the  latter.  Ironstone  occurs  extensively  in  the  upper 
coal  districts.  In  1825,  the  annual  production  of  pig  iron  in  Scotland  was  29,200  tons, 
which  is  not,  however,  sufliicient  to  supply  the  founderies  at  Carron  and  elsewhere.  Those 
at  Carron  aro  considerable,  the  costing  being  chiefly  of  ordnance,  grates,  and  culinary  ves- 
sels. Coal,  lime,  and  stone,  compose  the  solid  mineral  wealth  of  Scotland.  The  great  coal- 
field extends  in  a  diagonal  line  of  100  miles  along  the  friths  of  Clyde  and  Forth ;  beginning 


413 


DEHCUIPTIVK  OK(MJFlAI'IIY. 


I>A>T  III. 


louUi  of  llu!  lorinor,  oml  ondinK  nortli  of  tli'-  lutti-r.  It  Ih  iintntinwly  rich  in  rcml  of  prottv 
ffuNi  i|iiiility,  tlioii^li  nut  f>i|iinl  to  tlio  b«!i<t  Kii|{liHli,  A  Inr^c  (|iiiiiitity  in  oxiiortiMl  ti)  Iri'Inml. 
Liinii  Ih  ruriilHlii'ii  aliinulnrilly,  Nith  tiir  iMiildiii)^  iiiul  nmniiri'.  FrrfHtoiio,  cliit'lly  on  liolli 
«i(lo«  of  tliii  Fortli;  Krunilc,  in  Aliuriloinnliirr ;  Hlitto,  in  tliL-  I  Icliridcn  anil  Arnyiuxliiro,  atfonl 
cxcollcnt  niiiti'riiiU  for  building. 

Tiiu  lixlicricH  torni  a  conMidcnililc  hriincli  of  indiiKtry  in  M<Mtiand;  tho  liprrin(f,  rod,  nnd 
haddock  iilKitiml  on  varioux  iNirtx  of  itH  HhorcN.  Tho  Diiti-h  Ion;;  niononoJiHcd  tho  );r<>iit 
nortiiern  h^rrint;  bunk;  und,  by  ii  Hii|H'rior  iiioih^  of  cure,  obtiiiiu'd  u  protoriMii-o  in  nil  ninr- 
kotH,  Thi)  liritirih  )(ovcrnniont,  howuvor,  Iiiih  tor  Noino  tiuii'  iii:idi'  );ri'iit  ivviTtion:*  tor  tho 
proiiiotioii  of  tho  Hcottinh  fiHhuriuii;  and  thori;  ImM  JH'on  n  woiidorfid  incr'^iiHo  in  tho  i|nantity 
caught,  und  a  corr<!ii|i<)ndin|f  iinjirovcniont  in  tho  proccHMON  of  ciiro,  Tho  t'orincr,  which  in 
1815  wuH  oidy  KMMNMI  barrelo,  had  riwn  in  IKU)  to  :)'.>U,(MIO,  of  which  '^17,(100  wcro  o.\|K)rtpd. 
In  tho  Huniu  year,  0:i,5()0cwt,  of  cod  W(!ro  riirod  in  u  driod  Htuto,  nnd  •'Vt(M)cwt.  in  pickle; 
of  tho  t!)rnii>r,  'iJMXN)  wcro  oxpurtod.  HnlimiM,  taken  in  nil  tho  conHidurublo  rivcrn,  and  kept 
flrcah  by  bcinj;  |)uckcd  in  ico,  chiutly  KiipplioM  tho  Iiondon  inurkot.  Tho  wlmlu  Hulipry  ni 
Greenland  and  DaviH'a  Straito  Jins  for  Honio  tiino  been  pnMccntnd  by  Hcotland  with  increuHed 
activity.  In  tho  nine  years  omlini(  in  IHIH,  tiho  nont  ut  un  uveraffu  only  40  iihipH:  in  IHiU), 
aho  acnt  47 ;  tho  produce  of  which  was  Tifllit  tuna  of  oil.  Kelp  wiia  in  extonaivo  demand 
during  the  lato  war;  but  the  reiioal  of  tho  duty  on  aatt,  and  the  reduction  of  tho  duty  on 
barillu,  have  ruined  thia  branch  ot  industry. 

The  ridutivo  foreign  coniinorce  of  tho  jirincipul  porta  of  Scotland  ia  oxhiljited  in  tho  fol- 
lowing Table : — 


Atwrdcan 

DO'IICM 

I)ioidi'« 

niii*(nw 

Ortniemoutli. 
Orcenocli 


Tunnifo 
Inlt^. 


«i,ino 

ll.lOfl 

sii.iHin 

41,1(10 

■M.wa 


Prmlucn  111 

inmil^_ 
X 

(V.IXM 

23,000 
4.11,000 


Invcrnera 

Irviiiu 

I.«llh 

Miiiiiriwo 

Pi-rth 

Purl  niimiinw. 


TunnnwA 
in  laiU. 


7,300 
11,300 
H.HOO 
34,300 
111,100 

n.NOO 


Proilui'^uf 

f'llallimt 

In  mii9, 

£ 
a,ooo 

4.400 
ll,N00 
44,400 

ti.utm 

S4t<,flOO 


Cummerce,  till  tho  union  of  tho  crowns,  and  even  of  tho  kingdouin,  could  scarcely  bo  con- 
flidcrod  as  cxiating  in  Scotland ;  but  it  hua  aince  been  cultivated  witii  grout  ardour  and  enter- 
prise. One  branch  of  coniinnrcial  intorcourso  is  that  witii  her  opulent  aister  kingdom.  In 
England  alio  finda  a  market  for  cattle,  her  chief  ajrricultural  aurulua;  tor  hor  wool,  auch  aa 
it  ia ;  for  her  sail-cloth  and  other  coarae  fabrics  from  flu.x  and  lieniu ;  for  piirt  of  her  fine 
calicoes  and  mualins,  &c.  In  return,  she  receives  almost  all  the  windlcn  cloth,  and  a  groat 
part  of  tho  silk  consumed  by  her ;  hardware  and  cutlery  of  ov(;ry  kind  ;  tea  und  other  East 
India  goods ;  and  through  thia  channel  a  |>art  of  all  tho  foreign  luxuries  which  she  requires. 
The  trado  with  Ireland  ia  chieHy  supported  by  tho  exchange  of  coal  and  iron  for  oata  and 
cattle.  That  with  tho  Baltic,  particularly  Runsiu,  is  very  active ;  the  eastern  part  of  tho 
kingdom  deriving  thence  the  hemp  and  flax,  which  form  the  material  of  her  st'iplo  manu- 
facture; alao  timber,  iron,  utid  the  other  bulky  and  useful  stnplea  of  that  trade.  Having 
few  articles  of  her  own  witli  which  tiiis  market  is  not  already  stocked,  the  payment  is  made 
chiefly  in  bullion  und  colonial  produce.  Tiio  flourishing  trade  carried  on  from  the  west  coast 
with  America  and  the  West  Indies,  is  supported  by  tho  export  of  cottons,  linen,  wearing 
apparel,  and  otiicr  commoditiea ;  and  by  tlio  import  of  cotton,  sugar,  rum,  and  tho  various 
luxuries  of  those  fertile  regions.  The  Mediterranean  trade  is  not  neglected ;  and  since  the 
opening  of  that  to  India,  Greenock  has  adventured  into  it  witii  considerable  success. 

The  roads,  which  half  a  century  ago  were  almost  impassable,  are  now,  througli  all  the 
Lowlands,  little  inferior  to  those  of  England.  After  the  rebellion  of  1745,  government  con- 
structed excellent  roads  into  tlio  heart  of  tlie  Highlands  as  fur  as  Inverness;  and  in  1803,  a 
body  of  commissioners  was  appointed  by  government,  for  improving  tho  roods  of  the  north 
of  Scotland.  They  proceeded  upon  tho  principle,  that  half  the  expense  must  in  every  case 
be  defrayed  by  the  county  proprietors,  and  in  eighteen  years  good  roads  were  formed  into 
the  remotest  tracts  of  Inverness,  Skye,  Ross,  anil  even  to  tho  farthest  point  of  Caithness. 

Artificial  navigation  meets  with  peculiar  obstructions  from  the  ruggodness  of  tho  surface, 
and  hq^cc  canals  have  never  become  very  numerous.  The  "Great  Canal,"  admits  vessels 
of  considerable  size  to  pass  from  the  Frith  of  Forth  to  that  of  Clyde,  and  thus  unite  the  Ger- 
man and  Atlantic  oceans.  Branches  to  Glasgow  and  to  the  fine  coal-field  at  Monkland  have 
boon  advantageously  opened.  The  Union  Canal,  completed  at  an  expense  of  nearly  4(KMHXW., 
connects  tho  Grout  Canal,  near  its  eastern  point,  with  Edinburgh,  by  a  line  of  thirty  miles 
through  a  country  very  rich  in  coal  and  lime.  The  Caledonian  Canal,  unitinff  the  chain  of 
lakes  which  crosses  Scotland  diuffonally  through  tlie  counties  of  Inverness  and  Argyle, 
allows  even  shi|)8  of  war  to  pass,  from  tiie  east  coast,  into  tho  Atlantic,  without  pucounter- 
ing  the  perils  of  tho  Pentland  Frith  and  Capo  Wrath.  It  was  finished  in  l>*'2r2,  at  an 
expense  of  nearly  1,000,000/.  sterling,  entirely  defrayed  by  government.    The  gates  of  the 


Part  III. 

ttl  of  prott* 
il  ti)  Irclnntl. 
lly  on  l)otli 
■Hliiro,  ntloril 

nn,  full  nnil 
1  tlii«  tfri'iit 
'  ill  nil  iiinr- 
lioiiH  tor  till' 
the  «iuiiiitity 
icr,  wliicli  in 
'tv,  i!X|X)rto(l. 
t.  in  pickle; 
crx,  (iml  kopl 
ilo  Mwty  in 
itli  incrcMiHrd 
ipn:  in  18!M), 
iriivo  doinaml 
r  the  duty  on 

ed  in  the  fol- 


""" 

|>riHlui'«  of 

n 

Ciivtomi 
In  )*». 

• 

~     X 

9.000 

4,400 

«,M00 

44.4t» 

ii.uoo 

34H,tW0 

arccly  bo  con- 
our  and  cntcr- 
kingiloin.  In 
wool,  such  as 
irt  of  licr  fine 
h,  ond  a  groat 
ind  other  East 
I  she  roquires. 
jn  for  oats  an<l 
rn  part  of  tho 

stiiplo  inanu- 
•ado.  I  laving 
yincnt  is  niado 
tho  west  coast 
linen,  wearing 
nd  the  various 

ond  since  the 

1CCC8S. 

iroiigii  all  the 
)vcrnment  con- 
and  in  1803,  ii 
Is  of  the  north 
L  in  every  case 
!re  formed  into 
f  Caithness, 
of  the  surface, 
admits  vessels 
i  unite  tho  Ger- 
Monkland  have 
early  4(K),()00«., 
of  thirty  miles 
fr  tho  chain  of 
js  and  Arsrylc', 
lout  piioounter- 
in  If'-'J,  at  an 
ic  gates  of  the 


^   -m 


Hook  I. 


BCJOTLAND. 


41S 


lock*  are  of  iron;  tho  «x|)«<n>io  of  oiirli  lock  wim  1MHMI/.  Tli.'  liK-k*  nf  twoiify-llirpo  in  n?l 
eiifiit  of  which,  l'X)kinir  down  iVmn  Un'ti  Kil,  wlirro  it  ojm'iw  into  tho  wrnlorn  m>n,  nro  ciillod 
liy  Miilom  llio  "Hinir  of  Ni'iiIijimv''  Tho  canal  i«  l\fly  foot  tmnil;  leniftli  twonly-two  nilloii, 
with  forty  iniloN  uf  iako  naviii^nliun. 

Heot.  VI,— f  aj/  unil  Social  Stale. 
Of  tho  impiilntion  of  Hcuduiid  nn  OHliiniilo  wiih  liritt  atloniptod  in  tho  yoar  ItlVS,  whon  it 
WM  coniputod  to  Im)  l,V{t(.">.!*m  Tho  ri>|)ortii  of  tho  clorgy  lor  tho  "SintiKtionl  .Anroiint," 
bolwoon  17IW  and  17J)H,  guvo  1  .ti,ilKJ;  which  won  rainoil  liy  tho  uovorniiiont  oniiiiionitinn 
of  1>HI1  to  1,.'>1«),(H)»).  'Hio  ,  utof  I«ll  gavo  1,K(K'\,(KK»;  which  wii»  niinod  liy  thiit  of 
IS'Jl  to  y,(HKV»''\«>.     Ill  I'^IU,  It  vvUM  '.J,:«l:t,H4'i. 

In  imiiit  of  diHumition,  tho  Scotn  iiro  a  grave,  sorioii*,  and  roflorting  pooplo ;  hut  hold, 
untnrpriding,  Bmliitioiis  und  iinhuod  with  a  (liMi|>-r(N>tod  dotorininntion  to  piirKuo  tho  ohjccts 
of  their  doHiro,  and  ropol  tlnMo  of  their  aviTsioii,  Under  thoMo  itiipnUoM,  tlioy  ijiiit,  without 
much  regret,  a  hnd  which  alliirilH  ti'w  opportunities  of  diiitiiiction,  and  nook,  oithor  in  the 
niotropulis  and  cominorciitl  towns  of  Kiiglund,  or  in  tho  rnontdintant  trunHiimrino  rogion^  that 
wealth  and  tiime  which  thoy  eagerly  covet ;  yot,  amid  this  distanct*  and  tlioMo  eager  piirsiiitN, 
their  hop<<H  and  atlt^ctions  reiuaui  fi.\od  on  tho  land  of  their  nittivity;  and  thoy  iiHimlly  Nook 
to  spend  tho  evening  of  their  days  in  Scotland.  The  Hoots  np|M>nr  naturally  hmvc>;  aiiunlity 
which  is  imrticularly  observablo  among  tho  highland  trihos,  and  hy  which  thoy  rendered 
theniHolvos  toriiiidahio,  first  under  .Montroso,  and  allerwards  in  tho  rohollion  against  the  hoiiNo 
of  Hanover.  Since  thoy  wore  conciliated  hy  the  wise  inoaHiires  of  I'itt,  they  have  crowded 
into  the  Hritish  urmy,  anil  liirmod  boiiio  of  its  Imivrst  rogiments.  Among  the  lower  cliisMeH, 
crimes  against  tho  order  of  society  are  of  com|Hirativoly  niro  occurrence,  iiiiil  ihoro  is  less 
necessity  tor  capital  punishment;  tk-ro  is  also  lessof  oxtroiiie  dissoluteness  iinioiig  the  hitrlii-r 
ranks.  Among  the  Scottish  females,  iu  parti>?ular,  the  ohligatioiis  i>f  the  marriiii;e  tio  ure 
much  more  soldoiu  di-sregarded  ;  and  if  the  other  sex  tisi  ot>on  uhiise  the  license  which  pulilic 
manners  are  supposed  to  allov/,  they  are  at  least  obliged  to  olisi'rvo  soino  oiitwnrd  iip|M'iir- 
anccs.  Tho  pride  of  birth  is  still  prevalent,  particularly  among  the  highliuiil  cIuum;  and  it 
is  accompanied  with  a  general  ambition  to  ri^o  aNtvo  their  original  slalinii,  and  a  |iro|ieiisity, 
with  that  view,  to  spend  their  miNleratc  wealth  rather  in  oiitwiinl  show  tlian  in  soliil  com- 
fort. The  sister  nations  accuse  tho  Scots  as  sidtisli,  yi-t  Sciit:<inen  raised  to  jKiwer  Imvo  not 
shown  any  backwardness,  either  in  tho  general  otlices  uf  humanity,  or  to  proinutu  the  pros- 
perity of  their  ciaintry  and  countrymen. 

To  their  religious  duties  tho  Scots  [N'oplo  have  always  shown  an  exemplary  iittenlion.  In 
catholic  times,  tlio  Romish  church  in  Scotland  enjoyed  more  innuenco,  and  had  acipiired  a 
much  greater  pri)|)ortion  of  the  national  wealth,  than  in  Knglaiid.  IJiit  they  entered  u\>on 
tho  cause  of  rellirm  with  an  ardent  zeal,  which  left  Iwliiiid  it  that  of  all  their  neigldsairs. 
After  a  desperate  struggle,  on  which,  for  nearly  a  conlnry,  the  political  destinies  of  tho  king- 
dom depended,  they  obtained  their  favourite  form  of  presbytery,  tho  most  remote  t'rom  that 
pompous  ritual,  for  which  thoy  have  entertained  tho  most  rooted  abhorronco.  Tho  principle 
of  presbytery  consists  in  tho  complete  oimality  of  all  its  clerical  members,  who  have  each  a 
separate  parish,  of  which  they  perform  all  tho  occlosiastical  functions.  The  title  of  bishop, 
so  lonjf  connected  with  wealth  and  power,  has  been  rejected,  and  that  of  viuiislrr  substi- 
tuted. In  the  management  of  tho  piMir,  and  some  church  fimctions,  the  minister  is  assisted 
by  a  baly  of  lay  members  called  rldern,  who  constitute  tho  kirk  Kmnion.  Tho  government 
of  tho  church  consists  in  jireshtjieriex  fiirmcd  by  the  meeting  of  the  ministers  of  a  certain 
district,  with  lay  members  from  each  session,  tho  lust  of  whom,  however,  attend  only  occa- 
sionally. A  synod  is  formed  hy  the  union  of  several  presbyteries;  and  tho  Uewrol  Atixfm' 
My  is  com|x>sed  of  deputii!s,  partly  clerical  and  iwrtly  lay,  from  each  presbytery  arwl  Ixirongh. 
They  meet  every  year,  and  an  appeal  lies  to  them  upon  ovory  subject;  but  the  laws  of  tho 
chiireh,  though  propaxod  in  tho  Assembly,  can  Ix;  |xi8sed  only  by  a  majority  of  presbyteries, 
after  being  delmtcd  in  each.  Tho  king  sends  a  Commissioner,  who  is  present  at  tho  debates 
of  tho  Assembly,  and  seems  oven  to  claim  a  right  of  conslifnting  and  dissolving  it;  hut  this 
is  dcniml  by  the  church  itself,  which  acknowledges  no  human  head,  and  accounts  itself  and 
the  state  as  powers  entirely  independent. 

The  noblos  availed  themselves  of  the  downtiill  of  the  catholic  establishm.int,  to  appro- 
priate nearly  the  whole  of  tho  immense  income  with  which  it  had  been  endowed.  They 
took  at  first  not  only  the  lands,  hut  the  tithes;  and  even  when  oliliged  to  make  a  provision 
for  the  presbytorian  clergy  nut  of  tho  liittor  they  retained  part,  vnlii'Ml  often  at  a  very  low 
rate,  but  subject  to  l)o  called  iiixm  if  needed.  Thus  tho  Scots  clergy  have  onioyod  only 
such  incomes  as  onaliled  them,  with  strict  econnmy,  to  iniiiiifain  their  place  in  the  niidillo 
rank  of  society.  VV^hen  oven  this  became  inipossiblo  under  the  increaseil  expense  of  liviiiij-, 
augmentations  wore  grunted  out  of  the  I irnils,  or  valued  tithes;  and  where  these  were 
exhausted,  tho  legislature  have  come  forward,  and  raised  tho  lowest  stipend  t"  ■".")()/.  a  year. 
No  body  of  clergy  have  maintained  a  tiiiror  character,  or  more  efficiently  performed  their 
important  duties,  than  those  of  tho  Scottish  church. 

3.5* 


I    '' 


'  IIIIWIITHHMHI 


VTJt 


414 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pabt  IU. 


The  dissenters  from  the  Scottish  church  consist  cliiefly  of  persons  zealously  attached  to 
presbytery,  and  who  have  seceded  because  they  considered  its  principles  as  not  maintained 
m  sufficient  purity  within  the  establishment.  Tiieir  chief  complaint  is  against  the  system 
of  patronage  oxercised  by  the  landed  interest,  wiio  present  generally  to  the  vacant  parishes. 
Two  groat  iKidies,  into  which  they  were  formerly  divided  on  the  subject  of  the  burgher  oatli, 
have,  since  tlio  uliolition  of  that  test,  been  united  into  wliat  is  called  the  Associate  Symd. 
A  coiisidi'rable  proportion,  especially  of  the  higher  ranks,  is  attached  to  episcopacy,  either 
as  it  was  establislied  in  Scotland  under  the  Stuarts,  or  as  it  now  exists  in  England;  indeed, 
an  union  has  been  recently  formed  between  these  once  separate  branches.  None  of  the 
other  sects,  independents,  baptists,  methodists,  &c.  are  numerous ;  and  the  Roman  catholics 
consist  chiefly  of  emiarrants  from  Ireland,  though  their  form  of  religion  still  prevails  in  some 
of  the  remote  highland  districts. 

Literature,  soon  after  its  revival  in  Europe,  was  cultivated  in  Scotland  with  peculiar 
ardour.  Even  in  the  age  of  scholastic  pursuits,  Duns  Scotus  and  Crichton  were  pre-emi- 
nently famed  throughout  the  Continent.  When  the  sounder  taste  for  classical  knowledge 
followed,  Buchanan  acquired  the  reputation  of  writing  I^atin  with  groat  purity.  Letters 
were  almost  entirely  suppressed  during  the  subsequent  period,  marked  by  a  conflict  between 
a  licentious  tyranny  and  an  austere  religious  party,  who  condemned  or  despised  the  exer- 
tions of  intellect  and  tiic  creations  of  fancy ;  and  literature  loy  dormant  till  the  middle  of  the 
last  century,  wlien  Scotland,  with  a  ciiurch  and  universities  alike  poorly  endowed,  produced 
OS  illustrious  a  constellation  of  writers  as  had  been  called  forth  by  the  most  lavish  patronage 
in  the  great  European  capitals.  We  shall  only  mention,  in  history,  Robertson  and  Hume; 
in  moral  and  political  philosophy,  Hume,  Reid,  Smith,  Ferguson,  Kames,  Stewart,  Brown ; 
divinity,  Blair,  Campbell,  Macknight;  poetry.  Home,  Thomson,  Beattie,  Burns;  physical 
science,  Gregory,  Black,  Playfair,  Leslie.  In  the  present  generation,  the  most  popular  of 
tictitious  writing's,  and  one  of  the  most  able  periodical  works  known  in  modern  times,  have 
issued  from  the  Edinburgh  press. 

The  universities  of  Scotland  have  been  a  powerful  instrument  in  supporting  her  literary 
fame.  Though  not  richly  endowed,  the  fees  of  well-attended  classes  afford  a  liberal  income, 
and  have  enabled  them  to  attract  the  most  learned  among  the  clergy ;  while,  in  England,  a 
wealthy  church  draws  eminent  scholars  from  the  universities.  The  students  live  generally 
in  the  towns,  without  any  check  on  their  private  conduct,  or  even  any  obligation  to  attend- 
ance, except  what  arises  from  the  dread  of  the  refusal  of  a  certificate  at  the  close.  The 
chief  exertion  of  the  professors  is  bestowed  on  their  lectures,  by  which  they  hope  to  attract 
students  to  their  class  and  seminary.  The  more  diligent  combine  with  them  examinations 
and  exercises,  but  not  on  the  same  systematic  and  searching  plan  as  in  England ;  and  the 
degrees  are  conferred,  in  rriny  instances,  with  culpable  laxity.  A  much  greater  proportion 
of  the  people  receive  a  college  education  than  in  England.  The  church  exacts  an  attend- 
ance of  eight  years ;  four  for  languages  and  philosophy,  and  four  for  divinity :  the  faculty 
of  medicine  requires  also  several  years ;  and  the  gentry  and  higher  grades  of  the  middle 
ranks  in  general  consider  an  attendance  on  the  elementary  classes  as  an  essential  part  of 
education. 

The  public  libraries  arc  not  rich.  That  belonging  to  the  advocates  or  barristers  of  Edin- 
burgh contains  upwards  of  100,000  volumes,  among  which  there  are  ample  materials,  both 
printed  and  in  manuscript,  for  elucidating  the  national  history.  The  university  library  is 
half  as  large ;  and  those  of  Glasgow,  King's  College  Aberdeen,  and  St.  Andrew's,  are  highly 
respectable.     Each  of  these  universities  con  claim  a  copy  of  every  new  work. 

Scotland  has  a  native  music,  simple  and  pathetic,  expressive  of  rural  feelings  and  emotions, 
to  which  she  is  fondly  attached.  Golf  and  foot-baU  are  the  only  amusements  that  can  be 
deemed  strictly  national.  Skating,  and  curlitiff,  or  the  rolling  of  smooth  stones  upon  the 
ice,  are  also  pursued  with  great  ardour  during  the  season  that  admits  of  those  amusements. 
The  recreations  of  the  higher  ranks  are  nearly  the  same  as  in  England.  Dancing  is  prac- 
tised with  peculiar  ardour,  especially  by  the  Highlanders,  who  have  favourite  national  steps 
and  movements. 

The  Highlanders  retain  the  remnants  of  a  national  costume  peculiar  to  themselves ;  the 
tartan,  a  mixture  of  woollen  and  linen  cloth,  adorned  with  brilliant  stripes  variously  crossing 
each  other,  and  marking  the  distinctions  of  the  clans ;  the  kilt,  or  short  petticoat,  worn  by 
the  men,  the  hose  fastened  below  the  knee,  which  is  left  bare ;  and  the  boimet,  which  in 
another  shape  is  also  still  worn  by  the  shepherds  of  the  border. 

In  regard  to  food,  t:.e  Scots,  in  general,  are  temperate.  Even  the  rich  attach  less  import- 
ance than  their  southern  neighbours  to  the  gratifications  of  the  palate.  The  peasantry,  pre- 
viously to  the  rise  of  wages,  which  took  place  about  thirty  years  ago,  were  content  with  the 
hardest  faro.  Neither  wheaten  broad  nor  animal  food  formed  part  of  their  ordinary  diet 
Oatmeal,  not  accounted  in  the  south  of  England  an  article  of  food  for  human  beings,  was 
prepared  here  under  the  forms  of  cakes  or  porridge,  and  constituted  the  chief  means  of  sub- 
sistence. To  this  was  occasionally  added  barley  broth,  with  greens  or  kail,  the  chief  pro- 
duce of  their  little  gardens.    The  Scots  hav«  some  dishes  which  they  cherish  with  nationa] 


Book  I. 


SCOTLAND. 


415 


IS  prac- 
il  steps 

38;  the 
Iroflsing 
Vmby 

Tiich  in 

nport- 

,pre- 

I'lth  the 

\y  diet 

was 

bf  Bub- 

bf  pro- 

Btiona] 


enthusiasm,  and  among  which  the  haggis  holds  the  foremost  place.  This  is  a  mixture  of 
oatmeal,  fat,  liver,  and  onion,  boiled  up  m  the  bag  which  composed  the  stomach  of  the  ani- 
mal. They  have,  moreover,  hotch-potch,  and  other  soups,  the  merit  of  which  has  been 
acknowledged  by  English  palates. 

Sect.  VII. — Local  Geography. 

The  following  is  a  table  of  the  extent,  population,  and  rental  in  the  different  counties  of 
Scotland,  derived  fh)m  agricultural  reports  and  parliamentary  returns : — 


Aberdeen 

Argyle 

Ayr 

Banff 

Berwick 

Bute 

Caithneaa 

Clackmannan. 
Dumbarton  .  ■ . 
OumfViea 

Edinburgh  . . .  ■ 

Elgin 

Fife 


Forfar 

Haddington . .  ■ 

Invernera 

Kincardine  . . . 

Kinroes 

Kirkcudbright. 

Lanark 


Linlithgow 

Nairn 

Orkney  and  Shetland 

Peebles 

Perth 

EenfVew 


Hon  and  Cromarty. 

Roxburgh 

Selkirk  

Stirling 

Sutherland 

Wtgton 


l.QfiO 

s.isw 

1,039 

645 
442 

lai 

687 

48 

338 

1,333 

354 

473 

467 


279 

4,054 

380 

72 

83U 

042 

120 

195 

1,380 

319 

2,588 

325 
3,865 

715 

383 

489 

1,754 

451i 


Acre* 

under  Cut- 

tintioD. 


451,000 
270,000 
325,000 

123,000 
137,000 
29,000 
92,000 
33,000 
54,000 
333,000 

145,000 

131,000 

209,000 

369,000 

139,000 
244,000 
92,000 
27,000 
168,000 

271,000 

57,000 
37,000 
46,000 
24,000 
580,000 

73,000 
170,000 

206,000 

10,000 
195,000 
63,000 

101,000 


Rwlal  In 
IBI2. 


HOOMS 

inini. 


£ 
301,000 
207,000 

369,000 

85,000 
286,000 
20,000 
32,000 
39,000 
63,000 
364,000 

713,000 

66,000 

378,000 

336,000 

213,000 
173,000 
88,000 
34,000 
192,000 

616,000 

91,000 
12,000 
20,000 
60,000 
612,000 

334,000 
111,000 

342,000 

41.000 
207,000 
28,000 

131,000 


37,579 
16,059 

17,843 

8,971 
5,803 
3.205 
5,319 
2,145 
3,536 
13,248 

19,077 

6,668 

18,944 

16,813 

6,230 
17,055 
5,894 


6,441 

47,016 

3.303 


9,176 

1,750 

26,718 

10,490 
13,6.18 

6,587 

1,081 
8,984 
4,054 

5,819 


Forub- 
tknln 
ISI. 


177,651 
101,425 

145,055 

48,604 
34.048 
14,151 
34,529 
14,729 
33,211 
73,770 

219,592 

34.231 

128,839 

139,606 

36,145 
94,797 
31,431 
9,072 
40,599 

316,810 

23,391 

9.354 

58,339 

10.578 

143,894 

133,443 
74,830 

43,663 

6,883 
72.621 
25,518 

36,318 


Town,  with  FopukitioD  in  1831. 


Aberdeen...  58,019 

Campbellton  9,473 

(Ayr 7,606 

I  Irvine 5,300 

Banff 3,711 

Dunse 3,469 

Rothesay...  4  819 

Thurso 4,670 

Clackmannan    4,266 

Dumbarton  .  3,623 

Dumfl-ies  ...  11,606 

(  Edinburgh  .  136,303 

Dalkeith...  5,386 

Elgin 6,1,30 

t  Cupar 6,493 

JKirkaldy...  5.034 

Dundee ....  45.:<55 

i  Forfar 7,949 

Haddington .  5.883 

Invernees . . .  15,324 

Bervie 1,137 

Kinross 2,917 

Kirkcudbright!  3,511 

I  Glasgow  . . .  302,426 

{Lanark ....  7,672 

Linlithgow  .  4,874 

Nairn  3,366 

Kirkwall  . . .  3.065 

Peebles  ....*.  2,750 

Perth 20,016 

i  Paisley  ....  57,466 
j  Port  Glasgow  5.19^ 

I  Dingwall  . .  2,121 

j  Cromarty . .  3,901 

Keiso 4,939 

i  Hawick....  4,<I70 

Selkirk 2,83:! 

Stirling 8,34n 

Dornoch 504 

I  Wigton  ....  2.337 

i  Portpatrick  2,23!) 


Pct<!rhea(l . . .  6,698 

Inverary 2,133 

Kilmarnock  .  18,093 

Cullen 1,593 

Lauder 3,063 

Wick 9.850 

Alloa 6,3!9 

Sanquhar  ...  3,268 

Leith 25,8,13 

.rfu.''scn)urgh  8,961 

Fnrri'9 3,895 

St.  Andrew's  S.621 

Dunfi'rniline  17.068 

Mniitrnse  . . .  12,055 

Arbroath. . . .  6,660 

Dunbar 4,735 


Hamilton  . 


Lerwick  . . 

Dumhlane . 
'^..eiiock. . 
Renfrew  . . 
Tain 


Jedburgh . 


Falkirk  ... 
Stranraer  . 


9,503 


2.750 

3,228 

27,571 

3,133 

3,078 

5,647 


12,743 
3,321 


The 


In  treating  of  Scotland  in  detail,  we  shall  divide  it  into  three  constituent  parts : — 1. 
Lowland  counties ;  2.  The  Highland  counties ;  3.  The  Islands. 

SuBSECT.  1. — The  Lowland  Countiet. 

The  whole  of  the  south  of  Scotland,  though  diversified  by  elevated  ranges  of  hills,  is 
always  considered  as  belonging  to  the  Lowlands.  It  presents,  however,  three  districts  of 
opposite  character: — 1.  The  agricultural  counties  along  the  German  Ocean  and  the  Frith 
of  Forth ;  2.  The  southern  pastoral  rounties ;  3.  The  manufacturing  counties  of  the  west. 

The  agricultural  district  of  soutliem  Scotland  consists  of  the  counties  of  Berwick  (for- 
merly the  Merse),  of  Haddington,  Edinburgh,  and  Linlithgoio  (fully  as  familiar  under  the 
appellations  of  East,  Mid,  and  West  Lothian),  and  of  Stirling,  which  touches  westward  on 
the  highland  bor:ndary.  Even  of  this  range,  the  cultivated  part  is  closely  hemmed  in  by 
Lammermoor,  a  low,  broad,  moorish  ridge,  which  fills  all  the  eastern  interior,  and  has  even 
a  considerable  extent  along  the  shore  of  the  German  Ocean. 

The  cultivated  part  of  Berwickshire  consists  of  the  Merse,  extending  chiefly  along  the 
Tweed,  and  reaching  to  the  sea.  Above  it  is  Lauderdale,  or  the  Valley  of  tlio  Lauder, 
which  is  fitted  chiefly  for  grazing,  and  touches  closely  on  the  heaths  of  Lammermoor.  Ber- 
wick-upon-Tweed, though  its  harbour  be  indiflferent,  is  the  chief  channel  for  exporting  the 
valuable  produce  of  the  Merse,  to  the  annual  amount,  it  is  said,  of  80,0fH)  bolls  of  grain. 
The  strong  wall  and  deep  ditch,  which  once  defended  Berwick,  still  remain,  though  neglected ; 
and  large  barracks  have  been  erected.  Greenlaw,  the  seat  of  coimty  business,  and  Lauder, 
tlie  only  borough,  are  but  small  places  in  the  upper  district.  Dunse,  in  the  agricultural  tract, 


.■"> 


416 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


:^- 


is  the  most  thrivinij.  Coldstream,  a  large  village  on  the  Tweed,  ia  noted  as  the  scene  of 
Monk's  retirement.  In  the  western  part  of  Berwickshire  is  Dryburgh  Abbey,  a  fine  old 
Gothic  edifice,  in  which  rest  the  remains  of  Scott, 

lladdingtonsiiire,  or  East  Lothian,  runs  along  the  Frith  of  Forth,  between  which  and  the 
range  of  Ijimnierinoor  extends  a  plain  about  twenty  miles  in  length  and  twelve  in  breadth, 
perhaps  the  largest  in  Scotland,  and  all  under  high  cultivation.  Edinburgh  is  chiefly  supplied 
with  wlieat  from  the  market  at  Haddington,  which  is  considered  one  of  the  first  in  the 
country.  'J'he  towns  ore  of  secondary  importance.  Haddington  is  supported  only  by  the 
market  and  by  its  court  for  legal  proceedings.  Dunbar  has  a  little  trade  and  fishery.  Its 
ca.'<tle,  the  ruins  of  which  extend  over  a  promontory  of  broken  rocks,  stretching  out  into  the 
sea,  tiirins  a  truly  grand  object.  The  Btiss, "  that  sea  rock  immense,"  which  rises  to  the  height 
of  4(M)  feet,  forms  a  perpendicular  precipice,  on  which  build  crowds  of  that  rare  species  of  sea- 
fowl  called  Solan  goose.  Their  young,  whose  down  is  of  some  value,  are  taken  by  the 
perilous  exertions  of  fishermen,  sus]>ended  oy  ropes  from  the  top  of  the  clifi".  There  are  still 
some  remains  of  the  fortified  prison  which  was  in  ancient  times  reserved  for  state  oflfenders, 
and  in  whirh  some  of  the  most  eminent  covenanters  were  confined  for  several  years.  On 
the  shore  immediately  opposite,  crowning  a  perpendicular  cliff,  appears  Tantallon,  a  strong 
castle  of  the  Douglases,  now  in  a  ruinous  state.  Prestonpans,  a  long  dirty  village,  has  some 
manufaofures  of  salt  and  vitriol. 

Mid  l/ithinn,  or  Edinburghshire,  is  penetrated  by  a  branch  of  the  Lammermoor,  and  by 
the  long  range  of  the  Pentlands:  and,  at  the  distance  of  a  few  miles  south  from  Edinburgh, 
a  generiil  high  level  begins,  which  is  favourable  only  to  the  production  of  oats  and  barley. 
There  are  no  manufactures  of  any  consequence,  the  county  being  entirely  supported  by  the 
metropolis  iind  its  appendages. 

F.diuliurgli,  the  capital  of  Scotland  (Jig.  188.),  is  a  city  of  no  very  high  antiquity.  T^e 
Castle  Hill,  indeed,  whose  rocky  and  precipitous  sides  support  on  the  summit  a  level  epr^'e 

188 


Edinbursh. 

of  some  extent,  accessible  only  by  a  narrow  ridge  at  one  point,  must  always  have  been  of 
importance  in  a  military  age.  It  is  named  in  the  Pictish  annals  under  the  title  of  Castrum 
Puellarum,  which  is  supposed  to  have  originated  from  the  custom  of  placing  the  princesses 
and  ladies  of  rank  to  be  educated  there,  as  in  a  place  of  security.  In  the  tenth  century, 
mention  is  first  made  of  the  town  of  Edin ;  but  David  I.,  in  the  twelfth  century,  founded 
the  abbey  and  palace  of  Holy  rood;  and,  under  the  sway  of  the  Stuarts,  Edinburgh  became 
the  capitiil  of  Scotland.  Edinburgh  is  built  upon  three  ridges,  running  from  east  to  west, 
and  separated  from  each  other  by  deep  ravines.  The  Old  Town,  which,  till  the  last  half 
century,  formed  tlie  whole  of  Edinburgh,  is  situated  on  the  middle  ridge,  extending  nearly 
n  mile  of  gradual  descent  from  the  Castle  to  the  palace  of  Holyroo<l.  To  secure  the  protec- 
tion nflxirdod  by  this  site,  the  houses  were  crowded  into  the  very  smallest  possible  space; 
th"y  are  raised  six  or  seven  stories  on  the  side  facing  the  street,  which  from  the  acclivity 
of  the  ground,  gives  to  that  facing  the  ravine  a  height  of  ten  or  even  fourteen  stories.  From 
this  central  street,  there  descend  on  each  side  ctosrs  or  lanes  about  six  feet  broiid,  and 
sinping  very  aliniplly.  The  Cowgate,  a  poor  street,  inhabited  by  small  tradesmen,  extends 
along  the  bottom  of  the  ravine,  and  terminates  in  a  spacious  Grass-market,  completing  old 
Edinburgh.  Although  it  contains  many  excellent  iiouscs,  it  is  now  occupied  only  by  tiio  infe- 
.•ior  orders  of  tradesmen,  wiio  occupy  spacious  apartments  at  very  low  rents.  The  wealthy 
citizens  have  migrated  to  two  towns,  built  on  the  opjxisite  sidet;  of  the  Old  Town;  one  on 
the  south  side,  or  St.  Leonard's  Hill,  (wcupied  by  citizens  of  the  middle  class,  those  con- 
nected with  the  university,  or  such  :is  arc  fimd  of  retirement;  the  other,  called  properly  the 
New  Town,  is  on  the  north ;  and  comiirisos  the  residence  of  almost  all  the  opulent  and 
fashionable  classes.  Being  built  on  a  regular  plan,  and  of  fine  freestone,  it  forms  one  of  the 
most  elegant  towns  in  Britain. 

The  beauty  of  Edinburgh  is  enhanced  by  its  situation :  being  overlooked  on  one  side  by  the 
eminence  of  the  Castle,  and  its  ancient  towers,  and  on  the  other  by  a  range  of  tx)ld  hills,  the 
hifflie-t  of  wliicli  is  called  .\rthur's  Seat.  Tht;  lowest,  the  Cnlton  Hill,  roiuid  which  walks 
of  easy  access  have  been  formed,  commands  a  fine  view  of  Edinburgh,  the  Frith  of  Forth, 


Part  III. 

scene  of 
a  fine  old 

ch  and  the 
in  breadth, 
Hy  supplied 
irst  in  the 
jnly  by  the 
shery.  Its 
)ut  into  the 
I  the  height 
!cies  of  sou- 
ken  by  the 
ere  are  still 
e  offenders, 
yciirs.  On 
OT,  a  strong 
e,  has  some 

Dor,  and  by 
Edinburgh, 
and  barley, 
wted  by  the 

juity.    T»>e 
level  spr^'e 


ive  been  of 

of  Castrum 

princesses 

ith  century, 

iry,  founded 

gh  became 

ist  to  west, 

last  half 

iiig  nearly 

the  protcc- 

ible  space ; 

e  acclivity 

ins.    From 

broiid,  and 

!n,  extends 

)leting  old 

)y  the  infc- 
wc^althy 


Mde  by  the 

i]  hills,  the 

liich  walks 

I  of  Forth, 


I 


Book  I. 


SCOTLAND 


417 


and  its  surrounding  shores.  The  general  ofibct,  rather  than  that  of  any  particular  edifices, 
constitutes  the  merit  of  Edinburgh.  Of  antique  structures,  there  is  nothing  very  fine,  except 
the  largo  lidspilal  lor  boys,  erected  from  the  funds  bequeathed  by  Georg'j  Heriot,  the  cele- 
rated  goldsmith.  Tlie  grout  cathedral  of  St.  Giles  has  been  admired  almost  solely  for  its 
spire,  and  Ilolyrood  Palace,  a  comparatively  modern  structure,  for  its  little  ancient  chapel. 
The  former  h;us  been  now  externiiily  rebi-ilt  on  a  very  handsome  plan,  and  the  latter  has 
undergone  a  thorough  repair.  Four  miles  south,  in  a  very  commanding  situation,  are  the 
remains  of  Queen  Alary 's  pleasant  country  palace  of  Craigmillar.  The  Register  Office,  the 
new  College,  and  new  High  School  are  elegant  structures ;  but  the  National  Monument,  on 
the  Gallon  Ilill,  begun  on  the  model  of  the  Parthenon,  is  stopped  for  want  of  funds. 

Tiie  inhabitants  m  1801,  including  Leith,  were  82,560;  in  1831,  they  had  increased  to 
162,ir)fi.  The  principal  support  is  derived  from  the  law ;  the  professors  of  the  university, 
and  private  lecturers,  &c.  constitute  a  considerable  number;  and  genteel  families  are 
attracted  from  every  part  of  Scotland  by  the  opportunities  of  education  and  agreeable 
society.  Eklinburgh  is  a  city  eminently  scientific  and  literary,  and  has  even  become  known 
under  the  appellation  of  the  "  modern  Athens."  Connected  with  these  pursuits,  an  extensive 
trade  in  printing  and  publishing  books  is  carried  on  by  some  enterprising  individuals.  There 
are  few  manufactures,  with  the  above  exception.  A  great  quantity  of  ale  is  brewed,  which 
has  attained  to  a  high  reputation;  and  there  are  in  the  neighbourhood  some  considerable 
distilleries.  Shawls  are  manufactured  equal  to  any  in  the  empire.  There  are  extensive 
banking  establishments,  both  public  and  private,  and  considerable  fortunes  have  been  made 
in  that  branch  of  commerce. 

The  University  of  Edinburgh,  founded  in  1581,  has  risen  to  great  fame,  both  as  an  institu- 
tion for  teaching,  and  a  nursery  for  eminent  men.  The  medical  school,  in  particular,  attracts 
students  from  all  the  three  kingdoms.  The  annual  number  of  students  at  the  University 
exceeds  2000.  They  are  lodged  in  the  town,  and  are  not  subject  to  any  personal  discipline, 
except  that  of  attendance  on  the  lectures.  Edinburgh  has  its  Royal  Society  for  physical  and 
literary  researches,  its  Antiquarian  and  Horticultural  Societies,  an  Institution  for  the  promo- 
tion of  the  Fine  Arts,  and  an  Academy  for  Painting. 

Leith  is  the  port  of  Edinburgh,  and  carries  on  a  considerable  import  trade  for  the  supply  of 
that  capital  and  all  the  interior  country,  for  which  purpose  she  carries  on  a  constant  inter- 
course with  London  and  other  jwrts  on  the  eastern  coast.  Her  intercourse  with  the  Baltic 
is  very  extensive ;  and  that  with  the  West  Indies  considerable.  The  harbour  of  Leith  is 
not  good ;  but  large  sums  have  been  expended  in  the  construction  of  an  extensive  range  of 
docks  for  the  accommodation  of  its  shipping ;  and  of  a  pier  stretching  far  into  the  sea,  so  as 
to  enable  vessels  to  enter  at  all  times  of  the  tide,  witii  a  breakwater  opposite.  The  roads, 
at  the  distance  of  about  a  mile,  afford  excellent  anchorage.  Leith,  origmally  a  collection  of 
dirty  lanes,  is  now  everywhere  skirted  by  excellent  streets,  and  ranges  of  villas,  erected  by 
the  opulent  inhabitants  tor  their  private  residence.  In  1832  there  entered  its  port  334 
vessels,  tonnage  46,200. 

Besides  these  great  towns.  Mid  Lothian  containsonly  some  large* pleasant  villages.  Porto- 
bello  is  the  principal  bathing  place  of  Edinburgh.  Musselburgh  has  a  good  turf,  which  has 
supplanted  Leith  sands  for  the  annual  Edinburgh  races.  The  valley  of  the  Esk  contains 
the  finest  scenery  in  the  I^thians.  Roslin  chapel,  though  not  on  an  extensive  scale,  exhi- 
bits some  exquisite  specimens  of  Gotiiic  sculpture;  and  the  ruins  of  the  castle  bear  marks 
of  great  strength.  All  the  soutli  and  west  of  this  county  consists  of  wild,  hilly,  and  pastoral 
scenery,  in  the  heart  of  which  is  a  pleasingly  retired  spot,  chosen  by  Ramsay  as  the  scene 
of  his  Gentle  Shepherd, 

Linlithgow  or  West  Ix)thiar  consists,  in  its  upper  part,  of  a  bleak  table-land ;  in  its 
lower,  of  an  extensive,  fertile,  and  highly  cultivated  plain.  It  abounds  with  coal,  freestone, 
lime,  and  marl.    The  Union  Canal  passes  through  this  county.     The  towns  are  small; 

.g_  but  Linlithgow  still  retains  somewhat 

of  the  aspect  of  grandeur  suited  to  a 
once  royal  residence.  The  palace, 
{^g.  189.)  situated  on  a  hill  behind 
the  town,  and  overlooking  a  beautiful 
little  lake,  forms  one  of  the  grandest 
ancient  cdiKccs  in  the  kingdom.  There 
is  also  a  Gothic  church  of  some  beauty. 
Stirling,  an  extensive  and  beautiful 
county,  the  link  between  the  High- 
lands and  Lowlands,  extends  for  tliirty- 
five  miles  along  the  Forth.  It  encloses  several  of  the  richest  carses  in  Scotland ;  but  the 
greater  part  is  hilly  and  pastoral,  while  many  of  the  lower  grounds  consist  of  fine  meadows, 
adorned  by  tlie  beautiflil  meanderings  of  the  Forth.  It  even  encroaches  on  the  Highlands, 
since  its  western  extremity  includes  Ben  Lomond.  This  county  is  traversed  by  the  ci'le- 
brated  Roman  wall  between  the  Forth  uid  Clyde,  usually  ascribed  to  Antoninus,  though,. 
Vol.  I.  3  C 


Linlitbtow  Palace. 


!'i 


r^-m 


% 


1f« 


418 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


tis 


k; 


from  tlic  account  of  Tacitus,  it  would  appear  to  Imvc  bcpu  first  formed  by  Agricola.  It 
seems  to  liave  rcacliod  from  near  Duiiibiirton  to  Carridcu,  rather  more  tiian  lliirly-six  miles. 
Stirlii)"^  is  also  crossed  by  llio  groat  canal  Iwtwoon  the  Forth  and  Clyde. 

The  town  of  Stirling"  can  boast  a  situation  as  noble  and  connnandin^  as  any  in  Scotland. 
Tho  view  from  its  castle,  which  includes  entire  tlie  principal  range  ot  tlic  Grampians,  Uio 
ineaxlows  or  links  through  wiiich  tiie  Forth  winds,  and  a  part  of  thirteen  counties,  is  gener- 
ally considered  the  finest  in  the  country.  The  main  street,  likethat  of  Edinburgh,  descends 
gradually  down  the  ridge  of  the  hill  on  which  tho  castle  stands  (,Jig.  19().).  This  'brtrcss, 
190  in  feudal  limes,  was  accounted  one  of  the  bulwarks 

of  the  kingdom ;  and  Stirling  was  the  freciucnl 
seat  of  royalty,  and  the  scene  of  many  of  the 
most  memorable  and  tragic  events  in  Scottish  his- 
tory. The  town  owes  its  present  limited  pros- 
perity chiefly  to  its  carpet  manufacture  and  other 
branches  of  industry.  Falkirk  is  a  larger  town, 
situated  in  a  broad  and  beautiful  carse,  througli 
which  the  Forth  flows.  Tho  three  great  annual 
trt/sts  exhibit  an  immense  show  of  highland  cattle 
and  sheep  brought  up  for  the  supply  of  tho  south- 
ern districts.  Near  Falkirk  is  Carron,  accounted 
only  a  village,  but  the  seat  of  tlie  greatest  iron- 
Biiriini  Caiiie.  Works  in  Scotland,  in  which,  during  war,  2000  men 

were  employed.  It  particularly  excels  in  grates,  and  in  that  species  of  artillery  first  cast 
here,  and  hence  denominated  carronados.  Grangemouth,  at  tho  conncctmg  point  of  the 
great  canal  with  tho  Frith  of  Forth,  derives  from  this  situation  a  considerable  trade. 

The  next  district,  including  the  counties  of  Roxburgh,  Selkirk,  Peebles,  Dumfries,  and 
part  of  Lanark,  may  most  properly  bear  the  appellation  of  pastoral  Scotland.  It  is  covered 
with  long  ranges  of  hills,  from  one  to  two  thousand  feet  high,  clothed  with  pasturage  to  their 
summits.  This  is  tlie  region  of  Scottish  poetry.  It  was  amid  these  scenes  that  Thomson 
ajid  Scott  caught  that  inspiration  which  has  rendered  their  poetry  the  delight  of  their  country. 
Tho  chief  occupation  in  thij  tract  is  shcop-farming. 

The  towns  in  this  tract  are  generally  small  and  agreeable.  Kelso  is  one  of  the  moi't 
beautiful  in  Scotland,  being  surrounded  by  ornamented  villas  and  extensive  woods.  The 
abbey  is  not  without  grandeur;  and  the  ruins  of  the  castle  of  Roxburgh  are  striking.  The 
village  of  Melrose  is  only  distinguished  by  its  abbey  (Jiff.  191.),  founded  by  David  I.,  in  the 

twelfth  century,  and  the  finest  edifice 
ever  erected  in  the  south  of  Scotland. 
The  profusion  of  tho  ornaments,  and 
the  beauty  of  the  sculptures,  which 
remain  nearly  entire,  have  rendered 
it  the  study  of  tho  painter  and  the 
themn  of  the  ]x>c.\..  Selkirk  and  Pee- 
bles, capitals  of  their  respective  little 
counties,  arc  only  pleasant  villages, 
bordering  on  the  great  pastoral  vales 
of  Ettrick  and  Yarrow.  Dumfries:,  a 
well-built,  gay-l(X)king  city,  is  a  sort 
Meiroie  Abbey.  of  southern   Scottish  capital,  and  it 

has  been  so  distinguished  from  an  early  period;  but  no  traces  remain  elfher  of  the  castle, 
or  of  the  monastery  in  which  Gumming  fell  by  the  hand  of  Bruce.  The  town  carries  on 
some  trade  by  the  Nith,  which  admits  ves.sels  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  tons,  and  it  has 
two  great  annual  markets  for  the  cattle  from  the  west;  but  it  is  chiefly  supixirted  by  tho 
gentry  who  make  it  their  rosidotico.  Annan  is  agreeably  situated  at  the  uioutli  of  the  river 
of  that  name.  A  small  spot,  famed  in  tho  annals  of  gallantry,  is  Gretna  Green,  close  on 
the  English  Iwrder;  whither  fly  many  a  fond  matrimonial  pair,  tu  escape  the  jealousy  of 
t)ii rents  and  guardians;  On  tho  bleak  northern  boundary  is  Wanloekli'^id  ;  and  nearly  con- 
tiguous to  it  Leadhills,  in  Ijanarkshirc.  Wanlockhead  yields  annually  lead  to  the  amount 
of  about  15,000  bars,  of  nine  stones  each;  and  Leadhills  about  1S,(K)(). 

Sents.  'J'he  Duke  of  Riiccleiigh  has 
numerous  seat.-i  in  tiie  dlstriet,  of  wliieli 
the  chief  is  DrumtiinrigC:;stle( /lir.  192.), 
a  nuignifieeiit  edifice,  on  the  K'itli,  ancl 
surrounded  byxtensive  p:irks  and  planta- 
tions. ,\iiuiiig  iiriny  others  round  Kelso,  is 
Fleurs,  the  s|)lendid  seutof  the  Roxburgh 
fimiily.  AI)bot.<tord,  from  the  many  addi- 
tions made  by  its  illustrious  proprietor,  has 
DramliDric  Cuiie.  become  a  striking  and  picturesque  object. 


Part  III. 

fricola.     It 
^six  miles. 

1  Scotland, 
npiuns,  tho 
s,  is  geiuT- 
ii,  descends 
liis  *ortruss, 
e  bulwarks 
10  Iretiucnl 
any  of  tho 
icottish  liis- 
mited  pros- 
e  and  other 
irger  town, 
se,  through 
rent  annual 
hiand  cattle 
f  tho  south- 
I,  accounted 
eatest  iron- 
r,  2000  men 
iry  first  cast 
[)oint  of  the 
ado. 

imfries,  and 
[t  is  covered 
rage  to  their 
at  Thomson 
leir  country. 

of  the  mot't 
voods.    Tlie 
iking.     The 
v'u\  I.,  in  the 
inest  edifice 
of  Scotland, 
anicnts,  and 
ires,  which 
Id  rendered 
;er  and  the 
k  and  Pec- 
eclive  little 
nt  villages, 
Istoral  vales 
lumfriey,  a 
is  a  sort 
fital,  and  it 
the  castle, 
carries  on 
and  it  haa 
•ted  by  tlie 
if  the  river 
|n,  close  on 
alousy  of 
jioarly  con- 
he  amount 

rlcugh  has 
y,  of  whii-h 
J.il.  102.), 
Nitii,  arui 
jinil  plunta- 
1  Kolso,  is 
[Roxburgh 
nany  addi- 
brietor,  has 
nue  object. 


Book  I, 


SCOTLAND. 


m 


The  three  counties  of  Ayr,  Wigton,  and  Galloway  compose  what  is  called  the  West  of 
Scotland.  They  are  chiefly  under  pa«turc,  and  tiio  cultivators  are  mainly  occupied  in  the 
roaring  of  cattle.  Tlie  rango  of  mountains  which  separates  Ayr  and  Galloway  is  almost 
as  (iloviitcd  as  any  in  Scotland  ;  but  the  upland  coimtry  of  the  latter  is,  in  general,  diversi- 
fied only  with  stei'p  rocky  eminences  of  two  or  three  iiundrcd  feet  high.  In  Ayr,  too,  though 
the  suutJKM'n  district  of  Carrick  be  very  mountainous,  tho  middle  one  of  Kyle  has  a  level 
coast ;  while  C^unningham,  the  most  northerly,  consists  almost  entirely  of  a  fertile  plain. 
Uotli  ciiuntii's,  from  the  boundary  line  of  mountains,  are  watered  by  fine  rivers;  in  one,  the 
Ayr,  the  i  )o()n,  and  the  Irvine ;  m  the  other,  the  Dee  and  the  Cree.  The  Ayrshire  breed  of 
horses,  called  also  the  Clydesdale,  is  highly  esteemed ;  and  generally  supplies  the  markets 
in  the  cast  of  Scotland ;  but  the  little  active  breed  called  galloways  are  now  become  scarce. 
The  kine  of  Ayrshire  are  valued  chiefly  for  the  dairy.  The  Galloway  bullock  produces 
beef  of  a  peculiar  excellence.  Tho  nortliem  division  of  Ayr  participates  to  a  certain  extent 
in  the  flourishing  manufactures  of  Lanarkshire.  It  has  immense  beds  of  valuable  coal,  which 
not  only  serve  for  the  supply  of  the  inhabitants,  but  are  exported  to  Ireland  in  such  quanti- 
ties as  to  form  the  chief  trade  of  this  county.  To  facilitate  the  transport,  the  Duke  of  Port- 
land has  formed  a  fine  harbour  at  Troon,  and  has  connected  it  by  a  rail-road  witli  Kilmar- 
nock. 

Ayr,  at  tho  point  where  the  rivers  Doon  and  Ayr  fall  united  into  the  sea,  forms  a  sort  of 
capital  for  the  gentry  of  a  considerable  part  of  Scotland.  It  was  the  principal  scene  of  some 
great  historical  events  in  tlie  time  of  Wallace  and  Bruce ;  ond  was  carefiilly  fortified  by 
Oliver  Cromwell ;  but  the  bar  at  the  mouth  of  the  harbour  has  been  unfavourable  to  its 
progress.  It  exports,  however,  chiefly  to  Ireland,  a  considerable  quantity  of  coal,  brought 
by  railways.  The  town  is  irregularly  built,  but  has  one  handsome  principal  street.  Its 
theatre,  its  academy,  and  some  charitable  institutions,  arc  on  a  greater  scale  than  the  size 
of  the  town  mifeht  lead  us  to  expect  T'ue  ports  of  Troon,  Saltcoats,  and  Ardrossan  send 
large  quantities  of  coal  to  Ireland ;  whence  they  receive  grain  for  the  supply  of  the  great 
interior  towns.  Saltcoats,  which  has  sprung  up  within  the  last  century,  is  also  noted  for 
the  manufacture  of  salt ;  and  Ardrossan  is  now  a  watering-place  of  increasing  resort. 
Largs,  the  celebrated  scene  of  the  defeat  of  Ilaco,  the  last  Danish  invader,  attracts  many 
visiters  by  the  extreme  beauty  of  its  situation.  In  the  interior  of  Ayrshire  is  Kilmarnock, 
its  largest  and  most  thriving  town.  The  manufacture  of  various  woollen  stufTs,  and  fabrics 
of  leather ;  and  latterly  branches  of  tho  cotton  weaving  from  Glasgow,  place  it  high  in  the 
list  of  Scottish  manufacturing  towns. 

Galloway  is  almost  entirely  a  rural  district.  Its  capitals,  Wigton  and  Kirkcudbright,  are 
pleasant  country  towns,  and  the  latter,  having  a  good  harbour,  has,  of  late,  considerably 
increased.  Portpatrick,  the  nearest  point  of  Great  Britain  Ut  the  Irish  coast,  is  the  main 
channel  of  communication  between  Scotland  and  Ireland ;  for  which  purpose  an  improved 
harbour  has  lately  been  constructed,  and  regular  packet-boats  are  established. 

The  counties  of  Lanark  and  Renfrew  constitute  the  valley  of  the  Clyde,  the  grand  thea- 
tre of  Scottish  commerce  and  industry.  Lanarkshire,  or  Clydesdale,  is  divided  into  three 
regions,  of  widely  different  character ;  the  upper  valley  is  altogether  a  rude  i)a8toral  region 
Below  Tinto,  the  banks  of  the  Clyde  ossume  a  softer  and  gayer  character,  exhibiting  a  suc- 
cession of  gardens  and  orchards.  Below  Hamilton  comes  the  flat  district  around  Glasgow, 
which  supplies  that  city  with  inexhaustible  stores  of  excellent  coal. 

Glasgow  is  the  commercial  capital  of  Scotland,  and  in  population  ranks  as  the  third 
town  in  the  island.  Tradition  ascribes  its  origin  and  erection  into  a  bishopric  to  St. 
Mungo,  in  the  year  560.  Its  rapid  rise  commenced  with  the  union,  which  opened  to  it  tho 
trade  with  America  and  the  West  Indies,  hitherto  monopolised  by  the  English  ports.  In  1718, 
for  the  first  time,  a  vessel  from  the  Clyde  sailed  across  the  Atlantic.  By  the  middle  of  the 
.  century,  the  merchants  of  Glasgow  imported  more  than  half  the  entire  amount  of  tobacco 
which  came  into  Great  Britain ;  and  to  them  the  French  farmers-general  chiefly  looked  for 
their  supply  of  this  important  article. 

Their  mtercourse  also  with  the  West  Indies,  which  had  hitherto  been  very  limited,  was 
now  carried  on  to  a  vast  extent.  A  still  greater  source  of  wealth  was  opened  at  home. 
Glasirow  had,  in  the  course  of  the  century,  become  a  great  manufacturing  city,  employing 
her  11.  lup'ry  on  the  old  staple  of  linen  of  the  finer  descriptions,  a.'?  cambrics,  lawns,  gauzes ; 
also  in  the  making  of  stockings  and  of  shoes  for  exportation ;  but  its  product  in  these 
branches  never  exceeded  400,000?.  But  when  cotton  was  pxtcnsively  introduced  into 
Britain,  Glasgow  devoted  herself  entirely  to  this  now  manufacture.  She  became  the  rival 
of  Manchester ;  and,  if  circumstances  did  not  allow  her  to  obtain  so  great  a  share  of  the 
manufacture,  she  produced  some  finer  fabrics,  and  was  ns  prompt  in  availing  herself  of 
every  improved  process ;  immense  fortunes  were  realized,  and  an  annual  value  of  nearly 
4,(X)0,OOOi.  sterling  produced.  Glasgow  was  one  of  the  first  places  which  adopted  the  in- 
vention of  power  l(K)ms,  and  she  has  now  10,000  of  these,  and  32,000  worked  by  the  hand. 
In  1830,  the  number  oi  persons  receiving  parochial  aid  was  only  5000,  not  quite  one-fortieth 
part  of  the  inhabitants,  and  the  sum  expended  on  the  poor  was  only  17,287?.,  although 


•■  I  -I 


i,  i 


i! 


t4 


I 


■4i 


\i 


V  •*• 


5?» 


120 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRA  I'l  I V. 


Part  III. 


Glasgow  is  now  the  largest  town  in  Great  Britain,  Loudon  and  Manchester  excepted.  Tlie 
harbour  is  at  the  BrooinieldW,  whore  tiiere  is  an  extensive  iiuay  along  the  Clyde;  but  ao 
great  are  the  obstructions  to  its  navi^mtion,  that  Glasjrow  depends  chiutly  for  imports  on 
Greenock  and  Liverpool.  In  IWIS  there  entered  its  p<jrt  only  79  vessels,  of  8154  tons.  Glas- 
ffow  is  a  handsome  and  well-built  town.  Its  original  streets  of  Argyle  and  Trongate  are 
broad  and  spacious  ;  and  several  handsome  squares  have  been  built  within  the  limits  of  the 
city ;  but  the  fashionable  residences  are  now  almost  exclusively  in  the  west,  where,  along  u 
range  of  somewhat  elevated  ground,  a  number  of  elegant  and  spacious  streets  have  been 
erected.  Gorbals,  Calton,  Bridgeton,  Ilutchesontown,  Tradcston,  and  Anderston,  arc  the 
.™  '  principal  suburbs,  and  form  the  manufacturing  part. 

*  •  '       ■  of  the  city.    The  public  edifices  deserve  admiration. 

The  cathedra!  (Jig.  193.),  one  of  the  finest  in  Scot- 
land, is  a  massive  structure,  with  a  wooded  hill  ad- 
joining, on  the  top  of  which  a  monument  has  been 
erected  to  the  memory  of  John  Knox.  The  modern 
edifices  are  also  handsome ;  the  Ijunatic  Asylum,  the 
Assembly-rooms,  the  Infirmary,  the  Roman  Catholic 
chapel,  the  new  Exchange  Rcading-iooms,  &.c.  de- 
serve mention.    The  bridewell  is  esteemed  the  most 

perfect  in  Scotland,  both  in  point  of  construction  and 

oukow  CaUiedtai.  management    Glasgow  ia  not  a  mere  commercial 

town ;  its  university,  founded  in  1450  by  Bishop  Tumbull,  has  been  adorned  by  a  long  suc- 
cession of  illustrious  teachers,  of  whom  Simson,  Hutcheson,  Reid,  Smith,  Millar,  are  sufii- 
cient  to  ensure  its  celebrity.  It  is  at  present  attended  by  1400  students,  and  its  name  stands 
as  high  as  at  any  former  period.  The  library  contains  30,000  volumes.  The  Museum  be- 
queathed by  the  late  Dr.  Hunter,  is  rich  in  anatomical  preparations,  shells,  insects,  fossils,  as 
well  as  in  coins  and  medals.  An  elegant  Grecian  edifice  has  been  erected  for  its  reception. 
Auxiliary  to  the  University  ia  the  Andersonian  Institution,  founded  with  the  view  of  com- 
municating to  the  commercial  classes  a  knowledge  of  the  e'  tents  of  physical  science ; 
for  which  purpose  it  has  been  found  highly  efficacious.  The  toUectiml  spirit  of  the  citi- 
zens is  also  proved  by  three  libraries,  and  a  botanic  garden,  nil  supported  by  public  sub- 
scription. 

Paisley,  though  in  Renfrewshire,  may  be  considered  next,  in  order  to  connect  together  tlie 
great  seats  of  manufacture.  This  town  anciently  derived  its  distinction  from  its  ecclesias- 
tical character.  The  abbey  founded  in  1160,  was  in  a  great  measure  demolished  at  the 
period  of  the  Reformation.  Several  of  the  windows,  however,  still  aflTord  fine  specimens  oi 
the  ornamented  Gothic ;  tmd  the  nave  was  left  so  far  entire,  that  it  his  since  served  as  a  place 
of  worship.  Paisley  was  a  small  town  until  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  when  it  con- 
tained little  more  than  4000  inhabitants.  Soon  after,  its  manufactures,  which  were  already 
begun,  made  most  rapid  advances.  Down  to  tlie  year  1783,  they  consisted  chiefly  of  linen, 
fine  thread,  gauzes,  both  of  linen  and  silk,  and  other  delicate  and  elegant  fabrics.  On  the 
introduction  of  cotton,  the  manufacturers  of  Paisley,  like  those  of  Glasgow,  cultivated  this 
branch  almost  exclusively,  preferring  its  most  elegant  species.  Muslin,  the  finest  of  all  the 
productions  of  the  loom,  became  the  staple  of  Paisley.  In  1805,  there  were  20,500  persona 
employed  in  weaving  muslin,  the  entire  pro<luce  of  whose  labours  was  rated  at  1,250,000/. 
Since  that  time,  the  population  having  increased  one-half,  the  productive  indusfi-y  has  not, 
probably,  advanced  in  a  less  proportion.  By  the  improved  navigation  of  the  Cart  and  a  canal, 
this  town  has  communication  with  the  Clyde,  and  the  canal  from  Glasgow  likewise,  destined 
for  Ardrossiin,  has  been  carried  as  far  as  Paisley.  The  county  gaol  and  bridewell  form  one 
of  the  finest  structures  of  the  kind  in  the  kingdom ;  the  town-hall  and  several  of  the  churches 
are  very  handsome.  Tlio  operative  weavers  of  Paisley  are  equal  in  intelligence  to  any  class 
of  the  same  rank  elsewhere ;  and  this  spirit  has  led  to  the  formation  among  them  of  a  num- 
ber of  book  societies,  reading  rooms,  and  subscription  libraries. 

Greenock  is  entirely  a  commercial  and  maritime  station ;  it  is  the  only  great  western  port 
of  Scotland,  but  by  far  the  larger  proportion  of  the  vcssnln  belonir  to  Glasgow.  The  prin- 
cipal tradt  consists  in  importing  the  produce  of  the  West  Indies,  to  which  is  added  a  very 
extensive  herring  fishery,  and  a  share  of  the  cod  fisheries  of  Newfoundland  ond  Cape  Breton. 
The  sum  of  90,000/.  has  been  lately  expende<l  in  the  improvement  of  the  harbour,  which 
can  now  contain  500  sail,  and  a  handsome  custom-house  has  been  built  by  government.  In 
1832  there  entered  this  [wrt  282  vessels,  tonnage  78,131.  Greenock  is  not  an  elegant  town ; 
but  the  hills  behind  it  command  a  noble  view  of  the  river,  and  of  the  mountains  of  Argylo 
on  the  opposite  coast. 

Port  Glasgow,  about  three  miles  higher  than  Greenock,  and  a  much  smaller  port,  continues 
subservient  to  Glasgow,  receiving  such  vessels  belonging  to  that  city  as  are  too  bulky  to 
ascend  the  Clyde ;  in  this  capacity,  its  trade  is  very  considerable.  Here  was  built  the  first 
dock  in  Scotland,  in  front  of  which  a  spacious  quay  extends  along  the  Clyde,  for  the  accom- 
modation of  those  vessels  which  do  not  require  to  enter  tlie  basin.    Renfrew,  the  capital  of 


I     ; 

i     I 

\  li 


t 


Part  III. 

tod.    The 
e;  but  so 
nporta  on 
ns,    Glaw- 
ngatc  tire 
lits  of  the 
•0,  along  a 
Imve  been 
n,  arc  the 
uring  part, 
idmiration. 
9t  in  Scot- 
Bd  hill  ad- 
t  has  been 
'he  modem 
Lsylum,  the 
in  Catholic 
ns,  &.C.  de- 
ad the  most 
niction  and 
commercial 
a  long  Buc- 
ir,  are  suffi- 
lame  stands 
Museum  be- 
ts, fossils,  aa 
la  reception, 
iew  of  corn- 
eal science ; 
t  of  the  citi- 
r  public  sub- 
together  the 
its  ecclesias- 
iLshed  at  the 
specimens  oi 
1  as  a  place 
.  hen  it  con- 
cro  already 
iHy  of  linen, 
ics.    On  the 
dtivated  this 
est  of  all  the 
'lOO  persons 
1,250,000«. 
!tiy  has  not, 
and  a  canal, 
ise,  destined 
ell  form  one 
the  churches 
to  any  class 
in  of  a  num- 

ivestern  port 
The  prin- 
dded  a  very 
^npe  Breton, 
■hour,  which 
rnment.  In 
egant  town ; 
s  of  Argyle 

Irt,  continues 

\oo  bulky  to 

jilt  the  first 

•  the  accom- 

ke  capital  of 


Booa  1. 


SCOThAXD. 


481 

The 


Oolliwoll  Coallo. 


the  county,  is  an  old  town,  which  has  not  slmred  in  the  prosperity  of  its  neighbours. 
■nhabitants,  however,  rnceivo  a  little  employment  from  the  iimnntiicturers  of  liliisgow. 

The  banks  of  the  Clyde  above  Glasgow,  whowe  vicinity  forms  only  a  smnll  purt,  howcvor 
unportant,  of  tlie  extensive  county  of  Lanark,  are  still  to  lie  surveyed.  First  occurs  Both- 
well  (Jig,  194.),  one  of  the  principal  seatw  of  tlio  Douglascn.     Ilore  Kdwanl  I.  placed  the 

chief  garrison,  which  was  intended  to  hold  Scot- 
land in  Hubjection.  It  is  now  a  bold  and  striking 
ruin,  rising  above  tiio  river  banks.  A  little  above 
is  Bothwell  Bridge,  so  noted  lis  the  disastrous 
scene  of  the  rout  of  the  covenanting  army.  Far- 
ther up  is  Hamilton,  a  pleasant  handsomn  town  in 
a  fine  country :  it  is  supporlcil  by  tlio  residence  of 
the  family  of  Hamilton,  and  by  a  brunch  of  the 
cotton  manufacture.  From  Hamilton  tlio  road 
leads  through  a  range  of  orchurdb,  niid  the.  most 
beautiful  scenery,  to  I,annrk.  This  town,  llioiigli 
bearing  the  name  of  the  county,  is  only  n  large 
straggling  village;  but  about  a  mile  distant  is 
New  Lanark,  noted  for  the  extensive  cotton  mnnii- 
factory  established  by  the  late  Mr.  Dale,  and  Intoly  conducted  by  Mr.  Owen.  Wlintrvi-r 
may  be  thought  of  the  speculative  tenets  of  the  latter  gentleman,  tlie  attention  |i:iiil  to  the 
behaviour  and  comforts  of  those  employed  presented,  certainly,  in  many  respects,  a.  riKKlcl 
worthy  of  imitation.  But  Ijmark  has  a  still  greater  attraction  in  the  falls  of  the  Clyde, 
Boniton,  Corra,  Stonebyres,  situated  above  and  telow  it,  at  about  two  miles'  distuiice  from 
eacii  other.  Their  height  does  not  exceed  eighty  or  ninety  feet ;  but  the  mass  of  water, 
with  the  grandeur  of  the  rocky  walls  and  hanging  woods,  render  them  one  of  the  finest 
examples  of  this  description  of  scenery. 

The  northern  liowlands,  beyond  the  Forth,  form  a  belt  of  alxiut  twenty  miles  in  brendtli, 
reaching  the  shores  of  the  Rloray  Frith.  The  coast  is  generally  level  and  fertile ;  but  a 
great  part  of  the  interior  is  bleak  and  moorish.  This  district  contains,  however,  sever:;! 
cities  and  seaports  of  considerable  ningnitude  and  imixirtance. 

Fife  was  formerly  distinguished  as  the  centre  of  Scottish  industry;  and  one  of  its  cities 
forms  the  ecclesiastical  capital  of  Scotland.  All  the  foreign  commerce  of  the  country  was 
curried  on  in  its  ports;  and  less  than  two  centuries  ago  its  rental  amounted  to  a  tenth  part 
of  tiiatof  the  whole  kingdom.  Since  Scotland  has  ceased  to  be  ogitated  by  war,  Edinburgh 
and  the  opposite  side  of  the  Forth  have  attracted  all  these  advantages;  and  the  numerous 
seajMrts  on  the  northern  coast  of  the  Forth,  have  dwindled  into  fishing  villages.  Fife  is,  in 
general,  a  level  count.y,  yet  diversified  by  a  few  hills  of  considerable  elevation,  as  the 
Ixjmond  Hills,  and  Largo  Law.  A  great  part  of  the  interior  is  bleak  and  unproductive;  and 
farming  is  less  advanced  than  in  the  Lothians ;  the  spinning  and  weaving  of  flax  is  carried 
on  chiefly  for  domestic  use,  unless  at  Dunfermline,  where  there  is  a  large  fabric  of  fine  sheet- 
ing and  diaper.  The  western  coast  abounds  in  coal,  and  in  fine  limestone,  which  is  exiwrted 
to  a  very  great  extent.  The  county  town  is  Cupar,  a  place  of  moderate  size,  neat,  with 
eome  stir  of  gaiety.     A  greater  interest  attaches  to  St.  Andrew's  from  its  former  greatness, 

from  the  remarkable  scenes  there  acted,  and 
tog  \tBt  ^'''""  '^''  f'P'cndid  edifices,  of  which  frag- 

ments still  remain.     It  is  seated  on  a  bold 
coast,   facing  a  wide  bay  of  the  German 
Ocean;  and  has  two  fine,  broad,  parallel 
_„__,_,  — ,B„^  streets,  of  which  one  is  now  almost  deserted. 

_^ tfE^f^MBBK^^I^^fb^^-j'cJl'W  '^^^  castle  and  cathedral  {fig.  19.5.)  have 

been  demolished ;  but  a  high  ;'quarc  tower, 
and  a  gable  of  the  chapel  of  St.  Rule,  still 
attest  the  elegance  of  the  latter  structure. 
The  university  contains  a  school  of  theology 
and  piiilosophy,  but  iias  no  ohisses  in  law 
or  medicine.  Founded  under  the  auspices 
of  Buchanan,  it  can  boast  many  eminent 
professors  and  pupils;  though,  from  its  almost  insulated  situation,  it  docs  not  attract  so  great 
a  concourseas  Edinburgh.  Kirkaldy  has  some  tbreien  trade,  and  a  consideroble  linen  manu- 
facture. Dunfermline,  anciently  the  most  flourishing  town  in  Fife,  was  a  place  of  imjior- 
tance,  and  the  frequent  residence  of  royalty.  Malccdm  Canmore  founded  here  an  abbey, 
which  became  one  of  the  richest  and  most  spacior.s  in  the  kingdom ;  it  has  been  nearly 
demolisiied,  yet  its  ruins  evince  its  former  splendour;  and  part  of  them  has  been  appropri- 
ated as  the  parish  church.  On  a  contiguous  spot,  the  tomb  of  Bruce  was  lately  discovered. 
Dunfermline  is  distinguished  by  an  extensive  manufactory  of  damask,  diaper,  and  other  fine 
linen  cambrirs,  wiiirliennihiy  l-")fl<)  looms,  andyioldan  estimated  annual  produce  of  120,000/. 
Kinross,  the  capital  of  tho  county  of  the  same  name,  is  a  pleas.".nt  little  town,  chiefly 


Andrew's  Cathudrat. 


V<)i„  1. 


3« 


I 


1 


'■'ill, 

V  !  II 


f 


432 


DESCRIPTIVE  GP:0GRA1'IIY. 


Part  III. 


noted  for  its  situation  on  the  shoros  of  Loclileven.     Tliis  is  a  little  lake,  of  considemblo 

bcuuty,  liiiviiiir,  on  un  inlund  in  lis  con- 


196 


:^^^ 


LocUeven  Caailo. 


?**^ 


tro,  a  castle,  (.//^'■.  llXS.)i  anciently  of 
^reat  Hlruiif;tli,  und  noted  in  liiiitory, 
even  betbro  it  iicquinnl  the  roiniuilic 
interest  derived  from  llie  iniprisoiiinent 
of  Mary,  and  her  ndvenlnrous  esciiiw. 
Only  a  sciimro  turreted  bnildinj,'  and 
one  of  the  walls  of  the  clm|)"l  now  re- 
main. On  iinother  island  ore  the  trace:) 
of  a  very  ancient  and  considerable  priory. 
Clackmannanshire  is  a  pleasant  littlu 
county,  with  a  considerable  extent  of 
line  carac  land,  and  ;rrcat  (inautities  of 
coal  and  lime.  The  town  of  Clackmannan  is  distinguished  for  the  beauty  of  its  situation. 
Close  to  it  is  an  ancient  tower,  built  by  Robert  the  Bruce.  Alloa,  two  miles  farther  down, 
is  u  thriving  little  place,  in  whose  vicinity  are  mines  of  coal,  of  which  about  36,000  tonsaro 
annually  exported. 

Forfar,  more  usually  termed  Anirug,  is  of  somewhat  rough  aspect,  the  western  border 
beiu!,'  encroached  uiwn  by  lower  branches  of  the  Grampians,  while  the  Sidlaw  Hills,  arangu 
of  considerable  height,  traverse  the  centre.  Between  thoic  is  a  portion  of  the  ijrcat  valley 
of  Stratlnnore,  which  is  here  fertile  and  beautiful,  as  is  also  tiio  ])luin  between  Sidlaw  and 
tiie  coast.    Its  jirosperily  depends  chiefly  ujion  manufactures,  commerce,  and  fishery. 

Diuidee,  tlie  larj^est  town  in  Forlarshiro,  ranks  fourth  in  Scotland  as  to  jxipulation  and 
wealth.  It  was  of  early  im|)ortancc  and  strenffth,  deriving  its  origin  from  Malcolm  Canmore, 
and  it  obtained  a  fatal  celebrity  through  the  sieges,  by  Edward  I. ;  by  the  Marquis  of  Mon- 
trose, and  by  Monk,  who  gave  it  up  to  indiscriminate  pillage.  Dundee,  however,  has  reco- 
vered from  these  disasters,  and  is  become  one  of  the  most  flourishing  commercial  towns  in 
Scotland.  Her  staple  employment  consists  in  the  importation  of  flax  and  hemp,  and  work- 
ing them  into  coarse  linens,  sailcloth,  &c.  There  have  been  exjxjrtcd  in  one  year  1(M),713 
pieces  of  Osnaburg,  148,377  of  sheeting,  81,754  of  sailcloth,  with  bagging,  sacking,  dowlas, 
and  other  fabrics,  of  llie  entire  value  of  alx)ut  1,500,(MK)/. ;  Ibur-tittiis  of  which  were  made 
in  Dundee  itself.  Dundee  has  belonging  to  her,  '270  vessels  of  33,(MM)  tons;  and  in  a  single 
year  a  tonnage  of  21"2,0(M(  has  entered  the  port.  The  harbour  has  been  greatly  enlarged  by 
wet  docks  and  other  additions ;  and  a  railway  opens  a  communication  mto  the  valley  of 
Strathmore.  The  population,  exceeding  4.'),()00,  shows  a  remarkable  increase  since  1821 
when  it  vvas  only  30,500.  Dundee  is  agreeably  situated  on  un  eminence  above  the  Tay; 
the  old  streets  are  narrow  and  steep,  but  new  and  handsome  ones  are  built  and  building  in 
every  direction ;  and  the  vicinity  is  adorned  with  elegant  villas.  There  is  an  academy, 
distinguished  by  the  scientific  attainments  of  some  of  its  teachers. 

Arbroath  carries  on  upon  a  smaller  scale,  the  same  branches  as  Dundee;  and  is  adorned 
with  the  ruins  of  a  magnificent  abbey.     Montrose  is  prettily  situated  at  the  mouth  of  a 

river,  bearing,  in  common  with  many 
othc.s,  the  name  of  Esk.  Its  trade 
and  industry  are  considerable ;  and  it 
has  a  safe  harbour.  A  number  of  the 
neighbouring  gentry  have  been  at- 
tracted by  its  agreeable  .situation, 
which  renders  it  the  most  fashionable 
place  in  the  county.  Forfar,  the 
county  town,  situated  in  the  valley 
of  Strathmore,  is  chiefly  supported  by 
the  business  of  the  courts ;  there  is 
also  a  manufacture  of  brown  linens. 
The  village  of  Glammis  is  distinguished  by  the  ma^ificent  castle  U{i{- 107.)  in  its  vicinity. 
Kincardine  ie  closely  hemmed  in  by  tlie  GrampmnB  on  the  west :  it  contains,  however,  in 

itfl  southern  di«tiict,  the  termination  of 
^™  '  the  great  vallry  of  Strathmore,  which  is 

here  called  the"  "  How  of  the  Mearns ;" 
and  forms  a  tract  ecpuilly  fertile  and  de- 
lightful. Tlio  northern  jMirt  consists 
chiefly  of  moiint!iir;s  and  moors  of  the 
most  bleak  and  drorry  aspect.  The  coast 
is  of  great  extent,  and  very  bold,  pre- 
senting in  many  parts  high  prL'ci])itous 
clifls,  covered  with  innumerable  flocks 
of  sea-birds;  on  one  of  those  are  the 
Dunnottar  Csiiie.  extensive  remains  of  the  castle  of  Dun 


OlammU  Castlo. 


nooK  I. 


SCOTIJ^ND. 


4sa 


is  adorned 
mouth  of  a 
with  many 
Its  trade 
ble ;  and  it 
nber  of  the 
been  at- 
sitiiation, 
fashionable 
^orfar,  the 
Ithe  valley 
jpportcd  by 
there  is 
l^vn  linens. 
1  vicinity, 
jwcver,  in 
lination  of 
'.,  which  ia 
Mearns ;" 
lie  and  de- 
It  consists 
irs  of  tlie 
The  coast 
|bold,  jirc- 
)recii)itous 
Ible  iiocks 
are  the 
of  Dun 


nottar,  (Jiff.  IfW.),  considored  Ibrnierly  ua  imprcKnablc,  where  the  regalia  of  llio  kingdom 
wore  at  oiin  time  de|)ositi!d.  Sluni^huvon,  the  county-town,  curries  on  Rome  trade,  and  Imsi  a 
nianuliicture  of  hrown  linen. 

Abonli'i-n  is  a  larjje  and  important  northern  county.  It  has  a  very  considerablu  lino  of 
coast,  i)i)Ui  (o  the  ciist  and  to  tlie  riortli,  and  extends,  with  incroasin(f  breadth,  far  into  the 
interior.  'I'linre  it  forms  Mar,  or  Braeniar,  a  highland  district,  one  of  the  most  clcvati.'d  in 
the  kiii;;d()ui,  some  of  the  mountains  rising  to  above  4000  foot,  and  containing  extensive 
tbrewts  of  ancient  pines,  with  large  flocks  of  wild  deer,  in  the  deep  glena  or  valleys.  From 
the  h<!i};htr(  of  liraenmr  descend  the  Deo  and  the  Don,  the  first  of  which  forms  some  very 
pictnro.s(iue  falls  in  its  early  course.  Even  the  Lowland  districts  are  in  general  bleak  and 
moorish,  adapted  only  to  tho  cultivation  of  inferior  8|)ecies  of  grain,  and  the  rearing  of  cattle. 
The  old  staple  fabric  of  knittitig  worsted  stockings  has  been  greatly  injured  by  tho  cheap- 
ness with  which  these  are  now  produced  elsewhere  by  tho  aid  of  machinery ;  but  other 
woollen  branches,  together  with  those  of  linen  and  cotton,  the  latter  to  a  considerable 
extent,  have  been  introduced.  The  beautiful  rock  crystals  called  caitngormg,  and  also  the 
topaz  and  the  beryl,  arc  found  in  the  mountains  of  Braemar;  and  tho  tine  grunito  which 
abounds  near  Aberdeen,  yields  12,(NK)  tons  to  be  annually  shipped  to  Iiondon  and  elsewhere. 
The  tishories  also  constitute  a  leading  occupation.  That  of  salmon  in  the  Don  and  Dee,  and 
the  wliule-fishery,  arc  extensive  branches ;  and  from  the  German  Ocean,  haddocks,  co<l,  luig, 
turbot,  and  sliell-fish,  are  taken  in  great  quantities. 

Aberdeen,  "  the  Queen  of  the  North,"  and  the  largest  city  beyond  the  Forth,  is  situated 
between  the  Dee  and  tho  Don.  Old  Aberdeen  is  situated  near  tho  Don,  whose  entrance  is 
obstructed  by  a  natural  bar,  which  renders  this  harbour  inadequate  for  tho  town.  Tho  mass 
of  |X)pulation  has  settled  on  tho  banks  of  the  Dee,  the  narrow  entrance  of  which  opens  into 
a  basm,  forming  an  excellent  harlwur.  It  had,  however,  a  bar  at  its  mouth,  liable  to  con- 
tinual increase  by  tho  sand  blown  from  tlio  beach  which  extends  along  tho  coast;  a  mole  of 
1200  feet  in  length  has  been  carried  out  into  the  sea,  and  a  channel  has  been  formed,  by 
which  vessels  of  700  tons  may  enter.     New  Aberdeen  is  a  handsome  city,  especially  the 

firincipal  street,  composed  of  a  long  range  of  new  and  good  houses,  built  of  its  fine  granite, 
ts  commerce,  manufactures,  and  fishery  are  those  of  tlie  county,  all  tliese  branches  center- 
ing in  Ahordeen.  This  city  is  now  tho  principal  ship-building  port  in  iJcotland,  possessing, 
in  1832,  S.'V)  ships  of  41,071  tons  burden.  The  old  town  has  rather  the  aspect  of  a  village, 
if  we  except  the  detached  houses  of  the  professors  of  the  university,  and  a  range  of  villas, 
the  opulent  tenants  of  which  have  been  attracted  by  tho  agreeable  situation.  It  is  adorned 
by  the  fine  old  edifice  of  King's  College,  from  whicii  risosas(iuaro  tower,  with  a  light  and  ele- 
gant crown.  This  seminary  was  founded  in  1494 ;  tho  salaries  are  moderate,  but  the  bur- 
saries lor  poor  schools  are  very  extensive.  Attiched  to  it  is  a  library  of  considerable  value. 
Marischal  College,  founded  by  the  Earl  Marischal,  nearly  a  century  later,  is  situated  in  the 
heart  of  New  Aberdeen.  It  is  not  so  well  endowed  as  King's  College ;  but  has  an  excellent 
cabinet  of  natural  philosophy,  and  a  well-furnished  observatory. 

Peterhead,  an  improving  place,  much  frequented  for  sea-bathing  and  for  a  mineral  water 
in  its  vicinity,  has  two  natural  harlxjurs.  It  sends  thirteen  ships  to  the  whale  fishery,  and 
carries  on  that  of  herrings  with  considerable  spirit.  To  the  south  is  a  range  of  precipitous 
clifl^'s,  called  the  Bullers  of  Buchan,  against  which  the  waves  dash  with  perpetual  fury. 

Three  counties,  Banfl',  Moray  or  Elgin,  and  Nairn,  occupy  tho  southern  shore  of  the  Moray 
Frith.  The  interior  districts  border  on  the  loftiest  highlands;  but  the  coast,  only  diversified 
by  gentle  hills,  constitutes  the  ancient  province  of  IVIoray,  wliich  the  early  Scottish  writers 
describe  with  admiration  as  the  most  fruitful  part  of  Scotland,  and  as  enjoying  fifteen  days 
more  of  summer  than  any  other  district.  Its  rivers  aflbrd  ample  fisheries  of  salmon,  which 
is  exported  to  the  computed  annual  value  of  25,000Z.  The  herring  fishery  also  is  prose- 
cuted with  considerable  success. 

Elgin  is  an  ancient  town,  situated  on  the  Lossie,  and  has  a  tolerable  harbour;  but  its  chief 
distinction  rests  on  its  catliedral,  which,  even  in  ruin,  may  dispute  with  Melrose  the  glory 
of  being  the  finest  Gothic  edifice  in  Scotland  ;  in  1568  the  privy  codncil  ordered  its  leaden 
roof  to  be  taken  off  for  tho  payment  of  tiio  army,  and  from  that  time  it  gradually  decayed. 
In  a  neighlwurinif  valley  are  also  the  remains  of  the  fine  priory  of  Pluscurdine.  Banff  is  a 
somewhat  larger  and  more  thriving  place,  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  Deveron ;  carrying 
on  some  linen  manufactures,  and  a  considerable  herring  fishery.  Nairn  is  a  neat  little 
county  town,  possessing  some  industry,  and  frequented  for  sea-bathing. 

SuBSECT.  2. — The  Highland  ('aunties. 

The  Highlands  of  Scotland  comprise  somewhat  more  than  half  tho  surface  of  the  king- 
dom. They  include  the  whole  region  north  of  the  Forth  and  Clyde,  except  the  belt  on  the 
eastern  coast,  between  the  fritlis  of  Forth  and  Moray,  which  has  just  been  described.  This 
region  consists  altogether  of  continuous  ranges  of  lofty  mountains,  which  on  the  borders, 


# 


•j^. 


434 


DEHCRII'TIVK  GKO&RAIMIV. 


Part  III. 


; ! 


leave  between  them  boimc  of  the  fine  aiiJ  br(«<l  viiUeyM,  rnllotl  ttrnlhf,  but  in  the  interior 
only  tho  deep  and  often  rocky  interviilM  rnlled  f(lriis.  They  lire  ))eopleil  by  ii  ran'  totally 
diiitiiict  from  the  LowliimlerH.  Tliese  inoiiiitJiiiici'rs  wciir  a  <•ll^itlmle,  nlreuily  ib'frriJM'il,  (jiiite 
peculiar  to  themselves;  they  si)eiii<  a  Celtic  dinlert,  lieep,  stnmjr,  iiml  (ruttiinil,  bearitif,'  no 
rosendilniiee  to  tho  Teutonic  H|xn'ch  of  the  lowlaniU  nnil  of  Kiifjlmid.  Tliey  iiavi!  ever 
mnintiiincd  that  vnloiir,  which,  under  Oiiljjncun,  net  bonndH  to  the  ciireerof  Roninn  ronqiioiit, 
(iiid  preserved  their  inountiiinH  untouelird  by  tho  inviidcr;  and  they  hiive  Hiiice  been  eon- 
verted  from  forinidiiblo  toes  into  crallnot  delemb'rH  of  Ibe  rest  of  the  empire.  Down  to  the 
year  17'ir),  they  octcd  in  elans,  icilby  ii>-'rodiliiry  chiefs,  to  whom  they  were  entirely  devoted, 
and  who  e.xercigod  over  them  ii  paternal  b  it  absolute  sway.  'I'he  spirit  of  clanship  led  llieni 
to  attach  themselves  strongly  to  tho  hereditary  rij.'ht  of  the  Stuarts,  of  wliieli,  under  .Mont- 
roBP,  they  gave  powerful  proofs,  which  had  nearly  turned  the  tide  of  war  in  its  favour. 
Afterwards,  in  1745,  they  suddenly  invaded  Enjfland ;  and,  in  the  abs(>ncc  of  the  army  in 
Flanders,  struck  alarm  into  the  dynasty  of  Iliinovor.  Tho  issue  of  timt  contest  broke 
entirely  the  independence  of  tho  highland  chiefs.  A  number  were  either  broiifrht  to  tho 
scaflbld,  or  sent  into  exile ;  military  roads  were  made,  and  forts  srect(Hl  in  the  heart  of  their 
territory;  they  wer"  deprived  of  their  feudal  privileges;  even  tho  national  dress  was  pro- 
hibited, on  account  of  tho  recollections  it  was  citlculated  to  excite.  After  the  first  alarms, 
however,  had  subsided,  the  Rritish  povommcnt  adopted  the  plan  of  conciliation.  I'itt  con- 
ceived tbo  idea  of  tbrming  tlic  liigliliinders  into  national  regiments,  allowing  even  a  limited 
use  of  tho  appropriate  dress;  and  they  have  since  ranke<l  with  tho  bravest  and  nK>st  distin- 
guished troops  in  the  British  army.  Out  of  the  forfeited  estates  and  other  funds  voted  by 
government,  vast  stmis  have  been  expended  on  tho  Caledonian  Canal,  roads,  bridges,  an<l 
other  great  works  for  tho  !::>prcvi  ment  of  this  rude  territory.  Tho  lairih,  deprived  of  their 
absolute  power,  and  attracted  by  the  gaieties  and  luxuries  of  cities,  soon  accustomed  them- 
selves to  view  their  estates  only  as  "  material  capitals,  to  be  worked  according  to  the  great 
principles  of  ))oIitical  economy."  The  multitude  of  little  spots,  divided  among  vassals,  in 
whose  numbers  they  placed  tiicir  strength,  were  thrown  into  largo  shcep-fiirms ;  and  tho 
tenants  were  driven  out  to  seek  a  home  wherever  they  could  find  it.  Some  migrated  to  tho 
lowland  cities,  and  a  great  proportion  went  to  America;  yot,  in  consequence  of  tho  advance 
of  commerce  and  fisheries,  even  the  highland  counties  augmented  their  population  during 
this  period,  though  not  in  tho  same  proportion  as  the  Lowlands.  Between  1801  and  1821, 
it  increased  from  434,000  to  .')12,0fl0.  There  is  one  groat  manufiictiire,  generally  diffused 
throughout  this  region,  which  tends  rather  to  disturb  the  peace  than  to  improve  the  condition 
of  tho  community;  this  is  whiskey,  which  the  people  prepare  in  small  stills  from  their  here, 
or  coarse  barley,  and  give  it  a  flavour  suiwrior  to  any  other  spirit  made  in  Eiiglaiul  or  Scot 
land. 

The  Highlands  are  composed  of  two  great  districts, — tho  west  and  the  north.  The  formei 
comprehends  tho  shires  of  numbarton,  Argyle,  Bute,  and  jiart  of  I'erlh  ;  the  latter  embraces 
the  Counties  of  Inverness,  Ross,  Sutherland,  &e.  The  Hebrides,  or  Western  IsK^s,  belong 
to  the  counties  of  Bute,  .\rgyle,  Ross,  and  Inverness. 

Perth  is  a  noble  and  extensive  county,  forming  tho  link,  as  it  wore,  between  the  I,owlande 
and  Highlands;  in  its  different  parts  uniting  the  beauty  and  fertility  of  the  one  with  tht 
grandeur  of  the  otlier.  The  former  qualities  arc  conspicuous  in  the  ctirse  of  Cowrie ;  t 
broad  sloping  plain,  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Tay,  profusely  covered  with  orchards  and  cul- 
tivated fields.  The  upper  p<art  of  Strutheam,  also,  between  Perth  and  Crieff,  varied  with 
gentle  hills,  cultivated  valleys,  and  the  windings  of  two  great  rivers,  may  almost  be  called 
the  garden  of  Scotland.  As  we  proceed  to  the  north  and  west,  the  Grampians  gradually 
swell,  a  d  at  length  are  fi)und  occupying  tho  whole  interior  of  the  county,  in  a  line  from 
north-east  to  south-west,  ond  comprehending  the  mighty  summits  of  Ben  Liiwer.s,  Bonmore, 
Bengloe,  Schchallion,  Ben  V^)irlicll,  Benledi,  Benvenue";  all  from  3(H)0  to  upwards  of  40<MI 
foot  high.  Within  their  recesses  they  enclose  the  three  large  lochs,  Tay,  Earn,  and  Katrine. 
These  lakes,  varie<l  with  woods  and  verdure,  exhibit  in  many  piirts  scon-'s  of  great  griiiuh'ur 
and  beauty.  In  tho  lowlands  of  Perth,  agriculture  is  carried  to  greot  perfection;  the  high- 
land tracts,  on  the  contrary,  aro  in  general  fit  only  for  pasturage.  They  are,  however, 
covered  with  the  remains  of  ancient  forests,  to  which  the  great  proprietors  have  been 
making  very  extensive  additions.  The  towns  of  Perthshire  parlicipatf  in  the  diffrrent 
national  manufactures :  the  blonchfields  and  prinlfields  are  numerous;  but  this  can  in  no 
view  be  generally  reganlcd  as  a  manufiicturing  county. 

Perth  is  well  built,  and,  as  to  situation,  one  of  tho  most  beautiful  cities  in  the  kingdom. 
The  view  of  it  from  the  north,  in  particular,  in  tho  heart  of  a  finely  wooded  plain,  witli  tho 
Tay  winding  round  it,  and  too  Hill  of  Moiicrieff  rising  ..hove,  is  almost  without  a  rival  in 
tho  kingdom.  Perth  might,  for  a  long  time,  Iw  considered  the  capital  of  Scotland.  It  was 
the  frequent  residence  of  the  kings.  Parliaments  and  General  Assemblies  met  there  otlener 
than  in  any  other  place;  and,  in  the  civil  contests,  the  jnissession  of  I»erth  was  considered 
of  vital  importance  by  tho  contending  parties.     At  present  it  has  declined  to  a  rank  decidedly 


ii  ill' 


-5* 


I'; 


■f^. 


liOOK  I. 


SCOTLAND. 


425 


I  .o\vlnnd» 
with  tlii 
owrie ;  » 

iirnl  cul- 
ricd  with 
be  called 
(jrathmlly 
lint!  from 
■Ron  more, 
s  of  40(H) 

Katrine, 
ijriiiideur 
the  liijj;h- 

liowever, 
live  liecn 

(liffrrent 
:;ati  in  no 

kinjrdom. 

\vit!i  the 

1  rival  in 

It  WHS 

|ro  iiHiMior 

•onsidorod 

Idccidcdlv 


Frovlncial ;  and  it.s  cummrrce,  onco  conHidrrable,  linn  linen  alnioflt  wholly  tramtfurrcd  to 
)iindco.  It  liiis  linen  nnd  other  niamitiicttirex,  whicii  jinxhice  an  annuul  value  of  aliout 
V!(NMMK)f. ;  while  its  advantnjrfoiiH  Kite,  and  tlic  excellent  education  afforded  bv  tho  grammar 
Hchool  and  academy,  attract  a  nninlier  of  the  noighbourinj;  gentry,  and  render  it  gay  and 
tiifihionable. 

The  other  towns  of  Perthshire  arc  small,  but  distinifuiHhed  fur  tho  (fraud  and  picturejiquo 
Kconory  amid  which  they  are  situated.  Dunkeld,  in  thiH  ro8|M!ct,  in  generally  considered  tho 
prido  of  Scotland;  tho  finely  wooded  and  rocky  hills  throujfh  which  tlii^  Tay  meanders,  with 


loe 


FallofBruar. 


—  _        -- , -n--        -  -'J -'  ' 

the  valleys  and  glens  opening  on  K\pr\  side,  produce 
a  diversity  of  landscape  scarcely  e<|ualled  el-iewhere. 
Tho  lato  Duke  of  Athol,  whose  spacious  ilomaiu.4 
cover  this  oart  of  Perthshire,  was  most  active  in 
respect  to  plantations,  since  those  of  Dunkeld  alone 
cover  11,()00  acres;  and  tho  whole  munbcr  of  trees 
planted  by  the  duke  amount  to  ;M),(KH),0()0.  A  route 
of  twenty  nilee,  directly  north,  passing  opposite  to 
the  fine  mountain  village  of  Logierait,  and  through 
the  bold  pss  of  Killikrankie,  leads  tn  Blair,  also  part 
of  the  Athol  territory,  Pud  or.'i  of  tho  most  picturesque 
spots  in  Scotland.  Its  striking  f^ntures  consist  in  the 
lofty  mountain  Bengloe,  the  glens  of  the  Tilt  and  the 
Garry,  and  the  picturesque  rocky  falls  of  the  Bruar 
(Jig.  199.).  Westward  is  Loch  Rannoch,  surrounded 
by  extensive  forests  of  fir,  and  overhung  by  Sche- 
hallion,  on  whose  lofty  summit  Dr.  Maskelyne  per- 
formed some  of  his  operations  for  tho  measurement 
of  the  earth.  Out  of  it  flows  tho  Tumel,  a  rapid 
stream,  which  forms  some  romantic  cascades.  From 
tho  Tumel,  a  military  road  leads  to  Loch  Tay,  the  largest  of  the  lakes,  and  surrounded  by 
the  loftiest  mountains  of  Perthshire.  Ben  Lawers,  with  a  chain  of  attendant  mountains 
overhangs  it  from  tho  north ;  while  Benmore  shuts  it  in  on  tho  west ;  and  perhaps  there  is 
no  lake  in  Britain  enclosed  by  so  grand  a  circuit.  Tho  sides  of  tho  mountains  are  somewhat 
naked ;  but  tho  gr  unds  of  Taymouth,  at  tho  head  of  tho  loch,  fiirm  a  rich  foreirround. 

Farther  south  is  he  vale  of  Strathearn,  at  one  end  of  which,  Crieff,  a  thriving  little  town, 
looks  up  on  tho  windings  of  the  river,  and  the  vast  mountains  from  amid  which  it  issues. 
Loch  Earn,  a  small  lake,  is  Iwunded  on  the  south  by  grand  ranges  of  very  lofty  moun- 
tains. 

The  upper  valleys  of  tho  Forth  and  the  i'eith  have  some  very  remarkable  scenery.  On 
tho  Allan,  j«  Dumblano;  a  pleasantly  situated  little  town,  with  the  remains  of  a  fine 
cathedral ;  Ollender,  overhung  by  Bcnledi,  is  -\iefly  frequented  as  the  key  of  Ijoch  Katrine, 
situated  about  ten  miles  to  the  westward,  and  approached  by  a  narrow  road  along  the  small 
lakes  of  Venachoir  and  Achray.  The  scenes  of  beauty  and  grandeur  which  adorn  the 
ea.stern  extremity  of  this  lake,  the  mighty  cliffs  of  Benvenue,  the  wild  woaled  glen  of  the 
Trosachs,  and  the  beautiful  little  island  in  the  centre  of  the  scene,  have  obtained  celebrity 
from  the  muse  of  Scott.  Farther  south,  the  Forth,  rising  from  Ben  Lomond,  rolls  through 
a  pastoral  mountain  valley,  once  the  seat  of  the  power  and  the  scene  of  the  adventures  of 
the  outlaw  Macgregor.  It  forms  several  little  lakes,  of  which  Jjocii  Ard  is  the  largest  and 
most  beautiful. 

Tho  county  of  Inverness  is  purely  highland,  presenting  range  after  range  of  mountains, 
of  which  Ben  Nevis,  Cairngorm,  and  several  others,  are  the  most  elevated  in  the  United 
Kingdom.  The  intervals  between  them  are  filled  either  by  long  lakes,  or  by  narrow  glens, 
the  level  space  of  which  does  not  usually  exceed  a  mile  in  breadth.  The  principal  one, 
called  the  Great  Caledonian  Glen,  reaches  from  Inverness  in  an  obli(pje  direction  across  the 
kingdom,  filled  with  an  almost  unbroken  chain  of  lakes, — Loch  Ness,  Ijoch  Oich,  Loch 
Jjochy,  and  Ixich  Linnhe;  which  last  opens  by  the  Sound  of  Mull  into  the  western  sea;  a 
continuity  which  facilitated  tho  formation  of  the  Caledonian  Canal.  In  the  east,  the  district 
along  the  upper  course  of  the  Sjiey,  bearing  the  name  of  Strathspey,  comprises  an  unusual 
extent  of  level  land.  Only  about  a  fortieth  part  of  the  county  is  capable  of  cultivation ;  but 
that  fortieth,  composed  of  haugh  or  alluvial  land,  on  the  rivers,  or  the  lakes,  is  extremely 
fertile.  Tho  greatest  branch  of  industry  consists  in  the  rearing  of  black  cattle,  sheep,  and 
goats.  Game  of  all  kinds  abounds,  and  there  are  still  considerable  remains  of  the  great 
Caledonian  forest,  comjwscd  chiefly  of  fir. 

Inverness,  tho  gay  capital  of  the  Highlands,  is  of  a  very  different  character  from  that  of 

the  wild  rejrion  over  which  it  holds  a  sort  of  dominion.     Seated  on  a  bay,  at  the  head  of  the 

Moray  Frith,  it  partakes  in  a  great  measure  of  the  mild  and  fertile  character  of  its  shores, 

iind  stands  at  some  little  distance  from  the  awfiil  ranges  of  mountains  by  which  it  is  enclosed. 

Vol..  L  36*  3D 


t4\-- 


'I 


II 


4*26 


DESCRIPTIVE  OEOORAPMY. 


Part  HI. 


Fall  of  Ftfin. 


AftiT  HiifTrrinjf  a  connidfriitili'  (Icrlini-  fVoin  il«  nnrjiMil  iiii|Kirtniirp,  it  Iiiik,  williiii  tlic  lant 
thirty  yiNirM,  iiuurly  triiiii'il  its  cvlrnt  iiiul  |N)|iiiliiiiciii,  In  ^fiicnil,  ii  riiiiHiclmlili*  |i<ili«li 
of  iimnncrM  is  nhMurvnbMS  miil  it  Iiiin  Im'pii  rciiiiirkcii  tint  tlin  Kriu;ii!<li  liiii);iiii}())  is  KimkiMi 
in  (frciitiT  purity  timii  in  niiy  dIIht  port  of  S»;iitliiiiil ;  ii  nrruiiiHtiinou  wliirli  Iiiin  hfon 
OHCribi'd  III  till'  rcHiilciu'c  nl'  r.iiKlir<li  iillici'm  nllrr  tlic  Ixittli'  of  ('iiIIinIcii.  Iiimtiii'sh  Iiun  i 
town  liciiiNc,  iiilirmtiry,  iii*ni'iiil)ly-ri«)iriH,  ami  tlii'iitrr.  Miitiiiliictiirt'H  ot'liciiip,  (Inx,  anil  tartan 
liiivf  hccii  cMtuliliMlii'il.  Tliu  viuwK,  butli  of  voa  and  land,  in  itii  vicinity,  uru  aliiKMt  un* 
rivalli'd. 
InvoriioNH-Hliirn  liaM  Hcarcoly  uiiothor  placn  wliicli  can  iiuikn  nuicli  prctiMiHiim  to  tlio  naino 

even  tif  a  villaj^p.  II<'m  Ncvin,  UMnally  conHidcrml 
the  lollieNt  mountain  in  Scotlnnd  and  in  the 
United  Kingdom,  iH4M7l)  feet  nlK)ve  the  level  of 
thuHca;  the  view  tVoiu  the  mnnniil  iH  verv  extcn- 
hIvc,  euibracini;  a  );n'at  |Kirtinn  of  the  llebridcM, 
To  the  eant  of  l/icli  Nchk,  the  rivulet  of  Kyern  or 
Foyer*  (yf jr.  y(K).),  forniHthe  (fre  tent  wnterthll  in 
Ncutland;  the  lower  or  principal  liill  deitccndH 
froni  a  hei|rht  of  '212  feet;  but  the  stream  is  not 
very  copious). 

Arjfyle,  commonly  called  tho  Western  Hi>{h- 
landx,  Ih  a  wide  and  irregular  territory,  iitrctch- 
ing  into  lonj;  proniontorieH,  and  indented  by  deep 
arnw  of  the  nea,  so  oh  to  form  n  eoa*"t  of  very 
(frent  extent.  In  (jenoral  tho  nhore  in  Ixirdercd 
by  hi)(li  hills,  and  tho  interior  covered  with  ranpfeB 
of  rupjftHl  mountains.  Itx  industry  Ib  nlinoHt  en- 
tirely pastoral ;  herds  of  black  cattle  and  vnBt 
flocks  of  sheep  are  ted  on  the  sides  of  it«  moun- 
tains. The  herrinjf  of  tho  west  coorft,  and  especially  of  Ixk'Ii  Fyne,  eiijoys  u  liiurh  reputa- 
tion. Tho  county  is  chietly  tenanted  by  Campbells,  who  were  wont  to  riilly  round  the  Mac- 
callununore,  u  desijfnation  of  their  cliieV  the  Duke  of  Ariifyle,  with  all  tho  ardour  of  kindred 
and  national  altuchinent. 

Dumbarton  is  mostly  .\  part  of  tho  sumo  district; 
yet  it  has  a  lowland  stri|  exteniliujf  iilon^'  the  north- 
ern banks  of  the  Clyde.  In  the  western  p:irt  are  the 
(ireat  (.'anal,  joiniuff  the  Clyde  at  Duiii;liiss;  and 
the  wall  of  Antoninus,  calleil  by  the  Seotlisli  vulgar 
"Graham's  dike."  The  approach  to  Dundiarton  af- 
fords (me  of  the  uio.st  strikinsj  prospects  in  Scotland; 
and  its  castle  (_Jifr.  ^01.),  the  ancient  and  mighty 
hold  of  the  Britons,  fowerinff  on  tlm  suiiiniit  of  u 
per|M!ndiculur  rock,  still  maintains  its  iin|iortance  aa 
a  fortress.  Dmnlxirton  has  a  larire  miinufactory  of 
crown  glass,  which  is  exported  to  toreign  parts ;  and 
on  the  banks  of  the  Levon  tliere  arc  extensive  printtields. 

Loch  Lomond  (Jiff.  202.)  is  celebrated  for  tho  expanse  of  its  waters,  and  tho  many  beautiful 
^^  ._  islands  with  which  is  studded.  Fnim  its  toot, 

*"*  ''-  -  bordered  by  cultivated  hilN  and  oniamented 

villas,  to  its  mountain  head,  there  is  a  con- 
tinued transition  from  beanty  to  (grandeur, 
and  at  the  central  |)oint  oi'  Loss  they  arc 
remarkiibly  unitiKl.  The  ninnerous  and 
beaulitui  islands,  and  the  long  wixxled  pro- 
montories stretching  into  the  water,  with 
the  majestic  form  of  Hen  I/imonil  in  the 
background,  prcxluco  a  combination  of  land- 
scape which  perha|)s  no  other  sjxjt  in  Britain 
can  equal. 

On  turning  tho  head  of  I/)cli  I-ong  at 
Arrochar,  the  view  opens  on  tho  romantic  valley  of  Cilencoe,  enclosed  between  two  ranges 
of  momUains  rising  almost  perpendicularly  to  an  amazing  height,  and  leaving  between  them 
only  a  narrow  vale,  through  which  a  rivulet  Hows,  The  vale  of  (ilenfmgias  is  then  passed, 
whast.'  high  bioping  sides  covered  with  innumerable  flocks  inspire  pleasing  pastoral  imogOB, 
and  at  the  termination  of  which  appears  the  grand  estuary  of  l.f)ch  Fyne. 
luvcrary,  the  t.  "itul  of  the  Western  Highlands,  is  situated  near  the  head  of  Loch  Fyne. 


numbotlon  Canlo. 


Loch  Lomond. 


fxtcri- 


vuljfnr 

mrtoii  at- 

Sfotlimd  i 

inijfhty 

it  of  a 

mice  as 

tory  of 

rts;  and 

I'nntiful 

its  foot, 

iinonted 

a  con- 

•[inilciir, 

tliey  arc 

•ouH   and 

Kled  pro- 

pr,  with 

in  the 

of  land- 

Urituin 

Iionp  at 
ninjrcs 

un  them 
passed, 

images, 

ih  Fyiie. 


DooK  I. 


SCOTLAND. 


4*.7 


ItM  cnviruMN  aru  not  niountaimiUM ;    hut  itM  ni>liin   ciiHtli'  (Jii(.  •JO.'l.),  Kiirroiimhid  liy  vvoml- 
ni^  «>d   hiiirt  and   U'uli<    Ijiwmk,   with   tliii  lolly 

mountaiuK  whicli  r<liiit  in  the  diHtiinl  viitw, 
render  it  a  iiiiivnitiri'iit  and  deli|^litful  «|iut, 
Tho  town  IH  Hiiiall  iiiul  neat,  \Mtliout  any 
omployiiieiit,  rxrrlit  the  lierriii);  llhliery. 
AUiiit  ten  iiiih'H  lit'liw  Inverary,  tlieCriimn 
Canal  joiiix  l.<i<'li  Kyiie  to  the  wesliTii  Hea, 
and  haM  iiiaile  Licli^ilphiNui  a  plaee  of  moiiki 
conNeipienee, 

Tlie   interior  and  tho  Mextern  eoaxt  of 
Arjfyli'Niiire  are  in  many  re.siieetH  intereit* 
inn.  I'nrallcl  tol/xii  l''yne,attheiiiHtancuof 
'""""'  ''"•""■  ten  or  twelv  iiiih'H,  ii"  the  loiijr  line  of  ImoIi 

Awe ;  an  interior  lake,  over  whoHe  head  towerN  Th'ii  Oiiaehan,  the  loliieht  Kniiimit  in  Arffvlo. 
The  eaxtle  of  Kilcliiirn,  riNin((  on  one  of  the  isiandH,  prodiiees  a  hi).dily  pieliireMiiie  ellert, 
lleyoiiil  tliin,  l.oeli  Ktive,  a  iiiirrow  arm  of  the  nea,  HtretitlieH  liir  into  tlie  in'erior,  Clinihinif 
the  lii^li  ijioimtuinH  at  the  lieail  of  [loeh  Htive,  we  come  to  <jleiieoe,  which  in  terriHc 
ffraiideiir  siirpansert  perhupn  every  other  sjxit  in  (Jrent  itritain.  'I'liis  etleet  in  priKlueed  liy 
itH  Ik)IiI  iiiid  liroken  iiiniiiitHiii  tiiriiix,  its  hpiry  roel<H,  and  hlaek  preeipireH;  at  tlie  liottom  of 
which,  ill  a  ilt.-eit  ehiisiii  or  ravine,  flown  the  rivulet  of  ('oo.  I'liid  wtream  Ih  the  Cona  of 
OHniaii,  helieveil  the  tiivoniiti*  haunt  of  that  celrlirateil  Cnledoiiian  hird.  Tht!  viile  Iuih  iiIm 
a  (fliKUny  reeollertion  attached  to  it,  from  the  massacre  of  1(191.  Mmerj^injf  from  this  scene, 
the  traveller  is  clieere<l  with  the  piy  iispect  of  I/m-Ii  Leven,  which  preseiitH  much  pleaitinfr 
hi);liland  Hceiierv,  while  the  hills  mnnd  the  ferry  of  Riilacliiilish  afford  valuable  i|iiiirrie8  of 
slate.  From  lialachulish,  aloii);  the  broad  expanse  of  the  l.innhe  Ixicli  with  which  tho  )rreat 
Caledonian  chain  terminates,  ),<.\teiids  Appin,  a  beautiful  district,  diversified  with  fine  woods, 
rich  iwstiirafje,  and  more  culture  than  is  usual  in  Arfjylesbire.  On  the  op|H)Nite  side  of  tho 
Linnlie  1/ich  is  a  peninsular  district  called  Ardnamiircliaii,  separated  only  by  a  narrow 
sound  from  tho  Islmid  of  Mull.  The  district  of  .Strontiaii  contains  leiid-mines  of  sonio  value, 
CroHsiii);  the  I,innlie,  and  passing:  l.ismore,  a  loun',  level,  and  fertile  island,  we  tind  Iiorne, 
wparated  by  I/)ch  ('reran  from  Appin,  to  which  it  is  even  siipiTior  in  beauty  and  fertility. 
Near  tho  oponin^r  of  l/ich  Ktive  into  tho  soa,  tradition  pltices  Jferei/oniiim,  the  reiwrted 
capital  of  tlio  Picts  in  the  third  century ;  and  near  it  is  found  I)iinstairiiaj;e  (./?«-.  yo-l.),  once 
o(u  , ,,    ^M.  the  scene  of  Hcottishreifal  |)omp, 

^     .^      jl»     .  bffi  tr^*''^     nowarnin,crownin;.'aclitl'alonx 

'^"  ■  '       tho  western  sea.  The  loii};  pen- 

insula of  Cautyre  stretclies  far 
out  into  the  sea,  beinjf  visible 
f>om  the  Irish  coa.st  of  Antrim. 
The  Macdonalds,  lords  of  tho 
Isles,  long  held  sway  over  it, 
till  they  were  driven  out  by  the 
carls  of  Arjrylo.  CamplM>lltown, 
''''""•">"'••  •^""•'  near  its  southern  cxtren.ity,  is 

a  thrivinpf  port,  now  the  largest  on  this  coast,  and  serving  in  particular  as  a  general  ren- 
dezvous tor  tho  herring  fishery. 

The  three  extreme  counties.  Roes,  Cromarty,  and  Sutherland,  form  the  most  remote  and 
northerly  jKirtion  of  the  Highlands,  nnd,  Caithness  excepted,  of  all  the  mainland,  'I'lic  south- 
eastern tiorder  of  tho  friths  of  Moray,  Cromarty,  and  Dornoch  contains  some  fine  land,  and 
several  thriving  towns;  the  rest  is  a  contiiiiie(l  range  of  rock,  mountain,  heath,  f!)ie.sf,  and 
loch,  similar  to  Inverness,  but  stilt  wilder.  The  lochs  which  indent  tho  westi>rii  coast  are 
largo  and  numerous,  [Mirticuhirly  lioch  Carron,  I,och  Terridon,  and  IxjcIi  Hroom ;  and  they 
have  generally  grand  mountain  boundaries.  Capo  Wrath,  the  north-western  point  of  Scot- 
land, is  a  lolly  pyramidal  rock,  standing  in  front  of  a  vast  range  of  broken  clilFs,  and  breasting 


906 


Dun  DoniadiUa. 


the  whole  wide  expanse  of  the  ocean.  On 
the  northern  coast  is  Loch  Eribol,  a  wide 
inlet,  bordore<I  by  limestone  rocks,  per- 
forated by  caves  of  great  extent  and  re- 
markable form.  Sutherland  presents  numer- 
ous Ditnn,  or  ancient  fiirts  of  peculiar  struc- 
ture, of  which  the  most  remarkable  is  Dun 
Dornadilla  {Ji!>-.''M').),  situated  on  tho  lotly 
sides  of  Bon  Hope,  nut  far  from  Loch 
Eribol. 

Cromarty,  the  capital  of  tho  little  county 
«f  the  same  name,  stands  at  the  foot  of  its 


m 


i>  r 


'A- 


428 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pabt  III 


own  fritli;  while  Dingwall,  the  county  town  of  Ross,  is  s  tuatcd  at  tlic  hciid.  Cromarty  is  a 
considerable  fishing  station.  On  the  south  side  of  tlic  Oornocii  Frith  is  Tuin,  and  on  the 
north  is  Dornoch,  an  ancient  town,  of  whuso  cuthedrul  some  part  still  remains. 

Caithness  forms  the  nortii-eastcrn  angle  of  Scotland :  it  is  scarcely  a  hijrhland  county,  only 
the  Paps  of  Caithness  rising  to  the  character  of  mountains.  Its  surface  is  moist,  bleak,  and 
hare,  filled  with  little  lakes,  and  covered  with  extensive  moors.  The  chief  branch  of  industry 
is  the  herring  fishery.  Kelp  is  also  made  from  the  sea-weed  thrown  on  its  shores.  Thurso, 
tlic  county  town,  is  an  improving  place,  in  the  midst  of  a  cultivated  country.  Its  bay  affords 
a  safe  roadstead,  peculiarly  valuable  for  ships,  which,  in  rounding  the  north  of  Scotland, 
must  pnss  through  the  Pentland  Frith,  rendered  dangerous  by  its  violent  and  rapid  currents. 
Wick,  the  grand  rendezvous  of  the  herring  fishery,  owes  to  this  advantage  a  very  rapid 
increase.  Tiie  north-eastern  point  of  Caithness  and  of  Scotland  bears  the  familiar  appellation 
of  John  o'Groat's  house ;  though  there  is  not  the  vestige  of  a  house  to  correspond  to  this 
title,  which  is  founded  on  a  mere  traditionary  story. 

SvBSECT.  3. — Scottish  Islands. 

The  islands  appendent  on  Scotland,  form  one  of  its  most  conspicuous  features.  Though 
neither  rich  nor  fertile  in  proportion  to  their  extent,  they  exhibit  a  great  variety  of  bold  and 
striking  scenery,  and  are  peopled  by  a  race  whose  habits  of  life  and  forms  of  society  are 
peculiar  to  themselves.  They  may  be  divided  into  the  islands  at  the  mouth  of  the  Clyde; 
the  Hebrides,  or  Western  Islands;  and  the  Northern  Islands,  or  those  of  Orkney  and 
Shetland. 

The  islands  of  the  Clyde  are  chiefly  Bute  and  Arran,  with  the  smaller  ones  of  tlie  Cum- 
brays  and  Ailsa.  Bute  is  of  beautiful  aspect,  witii  a  climate  accounted  the  mildest  in  Scot- 
land, and  for  tliat  reason  resorted  to  by  invalids;  a  considerable  part  of  the  surface  is  arable 
and  well  cultivated.  Rothsay  is  a  pretty  town,  much  frequented  for  sea-bathing,  and  en- 
riched by  a  considerable  herring  fishery.  Arran  presents  much  bold  alpine  scenery,  the 
central  mountain  of  Goatfield  rising  to  nearly  the  height  of  3000  feet,  while  the  glen  of 
Sanox  at  its  base  has  the  highest  character  of  savage  and  romantic  grandeur.  Lamlash,  the 
principal  town,  possesses  an  excellent  harbour.  Ailsa,  off  tlic  Ayrshire  coast,  is  a  rock  000 
feet  high,  with  lolly  basaltic  clifTs,  formed  into  columns  several  hundred  feet  in  height. 

The  Hebrides,  or  Western  Islands,  stretch  far  into  the  Atlantic.  Their  general  aspect  is 
highland,  with  rude  rocks  and  mountains,  deep  and  dark  valleys,  large  expanses  of  peat-moss, 
hill  pastures,  and  scanty  bar  ^sts ;  the  mountains  ascend  rather  in  single  peaks  than  in  long 
ranges;  and  the  rocky  cliffs  whicli  fiice  the  sea  assume,  in  many  places,  columnar  forms  of 
jjcculiar  grandeur.  The  climate  is  moist;  yet  milder  tlian  on  the  mainland.  Tlio  earliest 
inhabitants  seem  to  have  been  Celtic.  About  the  eleventh  century,  they  were  conquered, 
together  witli  Man,  by  Harold  Harfager,  and  were  governed  for  several  centuries  by  a  Nor- 
wegian dynasty,  after  which  tliey  owned  tlie  nominal  sovereignty  of  the  Scottish  kings,  but 
fell  really  under  the  sway  of  the  Macdonalds,  lords  of  the  Isle.s.  Tiioir  territory  including  a 
great  part  of  the  west  coast  of  Scotland,  formed  a  considerable  power,  till  it  fell  partly  under 
the  dominion  of  the  Scottish  crown,  and  was  jiartly  divided  among  a  number  of  [wtty  cliiefs, 
whose  feuds  deform  the  subsequent  pages  of  Hebridean  history.  At  present  these  islands 
may  be  considered  as  retaining  more  of  highland  habits  and  feelings,  than  any  part  of  the 
mainland. 

The  Hebrides  may  be  divided  into  two  main  ranges.  One  of  them  consists  of  the  large 
island"-  of  ^slay.  Jura,  Mull,  and  Skye,  with  several  minor  attendants,  which  are  nearly 
cnntiguuus  'jo  the  west  coast,  and  separated  fi-om  it  only  by  narrow  straits  and  sounds ;  the 
other  is  composed  of  North  and  South  Uist,  Harris,  I«wis,  which  are  considerably  out  at 
sea,  and  are  classed,  with  no  very  strict  propriety,  undei  the  general  appellation  of  Long 
Island. 

Islay  contains  a  good  deal  of  level  and  fertile  territory,  which  induced  the  lords  of  the 
Isles  to  make  it  tiieir  residence ;  good  crops  of  barley,  cats,  and  even  wheat,  are  raised ;  and 
the  black  cattle,  which  form  the  main  export,  arc  held  in  great  estimation.  Jura  is  separated 
from  Islay  only  by  a  sound,  the  opposite  sides  of  which  correspond  so  exactly  as  to  suggest 
the  idea  of  their  having  been  disjnhied  by  some  violent  shock  ;  it  is  one  contiimcd  tract  of 
brown  and  rocky  mountain  pasture ;  all  the  inhabitants,  if  collected,  would  scarcely  people 
a  large  village.  Scarba  consists  of  a  single  conical  mountain  broken  into  rocky  precipices, 
and  forming  a  striking  object.  Between  Jura  and  Scarba  is  the  perilous  strait  of  Corryvrc- 
kan,  a  'whirlpool  noted  for  shipwreck.  Colonsay  and  Oronsay  form  one  long  island,  the 
cliannel  between  them  being  passable  at  low  water.  The  former  has  a  verdant  appearance ; 
at  Oronsay  are  the  remains  of  a  priory,  ranking  as  the  finest  in  the  Highlands  next  to  that 
of  lona. 

Mull  is  a  large,  rough,  stormy  island,  with  winding  and  deeply  indented  shores,  separated 
by  a  long  narrow  sound  from  the  Argyles^liire  coast.  The  shores  are  almost  everywhere 
rocky  and  precipitous ;  the  two  once  might y  liolds  of  Duart  and  Aros  crown  rocky  cliffs  on  it." 
eastern  shore.   Tiie  great  keep  of  the  former,  with  its  walls  nine  feet  thick,  encloses  an  area 


'* 


KnoKl. 


SCOTLAND, 


42b 


eparated 
Irywhcre 

ItTs  on  its 
I  an  area 


206 


loim. 


•jf  thirty-six  feet  by  twelve.   Black  cattle,  black-faced  sheep,  celebrated  for  their  delicate  mut- 
ton, kelp,  and  herrings,  are  exported. 
StufTo,  a  large  rock,  about  a  mile  and  a  half  round,  and  encircled  by  cliffs,  which  nowhere 

exceed  in  height  144  feet,  contains  the 

't^'^---!b!St3^3iR;.r'::^';^Uv'. •  ■  ^"^'^  "^  Fingal  ijlff.^}.)    Almost  all 

^'jliiiS^mma^^^fmtrifli.ui-.  the  rocks  of  the  inland  arc  basaltic  and 

columnar;  but  here  they  uro  arrangi'd 
80  as  to  produce  the  most  singular  und 
magnificent  eftect.  An  opening,  sixty- 
six  feet  high  and  forty-two  wide,  formed 
by  perpendicular  walls  terminated  by  an 
arch  at  the  top,  admits  into  a  natural 
hall,  more  than  two  hundred  I'eet  long, 
and  bounded  on  each  side  by  basaltic 
columns  rising  in  regular  symmetrical 
succession.  Two  other  caves,  the  Cor- 
Finiii'iCave.  morants'   Cave  and    the  Boat's  Cave, 

present  similar  scenes.    Of  the  columnar  rocks,  which  extend  over  a  great  part  of  the 
island,  many  are  bent  and  twisted  in  a  remarkable  manner, 
lona  (Jig.  207),  a  small  island  near  Staffa,  excites  the  deepest  interest  by  the  venerable 

ruins  which  attest,  in  this  secluded 
comer,  the  early  existence  of  re- 
ligion and  learning,  at  a  time  when 
the  rest  of  the  kingdoni  was  buried 
in  baibarisni.  St.  Cilumba,  about 
the  middle  of  the  sixth  century, 
founded  here  a  monastery,  and 
made  it  a  centre  wlicrice  he  en- 
deavoured to  (lifTuse  the  light  of 
Christianity.  This  religious  estab- 
lishment was  enriched  and  extend- 
ed, and  a  nunnery  was  afterwards 
instituted  under  the  same  auspices. 
The  Culdecs,  or  followers  of  Co- 
lumba,  appear  to  have  rendered  very  great  services  to  Britain,  and  even  to  the  whole  North. 
Teachers  were  often  drawn  from  among  them  for  seminaries  in  England ;  and  they  under- 
took missionary  expeditions  to  Norway,  and  even  to  Russia.  They  taught,  in  a  great 
measure,  the  principles  of  primitive  Christianity,  rejecting  both  the  vows  of  celibacy,  and 
the  ceremonies  of  the  Romish  church.  lona,  however,  at  length  became  Roman  catliolic, 
and  continued  *o  flourish  till  the  Reformation,  when  its  monks  were  dispersed,  and  its  edi- 
fices demolislied.  The  Cfnetery  also  remains,  in  which,  according  to  tradition,  were  buried 
forty-eight  kings  of  Scotland,  eight  of  Norway,  four  of  Ireland,  and  one  of  France.  Al- 
lowing the  scepticism  of  Dr.  Macculloch  as  to  this  magnificent  list,  it  appears  confirmed, 
from  the  ornaments  on  the  tombs,  that  many  of  the  West-Insular  cliiefs  chose  this  as  a 
sacred  spot,  where  their  ashes  miglil  repose.  Tiie  ruins  are  extensive.  The  cathedral  is 
164  feet  long  a.id  34  broad ;  and  near  it  is  a  chapel  sixty  feet  long.  The  style  of  architecture 
is  early  and  rude ;  and  the  sculptures,  though  pretty  numerous,  are,  with  a  few  exceptions, 
grotesque  in  design  and  execution. 

Skye,  the  most  northerly  of  this  inner  chain,  is  the  largest  of  the  group.  It  is  forty- 
five  miles  long;  but  its  shores  are  so  winding,  and  so  penetrated  by  lochs,  that  it  may  be 
said  to  form  a  cluster  of  peninsulas.  Ranges  of  rocky  mountains,  many  of  them  3000  feet 
high,  cover  almost  the  entire  surface,  and  the  high  rocks  with  which  it  is  everywhere 
bordered,  display  objects  of  striking  and  romantic  grandeur.  In  Strathaird,  near  the 
southern  point,  is  the  celebrated  spar  rave ;  it  is  atx)ut  250  feet  from  the  entrance  to  the 
e.xtremity  ;  but  a  great  part  of  the  passage  is  gloomy  and  rocky,  and  only  in  its  most  inte- 
rior part  do  the  stalactites  begin  to  branch  out  into  that  variety  of  intricate  and  brilliant 
ornaments  which  make  the  cave  .so  beautiful.  The  great  body  of  the  island  is  a  hilly  moor- 
land, barren,  brown,  and  rugged ;  the  peaks  being  generally  from  .500  to  1000  feet  iiigh ; 
but  .some  points  are  level  and  arable.  The  r.xportation  of  cattle,  witli  that  of  a  con.siderable 
quantity  of  kelp,  forms  the  chief  trade  of  the  island;  large  quantities  of  herrings  are  also 
taken,  and  cured  by  fishermen,  who  carry  on  this  branch  of  commerce  on  a  small  scale.  The 
property  of  Skye  is  almost  siiarcd  between  the  family  of  I/)rd  Macdonald  who  claims  descent 
from  the  ancient  lords  of  the  Isles,  and  that  of  Macleod.  Duntulni,  the  almost  ruined  seat  of 
the  Macdonalds,  and  the  Macleods'  castle  of  Dunvegnn,  a  magnificent  pile,  finmded  in  the 
thirteenth  century,  arc  on  the  north-west  coast.  On  the  east  is  Rasay,  masked  by  long 
lofty  cliff^-i  of  lino  sandstone,  which  have  on  their  tops  green  and  cultivated  farms.  To  the 
south-west  is  Rum,  a  wild  and  rugged  mass  of  mountains,  surrounded  by  shores  scarcely 


i 


m 


{   'm 


■I' 


I 


Vi 


V 


x: 


i 


!i 


430 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  HI. 


accessible,  and  involved  in  almost  perpetual  tempest.    On  the  east  of  Rum  is  Egg  or  Eigg, 
which  contains  several  large  caves. 

Loiifl-  Inland  is  the  general  name  given  to  the  exterior  chain  of  the  Hebrides,  which  con- 
sists ol  five  large  and  many  smaller  islands ;  so  closely  contiguous  that  the  whole  may  be 
considered  as  one  island.  It  is  a  strange  mixture  of  bogs,  rocks,  lochs,  and  sands;  its  pas- 
tures iiru  chiefly  occupied  with  cattle  destined  for  tlie  markets  of  the  mainland ;  and  large 
quantities  of  kolp  are  pro<Iuced,  which  yield  considerable  profit. 

Li  leis  is  the  largest  of  all  the  Hebridei',  being  upwards  of  eighty  miles  from  north-east 
to  8onlh-weKt,and,  at  some  points,  more  than  twenty  in  breadth.  Of  its  inhabitants,  those 
occu]iying  its  most  northern  point,  called  the  Butt  of  Lewis,  appear  to  be  Danish,  the  rem- 
nant of  that  colony  wlio  once  ruled  the  island.  The  people  are  industrious  in  cultivating 
tliuir  rude  soil,  and  in  the  fisheries  which  have  rendered  Stornoway,  the  capital  of  Lewis,  u 
place  of  some  con.sideration.  Harris,  a  peninsula  on  tlie  southern  point  of  Lewis,  consists 
of  a  mass  of  ru;jged  rocks,  whicli  project  in  long  promontories  into  the  sea,  giving  to  the 
shore  a  very  picturestjue  aspect.  The  arable  patches  are  small,  and  in  such  inaccessible 
sites  that  tliey  can  bn  cultivated  only  by  the  spade.  Sheep  are  more  numerous  than  black 
cattle,  being  better  adapted  to  this  rugged  surface.  North  and  South  Uist,  with  Benbecula, 
exhibit  the  general  aspect  of  Long  Island,  of  whose  length  they  compose  about  eighty 
miles.  The  cattle  are  small,  and  not  exported  in  very  large  quantities.  The  most  flourish- 
ing branch  of  industry  is  kelp,  of  which  ttiey  yield  annually  about  2500  tons.  Barra  is 
distinguished  for  the  industry  of  its  fishermen,  who  carry  their  cargoes  through  the  Crinan 
canal  to  the  Greenock  market.  About  half  a  mile  from  the  southern  shore  is  Chisamil,  the 
castle  of  the  Macleans,  now  partly  in  ruin,  but  of  such  extent  as  to  have  been  capabln  of 
containing  500  men. 

St.  Kilda  is  the  remotest  point  of  the  Hebrides ;  small  and  solitary,  far  out  in  the  Atlantic, 
whose  waves  da-sh  continually  against  its  perpendicular  cliffs.  It  is  about  three  miles  long, 
girt  on  all  sides  by  a  wall  of  rock,  which  at  one  point  is  about  1300  feet  high ;  Conoxhan, 

the  loftiest  hill  on  the  island,  being  there 
hg.  soa  Map  qfthe  Orhuf  isianii.  Cut  down  perpendicular!]^  from  the  summit 

to  the  base.  "  Dizzy  heights,  from  which 
the  eye  looks  down  over  jutting  crags ;  a 
boiling  sea  below,  without  a  boundary; 
dark  clifl's  beaten  by  a  foaming  surge,  and 
lost  in  the  gloom  of  involving  clouds ;  the 
mixed  contest  of  rocks,  ocean,  and  sky," 
are  the  scenes  which  characterise  St. 
Kilda.  On  the  top  of  the  rocks  is  a  green 
and  somewhat  fertile  surftce,  on  which  are 
fed  sheep  of  the  Norwegian  breed,  with 
short  tails  and  coarse  wool,  but  whose  mut- 
ton is  delicious ;  there  are  a  few  cows,  and 
a  little  very  fine  bear  is  grown.  But  the 
favourite  food  of  the  natives  is  drawn  fi^m 
the  face  of  the  perpendicular  cliflfe,  which 
in  fearful  and  dizzy  height  overliang  their 
shores.  Suspended  by  a  rope,  they  step 
from  point  to  point,  and  take  the  eggs  or 
young  of  the  solan  goose,  puffin,  cormorant, 
petrel,  and  others  of  the  numerous  species 
which  breed  on  their  sides. 

The  Orkneys  form  a  group  of  about 
thirty  in  number;  but  Pomona  or  Main- 
land contains  nearly  as  much  ground  as  all 
the  rest  put  together.     Notliing  can  be 
more  irregular  than  their  form;  the  deep 
sounds  by  which  they  are  penetrated,  and  the  narrow  straits  which  separate  them  from  each 
other,  cause  a  complete  intermixture  of  land  and  sea.    These  etraits  are  rendered  dangerous 
by  numerous  currents  and  eddies  from  the  two  oceans  which  rush  in  from  opposite  sides. 


'■',.. 


■'Li;i 


Njilliffh H,u. 

,o\*     Sur.i.inri.^%,^ 
Noup  Mi.Wm^         N.  RonaMaiv  Klh.       ''i. 


"■II, 


u.*  Sir  j;v],^ ',     , 

Orrm.  \S^^'^     10.    Xi 

Hoy  Hill, :r.S::V«.<=*  „% 

s  r  f  n  I.  A  M> 


niicss 


'^;#  W;^*""-'-  "*• 


^ 


^niith  KoiialdBbay 


'"'K-au.l.y  HJ. 


(jllllKli  Milr,        ' 


Reference  to  the  Map  of  the  Orlney  Idand$. 


NORTH  RON- 
ALOSHAY. 
I.  Holland. 

SANDAY. 

1.  Taninrai 
3  Havil 
:t.  Markirk 

4.  Crim  and  Burnen 

5.  atov* 


WESTRAY. 
1.  Newark 
3.  Hpuoninv 
3. 1'yrawall. 

ROWSAY. 
1.  Suvoikroi 
3.  Wciltide. 

SIl^PINailAY. 
1.  WallneM 


'i.  Kiikbuiier 
3.  Holland. 


POMONA  nr 
MAINLAND. 

1.  Bt.  Andrew'! 

3.  Bnndijde 
X  Holm 

4.  Poplar 
3.  Oalnip 


a^'abo 

7.  Kirkwall 

f>.  Pirlh 

9.  Bcapa 
in.  Wank 
II.  Orphir 
I?.  Chotlron 

13.  Turniion 

14.  Rrndnll 

15.  Wi 


oodwick 


16.  Iluriar 

17.  Biraa 
IS.  Marwick 
19.  KIrknen 
90.  Holorow 
QI.Hnndwick 
'ja.  Siromncaa. 

HOY. 
1.  Hor 


2.  Brini 

3.  Air 

4.  St.  Walby. 

SOUTH  RON- 
ALDSHAY. 

1.  Cara 

2.  Kirk 

3.  Berwick 

4.  Bruufli. 


'.•X"}. 


species 

about 
Main- 
id  as  nil 
can  be 
he  deep 
)m  each 
ngerous 
e  sides. 


ibr 


<  HON- 
IHAY. 


.Ifr/ 


Book  I. 


SCOTLAND. 


431 


Fig.  21ft    itap  (ifUe  SMrllantl  Itlandi. 


The  Pentland  Frith,  in  particular,  between  Orkney  and  the  Mainland,  is  a  most  formidable 
passage.  The  opposing  currents  i<eep  the  channel  in  a  stato  of  perpetual  ebullition,  and  produce 
at  several  points,  violent  whirlpc  jIs.  Orkney  is  in  general  low,  bleak,  boggy,  and  bare ;  thoupfh 
its  western  islands  face  the  Atlantic  with  some  very  bold  and  ragged  clitts.  About  a  twelfth 
part  is  cultivated  in  a  rude  manner  with  the  plough ;  a  somewhat  larger  portion  is  under 
regular  pasture;  the  rest  is  moor  and  waste.  The  cattle,  though  small,  are  of  a  goal 
breed ;  and  about  50,000  sheep,  almost  in  a  wild  state,  roam  through  the  commons.  The 
fisheries  are  not  extensive ;  kelp  is  the  staple  commodity  for  export :  it  has  averaged  annu- 
ally 2500  tons,  employing  3000  men.  There  is  some  coarse  woollen,  and  of  late  there  has 
been  some  linen  manufacture.  As  most  of  the  vessels  destined  for  Hudson's  Bay  and  the 
whale  fishery,  and  many  of  those  which,  from  the  east  coast,  sail  to  all  parts  of  the  world, 
pass  by  the  north  of  Scotland,  the  ports  of  the  Orkneys  are  frequented,  and  a  market  is 
afforded  for  their  provisions. 

The  topographical  details  of  Orkney  do  not  possess  any  peculiar  attraction.    Kirkwall, 
however,  bears  marks  of  the  periods  when  it  was  a  Danish  capital,  and  a  residence  of  the 

sovereign  Earls  of  Orkney.  There  is 
a  large  and  massive  cathedral,  in  some 
parts  very  elegantly  ornamented  ;  also 
ruins  of  a  king's  palace,  an  earl's  castle, 
and  a  bishop^  palace.  The  town  has 
of  late  been  considerably  extended  and 
improved,  and  it  has  a  good  natural  har- 
bour. Stroniness  has  one  of  the  best 
harbours  in  the  kingdom,  and  is  the 
favourite  resort  of  vessels  which  seek 
on  this  coast  for  shelter  and  refreshment. 
Near  Stromncsa  is  that  remarkable 
remnant  of  antiquity  the  "standing 
stones  of  Stennis,''  which  in  magnitude 
and  singular  character  almost  rivals 
Stonehenge.  Shapinshay,  Stronsay, 
Rowsay,  Eday,  Westray,  Papa,  antl 
Sanday,  are  small  islands  stretching  to 
the  north-east.  Burra  and  South  Ro- 
naldshay  are  towards  Caithness;  and 
to  the  west  the  long  island  of  Hoy, 
which  presents  a  series  of  bold  and 
rugged  promontories. 

The  Zetland  or  Shetland  islands, 
called  by  the  natives  Hialtland,  form 
one  of  the  extremities  of  Europe,  en- 
circled by  the  illimitable  extent  of 
the  Arctic  and  Atlantic  oceans.  Placed 
thus  far  north,  and  amid  so  wide  a 
waste  of  waters,  the  climate  of  Zet- 
land is  cold,  bleak,  swept  by  furious 
winds,  and  deluged  by  torrents  of  rain. 
The  surface  is  rugged,  without  being 
mountainous;  it  is  everywhere  pene- 
trated by  long  lagoons  with  flat  shores, 
called  voes,  by  which  even  the  largest 
islands  are  so  intersected,  that  there  is 
scarcely  a  spot  in  them  two  miles  distant  from  the  sea.  The  extensive  mosses,  and  the 
trunks  of  tree^  dug  out  of  them,  prove  that  a  vast  expanse  was  once  covered  with  natural 
forests;  but  these  are  now  totally  eradicated,  and  the  violence  of  the  winds  and  sea-spray 
has  rendered  abortive  every  attempt  to  replace  them,  so  that  the  aspect  of  the  country  is 
now  completely  naked,  scarcely  producing  even  a  shrub.  The  cwists  arc  peculiarly  steep, 
rocky,  and  bold,  the  rocks  being  hollowed  into  deep  caverns,  and  broken  into  precipices  and 
clifls  of  the  most  varied  forms.  The  aspect  of  these  shores,  against  which  the  waves  of  the 
great  surrounding  ocean  dash  with  almost  perpetual  fiiry,  is  equally  grand  and  terrible.  The 


SAVI. 


..^♦" 


_!_ 


19 


fV/ff. 


•  ^Sh«»p  Cny 


Eofliih  Mild 


-I 


Reference  to  the  Map  of  the  Shetland  Manda. 


UNST. 
1.  Norwick 
U.  Veicarth 
3.  New  Kirk. 

yELL. 
I  WiDdhoun 


3.  Manae 

2.  niahorry 

8.  Jafiin 

H.  Brnk 

20.  aupnilal. 

3.  Sandwick 

3.  Orbuila 

0.  Bnrlild 

l.'i.  Iliiigwall 

4.  Queira. 

10.  Mclby 

IH.  Lerwick 

BRrSSAY 

5. 8uthi!rhuUiQ 

11.  Miickluro 

17.  Si.  l>aur» 

1.  (lurilis 

MAINLAND. 

6.  Deal 

13.  Culawlok 

la  Murwick 

2.  Si.  Andie\v« 

I.  Bket 

7.  Srough 

13.  Banditcni! 

lU  Uiittuwu. 

1 


If 


w 


4S2 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Paet  III. 


uutJior  of  "  The  Pimte"  draws  a  most  lively  picture  of  those  "  deep  and  dangerous  seas  of 
the  north,  their  precipices  and  headlands,  many  hundred  feet  in  height — their  perilous 
straits,  and  currents,  and  eddies — long  sunken  reefs  of  rock,  over  which  the  vivid  ocean 
foams  and  boils,— dark  caverns,  to  whose  extremities  neither  man  nor  skiff  has  ever  ven- 
tured,— lonely  and  oflcn  uninhofbited  isles,  and  occaeionall}'  tlic  ruins  of  ancient  northern  fast- 
nesses, dimly  seen  by  the  feeble  light  of  the  arctic  winter."  The  dangers  of  the  navigation, 
however,  are  considerably  mitigated  by  the  spacious  and  commodious  haven?,  formed  by  the 
deep  bays  and  vnrg,  or  by  the  sounds  and  channels,  between  different  islands. 

The  Shetland  Islands  contain  about  20,000  acres  of  arable  land,  and  nearly  as  many  of 
gootl  metulow ;  but  this  comprises  little  more  than  a  twentieth  part  of  the  surface,  all  the 
rest  consisting  of  waste  or  common,  on  which  the  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep  are  turned  out, 
to  find  pastures  iis  best  they  may.  The  horses  are  of  a  very  small  size,  with  o  huge  mane, 
but  active  and  hardy.  The  cows  are  equally  diminutive,  and  give  very  little  milk,  but  both 
the  milk  and  the  flesh  are  of  good  quality.  The  sheep  ore  most  numerous  of  all,  being 
reckoned  at  seventy  or  eighty  thousand ;  they  are  stunted,  like  the  other  animals,  and  their 
wool  is  very  scnnty ;  but  some  of  it  is  peculiarly  fine,  affording  the  material  of  almost  the  only 
nionufacturc  of  Shetland, — that  of  knit  hosiery,  of  a  texture  close,  sotl,  and  warm.  The 
greatest  branch  of  Shetland  industry,  however,  is  the  cod  and  ling  fishery.  All  the  coasts 
abound  with  these  fish ;  and,  within  the  last  few  years,  a  particularly  rich  and  extensive 
Iwnk  has  been  discovered  to  the  westward.  At  the  proper  season,  fleets  of  boat'^  issue  from 
all  the  hays  and  voes,  to  the  hnaf  or  deep  sea-fishery,  wiiich  is  carried  on,  not  without  peril, 
at  the  distance  of  from  twenty  to  thirty  miles  fi^m  the  coast.  The  fishermen  are  supplied 
l)y  tlie  Iniidlords  with  boats  and  implements,  on  condition  of  their  delivering  to  them  the  fish 
at  a  stipuliited  rate;  and  as  their  farms  are  held  at  will,  they  are  in  a  state  of  vassalage 
more  complete,  perhaps,  than  any  other  class  in  the  United  Kingdom. 

The  annals  of  Shetland  are  Norwegian.  These  islands,  according  to  the  earliest  tradition, 
were  peopled  from  Norway.  In  the  ninth  century  they  were  conquered  by  Harold  Harfa- 
ger,  or  the  Fair-haired,  the  most  powerful  and  formidable  of  all  the  sea-kings  of  the  north. 
The  Norwegian  sway  extended  for  several  centuries  over  all  the  Scottish  islands ;  but  in 
tlie  Shetlnnds  it  was  undisputed,  till  the  cession  of  them,  along  witli  tlio.«e  of  (!)rkney,  as 
the  dowry  of  a  princess  of  Norway  married  to  James  III.,  in  the  end  of  tlie  fifteenth  century. 
Lerwick,  the  capital,   is  a  thriving  village,    ill  and   irregularly  built,   but  improving. 

The  oiiposite  island  of  Bressay  forms  Bressay 
Sound,  one  of  the  finest  harbours  in  the 
world,  and  the  rendezvous  of  all  the  vessels 
destined  for  the  north  and  the  whale  fishery 
Off  Bressay  is  the  Noss  {fiff.  210.),  a  small 
high  island,  with  a  flat  summit,  girt  on  all 
sides  by  perpendicular  walls  of  rock.  The 
communication  with  Bressay  itself  is  main- 
tained by  strong  ropes  stretched  across,  along 
which  a  cradle  is  run,  in  which  the  pas- 
senger is  seatetl.  The  promontories  of  Sum- 
burgh  and  Fitfiil  Head,  at  the  southern  ex- 
tremity of  tiie  Mainland,  are  also  distin- 
guished by  the  boldness  of  their  aspect  and 
the  perils  with  which  they  threaten  the  ma- 
riner. The  number  of  the  Shetlands  has 
been  variously  estimated,  according  to  the  gradations  of  islets  and  rocks  included ;  bii.':  only 
about  forty  are  inhabited.  Of  these.  Yell,  and  Unst,  stretching  northwards  from  the  Main- 
land, are  alone  of  any  magnitude.  The  last,  though  the  most  northerly,  is  rather  the  most 
fertile  of  any,  and  distinguished  by  its  numerous  caves.  Adjacent  to  Yell  is  Fetlar;  on  the 
east  of  the  Mainland  are  Whalsay  and  Bressay ;  to  the  west,  Burray,  Uousa,  Frondray,  Papa 
Stour,  Muckle  and  Little  Rooe,  all  so  close  as  to  be  little  more  than  peninsulas.  Considera- 
bly out  at  sen,  Foula,  a  small  rocky  islet,  faces  the  Atlantic,  with  high  cliff's  covered  with 
numberless  flocks  of  sea-fowl. 


210 


NoH  Holm,  Shelluid. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

IREL.\ND. 

iRELANn  is  a  fine  extensive  island,  sifiiated  to  the  west  of  England,  and  forming  one  of 
the  throe  grand  [HDrtions  of  the  United  Kingdom. 

Sect.  1. — General  Outline  and  Aspect. 
The  greatest  dimension  of  Ireland  is  from  Cape  Clear,  in  .'iP  10',  to  Malin  Head,  in  55° 
23  N.  latitude;  making  about  "JHO  m:les.     The  utmost  breadth,  if  reckoned  from  the  mos' 


Book  I. 


IRELAND 


4Sii 


•  one  of 


Id,  in  55° 
1  the  mos 


easterly  point  of  the  county  of  Down  (opposite  Bur  Island)  to  Dunmore  Head  in  Kerry,  will 
be  218  miles;  but  it  is  nowhere  so  broad  under  the  same  parallel  of  latitude.  The  island, 
accordiiifj  to  Benufbrt,  contains  more  than  30,000  English  square  miles,  or  nearly  20,000,000 
acres ;  but,  till  the  survey  be  completed,  precision  on  this  subject  cannot  be  attained. 

The  siirliice  of  Ireland  crnnot  on  the  whole  be  called  mountainous;  its  central  districts 
comjwsinff  one  vast  plain,  wiiich  crosses  the  kingdom  from  east  to  west  It  is,  however, 
diversified  by  ranges  of  mountains,  superior  in  extent,  and,  with  the  exception  of  those  of 
Wales,  equal  in  elevation,  to  any  in  England.  Wicklow,  ip  the  vicinity  of  Dublin,  may  be 
classed  as  an  alpine  region.  On  the  borders  of  Leinster  and  Munster,  the  Slieve-Bloom, 
the  Knockmele  Down,  and  the  Galties,  form  long  and  lofty  ranges,  commanding  an  exten- 
sive view  over  the  wide  plains  that  stretch  beneath  them.  All  these,  however,  are  much 
surpassed  by  tlie  c'treme  south-west  county  of  Kerry,  which  presents  a  complete  chaos  of 
lofty  and  rocky  si  "nits.  The  most  elevated  are  those  which  enclose  the  beautiful  and 
finely  wooded  lakes  of  Killarney,  Mangerton  and  Macgillicuddy's  Reeks,  the  last  of  which 
is  considerably  more  than  3000  feet  high.  At  the  opposite  or  north-eastern  extremity  of 
Ireland,  Antrim  presents  to  the  Scottish  seas  a  barrier  of  rocky  cliffs,  less  lofty,  hut  of  a 
very  liold  and  peculiar  character ;  precipitous,  and  formed  into  long  columnar  ranges ;  a 
phenomenon  which  the  Giant's  Causeway  exhibits  on  a  greater  scale  than  uay  other  spot  in 
the  known  world.  The  Moume  mountains,  a  lofty  granite  range  in  the  south  of  the  county 
of  Down ;  those  of  Carlingford,  which  extend  into  the  county  of  Armagh;  with  considerable 
ranges  in  Tyrone,  Dcrry,  and  Donegal,  may  dispute  the  pre-eminence  with  those  of  the 
south.  In  Connaught  there  arc  also  some  considerable  detached  mountains,  of  which  Croagh- 
patrick  in  Mayo  has  heen  reckoned  by  some  to  exceed  even  Macgillicuddy's  Reeks ;  but  Ire- 
land has  no  extended  tablcv-lands,  like  those  which  cover  a  considerable  part  of  England. 
The  most  elevated  part  of  the  Bog  of  Allen,  in  that  central  point  where  the  rivers  divide, 
is  not  more  than  270  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

The  Shannon  is  without  a  rival  in  the  three  kingdoms.  It  rises  far  in  the  north,  from 
Lough  Allen  in  the  province  of  Connaught,  and  has  a  course  of  170  miles,  throughout  the 
whole  of  which  it  is  more  or  less  navigable,  the  only  obstruction  which  existed  having  been 
removed.  Below  liimerick  it  expands  into  an  estuary  about  sixty  miles  in  length,  by  which 
the  largest  vessels  have  access  to  that  city.  Tiie  Barrow  is  also  an  important  river,  which 
runs  southward  through  the  greater  part  of  Leinster,  receives  from  the  west  the  Nore  and 
the  Suire,  and  finally  forms  tlie  harbour  of  VVaterford.  The  Boyne,  so  celebrated  for  the 
victory  gained  on  its  banks;  the  Foyle,  which,  after  passing  Londonderry,  forms  Lough 
Foyle;  the  Bnnn,  which  passes  through  Lough  Neogh,  and  affords  a  flourishing  saimon 
fishery ;  and  the  Blackwater,  which  terminates  in  the  bay  and  port  of  Youghal,  are  also  de- 
serving of  mention.  The  other  rivers  are  rather  numerous  than  of  long  course  ;  but  they 
almost  all  terminate  in  wide  estuaries  and  louffhs,  which  diffuse  through  Ireland  the  means 
of  water  communication,  and  afford  a  multiplicity  of  spacious  and  secure  harbours. 

Lakes  or  loughs  are  a  conspicuous  feature  in  Ireland,  where  this  last  name,  like  the 
similar  one  used  in  Scotland,  is  in  many  instances  applied  to  arms  of  the  sea.  Lough  Neagh 
is  the  largest  lake  in  the  United  Kingdom,  covering  nearly  100,000  acres.  Its  banks  are 
flat,  tome,  and  in  many  places  marshy  and  inundated.  Lough  Erne,  also  in  Ulster,  is 
divided  into  two  reaches,  the  united  length  of  which  is  about  thirty  miles,  while  its  circuit 
includes  a  great  variety  of  rich  and  ornamented  scenery.  Iiough  Foyle,  Lough  Swilly,  and 
Belfast  Lough,  are  properly  bays.  The  Shannon  forms  several  lakes,  of  which  Lough  Ree 
is  the  principal ;  and  the  whole  of  its  course  downwards  from  Limerick  resembles  more  a 
lough  or  bay  than  a  river,  (connaught  has  several  extensive  lakes.  That  of  Killarney,  in 
the  soutli,  is  famed,  not  for  its  extent,  but  for  the  singular  grandeur  and  beauty  of  its 
shores.  A  fuller  description  of  tliis  and  some  others  now  mentioned  will  be  found  under  the 
local  section. 

Sect.  II. — Natural  Geography. 

The  Botany  and  Zoology  of  Ireland,  having  been  treated  under  the  head  of  England,  this 
section  will  be  confined  to  Geology. 

SuBSECT.  1. — Geology  of  Ireland, 

The  geology  of  this  p:irt  of  the  empire  is  not  so  well  known  as  that  of  Great  Britain. 
Tlio  following  skoteh  will  enable  our  readers  to  form  a  general  conception  of  the  geognos- 
tienl  structure  of  those  parts  of  the  island  which  have  been  already  surveyed ;  viz. — 1.  North 
of  Trclanil ;  2.  Connaught  coal  district ;  3.  East  of  Ireland  ;  4.  South,  and  part  of  the  west 
of  Ireland. 

(1.)  yorthoflrtland.  Thisdistrict.limttcd  by  Dundalk  Bay  on  the  south-east,  and  by  Lough 
Foyle  on  the  north-west,  is  marked  by  three  distinct  systems  or  groups  of  mountains,  one  of 
wliich  occupies  the  more  southern  counties ,  while  the  more  northern  are  divided  between 
the  two  others. 

1st  system.  The  Moume  mountains. — ^The  Moume  mountains  form  a  well-deflned 
Vol.  I.  8T  3  E 


484 


MAP  OP  IRELAND. 


Fio.  211 


11 


UOfttallr  Wen     8     Irma  Orernwich 


BooeI. 


IRELAND. 


435 


group,  extending  from  Dundrum  Bay  to  Carlingford  Bay,  in  the  southern  extremity  of  Down. 
Slieve  Donard  is  the  highest  summit  of  this  group,  and  rises  about  2654  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea.  The  north-west  of  the  main  group,  tiic  Fathom  Hill,  Sliove  Girkcn,  or  the 
Newry  mountains,  and  Slieve  (iullen,  are  situated  in  the  south-east  of  Armagh ;  and  the 
Rnvcnsdale  and  Carlingford  mountains,  in  the  north  of  Louth,  may  be  considered  aa  its  ap- 
pendages. Granite,  wliich  is  the  prevailing  rock  of  these  niouiitaiiis,  contains  beautiful 
■  rock  crystals,  also  felspar  and  mica  crystals,  topaz  and  beryl.  To  the  north  of  the  Moume 
mountains  Slieve  Croob,  composed  of  syenite,  and  Slieve  Anitiky,  nf  hornblende  rock,  form 
an  elevated  tract,  dependent  upon,  but  placed  at  some  distance  thui),  the  main  group.  Horn- 
blende rock,  greenstone,  and  porphyry  are  said  to  be  abundant  on  the  skirts  of  this  granite  dis- 
trict. The  Plutonian  granite  and  syenite  hills  rise  through  strata  of  transition  rocks,  which 
are  greywacke,  greywacke  slate,  transition  clay  slate,  and  transition  limestone.  The  Plu- 
tonian rocks  bear  but  a  small  proportion  in  superficial  extent  to  those  of  the  transition  class, 
the  latter  advancing  west  and  north  into  Cavan,  and  to  Belfast  Ix)Ugh  and  the  peninsula  of 
Ards.  The  points  of  tlie  coast  of  Scotland,  directly  opposite  the  peninsula  of  Ards,  present  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Portpatrick,  and  through  the  great  alpine  band  which  traverses  the 
south  of  Scotland,  and  terminates  on  the  east  coast  of  St  Abb's  Head,  the  same  transition 
rocks.  Hence  it  is  probable  that  the  great  southern  high  land  of  Scotland  was  formerly 
joined  with  the  transition  hills  of  the  Moume  mountain  group  by  a  ridge  of  land  extending 
across  the  Channel  from  Scotland  to  Ireland.  In  this  district,  there  are  some  patches  of 
mountain  limestone  and  of  old  red  sandstone. 

2d  system.  Primitive  chain  of  Londonderry. — This  mountain  group  rises  at  the  distance 
of  about  30  miles  to  the  north-north-west  of  the  external  chains  of  the  first  sj^stem,  including 
the  counties  of  liOndonderry  and  Donegal.  One  of  the  iiighest  points  in  this  district  is  Sawell, 
said  to  be  22.57  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  This  great  tract  of  country  is  principally 
comiK>sed  of  mica  slate,  with  various  .bordinate  beds,  as  limestone,  quartz,  &c.  On  the 
eastern  bank  of  the  Roe,  these  mica  siato  hills  and  mountains  are  succeeded  by  a  range  of 
secondary  hills  covered  by  a  great  platform  of  secondary  trap,  and  forming  a  part  of  the 
third  system  of  hills,  afterwards  to  be  described.     These  newer  rocks  repose  upon  and  con- 


lieferencet  to  the  Map  of  Inland. 


NORTH  PART. 
I.  Newtonglfini 
3.  Ballycnstle 

3.  CloiJKh 

4.  Raaharkan 
.5.  Italtymnn/ 
G.  Coleraino 

7.  Garva;Th 

8.  <iiBnt'a  Sconce 

9.  Ilallrkelly 

10.  Muff 

11.  Rallynally 
U.  Malm 

13.  Cam 

14.  nuinroot 
1.1.  Oinakill 
m.  Raihmullin 
17.  rioiiyhock 

15.  Dungloti 
19.  Convoy 

50.  Htranoilan 
21.  Rmihop 

3-2.  Ijoiiilondcrry 
83.  I.iffor.l 
•U.  StraUane 
2.5.  daily 

36.  Maghen 

37.  flwatlerntEh 
'».  Krlb 

2!>.  Glenarm 
'.n.  Ilaltycorry 
31.  rarrickfeTgua 
.33.  Crumlia 
33.  Antrim 
.M.  Kiiri(talfi(own 
3.1.  .Mnneymore 

36.  (;7ook8tt)Wn 

37.  FrodRrickBtown 

38.  Newton  Stewart 
3(1.  Heaebrll 

40.  Tlori  Bridge 

41.  Ardrca 
43.  Tillen 

43.  Killybegi 

44.  Inver 

45.  Ponesal 

40.  Hiill);8hnnnon 
47.  Garridiui 
4a  Churchill 
40.  ('aiuldy 

aa.  KpsIi 

51.  OniHgh 
53.  Ghicrterny 
13.  HallyEawley 
."M.  tlLickWiilcr 
.1.1.  Ilunennnon 
50.  Kingiinilll 

57.  MiiM 

58.  Heirait 
S).  Holywooil 


60.  Donaghadco 
01.  (iray  Abbey 
63.  I'orlarerry 
6:1.  Downpatricic 
04.  Killinchy 
6.1.  Ilillnhorough 

66.  Dundruni 

67.  Raihf'riland 

68.  tiouihbrick- 

land 
60.  Lurgan 
7U.  Armagh 
71.  Newtown  Ha- 

milion 
73.  Mnnachan 

73.  Augher 

74.  Clogher 

75.  Five  Mile 

Town 

76.  Donough 

77.  Liinaakea 

78.  Ralluwhill 
70.  Enniikillcn 
80.  liargay 
Sl.Siridock 
83.  Slieo 

83.  Dunatra 
W.  Bonro 
K1.  Killala 

86.  Baltiglan 

87.  Inver 

88.  CIngan 

89.  Ballina 

90.  Fo.xr(ird 

91.  Swineford 
93.  llalcarra 
93.  Ballymule 
04.  Ijeitrim 

95.  Balltngmo;e 

06.  BelturtK.t 

97.  CavaR 

98  n-.,n 

99.  T.idlyhav 
Ifld.  Cantlfl  Blaney 
101.  Jnnedboro 
103.  Newry 
UI3.  Narrnw  Water 
1114.  Kilkeel 
10.1.  rurltrtirfiird 

106.  nundnik 

107.  l.oulh 
1118.  Lnrgiin 
109.  CloBhcr 
no.  l.adyrnth 
111.  Nobbcr 
113.  Moynally 

113.  Ballyborough 

114.  Stradone 

115.  Bally  Jamcadu 
lie.  Roeaduir 


117.  JamoRtown 

118.  Elpbm 

119.  Carrick  on 

Shannon 

120.  Tulsk 

131.  Ballyhadirecn 
133.  Ballihaunli 

133.  Kilkelly 

134.  Kilcolman 

135.  Boartree 

136.  Ballinvary 
127.  Newport 
138.  Cnttlebar 
129.  Weatport 
l:i0.  Killery 
131.  Claggan 
1.33.  Bunowen 

133.  Cong 

134.  Ballinrnbe 
131.  Hollymnunt 
136.  Kilmainmore 
i:l7.  Blenwoll 
138.  Dunmore 
1.39.  Glanamnddy 

140.  Balliniober 

141.  Ruacoinmon 
143.  Tarmnnbarry 

143.  l.ungford 

144.  Krnagb 
14.1.  Ed«9Worlli«- 

town 

146.  Johnstown 

147.  Miillingar 

148.  rionmellon 

149.  Trim 

1.10.  !)unimcrhill 
MI.Navan 
152.  Skryne 

1.13.  Drogheda 

1.14.  Naut 
155.  Bworda 

SOUTH  PART. 
1.  Kilkerran 
3. Inverun 

3.  Sunna 

4.  Killamecn 

5.  Rnlway 

6.  Ilmidrord 

7.  Reldare 

8.  Aihcnry 

9.  Monivia 

10.  Tuam 

11.  CnMle  Blackney 

12.  Bnllinofitoe 

13.  Bailiniimnrfl 

14.  Knockroughry 

15.  Athlone 

16.  Mayatown 


17.  Mont  a  Grenogue 

18.  Ballimore 

19.  Pbilipalown 

20.  Tyrrel'a  Paaa 

31.  Ballydemot 

32.  Longwood 

33.  Cluncuny 

34.  riane 

35.  Maynooth 
26.  Ralnalh 
37.  Rathcoole 
9a  Dublin 
30.  Killuiibbin 
30.  Innixkerry 
3I.Wicklow 
33.  Donard 

33.  BIcaaingtun 

34.  Naaa 

3.1.  Old  Kilcullcn 
no.  Kihiare 

37.  Portarlington 

38.  Mounlmclick 

39.  Birr 

40.  Bangher 

41.  Eyre  Court 
43.  Poitumna 

43.  Augbrim 

44.  I.oughrca 
4.1.  Carnamart 

46.  Rorl 

47.  Killany 

48.  KillO-nora 

49.  Innialymon 

50.  Pnnia 

51.  Clare 

53.  Talla 
.1.3.  Scarriff 

54.  Killalue 

55.  Nenagh 
.16.  Burreaakan 
.17.  Roacrea 
.18.  Raihdowny 
.10.  Ballynakilf 

60.  Maryborough 

61.  Alhv 
63.  Carfow 

63.  Sirnlford 

64.  Bnltinslnsa 
6.1.  Ralbvillo 

66.  Tinchely 

67.  Ralhdium 
88.  Ark  low 

69.  Gorer 

70.  Ferns 

71.  Cloneirnll 
73.  Burria 

73.  Old  I^ighlm 

74.  Kilkenny 

75.  Urlingford 


76.  Kill?naulo 

77.  Burri^leagh 

78.  Toomevara 

79.  Silver  Mine 

80.  Newport 

81.  liinierick 

83.  Bridiretown 

8:1  Six  Mile  Bridge 

84.  Pnrndiso 
8,1.  Clanderlagh 

86.  Kilruib 

87.  Dunbegs 

88.  Ballyhi'igh 

89.  Lixnaw 

90.  Millilreet 

91.  Ballylongford 
03.  Liilowcl) 

93.  Abbyroale 

94.  Glynn 

95.  Ardngh 

96.  Aakeaton 

97.  Kiddneh 
if.  Hrures 

99.  Patrick's  Well 

100.  Brufl 

101.  t^ullen 
103.  Tipperary 

103.  Cappagh 

104.  Golifen  Bridge 
10.1.  Cashol 

106.  Felhard 

107.  Ballypatrick 

108.  Knocktopher 

109.  Innibtioge 
no.  Thomnsion 

111.  Now  Ross 

112.  Enniacortby 

113.  Killane 

114.  Ballrmarlin 

115.  Tagnmon 

116.  Wexford 

117.  Ituncornuck 

118.  (Nonmines 

119.  Wbitocborch 

120.  Walerrord 

131.  Kilmacow 

132.  Kilmacthomas 

133.  Clonmel 

134.  Ballynamult 
125.  Cabir 

136.  Rallyporecn 

137.  Arailin 

138.  Kilwnrib 
129.  Ballyhooly 
riO.  n.incrailo 
131.  Mallow 
133.  l.iscarrol 
1'I3.  Newmarket 
1.14.  Ciis  bland 


135.  Abbey  Odoine 

136.  Tralee 
137. 1.ispote 
138.  Dingle 
i;«.  Cahir 
140.  Aghart 
MLGIanliagh 
143.  Milltown 

143.  Kenmare 

144.  Killnrncy 

145.  Sbinaeh 

146.  Mill  Street 

147.  Mactomp 

148.  Cork 

149.  Fennoy 
1.10.  Ratcormuck 
l51 .  Ijismore 
1.12.  Dungarvan 

153.  Agliah 

154.  Voughal 
15.1.  Cloyne 

156.  Carlisle  Fort 

157.  Passage 

158.  Camden  Fort 

159.  Kinsnle 

160.  Innisbannon 

161.  IncbigeelHgb 

162.  Dunmanaway 
16.3.  Glengart 

164.  Gariiilah 

165.  Rantry 

166.  DunmanuB 

167.  Baltimore 

168.  Skibbereen 
169. 1.oap 

170.  Timoloague 

Kirert.  te. 
a  Foyle,  R. 
b  Rann,  R. 
c  Mayola,  R. 
d  Newry  Canal 

0  Bnyoe,  R. 
f  l.ifTey.  R. 
g  Slaney,  R. 
h  Bairow,  R. 
i    Nore,  R. 

i  Siiirn.  R. 

k  Blackwatcr,  R 

1  Lee.  R. 

m  Bandoii.  R. 
n  Flesk,  R. 
o  Shannon.  R. 
p  Carnamarl,  R. 
q  Moyop.  R. 
r  Suck,  R. 
a  Moy,  R. 
t  Deel,  R.  „ 
u  Munreei  R. 


i    'i 


ii!i 


486 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pabt  hi. 


I 

] 


111 


ceal  tlio  mica  alato  in  tlie  enfltorn  part  of  Dcrry,  but  the  mica  slate  again  emerges  from 
beneatii  this  covering,  atlcr  an  interval  uf  about  30  miles,  on  the  north-east  coubt  ut  Antrim, 
and  rises  into  hills,  which  break  down  abruptly  towards  the  coast  between  Tor  I'oint  and 
Cushondcn  Buy.  The  mica  slute  rocks  on  this  part  of  the  Irisih  coubt  may  bo  considered  a 
continuation  ot  those  that  occur  on  the  oppoHilo  coast  of  Scotland  at  the  Mull  of  Cuntyro, 
or,  on  a  more  general  view,  aa  u  continuation  of  the  great  Grampian  range,  which  may,  in 
this  way,  be  said  to  extend  from  the  north-east  coast  of  Scotland  to  the  western  shores  of - 
Ireland,  on  the  coasts  of  Uunegal.  In  the  eastern  part  of  Tyrone,  which  intervenes 
between  the  transition  mountains  and  the  mica  slate  mountains,  a  coal  Ibrmation  occurs 
associated  with  that  kind  of  limestone  which  is  usuall>  found  below  coal  in  Great  Britain. 
The  position  of  this  coalfield  otfers  another  analogy  witli  Scotland,  where  tlie  space  between 
the  southern  and  northern  mountains  is  principally  occupied  by  rocka  of  the  coal  formation. 

3d  system  of  mountains.  The  Trap  group. — This  group  mav  be  described  as  separated 
into  two  chains,  bounding  on  the  east  and  west  the  trough  or  valley  through  which  tlie  river 
Bann  flows  from  liough  Neagh  to  the  ocean.  The  eastern  chain  lies  in  the  county  of  An- 
trim, being  comprehended  between  thu  valley  of  the  Bann  and  the  North  channel.  It  pre- 
sents an  abrupt  declivity  towards  the  sea,  falling  with  a  gentle  slope  towards  the  west,  in 
which  direction  the  beds  composing  its  mass  incline.  Knock-lead,  in  the  northern  extremity 
of  the  chain,  is  the  highest  summit :  it  rises  1820  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea ;  but  the 
basis  of  this  hill  is  occupied  to  the  height  of  600  feet  by  primitive  mica  slate  rock,  leaving 
only  lf^20  feet  for  the  thickness  of  the  secondary  strata  peculiar  to  this  system.  Diris  Hill, 
near  the  southern  extremity  of  the  chain,  is  wholly  composed  of  secondary  strata,  and 
attains  an  elevation  of  1475  feet.  The  western  port  of  the  chain  included  between  the 
Roe  and  the  Bann  forms  the  exact  counterpart  of  the  former ;  but  the  strata  here  dip  nearly 
in  a  contrary  direction,  viz.  towards  the  north-east ;  the  fall  of  the  hills  being  gradually  in 
this  direction,  while  they  front  the  west  and  south  with  abrupt  and  precipitous  cliffs.  Crag- 
noshoack,  at  the  southern  extremity,  rises  1864  feet  above  the  sea,  and  is  the  highest  sum- 
mit of  the  group.  The  geological  nature  of  this  third  system  is  very  different  from  that  of 
the  two  former ;  all  the  principal  formations  belonging  to  the  secondary  class  of  rocks. 
These  rocks  are  partly  Plutonian  and  partly  Neptunian.  The  Neptunian  rocks  are  gene- 
rally covered  with  an  enormour  mass  of  secondary  trap,  which  appears  to  attain  its  greatest 
thickness  on  the  nortli ;  the  trap  cap  of  Beny-Avenagh,  the  most  nortliern  summit  of  the 
western  chain,  measuring  more  than  900  feet :  the  average  depth  of  this  superimposed  moss 
may  therefore  be  estimated  at  545  feet,  and  its  superficial  extent  at  800  square  miles.  The 
trap  rocks  are  greenstone,  basalt,  amygdaloid,  wacke,  and  red  bole  ;  occasionally  associated 
with  them,  forming  isolated  tmctj,  as  in  tlie  Sandybrea  district,  there  are  porphyries  of  dif- 
ferent kinds,  as  pitchstonc  and  [)earl-stone  porphyries.  The  amygdaloid  and  also  some  of 
the  other  rocks  of  this  scries  contain  calc  spar  and  white  calceduny,  semiopal,  fV;lspar,  and 
steatite,  or  serpentine.  Tlie  ba^^alt  contains  olivine.  Iron  pyrites  is  a  mineral  frequently 
disseminated  in  the  greenstone.  Wood  coal  occurs  in  seams  varying  from  two  inches  to 
four  or  five  feet  in  thickness,  altcmatmg  with  trap  rocks,  near  Ballentoy ;  also  in  the  cliffs 
of  Fortnoffer  on  the  east  of  the  Giant's  Causoway,  at  Killymoris  near  the  centre  of  the  trap 
area,  and  at  Portmaoc,  and  other  places  on  the  eastern  shore  of  Lough  Neagh. 

Veins  of  trap.  Trap  veins  exhibit  many  interesting  phenomena,  particularly  in  their  pas- 
sage through  chalk,  which  they  sometimes  convert  into  a  kind  of  marble.  Thoy  traverse 
not  only  the  Neptunian  strata,  us  chalk,  lias,  and  coal  formation,  but  also  trap  itself.  The 
most  interesting  and  splendid  displays  of  tlie  trap  rocks  occur  at  the  Giant's  Causeway  and 
Fairhead,  so  well  known  to  travellers ;  and  the  cliffs  of  Kenbaan  exhibit  very  interesting 
displays  of  the  commingling  of  the  trap  and  chalk. 

Underneath  and  sometimes  intermingled  with  this  vast  mass  of  trap  are  the  following 
Neptunian  formations : — Chalk,  which  is  frequently  very  compact,  and  sometimes,  as  where 
in  immediate  contact  with  the  Plutonian  rocks,  changed  into  a  granular  limestone  resem- 
bling marble :  the  average  thickness  does  not  amount  to  more  than  200  feet.  Underneath 
the  chalk  occurs  the  deposit  known  under  the  name  mulatto  stone,  tlic  green  sand  of  Eng- 
lish geologists,  lying  upon  the  lias  limestone.  Underneath  the  lias  occur  beds  of  red  and 
variegated  marl,  variegated  sandstone  with  gypsum,  and  from  these  issue  salt  springs. 
These  four  formations,  which,  together  with  the  trap,  form  the  whole  mass  of  the  hills 
belonging  to  the  third  system,  cannot  bo  estimated  as  possessing  a  less  average  thickness 
than  from  800  to  UKK)  feet.  The  whole  system  appears  at  the  north-eastern  and  south- 
western extremities  to  repose  upon  the  coal  formation  and  its  accompanying  rocks,  and 
tliese  on  the  transition  or  primitive  rocks.*  Coul  occurs  in  Tyrone,  at  Coal  Island  and  Dun- 
gannon,  and  in  Antrim,  near  Ballycastle.  Of  these,  the  collieries  at  Ballycastle,  which 
occupy  an  extent  of  not  loss  than  one  English  mile  along  the  coatit,  arc  the  most  considerable. 
They  have  been  long  wrought,  and  were  once  in  a  more  prosperous  state  than  at  present,  aa 


*  Patches  of  old  nd  tandtlmt  occur  on  the  eut  coaal  between  Ballygelly  and  Olenarm  Bajr ;  and  alio  on  tb* 
jame  coail  to  the  southward  of  Gcrron  Point. 


Part  UI. 

loTUCB  from 
ot  Antrim, 
r  I'uint  anil 
unitiilcrcd  a 
uf  Cuntyre, 
ch  may,  ill 
n  slioruit  of 

intorvenea 
ition  occurs 
eat  Britain, 
ico  between 
1  formation. 
\B  separated 
ch  Uie  river 
unty  of  An- 
lel.  It  pre- 
tlie  west,  in 
rn  extremity 
tea,;  but  the 
vck,  leaving 

Diria  Hill, 
'  strata,  and 
between  the 
re  dip  nearly 
gradually  in 
cliffs.    Crag- 
liighcst  sum- 
from  that  of 
ass  of  rocks. 
:ks  are  genc- 
n  its  greatest 
ummit  of  the 
imposed  mass 
f  miles.    The 
Uy  associated 
hyries  of  dif- 
also  some  of 

felspar,  and 
•al  frequently 
wo  inches  to 

ill  the  cliffa 
re  of  the  trap 

r  in  their  pas- 
'hey  traverse 
itself.  The 
lauscway  and 
y  interesting 

the  following 
les,  as  where 
stone  resem- 
Underneatli 
iand  of  Eng- 
\s  of  red  and 
salt  sprin/^s. 
of  the  hills 
ige  thickness 
n  and  south- 
ig  rocks,  and 
ind  and  Dun- 
:astle,  which 
Iconsiderable. 
it  present,  as 

I  and  tlM  on  tb* 


Book  I. 


FREIjKND. 


4S7 


they  used  formerly  to  send  from  10,(KX)  to  IS.CMK)  tons  of  coal  to  tlic  market  ycurly ;  whcroa* 
now  tlic  quantity  cxp  rted  docs  not  amount  to  more  timn  KA\0  or  'MM  tons.  Tlic  coal  of 
those  districts  is  ali.iost  entirely  what  Bergcr  culls  slate  coiil.  In  one  of  tlio  works,  liow- 
cvrr,  in  Cwil  Island,  u  bod  of  ciiiino!  coal,  six  fo(>t  thick,  is  saiil  to  have  bi'ru  wniiiglit. 

Tlie  luoHt  rcniarkttblo  miiionilH  of  the  alluvial  kind  tbuiid  in  this  part  of  Ireland  are  the 
fossil  woods  of  lA>ugh  Noagli,  a  shnol  of  water  I'M  tint  alnivo  llio  level  of  tlio  sea,  ulxjul 
nineteen  miles  f^ix  tiirlonffs  long  from  N.  VV.  to  H.  E.,  and  liirty-five  feet  deep  at  its  centre. 
The  wood  is  silicilied,  and  in  some  Bpccimcns  one  extremity  will  bo  petritied,  wiiile  the  other 
remains  in  a  ligneous  state.  The  oak,  the  holly,  and  thu  ha/.cl  ajipeur  to  have  been  the 
trees  tliiia  affected.     It  occurs  in  alluvium  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  lake. 

Qi.)  Connaughl  Coal  Dislricl.  This  district  occupies  a  pt)rtion  of  the  counties  )f  Roe- 
common,  tSligo,  and  Leitrim,  in  the  province  of  Connaught,  and  part  of  the  county  Cavan  in 
the  province  of  Ulster.  liough  Allen,  situated  near  the  head  of  tlie  river  Shannon,  tbrms  a 
basin  in  the  centre  of  the  district. 

A  range  of  primary  mountains,  varying  in  breadth  from  three  miles  to  a  quarter  of  a  mile, 
extends  from  Poxforu  in  the  county  of  Slayo,  to  Colooiiey  in  tho  county  of  Sligo,  and  ter- 
minates two  miles  to  the  north-east  of  Manor-Hamilton,  which  may  be  viewed  as  the  base 
on  which  the  newer  formation  of  this  part  of  Ireland  rests.  This  range  of  country  is  prin- 
cipally composed  of  mica  slate,  with  some  subordinate  rocks.  Bcnbo  Mountain,  near  Manor- 
Hamilton,  1403  feet  above  the  sea,  may  be  cited  us  exhibiting  an  interesting  display  of  the 
various  primitive  rocks.  Tho  summit,  and  about  8(K)  feet  immediately  below  it,  are  com- 
posed of  a  fine  granular  granite :  the  granite  is  covered  on  both  siiles  of  the  mountain  with 
gneiss,  dipping  in  tho  direction  of  its  declivity  at  an  angle  of  5()°.  At  the  base  of  the 
mountain,  mica  slate,  with  garnets,  hornblende  rock  and  hornblende  slate,  are  seen.  Large 
blocks  of  beautiful  syenite,  also  of  serpentine  with  embedded  garne'j,  were  found  in  u  stream 
at  the  base  of  the  mountain  near  Lurganboy.  The  western  si'  ;  of  Bcnbo  is  traversed  by  a 
vein  of  copper  pyrites,  which  was  formerly  wrought,  but  apparently  to  no  great  extent. 
Veins  of  iron  pyrites  also  occur  there. 

Resting  upon  these  old  rocks  in  many  places,  wo  observe  tlie  first  or  oi^  'cd  sandstone 
formation.  A  tract  of  this  sandstone  extends  in  Roscommon  from  west  to  east,  li.-ii  Dcrry- 
naslicve  to  Cashcarrigans,  and  in  greatest  breadth  in  a  southerly  and  northerly  direuiiuu, 
from  Leitrim  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Drumshambo.  Resting  uikjii  this  sandstone,  Ibrtning 
the  base  of  the  coal  district,  and  encircling  it,  is  the  mountain  or  carbimiferous  limesUme. 
This  limestone  exhibits  the  usual  character  of  the  formations.  The  coal  formation  rests 
Mi)on  the  limestone,  nnd  is  the  uppermost  or  newest  of  tho  secondary  deposits  met  with  in 
this  part  of  Ireland.  The  external  aspect  of  this  coal  district  is  described  ns  being  hilly 
and  dreary,  and  as  extending  in  greatest  h.-ngth  in  a  north  and  south  direction,  from  Down 
Mountain  to  Kodduo,  about  sixteen  miles,  and  in  greotcst  breadth  from  the  hi'ls  aliove  Swud- 
linbar  to  Killargy,  sixteen  miles.  The  area  of  the  whole  coal  country  witiiin  the  edge  of 
the  limestone  is  about  114,000  Irish  acres;  exclnsive  of  Slieve  Russcl,  which  is  Jotuchcd 
from  the  great  district  by  the  limestone  valley  of  Swadlinbar.  The  rocks  which  forn;  the 
coral  series  in  the  Connaughl  coal  district  are  similar  to  those  met  with  in  otlier  coalfields. 
Besides  coal,  which  is  tiie  black  hitumiiwus  species,  the  formation  contains  sandstone  flag, 
slate  clay,  bituminous  slate,  clay  ironstone,  and  fire  clay.  Some  kinds  of  the  coal  afford  in 
the  100  parts,  71.42  carbon,  23.37  bitumen,  and  5.21  gray  ashes.  Iron-works.  The  beds 
of  clay  ironstone  that  occur  in  all  parts  of  the  Connaught  coal  district  appear,  at  an  early 
period,  to  have  attracted  the  attention  of  miners ;  and  works,  on  a  small  scale,  called 
bloomeries,  were  carried  on  in  various  parts  of  the  adjoining  country,  as  long  as  any  wood 
remained  to  supply  them  with  clmrcoal,  but  they  have  since  been  given  up. 

(3.)  East  of  Ireland.  This  district  extends  nearly  100  miles  from  north  to  south,  and 
between  sixty  and  ninety  miles  from  east  to  west,  comprehending  about  a  third  part  of  the 
island.  It  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Irir.h  Channel,  on  the  south  and  west  by  the  moun- 
tains which  confine  tho  Siiire  and  the  Shannon,  and  on  the  north  by  the  clay  slate  hills  of 
Louth  and  the  mountain  limestone  hills  of  Meath,  the  cluy  slato  hills  of  Cavan  and  the 
mountain  limestone  of  Longford,  and  by  a  lino  produced  from  thence  to  the  bay  of  Galway. 
In  the  landscape  of  Ireland  there  is  one  very  remarkable  feature,  which  cannot  fail  to  strike 
every  observer ;  in  traversing  most  parts  of  the  island,  we  meet  with  ranges  und  groups  of 
bold  mountainous  and  hilly  tracts,  in  some  degree  isolated,  while  tho  interval  between  thorn 
is  generally  occupied  by  a  surface  that  appears  nearly  level,  when  viewed  on  the  great  scale, 
but  which  is  found,  on  a  nearer  view,  to  present  a  gently  waved  outline:  a  considerable 
expansion  of  the  plain  occupies  tho  central  counties  of  Ireland,  and  extends  across  the  island 
from  Ilnblin  Bay  on  the  east,  to  fJalway  Bay  on  tho  we.»t;  and  in  general,  where  a  similar 
plain  surflice  occurs,  the  immediately  subjacent  rock  is  mountain  limestone;  to  the  abuiid 
ance  of  which  mineral,  next  to  tho  mild  temperature  and  general  moisture  of  the  climate, 
tho  soil  of  Ireland  is  prokilily  more  indebted  ibr  its  superior  fertility  than  to  any  other  cause 

In  this  di.-trict  niounl  liiiuiis  am!  hilly  tracts  arise  alwve  the  surface  of  the  limestone  plain 
on  the  east,  tlic  siuitli,  the  west,  the  centre,  ami  the  north.     The  eastern  chain  extends  from 

37* 


I  in 


438 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pabt  ni. 


the  north  side  of  Dublin  Bay  to  tlio  coiifliinnco  of  lliu  Hiirrow  with  tho  Smro  on  the  bouUi. 
The  hiffhcst  point  i8  Lu|;imiiuiliii,  which  ia  :M)70  t'uct  iilmvo  low-wutor-niurk  in  Dublin  iky. 
It  cunHibtM  alnioHt  wholly  (if  priniitivn  anil  trunsition  rucks,  of  which  tho  following  8|)cciox 
occur;  grunito,  mica  slatp,  quurtz  rock,  clay  »lato,  greywiickc,  trap  nnil  porphyry.  iMetulli- 
ferous  mincralH  arc  wanting  on  tho  west  nIiIo  of  tho  jrri.nito  chain,  but  utxMniu  on  the  caul 
Hide.  In  tho  irranilo  and  mica  «lato  diHtricta  there  are  voinx  of  galona  or  load  t^lancu ;  of 
thoHC  tho  niout  considerable  aro  in  Glunnialur;  in  thn  clay  ulute  tract  eleven  dillerunt 
metallic  oubHtanccs  have  been  met  with,  via.  gold,  nilver,  copper,  iron,  load,  zinc,  tin,  tunj^- 
8ten,  nmnganoHe,  arsenic,  and  antimony. 

N'ltive  gold  occura  in  the  Ballinvalley  utrcams  at  Croghan  Kinahcla :  and  in  1801,  regular 
mining  was  comtncnced,  but  did  not  load  to  any  im|MrtAnt  rounltii;  and  after  a  time  the  working 
was  given  up.  Tho  gold  of  Croghan  Kinshela  occurred  in  grains  and  maBiies  from  the  smallest 
size  to  lumpo  of  considerable  weight;  onn  piece  weighed  twenty-two  ounces.  The  gold  wan 
found  in  alluvium,  accompanied  with  other  metallic  substances,  as  magnetic  iron  ore,  iron 
glance,  rod  iron  ore,  brown  iron  ore,  iron  pyrites,  tiimtone,  wolfram,  gray  manganese  ore,  and 
fragments  of  quartz  and  chlorite.  In  some  specimens  the  gold  was  observed  ramified  in  slen- 
der threads  through  the  wolfram,  and  in  others  incorporated  with  iron  ochre :  some  of  the  gold 
was  crystallized  in  octahedrons,  and  also  in  the  elongated  garnet  doducahedral  form.  Native 
gold  was  also  found  in  Croghan  Moira  mine,  about  seven  miles  distant  from  the  former 
mountain,  but  in  small  quantity. 

The  copper  mines  of  Cronbano  and  Tigrony,  in  this  district,  arc  situated  in  clay  slate  and 
ijuartzose  cluy  slate.  The  ores,  which  are  copper  pyrites  and  black  copper  ore,  aro  asso- 
ciated witli  iron  pyrites,  and  rarely  with  galena ;  and  auriferous  silver  occurs  in  beds  in  the 
slaty  strata.  In  the  twelve  years  ending  in  1811,  the  produce  of  the  mines  was  10,!)42tona 
13  cwt.  of  ore ;  yielding  1040  tons  10  cwt.  of  copp<:r.  Tho  mineral  waters  flowing  from 
the  mines  are  impregnated  with  blue  vitriol  or  sulphate  of  copper.  These  waters  are  re- 
ceived into  tanks,  in  which  the  muddy  particles  are  allowed  to  subside.  The  clear  waters 
are  then  passed  into  pits  filled  with  plate  and  scrap  iron,  which  occasions  a  precipitation  of 
the  copper. 

The  other  tracts  of  this  district  are  composed  of  secondary  rocks,  more  or  less  deeply 
covered  with  diluvial  and  alluvial  deposits.  The  secondary  rocks  are  old  red  sandstone, 
7nountain  limestone,  (or  as  it  u  called  in  Ireland,  Irish  limestone,)  and  the  coal  formation. 
Of  these  formations  the  mountain  limestone  is  by  far  the  most  abundant ;  indeed,  with  the 
exception  of  the  counties  of  Derry  and  Antrim  in  the  north,  and  Wicklow  in  the  east,  there 
is  no  county  in  the  iuland  in  which  it  docs  not  prevail  moro  or  less.  The  coal  formation 
occurs  in  the  Leituter  coal  district.  The  sandstone,  slate,  ironstone,  clu y,  and  coal,  which 
constitute  the  series,  alternate  with  each  other,  and  the  whole  rests  on  the  niountain  lime- 
stone, and  is  frequently  disposed  in  the  basin  shape.  Tho  coal  of  this  district  is  glance  coal, 
the  blind  coal  of  miners,  the  anthracite  of  French  geologists,  the  Kilkenny  coal  of  some 
authors  (so  named  because  the  town  of  Kilkenny  is  situated  in  this  coalfield). 

The  most  interesting  alluvial  phenomena  are  those  exhibited  by  t!  o  limestone  gravel,  the 
granite  blocks,  and  the  vast  peat  bogs.  The  great  limestone  field  abounds  in  hillocks  and  ridges 
of  limestone  gravel.  Sometimes  these  ridges  appear  like  regular  mounds,  the  work  of  art, 
forming  a  continued  line  of  several  miles  in  extent.  That  which  piisse.a  by  Maryborough, 
in  the  Queen's  County,  is  a  remarkable  instance  of  this  kind ;  and  similar  mounds,  hilloclts, 
and  ridgey  occur  also  in  the  counties  of  Meatli,  Westmeath,  Kildare,  Carlow,  and  other  por- 
tions of  the  limestone  field,  in  which  the  limestone  gravel  and  sand  frequently  exhibit  a 
stratified  arrangement,  the  alternate  beds  being  very  distinct  from  each  other.  The  in- 
equality of  surrace  thus  produced,  seems  to  have  occasioned  the  formation  of  those  extensive 
tracts  of  peat  bog  which  cover  so  considerable  a  portion  of  the  limestone  plain  of  Ireland.* 
The  natural  course  of  springs  and  streams  being  obstructed,  stagnant  lakes  and  pools  of 
water  were  formed ;  thus  promoting  the  growth  of  those  aquatic  reeds,  grasses,  and  rushes, 
which,  by  their  constant  increase  and  decay,  appear  to  compose  the  mass  of  the  bogs  of  Ire- 
lajid.  In  this  manner  it  is  conceivable  that  shallow  lakes  may  in  process  of  time  have 
iKJcome  entirely  filled  with  peat ;  and  that  peat  bogs  may  thus  have  gradually  acquired  a 
convexity  of  surface,  or  at  least  that  greater  declivity  by  which  their  borders  are  dis- 
tinguished, Tho  average  depth  of  these  bogs  is  commonly  from  sixteen  to  twenty-five  feet, 
but  the  extreme  depth  observed  is  forty-seven  feet.  In  the  same  manner  we  may  conceive 
the  graflual  growth  of  peat  bog  to  have  successively  exti.'nded  from  the  higher  regions  to 
the  flunks,  and  thence  to  the  feet,  of  mountains.  That  fallen  forests  were  not  the  primary 
origin  of  these  pent  liogs  .seems  evident  from  the  circumstance  that  two  and  even  three  suc- 
cessive ;[jrowtlis  of  trees  liave  boon  observed  nt  different  depths  in  a  section  of  the  same  bog. 
In  these  instances,  the  trees  lie  liorizuntally,  frequently  crossing  each  other,  and  either 
attached  to  their  roots  or  broken  over ;  and  in  th"3  latter  case  the  stumps  usually  stand  erect 
where  they  grew.     The  prostration  of  trees,  however,  may  to  a  certom  extent  have  acted 


*l'eat  ii  eatimaliiU  In  extend  over  n  tenth  of  the  whole  island. 


Book  I. 


IRELAND 


489 


an  an  auxilinry  in  promoting  tUo  growth  ot'iioat  hogn;  and  tliw  prostmtion  appears  in  ffcnoral 
tn  have  tal<L>n  pliicu  uitlior  tVuin  natural  ducny,  or  I'roin  tTw»  |)U!<M!tiMing  littlu  liold  or  a  wrt 
spongy  soil  iiuvinj^  been  ovcrlurncd  by  Mtornm.  Tliia  mtiy  pnrlly  account  for  treen  of  all  aj{pH 
bcinir  fuunil  in  tho  bogH  of  Ireland,  wiiethor  tlicac  bt>|rii  bo  Hituiited  in  uluinH,  or  Ibrin  ttio  ini- 
inedlatu  cover  of  hi^rli  mountain  IractH,  'I'ho  univerHal  dtntruction  ot  the  forcstii  of  Ireland 
ia  principally  to  bo  attributed  to  the  (reneral  introduction  of  iron  furnaces,  at*  tho  most  profit- 
able mo<lo  of  conHuniinft  the  timber,  then  a.  material  OBtoeinod  of  little  value;  and  hence  the 
almost  total  ;io(r|oct  of  co|Min^  those  tructx  in  which  the  woodn  had  boon  felled.  Tho  marl 
beds,  Ru  frequently  mot  with  in  those  peat  bogs,  are  curious  in  a  zoological  view,  fVom  their 
occasionally  containing  remains  of  that  splendid  animal  tho  fossil  elk.  But  tho  rnmains  of 
the  extinct  s|)ecie8  occur  also  in  the  travel;  and  tho  late  Mr.  Edge  worth  observed  the  re- 
mains of  tho  red  deer  in  the  siime  marl  as  that  which  contained  the  extinct  species. 

(4.)  South  of  Ireland.  Under  this  division  wo  comprise  tlie  counties  of  Cork,  Kerry, 
Clare,  Watertbrd,  Tipperary,  and  part  of  Gulway. 

This  mountainous,  hilly,  and  uiversitied  region  is  chiefly  composed  of  chains  having 
generally  a  direction  from  east  to  west,  and  attaining  their  greatest  elevation  in  tho  moun- 
tains of  Kerry,  where  Gurrane  Tual,  ono  of  Macgillicuddy's  Ilceks,  near  Killarney  (tho 
highest  land  in  Ireland),  is  8410  feet  above  the  sea.  The  rocks  in  this  elevuti:d  county  are 
chiefly  of  tho  transition  class:  they  docline  gradually  (Mivards  tho  north,  and  filially  pass 
under  tho  old  red  sandstone  and  mountain  limestone  of  the  midland  counties.  Tho  follow- 
ing may  be  considered  a  general  estimate  of  the  gcognostical  relations  of  the  south  of 
Ireland : — 

Trantition  rocks.  In  Kerry,  tho  transition  strata  range  from  east  to  west,  and  dip  to  the 
north  and  south,  with  vertical  beds  in  the  axes  of  the  ranges:  the  strata,  as  they  diminish 
in  inclination  on  each  side,  form  a  succession  of  troughs.  The  rocks  are  chiefly  Neptunian, 
tho  Plutonian  being  comparatively  rare.  Tho  Neptunian  are  oithor  simple  or  compound ; 
the  simple  are  day  »late,  quurlz  rock,  hornatone,  Lydian  stone,  and  limestone:  the  com- 
pound are,  grcywacke,  grcywncke  slate,  sandstone.  The  Plutonian  rocks  are  greenstone 
and  porphyry.  Organic  remains  occur  in  tho  limestone,  slate,  and  greywackc,  but  mori- 
frequently  and  abundantly  in  t!ie  limestone  than  in  the  other  rocks.  In  Kenmaro  these 
fossils  consist  of  a  few  bivalves,  and  some  crinoidal  remains;  and  these  also  are  most 
numerous  in  the  Mucruss  and  Killarney  limestones.  At  tiie  foot  of  tho  Slicvemeesh  range 
this  limestone  includes  at>uphua  caudatus,  calamine  macrophtlmlma,  with  orthoceratites, 
ellipsolites  ovatus,  ammonites,  euomphalites,  tiirbinitrs,  nci'itite.s,  melanitcs,  and  several 
species  of  tcrebratula,  spirifcr,  and  producta.  Neor  Smerwick  horbour  similar  organic  re- 
mains arc  abundant  in  slate  and  grcywacke,  together  with  hyslorolites,  and  many  genera  of 
polyparia. 

7Vo«s»/ton  coal.  All  the  coal  of  the  province  of  Muiister,  except  that  of  the  county  of 
Clare,  is  referable  to  the  transition  class.  At  Knockasurtnet,  near  Killarney,  and  on  the 
north  of  Traloe,  there  are  three  beds  of  glance  coal,  alternating  with  strata  of  grcywacke 
and  slate.  In  tho  county  of  Cork  tliis  glance  coal  i.s  more  abundant,  particularly  near 
Kanturk,  extending  from  the  north  of  tiie  Blackwater  to  the  Allord.  The  ravines  of  the 
latter  river,  and  various  other  defiles,  expose  clay  slate,  grcywacke,  talc,  and  sondatone,  in 
nearly  vertical  strata  ranging  from  west  to  east.  This  transition  tract  extends  to  the  river 
Shannon  on  the  north-west.  As  the  strata  range  from  west  to  east,  in  a  series  of  parallel 
narrow  troughs,  they  exhiuit  great  variety  of  inclination,  dipping  rapidly  either  to  the  north 
or  south,  and  becoming  horizontal  between  the  ridges.  The  glance  coal  is  raised  insuflicient 
quantities  for  the  purpose  of  burning  the  limestone  of  the  adjacent  districts. 

The  coal  and  the  strata  with  which  it  is  accompanied  abound  with  impressions  of  equi- 
setm  and  calamitos,  and  afford  some  traces  of  fucoides.  Bods  of  glance  coal  also  occur  in  the 
county  of  Limerick,  on  the  left  bank  of  tiie  Shannon,  north  of  Abbeyfeale,  and  at  Longhill ; 
and  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  at  Labbosheoda.  The  transition  rocks  of  Kerry  and  Lime- 
rick extend  into  Cork  and  Waterford. 

Mines.  Copper  mines  occur  in  limestone  in  Ross  Island  in  tho  lake  of  Killarney.  In  the 
county  of  Cork,  tliuro  arc  copper  mines  at  AUihier,  Audley,  and  Ballydchol ;  and  others, 
producing  lead,  at  Doneen  and  Rinabelly.  The  mine  at  Allihies  is  one  of  the  richest  mines 
in  Ireland ;  it  was  discovered  in  1812,  and  yields  more  than  2000  tons  of  copper  ore  annually. 
The  ore  occurs  in  a  large  quartz  vein,  which  generally  intersects  the  slaty  rocks  of  tho 
country  from  north  to  south,  but  in  some  pln'-os  runs  parallel  to  the  strata.  It  is  remarked 
that  all  this  portion  of  the  county  of  Cork  indicates  a  very  general  difl'usion  of  cupreous  par- 
ticles, so  much  so  that  in  tho  ycnr  1812,  thrro  oxistod  a  cupriferous  peat-bog  on  the  cast  side 
of  Giandore  harbour,  forty  or  lilfy  tons  of  tlie  driod  peat  producing  when  burnt  one  ton  of 
ashes,  containing  troin  leu  to  filteeu  per  cL'iit.  of  copper.  Tiie  lead-mines  of  Doiiofn  and 
Rinabelly  are  in  tilate. 

Coal  fnrintilion  of  Cliirr.  The  transition  clay  slate  of  tiiis  county  is  bordered  by  a  zone 
of  old  red  sandstone,  to  which  succnods,  in  ascemling  order  and  conformable  position,  the 
mountain  limestone  and  coal  formation,  both  of  which  occupy  flat  and  undulating  hills,  and 


m 


DKSCUIITIVK  (;K(KJRAI'HY. 


Paht  III. 


kho  Rtnta  MP  nearW  horixontul,  Tin?  licnt  wctiDim  nrc  hti-n  in  tlin  cliff"  nn  tlip  wi-xt  coonJ, 
where  bituiiiiiioud  Hltalc,sluto  cIay,Niiiu|iitiiiii>,  nml  mirnlHtoiii'  (\,\g,  rent  u|Kin  liniciitoiii'.  (\ml, 
howovcr,  is  of  rare  occurrence,  iind  when  I'tuinii,  ix  of  iiidirtl'ri'nt  (|nniity. 

Ai  in  ovory  othor  part  of  Ircliind,  tlit>  dlHtrict  alKiiindri  witli  nlliiviiil  df|Hi!4itH.  In  ri'ifnrd 
to  tho  dwtributiunof  thooldrrof  tlit'xn,  or  tli(Mliliivinni  in  the  miutli  of  Iri'ltiiid,  it  I'l  ii'iniirki'd, 
—1.  TliMt  bouldcfM,  {;ravrl,  and  Mund,  di-rivrd  tVoin  t!ic>  truii^ition  rcwkN,  iirr  di^'triliiilc'd  nlonv 
tho  Umlcru  and  HidcH  of  till)  inoiintuinM  in  Kerry,  'i.  In  ii  xiniill  dlHtrict  of  Lujicrick  iinu 
Tinporary,  nituatcd  between  tlin  GiiulteeM  und  Slii-vn-nn-nmck.  tint  rolii'd  nioHKi-H  i  nni^iHt  nut 
only  of  portionn  of  contiiriitHifi  rooko,  but  coiitiiin  uIho  porplivry,  wliich  in  not  1o  In'  found  in 
kUh  near  tlio  vicinity  oA'ttlliH  Hill.  8.  In  the  peniiiHulii  ot'Nonvillc,  nearCmlwiiy,  the  unr- 
fiico  of  tho  mountain  limoHtono  in  utrowed  over  witli  riiirnorouH  iHiulilerii  of  red  lunl  (jriy 

Sranito,  lyenite,  grconotouc,  nnd  Hiindittonr,  wliich  numt  iip|Kiruntly  Imvo  boon  conveyed  trum 
ic  opposito  side  of  tho  bay  of  Galwny. 

Sbct.  III. — Hitlorical  Geography, 

The  earliest  inhabitants  of  Ireland,  ftora  wliich  the  native  race  now  cxiiitini^  Iium  Kprunjf, 
appear,  by  tlie  lanfi^uago  fitill  spoken,  to  have  beun  (.'idtic.  Tho  Konian«,  in  occupying 
Britain,  coidd  not  fail  to  acquire  much  informiition  relative  fc>  lerne,  Ilibernia,  or  Ireland  ; 
and  accordinjtiy  wo  find  that  tiio  niiip  of  that  country  by  I'toloniy  is  lend  defective  than  tho 
one  which  lin  (jives  of  Scotland.  About  the  fourth  century,  we  find  Iroliind  hrnriiiK  tho 
name  of  Scotliind,  from  the  leading;  pt'oplo  on  its  eantern  HJiore,  who  afterwardn  iMindinjj  into 
Arpyle,  and  making  thuinselveM  miiKtcrti  of  all  ('aledonia,  coininiiniruted  to  it  the  iiaino  of 
Scotland,  finally  withdrawn  from  the  country  to  which  it  ori{(inally  belonged. 

The  Danes,  during  tho  height  of  their  power,  from  the  ninth  to  the  twelfth  centuries, 
poflsesscd  almost  the  whole  caHtern  coast  of  Ireland,  making  Dublin  their  capital,  Before 
tliis  time  Ireland  had  been  converted  to  Christianity,  ond  a  number  of  celebrated  nionastpriea 
had  l)een  founded,  tho  tenants  of  which  wore  ilixtinguislied,  c.von  over  Europe,  for  their  piety 
and  learning, 

The  Knglish  sway  commenced  in  1170.  Richard  Sirongbow,  earl  of  Pembroke,  os  a  nri* 
vato  individual,  formed  the  first  settlement;  but  Henry  II.  soon  a.<<8iimed  tho  title  of  "  lonl  of 
Ireland."  The  range  of  dominion  was  long  restrirted  to  a  jwrtion  of  the  kingdom  enclosed 
within  what  is  called  the  English  pale,  without  which  the  Irish  remained  still  under  the  rule 
of  their  native  chieftains.  Henry  VIII.  asHumed  the  title  of"  king  of  Ireland,"  but  without 
any  material  extension  of  his  authority  over  that  kingdom. 

The  Irish  massacre  wii.s  a  droadfiil  outrage,  to  which  attachment  tn  popery  nnd  zeal  fot 
national  independence  united  in  impelling  a  proud  and  fierre  people.  Forty  thousand 
English  settlers  are  stiii)x»sed  to  liiivo  perished,  und  the  rest  were  driven  into  Dublin. 
Cromwell,  however,  nflerwardH  cros.9ed  the  Channel,  nnd  made  cruel  reprisuls  ;  he  t(X)k  tho 
principal  (ortificd  towns,  and  reduced  Ireland  under  more  full  subjection  than  ever.  Yet 
the  dispoHition  of  tho  people  reniaine<l  the  same;  and  when  James  II.  was  driven  from  tho 
English  throne,  he  was  received  with  enthusiasm  in  Ireland,  und  became  for  some  time  its 
master.  The  Imttle  of  the  Boyne,  followe<l  next  year  by  that  of  Aughrim,  decided  tho  fate 
of  the  empire,  and  more  especially  of  Ireland,  which  then  felt  for  the  first  time  the  miseries 
of  a  conquered  country.  The  estates  of  many  principal  native  proprietors  were  confiscated ; 
tho  Catholics  were  deprived  of  all  political  privileges;  they  were  rendered  incapable  of 
holding  any  oflicc  or  einployiiient  in  tho  state ;  th(!y  were  debarred  even  from  holding  land, 
from  devising  property,  and  from  exercising  other  important  functions  of  civil  society.  Under 
these  severities  they  pertinaciously  retained  their  political  attachments  together  with  their 
religious  creed ;  und  a  continual  ferment  prevailed,  which  broke  out  fVom  time  to  time  into 
partial  rebellions. 

Tho  gradual  emancipation  of  Ireland  commenced  at  tho  period  of  the  Amerienn  w:ir.  Till 
that  era  England  had  denied  to  her  the  right  of  trading  directly  with  any  foreign  nation  ;  and 
had  compelled  her  to  extxjrt  and  import  every  commodity  through  the  channel  of  (Ireat 
Britain.  The  extremity,  however,  to  which  Britain  was  reduced  enabled  the  Irish  to  place 
themselves  in  a  formidable  attitude;  and  by  forming  armed  associations,  and  .ndopting  other 
threatening  measures,  they  induced  iKirliament  to  grant  them  free  trade  with  all  nations, 
From  this  time  also  the  most  obnoxious  of  the  restri''tions  on  tho  Catholics  were  gradually 
repealed  or  fell  into  disuse;  and  beforo  the  end  of  last  century,  they  had  obtained  almost 
every  political  privilege,  except  that  of  sitting  in  parliament,  and  of  holding  the  very  highest 
offices  of  state.  The  propriety  of  conce<ling  these  also  became  one  of  tho  lending  (piestiona 
which  long  divided  the  public  mind. 

A  very  formidable  rebellion  broke  forth  in  spite  of  these  concessions.  The  French 
revolution,  which  caiiserl  a  general  ferment  in  Europe,  was  intensely  felt  Diroughonl 
Ireland.  A  .Micicty  was  forinerl  of  "  United  Irishmen ;"  and  secret  meetings  were  held, 
having  in  view  the  entire  sepimtinii  from  Rnghind,  and  tiie  formation  of  the  kiiiL'ilom  into 
nn  independent  republic.  The  vifrilimce  of  guvernnient,  nnd  the  failure  of  t!ie  FrencJi  ir 
their  attempts  to  land  a  force  of  any  luagnituile,  prevented  matters  from  coming  to  the  las* 


Part  III. 

ne»t  cooat, 
otii>.  Coal) 

In  rijrnrd 
riMiiiirki'd, 
iiili'il  alixiu 
iicrifk  1111(1 
)  l>n^•iHt.  not 
lie  lotinil  in 
iiv,  llio  Mir- 
I'aiid  Kfny 
iveyctl  nrom 


has  spnmg, 
1  occiipyins 
or  Ireland  ; 
ive  tliiin  the 
l)Piirin({  the 
piiHsint;  into 
lio  nanm  of 

h  cpnturiM, 
iuil.  Before 
I  niomiHteries 
)t  thoir  piety 

)ke,  an  a  pri- 
leof'Monlof 
ioni  rnclogcil 
indrr  the  rule 
'  but  without 

I  and  zenl  foi 

Irty  flmuwnd 
"  to  llublin. 
he  l<xik  the 
over.  Yet 
pu  from  tlio 

:oiiic  time  its 
the  fate 
the  miseries 
roiifiHcated ; 
■iipable  of 

holdinp  land, 
iety.  Under 

or  with  their 
to  time  into 


nwnr.    Till 

nnfion ;  and 

iiel  of  ttreat 

rish  to  place 

optinir  other 

nil  nations. 

ro  frrndimlly 

nini'd  almost 

very  hifihest 

njT  (piestions 


The  French 

throiijriionl 

were  held, 

kiiiiidom  into 

K"  T'rcndi  in 

T  to  tlio  las* 


Rook  I. 


IRKIJVND. 


441 


pxtreutity  liil  1*!H,  when  n  violent  inmirrnction  iirrae  in  four  of  the  coiintiei*  ncaroit 
Dublin.  Till'  rrln'U,  tli<iii;;li  xo'iloux  aiiil  lirave,  bnini;  without  di'WMpline,  wri!  niutu«l  in 
yui'ceMMive  eni'iitinterH  with  niiii'li  interior  boilieM  of  rc|{uhir>4  and  inilitiit ;  and  iH'injf  uiiiiii|r 
iMirtoil  liy  Kreiii'h  iiid  were  completely  put  down  in  n  few  iriontliH.  The  exiiH|M'ration. 
however,  prndiici'd  by  thi<  trai^leal  eveiitH  ot' thiit  Nliort  peritNl  coiituuied  \ou\i  U>  rankle  in 
the  niiiiiU  of  tho  In 'li,  and  to  n^^^ravate  llio  t'vlU  under  which  ihey  labimri'd.  To  Huolhe 
tliiH  irritation,  another  nx|)edleut  wiim  employed,  which  niateriiilly  ulVected  the  Hitiiation  of 
Irolnnd. 

The  ililllcull  ond  reluctant  union  t\f  the  tieo  kiuffdumt  wbh  eftected  in  1H(H)  by  Mr.  PitL 
Ireland  ;;iiineil  tiiiiH  cormiderablo  coinmerciul  advantotreM;  and,  tVoni  the  example  of  Hcot- 
land,  it  waN  hoped  that  a  i;railunl  tran()uillity  woiihl  be  the  n'Hult.  Thix  ex[)cctation  haa  nut 
yot  been  fulfilled.  The  |)<>nwintry  of  tho  aonth,  inflamed  bv  national  jealoUMy,  by  ndigioua 
animosity,  and  by  tho  nevori'  privationH  under  which  they  labour,  have  continued,  if  not  in 
open  relM>llion,  at  Icaxt  in  a  wtate  of  turbulence  conbtantly  tending;  towardti  it;  and  their  dia- 
contenta  have  lieen  increawid  by  tho  indiHcreet  zeal  of  the  I'rotcMtunt  party. 

Tho  hill  for  ("utholic  emancipation,  ho  unexpectedly  introduced,  in  IBVM,  by  the  Duke  of 
Wolliuffton,  and  carried  atler  niicIi  a  violent  ferment  of  |iartie8,  haa  made  a  remarkable 
chanffe  in  the  (xditical  conNtitution  of  Ireland.  The  political  diimbilitica  under  which  the 
(-atholic!*  had  hitherto  lalxiured  havo  been  finally  removed.  They  are  n^'ue  admitwible  to 
the  liif/heMt  officeM  of  dtate,  with  the  exception  of  that  of  lord  chancolh  ;  an  •■xcluaion 
decided  upon,  not  no  much  on  account  of  tho  dif^iity  of  that  office,  at)  tho  f  ...onHivi  church 
patrunn);e  attached  to  it.  Roman  Catholica  are  alw  made  adnii»Biblc  to  ui  in  boti'  houaca 
of  parliament,  and  to  every  other  political  privile(;o  enjoyod  by  their  fellow  countrymen. 

Sbot.  IV. — Polilical  Geography. 

Tho  political  evils  under  which  Ireland  labouni  will  anfflciently  appear  iVont  lie  forcgoi'>; 
aurvey  of  her  history.  Frotii  tho  earliest  times  aho  has  been  in  the  .situation  ot  a  conqucrixi 
countryi  without  ever  becoming  reconciled  to  the  yoke,  or  ossiniiloted  to  the  ruling  nation. 
VVithfn  tho  last  two  centuries.  Tier  devoted  adherence  to  a  relijfion  which  hail  been  renounced 
by  her  rulers,  has  had  a  must  fatal  tendency,  which  we  may  however  hope  to  sou  much  miti- 
j^atcd  by  the  hoalinfr  mea«ureH  that  havo  now  been  uiloplcd.  In  cuiitjcquence,  ulso  ■.'' 
repeated  scenes  of  reixsllioii  and  forfeiture,  by  much  the  greater  part  of  tho  lands  are  i.'  Vi*- 
possession  of  English  and  Protestant  proprietors,  who,  liavin<r  no  natural  influence  ovc  Ihu 
occupiers  of  their  estates,  hold  thoir  place  only  by  the  hated  tenure  of  dominion  a'  d  iaw, 
BeinfT  connected  with  the  country  by  no  natural  ties,  and  attracted  by  the  superior  brilliancy 
of  tho  Euirlish  and  French  capitals,  most  of  them  uuit  Ireland,  and  become  haijitual  alininlcm. 
When  the  Scottish  Highlanders  arrayed  tliemselves  against  the  government,  they  acicil 
under  tlie  influence  of  a  few  leading  chiefs,  whoso  interests  and  passions  aflbrded  a  lever  liy 
which  the  people  could  bo  moved.  But  the  Irish  people,  deprived  of  any  such  guidance, 
chose  their  leaders  from  among  themselves,  f>r  from  those  who  courted  their  favour  by  ('•«:- 
tcring  all  their  national  propensities.  Hecret  associations,  party  budges,  mystericms  nani'  ii, 
have  exerted  an  influence  over  their  minds,  the  extent  and  nature  ot  which  it  is  impossible 
to  calculate. 

Ireland,  like  Scotland,  has  been  united  to  England ;  yet  it  retains  aomcwhat  more  of  the 
aspect  of  a  separate  kingdom.  A  lord  lieutenant  still  displays  a  portion  of  the  state  and 
exercises  some  of  the  flmctions  of  royalty.  He  has  not  only  a  household  establishment,  but 
a  chancellor,  a  secretary,  and  other  ministers  of  state.  The  courts  of  justice,  and  the  dif- 
ferent orders  of  magistracy,  are  nearly  on  the  same  footing  as  in  England;  yet  they  have 
not  tho  reputation  of  exercising  their  functions  with  quite  tho  same  digiity  and  impartiality. 
The  violence  of  party  spirit  acta  upon  judges,  and  still  more  upon  juriei,  ;  .1  in  the  country, 
the  absence  of  great  proprietors,  and  tho  want  of  any  middling  clash  ••  '•  r  it  difficult  to 
find  materials  for  n.  respectable  and  efl'ective  magistracy.  Ireland  sent  to  the  Imperial  par- 
liament KK)  members  of  tho  House  of  Commons,  of  whom  36  were  for  cities  and  boroughs, 
and  64  for  counties,  which  latter  sent  two  members  each.  The  Inrge  proportion  of  this 
latter  class  was  expected  to  render  tho  representation  more  resp^^-'.ible;  but,  unfortunately, 
the  low  qualification  required,  amounting  only  to  40».,  enabled  'iv;  .cfreat  proprietors  to  split 
votes  among  their  numerous  little  tenantry  to  such  an  oxten*  ;.  almost  to  produce  universal 
auffrage.  The  very  system  of  letting  farms  on  leases  ivi  Lves,  which  confers  tho  right  of 
voting,  extended  that  right  to  almost  every  tenant.  This  could  scarcely  be  suid  to  confer 
tho  real  right  of  suflrage,  as  tho  dependence  of  the  tenants  was  almost  always  such  as  to 
enable  the  landlord  to  dictate  their  vote ;  tlior.;^'.!  in  late  elections,  the  influence  of  the  priests 
was  in  several  counties  successfully  exerted.  To  remedy  these  evils,  the  same  act  which 
removed  the  disabilities  of  the  Catholics,  raised  the  qualification  of  freeholders  in  Ireland 
from  40s.  to  10/.  a  year,  and  thus  reduced  them  to  less  than  a  third  of  their  former  number. 
Many  also  of  tho  principal  boroughs,  as  Belfast,  Wexford,  Cashel,  Sligo,  Dundalk,  Ennia- 
killen,  were  entirely  close,  the  members  being  chosen  by  twelve  self-olnctcd  burgesses; 
while,  in  others,  tho  whole  ground  on  which  a  borough  stood  belonged  to  the  nearest  great 

Vofc,  I.  3  F 


\i 


ill 


« \\ 


W^' 


442 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


proprietor.  The  consequence  was,  that  an  oligarchy,  formed  by  the  possessors  of  those  vast 
properties  into  which  the  greater  part  of  Ireland  is  divided,  held  an  almost  unlimited  sway 
over  the  country.  Previous  to  the  union,  the  influence  of  the  three  houses  of  Beresford, 
Ponsonby,  and  Foster  was  such,  that  the  aid  of  one,  and,  if  possible,  two  of  them,  was  neces- 
sary for  carrying  on  the  measures  of  government.  That  influence,  however,  lias  been  on 
the  decline,  and  there  is  no  prospect  of  its  renewal. 

The  Reform  Bill  gave  to  Ireland  only  five  additional  members,  and  it  made  no  material 
change  in  the  returning  boroughs ;  but,  by  placing  the  election  in  the  hands  of  all  house- 
holders paying  10/.  annually,  it  rendered  those  nominations  )pen  which  had  formerly  been 
made  by  the  small  number  of  individuals  composing  tlie  corporation. 

The  naval  and  military  force  of  the  empire  in  general  defends  Ireland.  There  is  a  com- 
mander of  the  forces  resident  in  Dublin ;  acting,  however,  under  the  orders,  not  of  the  lord 
lieutenant,  but  of  the  British  commander-in-chief.  The  number  of  regular  troops  stationed 
at  different  points  is  always  considerable. 

The  revenue  levied  in  Ireland  has  never  borne  the  same  proportion  to  her  natural  resources 
as  that  of  England.  The  rates  in  all  the  principal  articles  of  consumption  have  been  lower. 
The  tax  on  heartiis,  however,  was  found  very  oppressive ;  as  it  required  inquisitorial  visits, 
and  aflftcted  the  lowest  of  the  people.  This  and  all  the  other  assessed  taxes  were  so  irregu- 
larly levied,  that,  notwithstanding  the  discontent  excited  by  them,  they  did  little  more  than 
cover  the  expenses  of  collection.  For  this  reason,  by  a  motion  of  the  chancellor  of  the 
exchequer,  tliey  were  entirely  remitted.  In  1800  the  revenue  was  2,684,000i.  and  the  debt 
25,662,0002.  At  the  union,  the  stipulation  was  made  that  Ireland  should  pay  two-seventeenths 
of  the  whole  expenditure  of  the  empire ;  this  arrangement  has  led  to  a  continual  increase 
both  of  debt  and  revenue.  In  1811  the  former  amounted  to  77,382,000/.,  and  tlie  latter  to 
3,906,900/.  In  1830  the  revenue  was  3,548,822/.,  and  in  1835  it  amounted  to  4,400,953/. 
The  particulars  for  the  latter  year  were : — 

Custonn X1,?44,7C4     I     Stampa £470,286 

Exciae I,{)fiC,531     |     Postage,  &c 3111,373 

The  public  expenditure  in  1830  was  as  follows : — 


Charers  of  fuiidccl  debt £1,178,454 

Civil  list,  &r 584,909 


Army X9f!6,509 

Miscelluneous 747,U89 


The  national  debt  of  Ireland  in  1817,  when  it  ceased  to  form  a  separate  item  in  the  public 
accounts  in  consequence  of  the  consolidation  of  the  British  and  Irish  exchequers,  was 
134,602,769/. 

For  local  and  patriotic  objects  in  Ireland,  very  considerable  sums  are  allowed  out  of  the 
public  revenue.     Of  these,  for  the  year  1832,  there  appear  the  following : — 


Schools  and  Rilucation X30,000 

Proti'siant  Ohnrity  School! 3,000 

FoundkiiiK  Hospital 38,314 

Four  oilier  Hospitals ]0,(MS 

House  of  Industry 21,193 

Eichmond  Liinaiic  Asylum 1,388 

Hibernian  Marine  Society 9S0 


Female  Orphan  House X],833 

Boman  Catholic  College 8,938 

Itnyal  Dublin  Society S,30O 

BelfaKt  Academical  Institution I,SOO 

Noncoiiforuiing  and  otiier  Ministers 24,334 

Public  Works 33,564 

Dunmore  Harbour 7,500 


Sect.  V. — Productive  Industry. 

Ireland,  in  this  respect,  has  long  presented  a  painful  spectacle ;  a  great  proportion  of  her 
people  being  involved  in  extreme  and  squalid  poverty.  The  Irish  do  not  want  enterprise,  or 
even  industry ;  but  various  causes  have  combined  to  degrade  them  in  the  scale  of  improve- 
ment. Among  these  the  conduct  lonjf  held  by  Britain  must  be  considered  as  prominent ; 
thus,  after  other  expedients  had  proved  inefl^ectual,  it  was  prohibited  to  export  woollens  to 
foreign  countries.  Similar  measures  were  taken  with  regard  to  glass,  hops,  and  every 
branch  in  respect  to  which  any  rivalry  was  apprehended.  There  was  one  article,  however, 
the  production  of  a  large  surplus  of  which  could  by  no  means  be  avoided.  This  was  black 
cattle  and  sheep ;  but  the  value  of  these  was  effectually  cut  down  by  the  prohibition  to 
import  tliem  into  England,  the  only  accessible  market.  Under  these  regulations,  all  the 
exertions  of  Ireland  to  better  her  condition  were  cramped,  and  while  Britain  was  making 
the  most  rapid  advances,  Ireland  continued  in  the  same  state  of  depression.  However,  in 
consequence  of  her  spirited  efforts  at  the  end  of  the  American  war,  and  of  the  embarrass- 
ments of  the  British  government,  the  most  odious  and  pernicious  of  these  restrictions  were 
repealed.  Further  advantages  were  obtained  at  the  time  of  the  Union ;  and  at  present, 
every  exertion  is  making  to  place  the  two  countries  in  a  state  of  perfect  recipnxjity.  The 
consequence  has  been,  that  in  the  course  of  forty  years,  Ireland  has  made  a  rapid  progress 
in  industry  and  commerce ;  yet  some  of  her  greatest  evils  are  so  deeply  seated,  that  they 
have  scaii  aly  yet  begun  to  give  way  to  th(^  influence  of  a  more  auspicious  system. 

Agricu.tiiro  has  been  long  in  a  backward  and  very  depressed  state.  The  farms  were,  for 
the  most  part,  srniill,  managed  by  the  farmer  himself  and  his  family,  destitute  of  capital, 
with  wrnteiied  ini))Iements,  and  with  a  pertinacious  udheriMico  to  all  the  olisoleto  practices 
of  a  rude  age.  The  best  soils  exhausted  a  great  portion  of  their  strength  in  throwing  up 
weeds,  which  no  effective  measures  were  *aken  to  extirpate.   The  system  also  of  infield  and 


Book  I. 


IRELAND. 


449 


they 


;  and 


outfield  was  strictly  adhered  to,  the  ground  being  heovily  cropped  a?  long  as  it  would  yield 
any  thing,  and  afterwards  of  necessity  allowed  two  or  three  years  to  recruit.  Although 
these  detects  still  exist  to  a  considerable  extent,  yet  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  but  particu- 
larly in  the  east  and  north,  improved  practices  and  implements  are  beginning  to  be  intro- 
duced. 

The  Irish  tenures  arc  long,  some  of  them  perpetual,  in  which  ca.se  they  may  be  considered 
as  property,  the  rent  being  a  mere  trifle;  a  lease  of  thirty-one  years  and  three  lives  is  very 
common.  These  long  leases  are  attended  with  scar  ely  any  of  the  benefits  which  might 
be  naturally  expected.  As  the  fanner  commences  usually  without  any  capital,  trusting  for 
the  payment  of  the  first  year's  rent  to  the  produce  of  his  fiirm,  he  almost  alwayb  falls  more 
or  less  uito  arrear,  and  thus  lies  at  the  mercy  of  his  landlord.  This  would  be  less  pernicious, 
were  it  the  landlord  himself  with  whom  he  had  to  deal;  but  the  landlords  of  Ireland,  hold- 
ing usually  properties  of  immense  extent,  and  being  mostly  resident  out  of  the  country, 
cannot  or  will  not  undertake  the  task  of  dealing  with  this  impoverished  multitude  of  small 
tenants.  They  devolve  it  upon  the  intermediate  agents  and  middlemen.  The  latter,  a  class 
peculiar  to  Ireland,  take  a  large  extont  of  ground,  which  they  let  out  in  small  portions  to 
the  real  cultivator.  They  grant  leases,  indeed ;  but  as  the  tenant,  from  the  circumstances 
above  mentioned,  soon  comes  under  their  power,  they  and  the  agents  treat  him  with  the 
greatest  harshness,  exact  personal  services,  presents,  bribes;  and  draw  from  the  land  as 
much  as  they  possibly  can,  without  the  least  regard  to  its  permanent  welfare.  This  system, 
while  it  crushes  the  tenant,  is  not  less  injurious  to  the  landlord,  into  whose  cofl'ers  there 
oflen  passes  less  than  one-half  of  the  sum  paid  by  the  tenant.  The  only  use  to  which  the 
latter  turns  his  long  lease  is  to  divide  and  subdivide  the  lands  among  his  children,  till  the 
share  of  each  affords  only  the  most  miserable  aliment,  and  an  overgrown  population  is  fixed 
upon  the  farm.  An  attempt  to  let  land  on  a  different  fboting  can  only  be  eflTected  by  the 
ejection  of  more  than  half  its  existing  occupants,  who  in  that  case  are  apt  to  fly  to  violent 
and  revengeful  courses,  so  that  even  a  partial  endeavour  to  introduce  such  improvements 
has  been  a  main  cause  of  the  existing  disturbed  state.  Another  injurious  mode  is  that  of  part- 
nership leases,  in  which  a  number  of  persons  take  a  fann  jointly,  and  make  it  a  sort  of  common 
property.  Each  is  allowed  to  put  upon  it  a  certain  number  of  collops ;  the  collop  consisting 
of  one  horse,  two  cows,  or  twelve  goats.  A  degrading  stipulation  is  oflen  introduced  into 
leases,  by  which  the  occupant  is  bound  to  work  for  his  landlord  either  without  wages,  or  at 
a  rate  lower  than  ordinary. 

Tithe  is  one  of  the  evils  of  which  the  Irish  cultivator  most  grievously  complains.  Al- 
though it  must  in  all  ca.ses  fall  ultimately  on  the  landlord,  yet  to  take  from  the  cabin  of  the 
peasant  the  pig  which  he  has  reared,  or  the  handful  of  potatoes  which  he  has  raised  for  the 
support  of  his  family,  is  an  act  peculiarly  discouraging  and  irritating.  The  exemption  of 
grass  lands  tends  also  to  discourage  tillage.  Measures  taken  by  parliament  to  promote  the 
commutation  of  tithes,  have  been  attended  with  considerable  success;  and  by  a  late  act 
arrangements  are  made  by  which  the  church  rates,  instead  of  being  taken  out  of  the  fanner's 
produce,  are  paid  by  the  landlord  out  of  his  rent. 

The  extent  of  country,  and  the  objects  of  culture  in  Ireland,  vary  considerably  from  those 
of  the  sister  kingdom.  Its  superficial  extent  is  computed  at  12,000,000  Irish,  or  19,278,760 
Englisli  acres.  Of  this,  notwithstanding  the  considerable  amount  to  be  deducted  for  moun- 
tain, lakes,  and  bogs,  Mr.  Young  calculates  that  there  is  a  greater  proportion  of  productive 
land  than  in  England.  The  soil  of  Ireland  is  shallow,  consisting  most  generally  of  a  thin 
sprinkling  of  earth  over  a  rocky  ground ;  but  the  copious  moisture  wafled  from  the  sea, 
by  which  it  is  everywhere  surrounded,  produces  a  quick  and  rapid  vegetation,  and  in  par- 
ticular a  brilliancy  of  verdure,  not  equalled  perhaps  in  any  other  region  of  Europe.  Such 
a  country  is  of  course  highly  favourable  to  pasturage ;  and  as  this  pursuit  is  suited  to  the  im- 
perfect stages  of  culture,  the  rearing  of  live  stock  has  been  \on^  the  main  staple  of  Irish 
husbandry.  Ita  luxuriant  plains  are  depastured  by  vast  herds  of  olack  cattle ;  and  from  this 
source  is  derived  the  very  large  quantity  of  salted  provisions  shipped  from  the  southern 
ports.  The  number  of  oxen  and  cows  annually  killed  for  this  purpose  was  reckoned  at 
18,000.  This  trade  has  considerably  decreased  since  tlie  peace ;  but  the  export  "f  live 
cattle  is  extensively  carried  on.  Great  facilities  have  been  lately  aflibrded  for  it  by  the 
steam  packets.  The  dairy  is  also  a  great  branch  of  industry  in  Ireland.  None  of  its 
cheeses,  indeed,  have  acquired  a  reputation ;  but  butter  of  excellent  quality  is  made  and 
largely  exported.  Another  species  of  live  stock  is  an  essential  article  to  tlie  economy  of  an 
Irish  cultivator.  The  pig  usually  shares  his  cabin,  and  is  fed,  like  himself,  on  potatoes.  It 
is  t(X)  grp!it  a  luxury  to  be  killed  for  his  own  consumption ;  but  is  sold  and  driven  to  the  ports 
to  be  suited  for  exportation.  Sheep  arc  bred  extensively  on  the  mountain  tracts,  which  are 
unfit  for  rearing  any  other  stock.  In  many  places  they  are  bred  for  the  wool  and  milk.  In 
this  lust  respect,  however,  goats  are  more  i)roductivo ;  and  they  are  reared  in  immense  (juan 
titles  in  the  mountain  districts  in  the  north.  The  Irish  horses  are  small,  hardy,  and  capable 
of  doing  nmch  work  upon  little  food.  Poultry  are  fed  in  great  numbers  in  and  around  all  the 
cabins,  the  interior  of  which  they  are  admitted  to  share;  a  practice  extremely  favourable  to 


'7 


'r 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  IU. 

tlieir  increase.  Great  quantities  of  gcesc  arc  kept  for  the  sake  of  the  feathers,  wliich  are 
cruelly  plucked  from  the  animals  alive.  The  produce  of  grain  is  also  large,  notwithstanding 
the  imperfect  processes  employed  in  cultivating  it.  Wheat  and  barley  were  little  raised  till 
of  late,  when  both  the  culture  and  export  of  the  former  have  been  greatly  extended.  Still 
the  main  objects  are  oats  and  potatoes ;  the  former  as  the  subject  of  a  large  expoi\,  the 
latter  as  the  staple  food  of  a  considerable  body  of  the  people.  The  Irish  boast  of  the  potatoe, 
as  if  it  were  nowhere  else  produced  in  equal  perfection.  Compared  with  grain  of  any  kind, 
it  certainly  atforda  the  means  of  supporting  a  greater  population  upon  a  given  extent  of 
ground.  The  scope,  however,  which  it  affords  for  the  multiplication  of  the  people  in  miser- 
able circumstances,  is  generally  considered  by  the  political  economists  aa  one  of  the  causes 
of  the  present  distress  in  Ireland.  Flax  is  also  a  valuable  product  of  Irish  husbandry,  affi)rd- 
ing  the  material  of  the  linen  manufacture.  According  to  a  return  made  to  the  trustees  in 
1809,  the  extent  sown  was  76,749  acres;  in  addition  to  which,  the  various  little  scattered 
patches  raise  the  number  probably  to  about  100,000  acres,  supposed  to  produce  at  an  average 
about  30  stones  per  acre ;  which,  at  10«.  6tl.  per  stone,  would  make  the  entire  value  about 
1,500,0001. 

There  is  a  want  of  trees  in  Ireland.  The  immense  forests  which  some  centuries  age 
covered  a  great  proportion  of  its  surface,  have  fallen  and  been  converted  in  a  great  measure 
into  moss  or  bog.  The  bogs  of  Ireland  present  an  extensive  obstacle  to  cultivation,  They 
are  estimated  by  the  parliamentary  commissioners  at  2,330,000  English  acres.  From  them, 
indeed,  fuel  is  supplied  to  many  districts,  yet  the  draining  of  a  large  portion  would  be  cer- 
tainly desirable;  and  the  commissioners  seem  to  think  that,  from  their  generally  elevated 
position,  this  might  be  done  with  great  facility  and  advantage.  The  great  quantity  of  water 
beneatli  these  bogs  causes  often  a  singular  phenomenon,  that  of  moving  bogs.  Bursting  the 
sur&ce,  tlie  bog  inundates  the  surrounding  lands,  spreading  desolation  and  barrenness 
through  its  whole  course,  which  in  one  instance  extended  no  less  than  twenty  miles. 

In  respect  to  manufactures,  the  state  of  Ireland  cannot  be  described  as  flourishing  ;  a  mia- 
fortune  for  which  she  may  accuse  the  oppressive  policy  of  England.  One  species  of  fabric, 
however,  she  has  been  allowed  and  even  encouraged  to  cultivate,  and  it  has  attained  to  a 
very  considerable  magnitude. 

The  linen  manufacture  was  first  introduced  by  the  Earl  of  Strafford,  who  brought  flax- 
seed from  Holland,  and  workmen  from  France  and  the  Netherlands.  His  attainder,  and  the 
subsequent  troubles,  suspended  the  undertaking ;  but  it  was  revived  by  the  Duke  of  Ormond, 
who  established  near  Dublin  a  colony  from  Brussels,  Jersey,  and  Rochelle,  and  gave  lands 
on  advantageous  terms  to  those  willing  to  embark  in  the  business.  After  the  Revolution, 
the  English  parliament  created  a  board  tor  .ne  promotion  of  the  linen  manufacture,  and 
grante<l  bounties  both  on  the  raising  of  flax  and  the  export  of  linen.  These  exertions  met 
with  great  success ;  and  the  manufacture  has  become  general  throughout  Ireland,  and  par- 
ticularly in  Ulster.  The  following,  according  to  a  late  parliamentary  report,  was  the 
reputed  value  of  brown  or  unbleached  linens  sold  in  the  markets  of  Ireland  in  the  year 
1824:— 

Ulster £2,109,309 

Leinster 192,888 

Mnnster 110,421 

Connaught 168,090 

Total       £2,580,708 

The  mode  of  conducting  this  manufacture  is,  however,  in  several  respects,  very  rude  and 
imperfect.  It  is  generally  practised  by  individuals  holding  little  spots  of  ground,  the  culture 
of  which  they  combine  with  that  of  weaving.  The  same  person,  or  at  least  the  same  family, 
in  many  cases  raises  the  flax,  dri  -ses  it,  spins  it  into  yarn,  and  weaves  it  into  cloth.  There 
is  too  much  anxiety  to  obtain  the  greatest  possible  quantity  of  yarn  out  of  a  given  quantity 
of  flax,  without  regard  to  the  quality ;  and  the  sorting  of  the  yam,  so  that  it  may  be  of  an 
uniform  texture,  suited  to  the  kind  of  linen  intended  to  be  woven,  is  almost  wholly  neglected. 
Ir  some  instances,  however,  it  is  worked  to  a  most  extraordinary  degree  of  fineness.  Anne 
M'Quillin,  in  the  county  of  Down,  could  spin  105  hanks  to  the  pound,  which  would  reach 
214  English  miles.  Exertions  have  lately  been  made  to  intro<luce  mill-spinning,  which,  it 
is  supposed,  would  generally  improve  the  quality  of  yarn,  though  it  could  not  produce  it  of 
such  extreme  fineness  as  some  of  that  spun  by  the  hand.  Twenty  years  ago  the  mill  could 
not  produce  above  fifteen  cuts  to  a  pound ;  now  it  can  make  nearly  fifty. 

The  export  of  linen  from  Ireland,  in  the  year  18'J4,  amounted  in  all  to  49.491,037  yards, 
of  which  46,466,950  were  to  Great  Britain ;  and  3,024,087  to  foreign  parts.  The  real  value 
of  the  whole  was  2,412,f*58i.  Of  that  sent  to  Great  Britain,  31,314..5;};?  yards  were  retained 
for  home  consumption ;  the  rcLt  were  re-r'.viwrtod  to  the  same  quarters  us  Scotch  linen.  This 
great  inannfiicture  is  chiefly  supported  by  its  own  g'rowth  of  flax.  Ireland,  iiowever,  im- 
ports 25,000  tons  of  homp  from  abroad,  and  tWOO  from  Britain ;  also  about  7500  tons  &' 
linen  yarn;  of  all  \,'hich  materials  the  value  fulls  .short  of  45,000/. 


,^*S* 


Book  I. 


IRFLANI. 


445 


ude  and 
culture 
family, 

There 
luantity 

of  an 
lee ted. 

Anne 

reach 
liich,  it 
ce  it  of 

could 

yardfj, 
1  valuo 
ptained 
Thid 

r,  im- 
ons  ut' 


Distillation  ia  another  branch  of  industry  characteristic  of  Ireland,  but  by  no  means 
attended  with  the  same  happy  effects.  It  has  hitherto  been  carried  on  chiefly  in  detiuiicc 
of  the  revenue  and  government,  and  bus  given  birth  to  a  vast  system  of  contraband,  equally 
destructive  of  morals  and  of  public  order.  All  the  mountains,  boffs,  and  deep  valleys  of  the 
north  and  west  abound  with  illicit  stills,  in  spots  where  the  most  diligent  search  can  scarcely 
discover  them ;  and  where  detected,  they  can  scarcely  be  seized  without  the  aid  of  an 
armed  force.  When  the  troops  are  seen  advancing,  concerted  Bignuls  are  made,  and  the 
small  light  stills  are  soon  conveyed  to  a  distant  quarter.  The  farmers  and  proprietors  en- 
courage illicit  distillation  as  the  most  ready  mode  of  oiTording  a  market  for  their  grain.  The 
quality  of  tlie  spirit  was  long  much  superior  to  that  produced  by  the  legal  distillers,  owing 
to  rcsti'ii'tions  imposed  on  the  latter ;  so  that,  in  selling,  it  was  considered  the  highest  re- 
commendation tliat  it  "  never  paid  duty."  The  most  rigorous  laws  were  enacted  in  vain,  for 
they  only  rendered  the  people  concerned  in  this  practice  more  desperate  and  determined. 
Of  late,  liowever,  the  duty,  as  in  Scotland,  has  been  reduced  and  free  exportation  permitted. 

The  ellect  has  been  remarkable;  the  quantity  of  spirits  paying  duty,  which  from  1818  to 
1822  varied  from  3,000,0(H)  to  4,000,000,  rose  in  1824  to  7,800,000,  and  in  1832  to  8,0.57,000 ; 
thus  warranting  a  presumption,  that  the  contraband  fabrication  of  this  article  has  been 
greatly  diminished. 

The  killing  and  salting  of  beef  and  pork  for  sale  forms  a  great  branch  of  Irish  commerce. 
The  beef  is  packed  in  three  different  forms,  called  planter's  beef,  India  beef,  and  common 
beef;  the  first  two,  having  the  coarse  pieces  taken  out,  and  charged  4s.  additional 
per  cwt  While  the  export  of  salt  beef  has  diminished,  that  of  pork  has  of  late  been  much 
extended. 

The  cotton  manufacture,  since  1822,  has  spread  through  Ireland  in  a  very  surprising 
manner,  particularly  in  the  counties  of  Antrim,  Down,  Ijoutli,  and  part  of  Dublin.  The 
coarser  linon  fabrics  are  disaj,|>caring  before  it,  and  proceeding  to  the  westward  and  south- 
ward, retaining  still  an  equal  hold  of  the  kingdom  in  general.  More  recently  this  fabric 
has  rather  declined,  and  linen  has  regained  the  ascendency. 

The  other  manufkctures  are  not  of  primary  importance.  A  great  quantity  of  v'ool  is,  in- 
deed, worked  up  by  the  peasantry  into  frieze,  linseys,  and  flannels,  for  their  dorsestic  use  ; 
but  the  only  fabrics  on  a  great  scale,  which  are  those  of  broadcloth  at  Carrick-on-Shannon, 
^nd  of  flannels  at  Kilkenny,  arc  on  the  decline.  Breweries  have  been  established  in  the 
principal  towns,  and  are  rother  in  a  flourishing  state. 

In  the  distribution  of  minerals,  Ireland  has  by  no  means  been  neglected ;  but  some  unpro- 
pitious  circumstances  have  prevented  any  of  them  from  being  turned  to  great  account.  Of 
these  impediments  tlie  most  material  is  the  want  of  a  sufficient  supply  of  good  coal.  The 
fuel  of  Ireland  is  in  general  either  coal  imported  from  England  and  Scotland,  or  the  turf 
dug  out  of  its  immense  bogs ;  but  the  latter  boa  not  yet  been  found  applicable  to  the  fusion 
of  metals.  From  these  causes  tlie  veins  of  iron  ore,  which  are  very  extensively  diflused 
through  the  island,  have  not  yet  been  turned  to  any  important  use.  The  copper,  also  of 
fine  quality,  which  is  found  in  the  counties  of  Wicklow  and  Cork,  must  be  sent  over  to 
Swansea  to  be  smelted.  The  lead,  however  of  Wicklow  is  worked  to  a  considerable  ex- 
tent with  imported  coal. 

Fishery  is  a  branch  of  industry  for  which  the  extended  shores  and  deep  bays  of  Ireland 
would  bo  peculiarly  adapted.  Nor  do  the  inland  waters,  the  rivers  and  lakes,  less  abound  in 
the  species  of  fish  appropriate  to  them.  The  diligence  of  the  Irish  in  taking  fish  for  im- 
mediate consumption  is  considerable,  being  urged  on  by  the  frequent  abstinence  from  other 
food  which  their  Catholic  profession  enjoins.  Their  trout  and  salmon  are  distinguished 
both  for  size  and  taste :  the  salmon  arc  caught  by  weir.s,  stake-nets,  and  other  contrivances, 
but  with  so  little  precaution  that  their  number  has  been  sensibly  diminished.  The  curing 
of  fish  has  made  very  little  progreto,  when  compared  with  the  opportunities  which  the 
coasts  of  Ireland  aftbrd ;  and  Ireland  cannot  come  into  competition  with  Scotland. 

Commerce. — The  manufactured  products  of  Ireland  are  quite  inconsiderable;  she  has,  how- 
ever, great  facilities  for  the  production  of  raw  materials;  and  it  is  in  all  respects  more  suit- 
able for  her,  as  well  as  for  England,  that  she  should  direct  her  etTorts  to  this  department, 
and  import  manufactured  articles  from  Britain,  than  that  she  should  attempt  to  enter  into  an 
unequal  co- ipetition  with  the  latter  in  manufacturing  industry.  In  18'25  the  restraints  on 
the  intercourse  between  Ireland  and  Great  Britain  were  mostly  abolished ;  and  owing  to  this 
circumstance,  and  to  the  establishment  of  a  regular  intercourse  by  steam  packets  between 
Liverpo<il,  Glasgow,  Bristol,  and  the  principal  towns  on  the  cast  and  south  coasts  of  Ireland, 
the  trade  tetween  the  two  countries  has  been  vastly  increased.  Owing  to  the  circumstance 
ot  this  intercourse  being  now  placed  on  the  footing  of  a  coasting  trade,  no  account  has  been 
kept  later  than  1825,  of  the  reciprocal  imports  and  exports  of  each,  except  in  the  case  of 
cum. 

In  1829,  the  imports  from  foreign  parts  were  valued  at  l,669,406i. ;  in  1831,  they  were 
1,552,228/.;  in  1832,  thejr  were  1,348,828?.  The  exports  in  1831  were  608,038/. ;  in  1832 
they  were  452,77,5/.     Within  the  last  few  years  there  hoa  been  a  moat  extraordinary  in- 

Vol.  I.  38 


m 


If 


m 


416 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pakt  III. 


crease  in  the  quantity  of  grain  and  live  stock  imported  from  Ireland  into  Great  Britain.  The 
former,  on  on  average  of  1830  and  1831,  amounted  to  543,618  quarters  of  wlieat,  and 
1,.'J63,.')93  quarters  of  oats  and  oatnioal.  In  18212,  th(!rc  were  imported  into  Liverpool  alone, 
338,649  quarters  of  wheat,  value  948,217/. ;  825,720  quarters  of  oats,  309,434i. ;  14,486 
quarters  of  bnrloy,  24,620A  ;  69,624  cows,  705,864«. ;  149,090  pigs,  484,542i. ;  74,260  sheep, 
129,9r).U  ;  24,077  lambs,  24,077/. ;  169,817  loads  of  meal,  203,780/. ;  177,252  sacks  of  flour, 
407,679/. ;  10,771  bales  of  bacon,  64,626/. ;  292,830  firkins,  15,861  half  firkins,  and  10,348 
coolies  of  butter,  819,141/.  These,  with  some  minor  articles,  made  up  a  value  of  4,444,500/. 
The  imports  into  I/indon,  Bristol,  and  other  ports,  may  be  presumed  to  be  as  much  more, 
and  porliaps  the  whole  may  not  fall  short  of  10,000,000/.  sterling. 

The  Ibllowinjf  tublo  e.xliibit.-t  the  relative  foreign  commerce  of  the  principal  ports  of  Ire- 
land in  the  year  1824.  We  add  tlic  ships  and  tonnage  belonging  to  and  the  amount  of  cus- 
toms on  each,  which  a  recent  reiiort  enables  us  to  bring  down  to  1829 : — 


Tonnage  Enteriil. 


Entered  at 


iti'lfast 

(rcirk 

Droclicda  — 

Dublin 

nalway 

I.imerirk 

Ijondonilerry. 

Newry 

Sligi) 

VVttterfiird  ... 
Wexford 


Britiah.     Foreign. 


Tons.         Tons. 


19,12.1 

15,Q2.'i 

MIO 

34,n06 

540 

5,233 

3,203 

0,705 

1,085 

7,600 

1,409 


11,093 
13,070 
420 
10,407 
2,020 
3,489 
5,479 
7,812 
3,4C:t 
3,137 
332 


Belonging. 


9hip8.    Tonnage. 


247 

35,000 

350 

17,000 

30 

3,300 

3W» 

34,000 

19 

800 

39 

1,800 

33 

4,300 

101 

8.000 

30 

l.'JOO 

70 

7,000 

i:<5 

0,700 

Paid. 


Customs. 


359,000 

190,000 

12.000 

609,000 

4,800 

85,700 

74,000 

55,000 

1,GOO 

116,000 

4,800 


The  shipping  of  Ireland  is  small,  compared  with  that  of  the  sister  island.  On  the  31st 
December,  1830,  she  had  1424  vessels ;  the  tonnage  of  which  was  101,820,  navigated  by 
7794  men  and  boys.  In  18J12  there  were  built  twenty-five  ships,  of  1909  tons.  There  were 
entered  inwards,  in  1831,  14,499  ships,  of  1,420,382  tons;  outwards,  9801  ships,  1,073,545 
tons.  Of  this  wore  employed  in  trade  with  Great  Britain,  13,584  ships,  and  1,262,221  tons, 
inwards;  9029  ship.s,  921,128  tons,  outwards;  in  foreign  trade,  915  shipe,  158,161  tons, 
inwards ;  772  ships,  152,417  tons  outwards. 

Canals  have  been  undertaken  in  Ireland  on  an  extensive  scale,  but  with  only  a  small  por- 
tion of  the  expected  benefit.  This  seems  partly  owing  to  the  excessive  magnitude  of  the 
plans,  and  partly  to  the  prevalence  of  jobbing.  The  two  chief  undertakings  are  the  Grand 
a.ui  the  Royal  canals,  both  proceeding  from  Dublin  into  the  interior.  The  former,  com- 
menced in  17.")6,  has,  by  large  advances  from  government,  been  completed,  at  an  expense  of 
(ipwards  of  '.'.(MIO.OOO/.  It  is  carried  across  Kildare  and  King's  County  to  the  Shannon,  near 
Clonfert.  Tliis  distance  is  eighty-seven  miles,  which,  with  a  branch  to  the  Barrow  at  Athy, 
one  westward  to  Ballinasloe,  and  several  others,  makes  an  entire  length  of  156  miles.  The 
Royal  Canal,  of  nearly  the  same  dinvusions,  reaches  from  Dublin  through  Meath  and  Ix)ng- 
ford,  nearly  eighty-throe  miles',  to  Tarmonbarry,  o.i  the  Shannon.  The  expense  was 
1,420,000/.,  while  the  tolls,  in  1831,  amounted  only  to  12,700/. 

The  roads  of  Ireland  have  long  been  excellent.  Any  person  may  present  a  memorial  to 
the  grand  jury  of  the  county,  showing  the  necessity  of  a  new  road,  and  if  this  presentment 
be  approved,  the  work  immediately  proceeds.  Government  has  established  mail-coaches  to 
all  the  principal  towns,  and,  since  the  rebellion,  has  made  fine  military  roads  into  the  interior 
of  Wicklow;  but  stage-coaches  and  other  means  of  conveyance  are  indifferent 

Sect.  VI. — Civil  and  Social  State. 

The  population  of  Ireland,  from  its  grr^t  amount  and  rapid  increase  is  considered  as  one 
of  the  chief  causes  of  the  severe  povert'  which  presses  upon  the  body  of  the  people.  Till 
the  census  of  1821,  the  data  upon  whic!i  it  was  calculated  were  conjectural.  Between  1712 
and  1726,  upon  a  calculation  from  the  liumbcr  of  houses,  at  six  to  a  house,  it  was  represented 
as  varying  from  2,000,000  to  2,;ifl0,0fl0.  Calculations  founded  on  the  produce  of  the  hearth 
duty  gave  in  1754, 2,372,000 ;  and  in  1788,4,040,040.  In  1812,  it  was  estimated  at5,937,000. 
In  1821,  a  census  gave  6,801,000.  That  of  1831  amounted  to  7,767,401,  of  whom  3,794,880 
are  male,  and  3,972,.^21  female. 

The  Irish  character  presents  very  marked  features,  many  of  which  are  amiable,  and  even 
admirable.  Hospitality  is  an  universal  trait,  and  is  enhanced  by  the  scantiness  of  the  portion 
which  is  liberally  shared  with  the  stranger.  The  Irish  are  brave,  lively,  merry,  and  witty ; 
and  even  the  lowest  ranks  have  a  courteous  and  polite  address.  They  are  celebrated  for 
warmth  of  heart,  and  for  strong  attachments  of  kindred  and  friendship,  which  leads  them,  out 
of  their  scanty  means,  to  support  their  aged  relations  with  the  purest  kindness.  Benevo- 
lence is  a  distingubhing  feature  of  the  higher  ranks.    They  are  curious,  intelligent,  anr 


t 
< 
a 
c 

\ 

V 

n 
r 
C 

11 
n 
a 
ii 

ti 

01 

n 
o\ 
S 
ft 
ir 
til 


V. 


norial  to 

entment 

achea  to 

interior 


OS  one 
Till 
en  1712 

lesentcd 
I  hearth 
137,000. 

194,880 

nd  even 
[portion 
1  witty; 
Itud  tor 
|cm,  onl 
enevo- 
[it,  anc 


Book  I.  IRELAND.  447 

eager  for  information.  With  so  nmny  good  qualities,  it  were  too  much  to  expect  that  there 
should  not  be  some  faults.  They  are  deficient  in  cleanliness ;  have  little  taste  for  conve- 
niences or  luxuries ;  and  are  destitute  of  that  sober  and  steady  spirit  of  enterprise  which 
distinguishes  the  English.  The  love  of  fighting  seems  to  be  a  general  infirmity.  The  fairs, 
which,  in  every  town  and  village  of  Ireland,  are  regular  and  of  long  duration,  afford  the 
grand  theatres,  first  of  unbounded  mirth,  and  ultimately  of  bloody  conflict.  Thclrisii  do  not 
fight  single-handed,  but  in  bands,  and  on  a  great  scale.  On  receiving  a  supposed  injuryi 
they  go  round  to  their  companions,  friends,  and  townsmen,  and  collect  a  multitude,  with 
which  thoy  make  a  joint  attack  on  the  objects  of  their  wrath.  The  other  blemishes  of  the 
Irish'  are  rather  frailties  than  sins.  They  are  represented  as  vain,  talkative,  prompt  to  speak 
as  well  as  act  without  deliberation;  this  disposition,  with  their  thoughtless  gaiety,  betrays 
them  into  that  peculiar  blunder  called  a  bull,  which  their  neighbours  have  so  long  held  forth 
as  a  national  characteristic. 

The  ecclesiastical  state  of  Ireland  has  been  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  its  unsettled  con- 
dition. The  native  Irish  did  not  share  in  any  degree  the  reformation  so  unanimously  adopted 
in  England  and  Scotland.  When,  therefore,  the  English  church  was  introduced  as  the 
established  religion,  it  threw  out,  as  dissenters,  the  bulk  of  the  Irish  population.  Even  of 
the  protestant  part,  a  large  proportion  introduced  oa  colonists  from  Scotland,  were  attached 
to  the  presbyterian  form. 
[From  a  parliamentary  paper,  it  appears  that,  in  1835,  there  were, — 

per  cent. 

Roman  Catholics, 6,  27,712  -  -  SOJ 

Members  of  Established  Church,        ....--  fe.  2,064  •  -  lOJ 

Presbyterians, 642,356  -  -  8 

Other  Protestants,     -    .    -    . 21,808  -  •  i 

7,943,940. 

Although  there  ia  here  some  slight  inaccuracy,  yet  this  statement  serves  to  show  very 
nearly  the  proportion  of  the  different  sects.  The  places  of  worship  are  stated  in  the  same 
paper  to  be, — 

Roman  Catholics, 2105 

Established  Church 15^14 

Presbyterians,    .••.-..-.--...----  452 

Others,     - 403 

In  41  benefices  there  was  no  member  of  the  Established  Church. — Am.  Ed.] 
The  Roman  Catholic  clergy  receive  no  ctipend  from  goi'emment,  but  are  entirely  sup- 
ported by  their  flocks.  They  ore  formed,  however,  into  a  regular  hierarchy,  at  tlie  head  of 
which  are  four  archbishops;  Armagh  (the  primate),  Tuam,  Cashel,  and  Dublin.  Under 
them  are  twenty-two  bishops,  with  a  vicar-general,  dean,  and  archdeacon  in  each  diocese. 
The  number  of  Catholic  priests  has  been  stated  at  1400,  besides  several  hundred  friars. 
Their  income  arises  less  from  any  fixed  allowance,  than  from  dues,  oflfcrings,  and  presents ; 
and  the  bishops,  to  make  up  their  incomes,  receive  from  the  parish  priests  a  portion  of  what 
tliey  have  collected.  Mr.  Wakefield  has  attempted  an  estimate,  according  to  which, 
Christmas  and  Easter  offerings  amount  to  337,0002. ;  marriages  produce,  in  licenses,  fees, 
and  collections,  78,500Z. ;  christenings,  12,500/. ;  burials,  12,500/. ;  in  all,  440,500/.  Ac- 
cording to  Archbishop  Curteis,  the  income  of  a  bishop  is  about  500/.  a  year;  that  of  a  priest 
varies  from  100/.  to  400/.  Although  a  conge  is  asked  from  the  pope,  the  real  election  to 
vacitat  places  rests  with  tlie  clergy  themselves ;  but  as  their  incomes  depend  entirely  on  the 
fiivour  of  their  hearers,  they  are  subject  to  a  necessity  of  choosing  popular  priests,  which  is 
not  felt  by  the  established  Catholic  churches.  Hence  the  influence  of  the  priests,  always  so 
remarkable  under  the  Catholic  sy? '  n,  exists  in  Ireland  to  an  extent  perhaps  unequalled. 
On  the  other  hand,  many,  especially  among  the  bishops,  are  remarked  for  their  exemplary 
life,  and  for  the  diligent  discharge  of  their  functions.  They  are  even  sometimes  instru- 
mental in  preventing  riot,  in  discovering  theft,  and  procuring  restitution.  The  recent 
admission  of  Roman  Catholics  to  all  political  privileges,  though  it  does  not  make  any  change 
in  the  condition  of  the  clergy,  has  been  hailed  by  the  body  in  general  with  peculiar  satisfac- 
tion. It  is  hoped  that  it  will  either  make  them  more  firiendly  to  the  established  government, 
or  diminisii  their  influence  in  estranging  from  it  the  minds  of  the  people. 

The  Prerbyterians,  as  already  observed,  are  nearly  confined  to  Ulster,  where  they  are  the 
most  numerous  sect.  The  synod  of  Ulster  is  formed  into  a  sort  of  establishment,  consisting 
of  201  congregations,  besides  which  there  are  110  congregations  in  communion  with  the 
Scottish  seceders.  The  ministers  receive  a  royal  gift  of  14,000/.  annually,  which  aflbnls 
from  50/.  to  100/.  to  each.  The  Presbyterians  form  tlie  most  industrious,  thriving,  and 
intelligent  portion  of  the  people ;  yet  a  great  proportion  have  imbibed  republican  ideas,  and 
they  emigrate  to  America  more  readily  than  any  other  class. 


:  n  m 


:tl 


,*-. 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Past  in. 


The  Established  Church  of  Ireland  is  in  union  with  that  of  England,  and  every  way  simi- 
lar. It  conaista  of  four  archbishoprics  and  eighteen  bisiioprics ;  but  by  an  act  recently  passed, 
two  archbishoprics  are  to  bb  converted  into  bisiioprics ;  and  ten  bishoprics  are  to  be  ntmlished.* 
The  entire  revenue  of  the  Irish  church  has  been  ascertained  to  exceed  1.50,000/.  Jbr  the 
bishoprics,  and  71.'),200/.  for  otiier  benefices,  Tlie  lands  belonging  to  tiie  bishops  are  of  far 
greater  value ;  but  in  consequence  of  being  let  on  old  leases  renewed  from  time  to  time  on 
payment  of  lines,  and  never  coming  to  a  termination,  the  rent  derived  from  them  was  greatly 
under  the  real  value.  It  is  proposed  now  to  oflbr  these  leases  to  the  present  incumbent,  in 
perpetuity,  on  payment  of  six  years'  purchase  of  their  estimated  value,  which,  it  is  calculated, 
will  prwluco  about  3,000,000/.  A  tax,  moreover,  varying,  according  to  the  amount  of  income, 
fVom  five  to  fifteen  per  cent.,  is  to  be  laid  on  all  livings  above  200/. ;  and  its  produce  to  be 
applied  to  the  augmentation  of  the  poorer  livings,  and  the  building  of  glebe  houses  and  of 
new  churches.  Hence  the  parocliial  tax,  called  the  vestry  cess,  or  church  rate,  amounting 
to  about  90,(KKW.  a  year,  is  no  longer  to  be  levied. 

The  literature  of  Ireland  in  modern  times,  cannot  boast  any  very  distin^ished  pre-emi- 
nence ;  yet  she  has  maintained  her  station  in  the  literary  world.  In  wit  and  eloqjence, 
indeed,  slic  has  excelled  both  the  sister  kingdoms.  In  the  fonner  quality.  Swift  and  Sheridan 
shine  unriviiUcd ;  and  in  the  latter,  Burke,  Grattan,  and  Curran  have  displayed  daring  and 
brilliant  flights.  In  her  graver  pursuits,  Ireland  has  not  been  so  happy;  though  Usher 
attained  the  first  eminence  in  theological  learning,  and  Berkeley  was  the  author  of  a  highly 
inijeniDna  system  of  philosophy. 

The  Irish  establisliments  for  education  are  scarcely  adequate  to  the  magnitude  of  the  coun- 
try. There  is  only  one  university,  that  of  Dublin,  founded  by  Elizabeth  on  the  model  of 
those  of  England,  hut  not  on  so  great  a  scale.  Of  it  and  of  other  Irish  literary  in.stitutions, 
an  account  will  be  found  under  the  head  of  Dublin.  As  the  constitution  of  this  university 
is  strictly  Protestant,  and  does  not  allow  the  teaching  of  Catholic  theology,  the  students  of 
that  faith  muf^t  have  been  all  educated  abroad,  had  not  government  endowed  for  their  use 
the  Colleifo  of  Alaynootli.  It  is  supported  by  a  revenue  of  about  9000/.  a  year,  and  contains 
a  president,  vice-president,  and  eleven  professors,  all  with  moderate  appointments.  The 
students  rpceivo  board  and  education;  and  the  whole  annual  expense  of  each  is  not  supposed 
to  e.\cee(l  20/.  The  students  of  the  north  resort  chiefly  to  Glasgow  for  theology,  and  to 
Edinburgh  for  medicine;  though  tliere  iias  been  an  attempt  to  obviate  this  necessity  by  the 
formation  ot'  an  institution  at  Belfast. 

The  e<hication  of  the  poor  in  Ireland  is  a  subject  which  excites  the  deepest  interest  in  all 
the  friends  of  that  country.  It  appears  that  by  the  8th  of  Henry  VIII.,  every  clergyman,  on 
his  induction,  becomes  bound  to  keep  or  cause  to  be  kept  an  English  school.  This  act, 
however,  is  either  obsolete,  or  so  far  evaded  that  only  23,000  children  are  now  taught  in 
these  parochial  schools.  The  greatest  effort  at  Irish  education,  however,  is  that  made  by 
the  Chartor  Schools,  instituted  in  1733,  which,  by  parliamentary  grants  and  private  bene- 
factions, have  enjoyed  an  income  of  30,000/.  a  year.  But  this  sum,  which  might  almost 
fiirnish  schools  to  the  half  of  Ireland,  is  spent  upon  2000  boys,  who  receive  board  as  well  as 
instructicn.  Although  the  act  recites  no  other  object  than  instruction  in  the  English 
tongue,  proselytism  has  become  almost  the  sole  aim.  The  Hibernian  Society,  the  Baptist 
Society,  and  tlia*.  for  discountenancing  vice,  support  schools  to  a  very  considerable  extent 
The  Kildarc  Street  Society,  established  in  1812,  founded  numerous  schools,  in  which  they 
endeavoured  to  induce  the  Catholics  to  attend  by  renouncing  all  attempts  to  gain  proee- 
Ivtes ;  but  from  the  entire  Scriptures  being  read  in  these  schools,  and  other  alleged  causes, 
the  Catholics  were  supposed  to  view  them  with  jealousy.  The  allowance  made  to  this 
society  was  therefore  withdrawn,  and  a  new  plan  instituted,  in  which  the  moral  and  literary 
is  separated  from  the  religious  education,  and  is  communicated  to  tlie  youth  of  both  religions 
during  four  or  five  days  in  the  week,  while,  in  the  remaining  period,  religious  instruction 
is  expected  to  be  administered  by  the  clergy  of  the  respective  churches.  Extracts  only 
from  the  Scripture,  approved  by  the  leading  Catliolic  clergy,  are  read  in  the  common 


*  The  new  arrangement,  when  completed,  will  be  as  rollows : 

Income. 

Armaoh  (u ith  Clogher,  Archb.) Xi:),170 

Meath 5,SS1 

Dcrry  ("illi  Rnphnc) 8,0.13 

Down  (with  Cniinor  and  Drnmure) 5,896 

Kihniiru  (with  .Aninghanil  Elphin^ 7,478 

Tuani(\vilh  Killnla  and  Achonry) 5,030 

DuBi.i N  (with  CluiMldaKh  and  Kililare) il,X2l 

Usfinry  (Willi  L«ij(hlin  nnil  FcrnM) fi,SSO 

Ca^ho'l  (Willi  Biiily,  Watcrrord,  and  I.ismore) 7,354 

Clnynp(.vithrork  and  Rms) .'i,OUO 

Killalnrwith  Kilfennru,  Ulnnrcrt,  and  KilmacduaKh) .  4,533 

Limerick  (with  Ardfurt  and  A|{hadoe) S,36U 


JPf' 


m- 


Total 83,953 

[Ak.  Ed  I 


l,g&3 


Book  1. 


■^' 


IRELAND. 


440 


Bchnola.  Locul  fiindt),  to  a  certain  extent,  arc  recjuircd  to  be  contributed.  Although  this 
syste'm  haa  met  with  many  opponents,  yet,  in  tlie  beginning  of  1833  tliere  had  been  estab- 
lished imdor  it  between  500  and  C(X)  Kclioola,  calculated  for  tiie  education  of  about  90,000 
scholars.  Tn  1824,  the  number  of  schools  in  Ireland  was  11,828,  and  scholars  560,540. 
Of  these  scholars  394,742  paid  for  their  own  instruction,  and  among  this  number  were 
307,(M)0  Catholics,  who  thus  showed  no  small  ardour  in  obtaining  the  benefits  of  knowledge. 
The  following  table,  irom  parliamentary  documents,  shows  the  number  of  pupils  reccivmg 
public  instruction  in  the  years  specified. 

Malei,  Femnlea.  Total. 

ITOl 2M,n06 ISB.SOT 3IM  81,1 

IftM ."MO.BW 809,(197 J68;964* 

1834 84,044 60,870 14S,5il 

The  fine  arts  do  not  appear  to  have  attained  any  great  excellence  in  Ireland.  Her  best 
painters  have  sought  for  patronage  in  the  British  metropolis ;  and  the  attempts  to  establish 
an  annual  e.^hibition  in  Dublin  have  not  succeeded.  The  Irish  harp  and  native  Irish  melo- 
dies enjoy  considerable  reputation.  The  ecclesiastical  structures  have  not  that  splendour 
and  richness  which  so  strongly  mark  many  of  those  in  England ;  but  the  modem  edifices, 
especially  in  Dublin,  display  a  taste  as  well  as  magnificence  which  render  that  capital 
almost  pre-eminent. 

In  funerals,  marriages,  and  similar  solemnities,  the  Irish  retain  several  old  national  cus- 
toms. The  practice  of  hired  howling  women  at  fonerals,  called  ululates,  is  very  prevalent; 
a  considerable  sum  is  paid  to  those  employed,  though,  in  cases  of  necessity,  they  howl  gratis. 
A  still  more  unfortunate  custom  is  that  of  the  wakes,  where  thirty  or  forty  neighbours 
assemble,  arc  entertained  with  meat  and  drink,  and  indulge  in  every  sort  of  fun.  Marriages 
in  many  parts  of  the  country  are  marked  by  some  real,  or  at  least  appKirent,  violence ;  the 
bridegroom  collects  a  largo  party  of  friends,  seizes  and  carries  oflf  the  seemingly  reluctant  bride. 
Alluding  to  this  custom,  her  going  to  her  husband's  house,  even  in  ordinary  cases,  is  called 
the  "hauling  home."  This  is  not  prompted  by  any  peculiar  shyness  on  the  part  of  the  fair 
sex ;  on  the  contrary,  the  mothers,  with  whom  the  afliair  chiefly  rests,  display  even  a  fever- 
ish anxiety  that  their  offspring  should  not  remain  long  in  a  state  of  single  blessedness.  The 
fair  sex  are  treated  among  the  higher  ranks  with  a  gay  and  romantic  gallantry;  among  the 
lower  almost  as  slaves,  being  subjected  to  the  most  degrading  labour. 

Amusement  forma  a  copious  element  in  the  existence  of  an  Irishman.  Ample  scope  is 
afforded  to  t!ie  Catholics  by  their  numerous  holidays,  and  the  Protestants  vie  with  them  in 
this  particular.  The  fairs  afford  a  grand  theatre  for  fun  of  every  description.  The  chief 
bodily  exercise  is  hurling,  which  consists  in  driving  a  ball  to  opposite  goals;  to  this  are 
added  horse-racing,  cock-fighting,  cudgelling,  leaping,  and  dancing;  to  say  nothing  of  drink- 
ing and  fighting.  The  conversation  of  the  Irish  is  distinguished  by  loud  mirth,  seasoned 
with  a  good  deal  of  humour,  by  singing,  and  telling  long  stories.  Thus  employed,  even  the 
poor  will  often  sit  up  to  a  late  hour. 

The  houses  of  the  Irisli,  if  we  except  those  of  the  rich,  or  in  towns,  which  ore  formed 
after  the  English  model,  are  mere  hovels  formed  of  earth,  taken  out  of  the  ground  on  which 
they  stand ;  whence  the  floor  is  reduced  at  lea.st  a  foot  below  the  outer  level,  and  becomes  a 
receptacle  for  all  the  superfluous  moisture.  This  is  the  more  incommodious  as  it  has  no 
boards,  and  the  bed  no  frame ;  nor  is  the  latter  raised  from  the  ground,  being  merely  straw 
spread  upon  the  floor.  This  humble  mansion  is  shared  by  all  the  living  creatures,  which  the 
family  are  able  to  muster ;  cows,  pigs,  geese,  and  fowls ;  which  are  rarely  separated  by  any 
partition  firom  the  other  tenants. 

No  compulsory  provision  exists  in  Ireland  for  the  support  of  the  poor ;  a  circumstance  to 
which  we  arc  inclined  to  ascribe  much  of  their  distressed  state,  as  well  as  of  the  backward 
state  of  the  country  in  general.  Not  being  obliged  to  contribute  any  thing  to  their  support, 
the  landlords  and  occupiers  have,  generally  speaking,  manifested  great  indifference  to  the 
condition  of  the  peasantry.  Few  among  them  have  hesitated  to  allow  their  estates  to  be 
subdivided  into  minute  portions  to  advance  their  political  interests,  or  to  obtain  an  increase 
of  rent.  Rut  it  is  abundantly  certain  that  they  would  have  paused  before  venturing  on  such 
a  course  of  proceeding,  had  they  been  made  responsible,  in  all  time  to  come,  for  the  paupers 
they  were  thus  introducing  upon  their  properties. 

The  dress  of  the  Irish  peasantry  consists  chiefly  of  the  native  wool,  worked  rudely  up 
into  frieze  or  linsoy;  for  they  seldom  can  afford  to  wear  the  fine  linen  which  they  fabricate. 
But  the  most  prominent  feature  of  this  attire  among  the  lowest  class,  is  its  lamentable  de- 
ficiency ;  in  many  instances  it  covers  little  more  than  half  of  the  person,  and  presents  an 
image  of  extreme  poverty.  When  this  deficiency  does  not  exist,  the  Irishman  loves  to  dis- 
play the  extent  of  his  wardrobe ;  when  going  to  a  fair,  he  puts  on  all  the  coats  he  has,  though 
the  season  be  midsummer. 

The  food  of  the  Irish  peasant  is  no  less  scanty  than  his  dress  and  habitation.    It  is  almost 


Vol.  I. 


•     *  Including  9,125  not  aacertainad. 

an* 


3G 


4&0 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAI'IIY 


Pabt  III. 


wholly  comprised  in  tlio  potato,  without  any  otlior  vngctablo  (for  ho  is  a  utrangcr  to  tho 
luxiirv  of  a  ijanlen),  nnd  only  in  favourablo  circumataiicos  is  it  accompanind  witii  milk,  Thia 
food,  ImwtHi.T,  iH  siiHicicnt  to  preserve  him  in  full  houlth  nnd  vigour.  In  the  north,  the  ubo 
of  oatmeal  in  the  form  of  cakes  and  pottage  has  been  derived  from  Scotland. 

Sect.  VII. — Local  Geography. 

Ireland  is  divided  into  four  provinces,  or  rather  regions:  Leinstnr  in  the  east,  Mnnstcr  in 
the  south,  ('(innaught  in  the  west,  and  Ulster  in  the  north.  This  is  independent  of  the 
minuter  English  (livision  into  counties,  a  number  of  which  are  comprised  in  each  of  the 
four  provinces.  These  last,  indeed,  when  Ireland  was  rule<l  by  native  governments,  formed 
separate  kingdoms.  They  are  still  distinguished  by  marked  boundaries,  by  a  diflcrent  aspect 
of  nature,  and  by  a  considerable  variation  of  monners  and  customs. 

The  following  table  exhibits  tho  leading  provinciol  statistics  of  Ireland.  The  population 
statements)  differ  considerably  from  thoee  hitherto  published;  but  they  have  been  furnished 
b^  Mr.  Porter,  of  tho  Board  uf  Trade  as  the  result  of  the  latest  and  most  accurate  digest  of 
'  10  returns  for  1831. 


X 


lYovlncN 

and 
CounKM. 

Simre 
Iklils. 

ImpmveU 

Vnlm. 
provH 
Acres. 

EiOmatid 
Anniul 

Valua. 

in  mi. 

PoiuU, 
ti(m  in 
1831, 

Cillo  iwl  TowM,  Willi  Ihctr  Populillon. 

tMmliT. 

£ 

Dublin 

331 

237,810 

10,819 

250,211 

35,740 

380,107 

Ddhlin 

304,15.1 

Louth 

nii 

1»1,;I4S 

14,0111 

lft4,7lU 

21,:«2 

124,840 

Droglicda 

17,305  Dundalk 

0,356 

Meath 

.'ilQ 

561, .537 

5,000 

5:0,4H 

27,042 

170,830 

Trim 

2,470 

Wicklow... 

m 

4flO,7fl4 

04,000 

300,822 

17.2h!I 

121,557 

Wicklow  , , . , 

3,040  Arklow 

3,808 

Weiforrt . . . 

iM 

545,070 

18„100 

30.5,134 

20,150 

183,713 

W««f.ird 

«,336 

Longford.  ■. 

20» 

103,500 

55,247 

151,505 

18,087 

112,558 

LongOtrd  , , , . 
KnniHcorthy  , 

3,783  New  Rosa  . . . 
3.537 

4,475 

Weitmeath 

3BI 

313,03.5 

53,083 

351,003 

2.3,015 

130,872 

Miillingar  .. . 

4.100  Atldonc 

11,363 

Klng'a  Co. 

44( 

304,500 

i:o,;i40 

317,010 

a.',504 

144,22.5 

Philipuluwn  . 
TiillnMinre  . , . 

1031  Birr 

3,406 

5,517 

Queen's  Co. 

.Tfl? 

3.'W,P.V 

00,072 

277.7(i7 

23,105 

145,851 

Pnrturlington 

2,877  Maryborough 

8,677 

Kildare 

3liU 

325,08f 

00.447 

255,082 

10,478 

108,434 

Alhy 

Kildare 

3,603  Naaa 

1,516 

3,073 

Kilkenny  . . 

40!) 

417,117 

00,.'i(lfl 

437,i;0.'! 

'.>0,78<l 

103,080 

Kilkenny 

83,741 

Carlow 

i!n 

in«,H3:t 

SM.fl-.IO 

104,805 

13,0'i8 

81,088 

Carlnw 

8,03S 

■),M(i 

4,113,'.>i;0 

035.424 

3,472,4(10 

278,:i!l8 

1,000,713 

Ultler. 
Down 

Hi 

502,077 

10,^,5ii!i 

480,12:1 

50,747 

;«2,012 

Newry 

10,013  Downpalrick 

4,133 

Donnaghadcc 

2,705 

Antrim 

COS 

4K1,10« 

225,070 

500,150 

48,02," 

325,015 

lli'lfnst 

Antrim 

53,000  Cnrrickfcrgua 
3,485  Linhiirn'' 

8,700 
4,684 

I/)niIon(li.Tr. 

47!l 

a7'-',f;c.7 

i:tfl.038 

310,002 

.34,001 

222,012 

l.nnilonilirry. 

0,313  Colerain 

4,851 

Donegal  . .. 

1,(N!I 

,5i<l.7:wi 

044,371 

340,,'iOl 

44,800 

'.'»!',  140 

lliillyHhiiinnn 

3,8;il  Lifford 

976 

Fermanagh 

44C 

320..V.I!l 

10I,0,V2 

2.V>.301 

22„58.'i 

1 40,703 

Knnitikillen , , 

3,300 

Cavan  

47f 

4'.>l,4(i3 

30.0(10 

:(07.741 

34,148 

227,033 

Cavan 

2,323 

Mnnaehnit  . 

m 

3l)!>.!Ui|J 

1)  i>')|: 

2l2.,'i81 

32,378 

105,5:10 

•Monaglian, ,. 

3,7.38     ■ 

Armagh 

'i>':\ 

2ii7,:il7 

42,172 

178,05,5 

3ti.2(:o 

220,1:14 

Armagh 

fi,4»3 

Tyrone  

-.•n 

,«0,(-20 

171,314 

528,005 

47,104 

304,408 

Uniagh 

2,005  Dungammon . 

3,843 

4,«M 

;),74!i,:«2 

1,40:i,'i22 

3,'.'(W:l7i' 

350,801 

2,280,022 

JUuiuter, 
Clare  

258,:i22 

Rnnit 

6,701 

744 

524,1  111 

S.V,i,5f<4 

441,203 

33,371 

Kerry 

1,013 

581,180 

S.W.Sfii 

:M4,01(i 

35,.507 

203,126 

Tralen 

Dingle 

7,.547  Killarney , . , , 

4,088 

7,014 

Cork 

I,iW 

l,0G8,f-»:i 

70O,7r,O 

1,203,020 

114,150 

810,733 

Cork  

Kinnalc 

Fermoy 

107,010  llondon 

7,(HW  Ynufhal 

0,703  MulldW 

10,179 
8,060 
4,114 

Waterford  . 

4U1 

rt,'i3,247 

118,034 

2!'5,304 

23,8('0 

177,054 

Wiiler'foril  , , , 

28,821  Liwiiore 

2,3.30 

Tippcrary. . 

B(i7 

Hlli,MS 

l«,147 

8r'0,53!l 

55,207 

402,503 

Clonnu'l 

Tippcrnry  , . , 
HoKrea 

15,.5!IO  ChkIicI 

6,34H  Carr.-onSuir 
5,3:19 

0.548 
7,460 

Limerick . . . 

604 

.5(«,842 

81,081 

030,932 

43,400 

315,355 

Limerick 

60,554 

5,275 

3,035.852 

1,005,308 

3,801,070 

300,005 

2,227,152 

Connauffht. 
Iz-itrim  .. .. 

40(1 

200.040 

128,107 

210,187 

2l,7i;2 

141,524 

CarrickonPh 

1,073 

Siigo 

MHii 

2,57,217 

Jli8,711 

2'27,44,1 

27,0,50 

171,70,5 

Pligo 

9,383 

Mayo 

}.1Xi 

871  084 

425,124 

5.W,018 

5,1,031 

30(),:(28 

Cnstleliar 

5.404 

Galway  — 

l,.-)IO 

!'5.'i,713 

470,n.')7 

808,704 

,i-',137 

414,084 

Cnlwny 

DnllinaBloe  .. 

3:i,l20  Tuam 

1,811 

4.S71 

Rotcomman 

541 

453,455 

131,003 

370,028 

r,300 

340,013 

Roscommon  . 

3,015 

4,10f 

2,805,000 

1,330,022  2,23(i,070 

107,408 

1,343,014 

♦iH,«X) 

I4,(10;l,47:l 

5,340,730 

12,715..57r 

1,142,(;0^ 

7,707,401 

SuiwECT.  1. — Lein.iter. 

Leinster  is  the  richest  and  most  cultiv.'ited  of  the  four  great  divisions,  and,  as  containing 
the  seat  of  government,  tho  most  iiiiportimt  tlioatie  of  jKilitical  events.  Though  the  sur- 
face be  level  to  a  great  extent,  it  is  not  destitute  of  considerable  ranges  of  mountains.  These 


t* Thia  is  the  Irish  mile  of  40  to  n  ili'gric. 
-Ah.  Eo.] 


The  area  haa  already  been  stated  to  be  30,000  English  square  miles 


lira. 

O.SM 

3,808 

4,478 

•  •  •  • 

ii,3fia 

5,406 

)ugh 

9,0T7 
3,073 

irgui  8,700 

. .  4,684 

..  4.H51 

..  970 


7,014 

10,179 
8,96!; 
4,114 
2,3,10 
U548 
7,460 


4,571 


Icontaininf; 
111  tho  sur- 
Ins.  These 

Iquare  mile* 


Book  I. 


IREIJVND 


451 


Jounty, 


include  almofit  the  whole  county  of  Wicklow,  whopo  Imld  nnd  picturcsquo  fiimmits  arc  goen 
oven  from  Dublin.  In  tho  interior,  tho  lonjr  range  of  Slievp-Blewrii  stri'tches  towards  the 
liordcTH  of  MuHMter.  A  considerable  part  luso  of  the  midland  counties  is  covered  by  the 
great  bojf,  whicli  crosses  the  wiiolo  centre  of  Ireland.  After  all  deductions,  however,  there 
remains  a  largo  extent  of  level  land,  fit  either  for  tillage  or  poMturnge.  This  is  the  part  of 
Ireland  where  wheat  is  grown  to  the  greatest  extent,  oats  being  idaewherc  almost  the  only 
grain ;  and  its  rich  postures  supply  the  capital  with  cuttle  and  the  prcxlucts  of  tho  dairy. 
Lcinstcr  comprises  tho  counties  of  Dublin,  Kildarc,  King's  county,  Queen's  Couii 
Wicklow,  Carlow,  Kilkenny,  WexfortI,  Mcuth,  VVcslmeath,  I^)nglbr(l,  and  lx>uth. 

The  county  of  Dublin  owes  its  distinction  almost  exdusivi'ly  to  its  containing  tho  capital 
of  Ireland.  Tho  city  of  Dublin  disputes  with  Edinburgh  and  Bath  the  reputation  of  being 
tlie  most  beautiful  city  in  the  empire.  If  the  brick  of  which  the  houses  arc  built  impair  the 
effect  of  the  general  range  of  its  streets  and  st^uares,  its  public  buildings,  composed  of  stone, 
surpass  in  grandeur  and  taste  those  of  any  of  its  rivals.  There  is  no  period  of  Irish  record 
in  wliich  Dublin  was  not  an  important  place.  It  is  mentioned  by  Ptoleiny  under  the  name 
of  Eblana.  The  Dunes,  in  tlie  ninth  century,  made  it  their  capital,  and  enclosed  it  with  a 
wall  about  a  mile  in  length,  the  course  of  which  may  still  be  traced.  As  soon  as  the  Eng- 
lish began  to  establish  themselves  in  Ireland,  its  proximity  induced  them  to  make  it  their 
head-quarters ;  it  grew  with  the  improvement  of  Ireland  and  the  extension  of  the  English 
8way,  but  all  its  splendour  has  arisen  within  the  lost  sixty  or  seventy  years.  The  numerous 
streets  and  squares  formed  during  that  period  have  been  built  on  a  regular  plan,  and  contain 
several  superb  mansions,  which  once  belonged  to  the  principal  nobles.  The  squares  are  par- 
ticularly axlmired ;  that  of  St.  Stephen's  Green  is  nearly  seven  furlongs  in  circuit ;  Merrion 
Square,  which  contains  the  splendid  mansion  of  Leinster  House;  Rutland  Square,  in  the 
interior  of  which  are  the  gardens  of  the  Lying-in  Hospital ;  and  Mountjoy  Square,  are  also 
spacious  and  finely  laid  out.  Of  the  streets,  the  finest  is  Sackville  Street,  170  feet  wide, 
and  adorned  with  many  splendid  mansions.  To  the  west  is  the  old  town,  now  bearing  marks 
of  decay,  and  still  further  west  is  the  tract  called  "the  Liberfy,"  as  being  out  of  the  juris- 
diction of  the  magistrates.  It  is  inhabited  only  by  the  lowest  orders,  and  exhibits  scenes  of 
filth  and  wretchedness  not  to  be  paralleled  in  any  city  of  the  sister  island.  A  room  fifteen 
feet  square  is  frequently  let  to  three  or  four  families;  and  one  house  was  ascertained  to  have 
lodged  108  personsi.  Dublin  has  been  "shorn  of  its  be.ims"  since  the  Union;  when  the 
nobles  and  gentry,  no  longer  called  to  attend  parliament,  transferred  their  own  residence  to 
the  metropolis  of  the  empire,  and  their  Dublin  mansions  have  been  converted  to  humbler  pur- 
poses. The  Castle,  the  residence  of  the  lord  lieutenant,  is  extensive ;  but  its  architectural 
beauty  is  almost  confined  to  a  modem  Gothic  chapel.  The  cathedral  of  St.  Patrick  (^fiff.  212.), 
and  Christ  Church  have  a  venerable  aspect ;  but  they  can  rank  only  secondary  to  the  fine 
212  structures  in  the  English  cities.   The  splendid 

structure,  formerly  the  parliament-house  of  Ire- 
land, and  now  the  national  bank  (fifi-  213.), 


Sl.  ratrick'8  Calhodrnl.  Bank  of  Ireland,  Dublin. 

was  built  between  1729  and  1739 ;  but  an  eastern  front  was  added  in  1785,  and  a  western 
front  shortly  after.  The  portico  is  147  feet  in  length,  supiwrted  by  lofty  Ionic  columns ;  the 
whole  covering  an  aero  and  a  half  of  ground.  The  Royal  Exchange  {fig.  214.),  forms  a 
square  of  100  feet,  and  its  principal  front  has  a  richly  decorated  portico  of  six  Corinthian 
columns.  The  Four  Ijiw  Courts,  situated  on  the  north  bank  of  the  river  {fig.  215.),  form 
_  215 

214 


Eichuia,  Dnblii. 


Fooi  Cooili,  DabliD. 


fl 


DESCRIPTIVE  OEOaRAPlIY. 


Pakt  in. 


li 


tlao  one  of  the  noblest  structurcg  in  Dublin :  it  congitits  of  a  square  of  140  foot,  prcBcntin|r& 
fW>ntof  six  Corintliian  pillars,  Hupportin^;  a  circular  lantern  and  nm{;niliccnt  uonio.  Tlie 
quay  ia  ornamented  by  the  Custoni-nuuHe,  uf  wliicit  tlie  front  is  entirely  of  Portland  stone, 
embcllishoil  with  a  Doric  colunnadc,  and  extendinf;  :)75  feet.  The  Post  Uflive,  in  Sackvillo 
Street,  is  extensive  and  rnugniticcnt,  with  a  front  of  223  feet,  adorned  with  an  Ionic  portico 
of  Portlund  stone ;  the  main  structure  is  of  granite.  In  the  centre  of  Backville  Street,  ia 
the  monument  erected  to  Nelsun ;  an  object  by  no  means  ornamental.  The  inns  of  court, 
the  theotre,  the  half-finished  Roman  Catholic  metro|)olitun  chapel,  and  several  other  churches 
and  chapels,  witli  many  of  the  hospitals,  may  bo  mentioned  as  adding  to  the  architectural 
•plendour  of  Dublin.  All  the  usual  associations  for  the  relief  of  distress  ore  supported  on  a 
liberal  scale,  and  great  zeal  is  shown  in  favour  of  all  institutions  for  the  promotion  of  know- 
ledge.  Trini'y  College  was  founded  in  1503 ;  and  its  students  amount  to  1600.  There  are 
2&7ellow8>.ip8,  and  the  livings  in  the  gill  of  the  university,  which  aro  considerable  in  num- 
ber and  value,  are  offered  to  the  fellows  in  the  order  of  seniority.  The  gradations  of 
rank,  amongst  the  fellows  in  Trinity  College,  are  indicated  by  a  different  dress  and  table. 
The  library  contains  100,000  volumes ;  but  its  otlier  collections  are  not  equal  to  those  of  the 
Dublin  Society.  Usher,  Switl,  Berkeley,  Chandler,  Inland,  Pamell,  Burke,  Grattan,  Curran, 
with  other  distingui:4hed  characters,  are  mentioned  as  pupils  of  this  seminary.  The  buildings 
of  the  College  are  on  a  large  scale,  divided  into  three  quadrangles,  for  the  accommodation 
of  the  fellows  and  pupils.  The  front  towards  College  Green  extends  300  feet,  and  is  adorned 
with  columns  of  tlio  Corinthian  order.  The  library  forms  a  fourth  quadrangle,  built  of  hewn 
■tone,  with  a  rich  entablature ;  and  the  principal  room,  210  feet  long  and  41  feet  broad,  is 
elegantly  fitted  up.  At  a  short  distance  f^om  town  is  a  botanic  garden.  The  Royal  Dublin 
Society,  incorporated  in  1749,  for  the  promotion  of  husbandry  and  the  useful  arts,  has  a 
botanic  garden;  a  museum  of  natural  history;  a  school  for  drawing,  with  models;  and 
teachera  in  all  these  departments.  The  Roval  Irish  Academy,  incorporated  in  1782,  has 
published  many  volumes  of  Transactions.  The  Dublin  Institution  has  been  formed  on  the 
model  of  that  of  London,  and  a  city  Library  nr,iablishcd.  Although  a  g:reat  literary  spirit 
prevails  in  Dublin,  there  are  few  Wks  printed  there,  and  the  art  of  printing  is  in  a  back- 
ward state.  The  works  of  Irinh  authors  issue  from  the  I^ndon  presses.  Dublin  has  very 
little  foreign  trade ;  but  she  hna  a.  cons-idcrablo  trade  with  England,  particularly  with  Liver- 
pool. The  bay  is  spacious,  and  has  good  anchorage ;  but  the  entrance  is  beset  with  formida- 
ble sand-banks,  particularly  those  called  the  North  and  South  Bulls,  which  cannot  be  passed 
by  large  vessels  at  low  water ;  sn  that  vessels  embayed  at  that  time  of  the  tide,  and  attacked 
by  strong  easterly  gales,  can  scarcely  escape  being  driven  upon  one  of  them.  To  avert  these 
evils,  a  double  wall  has  been  constructed  throe  miles  in  length,  composed  of  enormous  blocks 
of  granite,  dovetailed  into  each  other,  the  interval  filled  with  gravel ;  and  a  light-house 
erected  at  tho  end.  Another  pier  fif  great  extent  has  been  built  at  Dunleary,  now  Kings- 
town, on  the  southern  side  of  the  bay,  which  is  connected  by  a  railway  with  the  capital. 
To  these  advantages  Dublin  unites  that  of  being  placed  at  the  termination  of  the  Grand 
Canal  on  the  soutn,  and  the  Royal  Canal  on  the  north,  which  penetrate  by  different  lines  to 
the  Shannon  and  the  interior  ot  Ireland.  In  1829,  Dublin  paid  the  sum  of660,00W.  of  duty 
on  imported  goods,  while  that  paid  at  all  the  other  ports  of  Ireland  amounted  only  to  010,0(M){. 
The  environs  are  celebrated  for  their  beauty.  The  vast  nuinb(!r  of  villas  and  villages  which 
cover  the  adjacent  districts,  and  are  rendered  conspicuous  by  the  ground  sloping  down  to  the 
bay;  the  foreground  of  the  Dublin  mountains,  and  the  picturesque  summits  of  those  of 
Wicklow  in  the  background,  render  the  situation  striking  and  delightful.  To  the  west, 
Phcenix  Park,  a  royal  demesne  of  several  milon  in  circumference,  affi>ras  on  agreeable  pro- 
menade, and  has  lately  been  adorned  with  an  obelisk,  210  feet  high,  in  honour  of  the  Dnke 
of  Wellington.  The  rest  of  the  county  contains  only  villages,  and  tlie  interior  possesses  few 
interesting  objects.  The  shores  of  the  bay,  however,  include  many  striking  sites;  and  the 
view  from  the  Hill  of  Killiney  is  almost  matchless. 

Wicklow  is  in  general  composed  of  bog,  forest,  and  mountain,  and  contributes  little  to  the 
wealth  of  Ireland.  It  is,  however,  celebrated  for  picturesque  beauty.  Its  coast,  diversified 
by  hills,  broken  into  glens,  and  richly  wooded,  is  almost  covered  with  the  seats  of  the  gentry 
and  opulent  citizens  of  Dublin.  These  variegated  and  embellished  grounds,  having  on  one 
side  the  expanse  of  the  Irish  Channel,  and  on  the  other  the  lolly  mountains  in  the  interior, 
produce  a  number  of  beautifiil  sites.  The  demesne  of  Powersconrt  is  pre-eminent,  the  water- 
fall (Jig.  216.),  descending  360  feet  down  a  steep  hill,  amid  vast  hanging  woods.  The  interior 
of  the  county  presents  features  of  a  very  different  description ;  glens  between  lofty  mountains, 
naked  and  desolate.  Among  tliese  is  Glpiuhilough  (fig.  217.),  which  is  surrounded  by  amost 
majestic  circuit  of  mountains,  and  contains  some  remarkable  ecclesiastical  monuments  attri- 
buted to  St  Kevin,  a  great  patron  saint  of  Ireland  in  the  seventh  century.  One  of  his  disci- 
plea  founded  at  Glendalough  a  little  city,  long  celebrated  as  a  seat  of  religion  and  learning. 
Only  its  site  can  now  be  traced ;  but  there  are  distinct  remains  of  seven  churches,  among 
which  the  cathedral  and  St.  Kevin's  kitchen  are  the  most  entire.    Loughs  Dan  and  Bnv 


Book  I. 


IRELAND. 


to  the 
sitied 
;entry 
in  one 
terior, 
vatcr- 
iterior 
itains, 
imost 
I  attri- 
I  diBci- 
ning. 
Lmong 
iBnv 


iitimtcd  in  tho  booom  of  tho  wildrst  ftwiiintiiinH,  mul  i-nclcwctl  by  Hnrk  tnd  lofty  rooks,  nronrnt 
nntiiro  iitidcr  nii  ii>i|ic(t  tlio  most  rufloly  ^lublllne,  VVicklow  huH  vein*  of  copper  and  lootl : 
gold  wiiH  collcctfd  in  ono  yeiir  to  tlio  vnliio  of  KMXKI/. ;  but  tho  voin  wiis  soon  oxhnuHtcd. 

Tho  towMM  of  Wicklow  and  Arklow,  thoU),'h  well 
built,  nri!  inciin.siiloriihlu ;  yot  tho  latter,  at  the 
niotilli  of  lh<!  DvdiM,  has  n  little  trade,  and  was  once 
tho  residenoo  of  the  kinffH  of  Ireland.  It  wa«  the 
Hceno  of  a  memorable  action  in  170S,  when  Uio  in* 


Powencourl  Wmtrrill 


Glmdalauih 


surgents,  above  30,000  strong,  were  defeated  by  a  small  British  detachment. 

Wexford,  to  the  south  of  Wicklow,  is  separated  from  it  by  a  range  of  mountains ;  but 
tho  interior  contains  u  great  der.l  of  level  land,  in  which  agriculture  is  pursued  with  greater 
diligence,  and  the  tenantry  are  more  comfortable,  than  in  most  otlier  parts  of  Ireland.  Barley 
is  tt  prevailing  crop.  The  woodlands  uL-o  are  extensive  and  valuable.  Wexford  is  a  place 
of  some  consequence,  with  a  harbour  much  obstructed  by  sand ;  yet  it  carries  on  some  traffic. 
Some  woollens  are  mode  both  at  Wexford  and  Ennif'Corlliy.  New  Ross,  in  tho  western  part 
of  the  county,  is  a  flourishing  town,  on  the  Burrow,  which  admits  of  largo  ships  coining  up 
to  its  quay. 

Kilkenny,  a  fine  and  extensive  county,  separated  from  Wexford  by  the  Borrow,  is  watere<l 
not  only  by  that  river,  but  by  its  tributaries  tho  Noro  and  the  Suirc.  These  streams  carry 
off  the  superfluous  moistare,  and  prevent  the  foriqation  of  bog  or  maish  to  any  extent.  Kil- 
kenny, being  cliicHy  level,  or  intersected  only  by  hills  of  moderate  height,  is  composed 
almost  etitirely  either  of  arable  or  fine  pasture  lund.  Tho  latter  is  employed  in  extensive 
dairies,  but  tho  system  of  cultivation  is  still  imperfect.  Kilkenny,  tho  capital,  advantage- 
ously situated  on  the  Nore,  is  partly  built  of  the  marble  of  the  surrounding  quarries.  Its 
cathedral  is  one  of  the  finest  in  Ireland,  and  the  castle,  with  its  reinii  ining  gates  and  bastions, 
exhibits  indications  of  that  strength  which  enabled  it  to  hold  out  against  Cromwell  longer 
than  any  other  city  in  Ireland.  At  present  Kilkenny  flourishes  by  inland  trade,  and  by  a 
manufactory  of  blankets  and  other  woollens.  Tho  foreign  trade  of  the  county  is  curried  on 
by  Watcrford. 

Carlow  is  encompassed  by  mountains,  which  however  enclose  a  champaign  tract  of  great 
beauty  and  fertility,  equally  fit  for  tillage  and  pasture,  and  producing  the  best  butter  in  Ire- 
land. The  town  of  Carlow  is  a  considerable  place,  distinguished  by  an  abbey  and  castle, 
both  of  great  antiquity.  The  town  has  a  manufactory  of  coarse  woollens,  and  carries  on  a 
considerable  trade  down  the  Barrow.  An  extensive  Catholic  seminary  has  lately  been 
founded  here. 

Queen's  County  and  King's  County  fiirm  a  table-land  of  moderate  elevation.  Part  of  the 
Bxeit  chain  of  bogs  crosses  these  counties,  and  renders  a  large  proportion  of  them  unpro- 
ductive, though  it  supplies  them  with  cheap  and  abundant  fiiel.  The  remaining  surface  ia 
highly  fertile.  Queen's  County  is  situated  along  the  heads  of  the  Barrow  and  the  Nore ; 
Kmg  s  County  reaches  to  the  Shannon ;  and  both  communicate  by  canals  with  Dublin. 
Portarlington,  on  the  borders  of  the  two  counties,  is  a  well-built  place,  with  good  schools, 
and  the  residence  of  a  considerable  number  of  gentry.  Tullamore,  on  the  great  canal,  and 
Birr  or  I'urscnstown,  uro  the  most  thriving  towns  in  Icing's  County. 

Kildare,  with  the  exception  of  about  a  sixth  part  of  bog,  forms  a  plain  of  the  finest  arable 
soil,  well  cultivated,  and  whence  the  capital  is  chiefly  supplied  with  grain.  The  Grand  and 
Royal  Canals,  which.  lx)tli  cross  its  northern  border,  afli)r(l  the  means  of  ready  conveyance 
to  Dull! in.  Kildure-town,  presenting  a  lofty  round  tower  and  some  other  vestiges  of  past 
importance,  is  only  supported  by  tho  races  held  on  the  curragh  of  Kildare,  an  expanse  of 
several  tliousiiud  acres  of  the  very  finest  turf.  Nnas  and  Athy  are  larger  towns,  and  the 
castle  of  tlic  former  bears  testimony  to  the  period  when  it  was  the  residence  of  the  kings 


'mt 


4M 


DKHCIUI'TIVK  (JKOGRAI'UV. 


I'AHT  III. 


of  I^Miiafcr.  In  thin  county  ist  iMiiyiuKitli,  ii  mniill  ti.rtii  rontnininii  tlio  collojjn  PHtubliil.cd 
by  (roviTiiinont  tor  tliu  nluuiiliiin  i>t  ihn  Koniun  ('iitliiviii'H. 

Mdiitli  lit  ouii  ol'tlin  niiwt  llivonii'il  CDntiticNDf  Ihn  kin({i»iim  in  ronprrt  ti)  *)il.  Itit  ricli  paii- 
tiiri'H  bu|i|Kirt  viiHt  honlH  nl'  black  (.'uttli>,  wlilcli  p«n|)|)ly  tlii!  innrki-ls  ol'  tlm  ciipitiil,  iiiiU  iirc  ox- 
(wrtiul  to  Kii^lanil.  Tim  pnxhirU  nl'  tlio  duiry  iiro  nliinuhint,  lliimifli  not  of  very  Hiip^rior 
(luality.     Trim,  wlioru  tint  uiwi/cM  urti  lu'ld,  in  u  Hniiill  tiiwn  ;  iNavnii  iiml  Kulli*  nni  liir|(>'r. 

Uuitli,  tlidii^li  tint  HnmlloHt  in  urea  Dt'any  [rinli  county,  iH  oun  i)t'  liw  lirHt  in  |xiint  ot'  natu- 
ral anil  ac(|iiirc(l  advantajru!*.  An  activo  H|iirit  ot"  irnproviMncnt  han  lironglit  ainiunt  I'vory 
jiarl  «)(■  itH  cxcclliMit  soil  undiT  cultivation.  ItH  linen  niamifacturo  priKlncox  cliioMy  dowlnn 
and  i<li<'i'tinj{H,  with  WMnf  cuudiric.  l,outli  prcnonln  many  HuinplcM  of  tliu  earthen  inouniU 
called  nillit.  Dundalk,  the;  capital  of  the  cciinity,  in  ancii^nt,  tiopuluUH,  tind  tionriiihinr;.  It 
ha»  Ik'cii  iliu  thoatru  of  iinporlant  liimtorical  events ;  lint  itn  lolly  towi tm  and  cnMtluit  are  now 
dcnioliHhed,  and  have  jfivcn  place  to  conitortahlo  dwollinjjH.  The  town  conrtist*  chiefly  of 
one  lar(;o  and  broiul  Htruet,  whoncu  many  lanen  are  tieen  divorffinuf.  It  in  tho  only  placo  in 
Ireland  where  tho  cambric  manufacture  linH  been  introduced,  and  continueM  to  llourixh. 
I)ro(ilieda,  nt  tho  mouth  of  the  tioyne,  whm  of  Htill  f^reator  importance  08  a  military  station, 
bfiin^  coiisiilcrcd  one  nf  tho  keyii  ct'  Irehiuil.  In  the  f^rcat  rebellion  of  IfVtl,  it  Htood  u  lon(( 
siege,  but  wan  ailerwardH  taken  by  Cromwell,  who  |>nni8bed  itH  rc«iHtancn  by  n  moHt  barba- 
rouH  maiwacro  of  tho  ^rritton.  In  IflW),  two  miles  above  I)rr)glioda,  won  fought  tho  liuttlo 
of  the  Doyno,  that  memorable  tleld  which  CHtabliHhnd  the  civil  and  roliffious  libertios  of  tho 
ompire.  Tho  fortificationH  are  of  obMohito  gtrnctnre,  and  ore  communued  on  several  nidos. 
Tho  place  hat*  an  excellent  harbour,  and  exteiiitive  conmiorcc  in  grain  brouf^ht  down  tho 
river  m  couNiderable  (piantities  tiir  ex(Nirtation ;  in  return  for  which,  cuitlH  and  other  curnnio- 
diticM  are  iniiiorted, 

Westineatli  and  l^onjflord,  reachinjj  westward  nn  tar  oh  tho  Shannon,  coiwist  chiefly  of  a 
very  oxtonnive  plain  considerably  encumb<<red  with  lakes,  boffs,  an<l  morassps,  and  wibjoct  in 
|»art  to  the  overfl  iwinjf  of  the  Shannon,  but  inclndinrr  fertile  tracts  of  jjreat  extent.  Ath- 
lone,  tliu  lariifcst  iiiland  town  of  Irtdand,  is  situated  partly  in  Westnieath  and  partly  in  Ro<)< 
common.  It  is  memorable  liir  its  resistance  to  (ieneral  (iinklo  in  1001,  previous  to  the  Inttle 
of  Anghrim,  and  is  still  considered  an  important  military  station.  It  is  divided  by  tho  Shan- 
non into  two  parts  uuiti'd  by  a  liridire.  With  this  exception,  these  provinces  contain  only 
small  country  towns  and  large  villaires.  Mullingar,  in  VVcstmitath,  liasu  considerablo  trade. 
Ijongford  is  the  capital  of  the  county  of  that  name. 

SuBSKcrr  2. — Munster. 

Mimster  includes  the  south  and  south-west  of  Ireland,  and,  tboufth  not  the  mo«t  extensive 
division  of  the  kingdom,  is  on(!  of  those  which  presents  the  boldest  and  most  striking  fea- 
tures. Most  of  tho  great  mountain  chains  of  Ireland  traverse  Munster;  among  which  aro 
conspicuous  tho  Galties  and  the  mountains  of  Kerry,  which  encircle  Killamey ;  so  that,  not- 
withstanding tho  almost  Iwundless  plains  of  Limerick  and  Tipperary,  and  the  level  character 
of  a  great  part  of  (>ork,  it  may  bo  considered  as  a  mountainous  region.  It  has  manufactures, 
though  not  on  so  great  a  scale  as  those  of  tho  north  ;  and  its  cotnmcrce  is  very  considerablo, 
chiefly  in  the  export  of  salted  provisions.  The  Catholic  religion  prevails,  with  little  inter- 
mixture of  that  of  the  English  church.  Munster  is  divided  into  larger  and  less  numerous 
portions  than  Leinster ;  its  counties  are  Tipperary,  Watcrford,  Cork,  Kerry,  Limerick,  and 
Clare. 

Tijiperary,  extending  over  almost  the  whole  frontier  of  I^instcr,  is  crossed  by  a  long' 
chain  of  mountains  r;alled  variously  Slieve-Bloom,  tho  Devil's  Bit,  and  other  uncouth  names; 
and  on  the  south  it  includes  part  of  the  Galties.  On  tho  north  a  small  portion  of  tho  groat 
central  bog  extends  across  the  county  ;  but  one  district,  along  the  upper  course  of  the  Suire, 
bears  the  appellation  of  tho  Golden  Vale.  The  sheep  and  horned  cattlo  are  of  excellent 
quality.  There  are  manufactures,  chiefly  tor  domestic  use;  and  some  coal,  similar  to  that 
of  Kifkoimy.  Clonmel,  the  county  town,  is  one  of  the  most  considerablo  in  tho  interior  of 
Ireland  :  it  staxl  a  long  siogo  against  Cromwell,  who  after  its  reduction  doni<dishod  tho  strong 
wail.s  and  castles  by  which  it  was  defended.  It  is  a  well-built  town,  with  four  streets  cross- 
ing each  oilier,  and  curries  on  a  brisk  inland  trade.  Casliel  is  a  Inrgo  and  handsome  city, 
the  .seal  of  an  archbishop,  to  whoso  residence  a  considerabln  library  is  attached.  In  ancient 
times,  it  was  the  capital  of  the  king.-*  of  Munster,  of  whose  palace  some  remnants  may  still 
bo  traced.  Noble  rragmonts  remain  of  tlie  ancient  cathedral,  majestically  seated  on  tho 
summit  of  a  precipitous  reck.  The  choir  iiuil  nave,  210  feet  long,  aro  strewed  with  the  re- 
mains of  its  rjcli  orniiments.  Here  was  de|)osited  tho  I,ia  Falo,  or  fatal  stone,  on  which  the 
kiniis  of  Minister  were  crowned.  Tho  .«tructuro  is  now  abandoned  to  decay,  and  a  modern 
cathedral  of  lino  Grecian  architecture  has  b«!on  substituted.  Cashel  contains  remains  of 
otiier  monastic  edifices,  of  which  I  lore  Abbey,  on  tho  same  rock  with  tho  cathedral,  is  a 
magnificent  specimen,  still  almost  entire. 

Waterford  is  a  mountainous  county,  and  only  a  small  portion  is  under  cultivation  *  th« 


Book  I. 


IREMND. 


406 


chief  hmnrli  of  ritrnl  iiuliiNtry  w  tlin  ilniry,  and  ((rrnt  qiinntitimi  of  butter  nrr<  hiiIiinI  for  ei- 
portntiiiii.  VViitcrfiinl,  itn  cii|>ital,  oiii'  of  tlii<  |irinri|)i\l  Ki'ii-|N)rtH  (if  tlic  iuniiin>,  tM'iii;^  pInciMl 
at  tliii  ('(iiilliii'tirn  iif  tlin  narnivv  utiil  Suirc,  tin-  hccihhI  niiil  IliirtI  rivcrM  nl  Irclnriil,  cnjoyH  a 
riHwt  tvxti'iiMivn  iiit)>r<'citirMn  with  tliu  iiili'rior.  'I'Ih'  i|imntily  of  Ix-pf,  |H)rk,  Imltcr,  ami  Kriijn 
(txixirli'd  to  Kti|{laiiil,  in  IKII-'J,  wah  vnliicil  nt  'J,(N1.\H(I1/. ;  of  which  Imi^oii  vviui  M7,(MK)/.  ; 
hiittitr,  ri:<H,(MNI/. ;  whont  and  flour,  rtlW,inM.;  natx,  l'^N,(NN)/.;  iivn  \»ini,  I17,(NI0/.  Tho 
Miuthcrii  jmoki't  coniiiiiniicntinn  witli  l'',ii);liiMd  in  carried  on  fVoiii  Waterllird  to  Miltiird  llaviiu 
Within  tlicwii  ft'w  yearn,  wivciitv  vcHwi^t  have  licen  flltod  out  llir  tho  Ncwfoutidland  flihory 
Watorford  fiiJoyN  th«  l)OM<'tlt  oi'  a  dci-p  and  Npacious  harlmiir,  and  a  flno  i|uny  half  a  mile 
lonif.  ItH  ('ccl(<8iai«linal  lUdnuiiiontM  nru  of  connidornhln  nm|{»itud<<,  mid  it  haH  an  elrifant 
nMNJern  cathedral,  witii  other  Hue  puiihc  nditico*.  Twenty  index  to  thn  wewt,  on  a  iinall 
hay,  iH  Dun^arvan,  thn  lar(;eHt  li<«hiii){  town  in  Ireland;  and  itx  anti(|iiity  in  atlcMtrd  by  a  ca»- 
tlu  and  Huverai  inoiiaiitin  roinaiiiM.  l.iHiiiore,  on  the  Dlackwator,  ii  now  dcNorted  ;  but  itjtcaatio, 
erected  liy  Kin^  John,  in  llHri,  Htili  prnHontd  markx  of  ancient  grandeur,  and  haa  been  lately 
repaired. 

Cork  in  the  lar};pHt  county  of  Ireland.  On  thn  northern  border  ia  tho  lofty  rnngfe  of  the 
GaltioH,  which  prcHent  many  picturnrt<|ue  feature*,  and  command  oxtoniiive  and  lN>nutif\il 
prtwpnctH ;  itH  wetitorn  border  partakeM  of  tho  mnimtainoufi  character  of  tho  nei)rbbouring 
diHtrictM  of  Kerry;  and  thn  rocky  Nhoren  and  headlandii  washed  by  tho  wavcHof  the  Atlantic, 
are  of  un  awful  and  terrific  character.  About  a  titUi  of  the  county  conHiNtH  of  mountain  and 
bo)f ;  tho  roHt  i»  only  travnraed  by  hillH  of  moderate  nlnvation,  enclnnini;  fertile  niid  often 
beautiful  valleyn,  oftpccially  that  alonjf  tho  river  and  bay.  Tho  ntyln  of  culture  ix  iiitoffether 
Iritih;  in  Rinall  fnrmn,  by  |xior  tonantn,  chiefly  by  tho  xiMide,  and  potjitoea  tho  prevailiii)(  crop. 
Tlio  manutactiireg  conniHt  uf  aailcloth,  coarHO  lincnii  ami  woolleiiH.  There  uro  oImo  aome 
oxteniiivo  distilleriea, 

Cork,  the  (jroat  nouthern  emporium  of  Ireland,  has  a  population  of  107,000 ;  boinjf,  in  point 
of  wealth  ami  ina(;nitude,  tho  xccond  city  in  the  island.  Itx  iiionatttic  structurcH,  onco  con- 
siderable, have  almost  entirely  dif>appenred.  Its  great  nros|H!rity  ix  mtHlcrn,  in  consequence 
of  tho  provision  trade,  of  which  it  has  become  the  chiet  mart.  The  river  Iico,  at  its  junc- 
tion with  the  BOB,  tbrms  tho  xpiicious  enclosed  bay,  called  tho  Covo  of  Cork,  compoainff  one 
of  tho  lltiost  liarboura  in  the  world.  In  couseiiuence  of  its  convenient  situation,  tho  West 
India  bound  fleets  UHiiulIy  touch  there,  and  tnkn  in  provisions.  Tho  export  of  salted  beef 
and  pork  has  some  what  diminished  siiu-e  tho  peace;  but  that  of  provisions  in  (rcncrul,  and 
particularly  K'"'"'  '""*  '"''-'"  tC*-*"''}'  niiRmcnted;  and  Cork,  on  the  whole,  is  in  a  very 
flouribhiii);  and  prosperous  state.  A  gre:it  part  of  tho  old  town  consists  of  mitierablo  and 
crowded  alleys;  but  a  nnmlior  of  handsome  new  streets  have  been  built,  and  several  chan- 
nels branching  from  the  Lee,  which  flowed  through  the  city,  and  were  detrimental  to  tho 
health  of  tho  inhabitants,  have  been  filled  up.  Cork  has  a  literary  institution,  with  tho  usual 
appendages  of  library,  lectures,  and  lx)tanic  garden;  and  it  supports  tliu  charitable  cstab- 
lislimont.s  usual  in  great  cities  on  a  liberal  scale. 

Kinsale,  on  a  fine  bay  at  the  mouth  of  the  Bandon,  was  much  more  frequented  than  Cork 
by  tho  early  English  monarchs,  who  bestowed  on  the  jdaco  extensive  privileges,  and  viewed 
it  as  tho  key  of  southern  Ireland.  It  has  now,  however,  sunk  under  the  superior  importance 
of  its  neighbour ;  and  it  is  chiefly  supported  by  a  fishery.  Youglml,  at  tho  mouth  of  the 
Blaukwater,  has  a  good  harlmiir,  though  obstructed  by  a  bar ;  and  carries  on  some  trade  and 
manufacture. 

Kerry  presents  an  assemblage  of  mountains  wild,  rocky,  and  desolote.  These  are  inter- 
aperaed  with  valleys  and  narrow  plains  which  are  almost  wholly  employed  in  pasturage;  and 
Kerry  has  a  small  breed  of  cows,  which  yield  plenty  of  excellent  milk.  Its  coast  ia  broken 
into  several  very  deep  bays,  particularly  those  of  Dingle,  Konmare,  and  Tralee.  A  considerable 
quantity  of  herring  la  caught  in  these  baya.  Tralee,  the  county  town,  exhibits  the  remains 
Q.Q  of  a  strong  castle,  onco  Uie  residence  of 

**  ■  the  Earls  of  Desmond,  when,  under  tho 

title  of  Palatine,  they  exercised  tho  real 
sovereignty  over  this  part  of  Irelimd  ;  a 
sway  which  terminated  with  their  attain- 
der under  the  reign  of  Elizabeth. 

Killarney  and  its  hikes,  as  to  scenery, 
have  no  rival  in  Ireland.  There  ia  only 
one  body  of  water,  to  which,  however, 
the  tonn  laktx  is  usually  applied ;  so 
completely  is  it  divided  into  three  bays 
united  only  by  narrow  straits,  and  pre- 
senting each  a  different  ospect.  The  lower 
lake,  immediately  adjoining  Killarney 
{^g,  218.),  forms  the  main  exponse  of  water,  and  presents  all  tho  features  on  the  greateel 


Laketof  Killarnejr. 


i    I 


'1'1 


11'' 


iMl 


>" 


46fi 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part.  HI. 


Mucrua  Abbcir. 


Kale.    On  the  eoatern  shore  rise  the  mountaliu  known  by  the  name  of  Macgillicuddy's 

Ree!<8,  the  highest  of  which  ridoa  to  3400 
feet,  tlie  most  elevated  point  in  Ireland. 
On  this  side  nli-o  ure  tlic  mountains  of 
Tomies  and  Glena,  with  tlieir  immense 
forests.  Near  the  western  bank  is  tiie 
beautiful  island  of  Iimisfallon.  At  the 
most  southern  point  of  the  lower  lake  a 
much  smaller  bay  branches  off  from  it, 
through  channels  formed  by  Dinis  Island. 
This  bay,  called  Turk  Lake,  is  over- 
hung on  one  side  by  the  precipitous 
sides  of  the  lofly  mountain  of  tliat 
name,  and  bordered  on  the  other  by 
the  long  wooded  and  winding  penin- 
sula of  Mucruss.  The  venerable  ruin 
of  Mucruss  Abbey  {fiff.  219.)  adds 
greatly  to  the  interest  of  this  jmrt  of  the 
scenery.  From  Dinis  Island,  a  long 
winding  channel  of  more  than  two  miles  leads  to  the  Upper  Lake.  The  scenery  seen  in 
this  passage  is  of  surpassing  grandeur  and  beauty.    The  most  striking  spot  is  at  the  Eagle's 

Crag  (Jiff.  220.\  a  stupendous  and 
220  nigged  cliff,  which  bursts  suddenly 

on  the  view,  rising  in  a  pyramidal 
form  from  the  water.  Thioughout 
all  the  rocks  of  Killamey,  but  here 
most  particularly,  the  effect  of  echoes 
is  most  powerful  and  striking.  The 
Upper  Lake,  the  least  extensive  but 
the  most  sublime,  exhibits  all  the  lof- 
tiest mountains  under  the  most  im- 
posing point  of  view.  Its  shores  are 
winding  and  varied  with  numerous 
islands,  whose  rocky  sides  contrast 
with  the  brilliant  green  of  the  ar- 
butus. The  ascent  of  the  highest 
mountains,  Mangerton  to  the  north, 


Ea<lo't  Crag. 


and  Gheran  Tual,  the  highest  of  the  reeks  to  the  south-east,  discloses  awful  ranges  of  rugged 
precipices  and  of  dark  and  rocky  ravines;  and  their  summits  command  an  astonishing  view 
of  the  mountain  glens  and  rocky  shores  of  Kerry,  and  the  expanse  of  tlie  Atlantic,  and  the 
distant  plains  of  Cork  and  Limerick. 

Limerick  is  onn  of  the  finest  counties  of  Ireland.  Its  borders  include  some  branches  from 
the  high  mountains  of  Kerry  and  Tlpperary ;  but  the  main  body  consists  of  a  fertile  plain. 
.\n  alluvial  tract,  two  or  tlireo  miles  broad,  along  tlie  Siiannon,  is  quite  exuberant  That 
noble  river,  now  expanded  into  an  estuary  or  bay  sixty  miles  in  length,  runs  along  the  whole 
northern  border  of  Limerick. 

The  city  of  Limerick,  now  outstripped  by  Cork,  is  the  third  in  Ireland  Its  situation,  in 
the  centre  of  the  grand  internal  navigation  of  tiie  kingdom,  secures  to  it  an  extensive  trade; 
and  the  largest  vessels  can  ascend  to  the  harbour.  Limerick  is  one  of  the  great  marts  lor 
the  export  of  grain  and  provisions;  the  value  of  those  shipped  from  it  in  1831,  having  been 
estimated  at  8.54,600/.  It  was  anciently  the  strongest  fortress  in  Ireland,  and  has  always 
stood  out  to  the  last  extremity  for  the  Catholic  cause.  Ireton,  Cromwell's  lieutenant,  re- 
duced it  only  after  a  long  siege,  aided  by  a  party  witiiin  the  place.  In  Ifi'JO-l,  it  stood  two 
long  sieges,  and  yielded  only  upon  those  advantageous  terms  called  the  "  ca|)itulation  of 
Limerick."  Its  capture  was  considered  as  closing  the  contest  in  support  of  the  Stuarts.  At 
this  day,  not  more  than  a  twelfth  p|art  of  the  (xipulation  of  Limerick  is  protestnnt.  The 
spacious  monasteries  are  almost  entirely  demolished  ;  the  streets  are  narrow,  crowded,  and 
gloomy ;  t)ut  since  the  fortifications  were  demolished,  they  have  been  carefully  widetied.  In 
a  quarter  bnilt  by  Ijord  Perry,  and  bearing  his  name,  they  are  spacious  and  regular;  and  the 
houses,  though  only  of  brick,  hui!'  in  the  most  handsome  modern  style.  The  assembly-rooms, 
theatre,  aril  other  modern  structures,  are  elegant  an!  commodious. 

Clare  county  is  a  wild,  hilly,  romantic  district,  abounding  with  fine  creeks  and  harbours, 
but  without  ooinmerco,  and  with  mines  of  load,  iron  and  coal,  which  have  not  hfon  turned  to 
account.  More  than  ha'f  the  surface  rnnsists  of  mountain,  bog,  and  waste;  its  liills,  how- 
ever, support  numemiis  flocks  of  slicep,  the  wo(d  of  wliicli  is  of  superior  quality.  Tlif  plairs 
on  the  ivinks  of  the  Khaniinn  and  the  Fergus  vie  in  fnrtility  with  any  in  the  kingrlom.  F.nnis, 
the  capital,  is  situated  on  the  banks  of  the  l;L',t-mc' 'ioued  river,  by  which  it  communicates 


c 

ii 
a 
n 

tl 
1 


ei 

01 

oi 
fa 

cc 


F 
T 
Ja 

it.- 
dp 


IT,  lU. 

ruddy's 
to  3400 
Teland. 
tains  of 
nmense 
{  is  the 
At  the 
r  lake  a 
from  it, 
9  Island. 
is  over- 
•cipitous 
of  that 
)ther  by 
;  penin- 
ble  ruin 
).)    adds 
irt  of  the 
a  long 
I  seen  in 
e  Eagle's 
idous  ond 
suddenly 
)yrain''dal 
iioughout 
,  but  hero 
t of echoes 
ing.  The 
ensive  but 
allthelof- 
:  most  im- 
shores  are 
numerous 
!s  contrast 
of  the  ar- 
le  highest 
the  north, 
of  rugged 
ihing  view 
c,  and  the 


mt 


*%• 


iches  from 
•tile  plain. 
That 
the  wiiole 


ituation,  m 
sive  trade; 
marts  tor 
iving  been 
las  always 
tenant,  re- 
stood  two 
ulation  of 
tuarts.    At 
;nnt.    The 
wded,  and 
ideried.  In 
and  the 
bly-rocims, 

harbo\irs, 
n  turned  to 
iiills,  liow- 
Thf  plaii-s 
om.  F.nnis, 
iimunicatcs 


Book  1. 


IRELAND 


457 


with  the  Shannon.    It  is  considerable,  Uiough  irregularly  built ;  and  its  abbey,  in  the  purest 
style  of  Gothic  architecture,  is  considered  the  finest  in  ueland. 

SuBSECT.  3. — Connought. 

Connaught  forms  a  great  peninsula,  the  most  westerly  part  of  Ireland,  extending  from  thi» 
Shannon  to  the  Atlantic.  This  division  is  of  all  others  the  most  decidedly  Irish,  having 
continued  unsubdued  long  !i*ler  the  English  kings  claimed  the  proud  title  of  lords  of  the 
island.  It  still  contains  fewer  English  inhabitants ;  the  religion  is  more  universally  Catholic, 
industry  and  manufactures  have  made  less  progress,  and  all  the  imperfect  agricultural  im- 
plements and  processes  are  in  more  general  use.  Disturbances,  however,  have  never  taken 
place  here  to  so  great  an  extent  as  in  Munster  and  Leinstcr.  Its  shores  are  penetrated  by 
deep  and  extensive  bays,  forming  some  of  the  finest  harbours  in  the  world.  The  counties  in 
Connaught  are  Galway,  Mayo,  Sligo,  Roscommon,  and  Leitrim. 

Galway  presents  to  the  sea  ranges  of  steep  clifls,  which,  with  the  waves  of  the  Atlantic 
dashing  against  them,  exhibit  a  grand  spectacle.  The  interior  contains  two  extensive  lakes, 
and  is  diversified  with  hills,  though  there  are  few  which  are  not  fit  for  pasturage.  The  cattle 
are  of  good  quality,  and  the  flocks  of  sheep  are  more  extensive  than  in  otiier  parts  of  Ireland. 
The  fisheries  of  herring  and  salmon  are  considerable.  Galway  has  always  been  a  consider- 
able town,  and  is  still  supported  by  some  inland  and  foreign  commerce,  by  a  considerable 
fishery,  by  the  resort  of  the  gentry  to  it  for  sea-bathing,  and  as  the  only  scene  of  gay  society 
to  be  found  in  Connaught.  It  was  once  very  strongly  fortified  both  by  nature  and  art ;  and 
to  obtain  the  protection  of  the  walls,  the  streets  were  made  narrow,  and  the  houses  high, 
massive,  and  gloomy ;  but  they  have  of  late  been  considerably  opened,  and  suburbs  built,  of 
a  more  gay  and  elegant  description. 

Tuam  is  an  ancient,  handsome  town,  of  considerable  extent,  the  seat  of  an  archbishopric. 
Ballinasloe,  on  the  eastern  border,  holds  the  greatest  cattle  fair  in  Ireland,  where  the  oxen 
and  sheep  of  the  pastoral  counties  of  Galway  and  Mayo  are  mustered  for  the  capital.  At 
the  mouth  of  the  bay  of  Galway  are  the  bold  and  rocky  islands  of  Arran. 

Mayo  is  chiefly  elevated  and  rugged  ;  some  of  the  mountains  rising  to  upwards  of  2600 
feet ;  but  many  of  their  sides  are  verdant,  and  the  valleys  rich  and  well  watere<l ;  so  that 
Mayo  is  a  fine  pastoral  county.  The  estates  are  large,  but  the  farms  small,  and  much  sub- 
divided. Mayo  contains  no  town  of  sufficient  importance  to  return  a  member  to  parliament. 
Castlebar,  the  county  town,  is  well  built,  with  a  linen  hall ;  and  the  linen  manufacture 
flourishes.  Killala,  a  straggling  village,  on  a  bay  of  the  same  name,  is  chiefly  noted  for  the 
landing  effected  in  1798,  by  a  body  of  French  troops  under  General  Humbert,  who  pene- 
trated to  Castlebar,  but  were  finally  obliged  to  surrender  to  Marquess  Cornwall  is. 

Sligo  contains  a  considerable  quantity  of  bog ;  but  the  remainder  consists  of  a  sandy 
gravelly  soil,  well  adapted  to  the  production  of  barley  and  oats ;  so  that  pasturage  is  not  so 
exclusively  the  employment  here  as  in  the  two  last-mentioned  counties.  Salmon  is  caught 
in  large  quantities.  The  linen  manufacture  has  made  considerable  progress,  and  is  extend- 
ing. Sligo,  the  capital,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  and  the  head  of  the  bay  of  the  same  name, 
was  in  early  times  a  considerable  place :  it  has  suffered  severely  in  civil  contention ;  yet,  by 
the  advantage  of  a  good  situation  and  harbour,  it  has  attained  considerable  importance  and 
trade.  In  the  vicinity  is  a  remarkable  circle  of  stones,  called  the  Giant's  Grave,  somewhat 
resembling  Stonehenge. 

Roscommon  is  mostly  level,  finely  watered,  and  celebrated  for  rich  pastures ;  but  the  in- 
crease of  population  and  manufiictures  has  caused  o  great  jmrt  of  them  to  be  lately  brought 
into  tillage ;  it  contains  some  pretty  little  lakes,  among  which  Lough  Key  is  particularly 
admired.  Roscommon  is  ancient,  and  marked  by  some  ecclesiastical  antiquities,  but  it  is 
not  now  so  important  as  Boyle,  pleasantly  situated  on  a  river  of  the  same  name,  over  which 
there  are  two  fine  bridges ;  in  its  neighlwurhood  are  the  ruins  of  a  stately  abbey,  founded  in 
1512,  the  arches  of  which,  forty-six  feet  in  height,  are  deemed  models  of  Gothic  architect- 
ural grandeur.    Elphin,  the  seat  of  a  very  ancient  episcopal  soi ,  is  only  a  village. 

Leitrim  is  filled  with  high  mountains,  presenting  nature  under  bold  features,  often  height- 
ened by  the  ruined  castles  which  crown  tiieir  summits.  There  are  veins  of  iron,  lead,  copper, 
and  coal,  the  last  of  which  has  been  wrought.  There  are  good  pastures  in  the  valleys,  and 
on  the  sides  of  the  hills;  and  pretty  large  quantities  of  oats  are  raised.  The  linen  manu- 
facture is  extending,  and  there  are  some  considerable  potteries.  Carrick  on  Shannon,  the 
county  town,  and  leitrim,  which  gives  name  to  it,  are  only  villages. 

SuBSECT.  4. —  Ulster. 

This  part  of  Ireland  presents  in  many  respects  a  superior  character  to  the  other  three,  ita 
population  being  more  industrious,  better  instructed,  and  in  more  comfortable  circuniRtances. 
The  Presibytpriau  form  of  worship,  introduced  by  the  Scottish  settlers  imiler  th(!  reign  of 
James  I.,  is  the  prevailing  one.  The  linen  inanutiieture,  the  staple  of  ilio  country,  has  hero 
its  chief  scat,  and  is  carried  on  alnio.«t  in  every  villajre.  The  harhcurs-  of  Heltlist,  Irf)m]on- 
derry,  and  Loii"'li  Swilly,  are  sutlicient  for  the  wants  of  commerf'e.     1'he  coast  of  Antrim, 

Vol.  T.         '  m  3H 


11^!: 


m 


'i.iH 


■Hi 


-M- 


; 


U 


4m 


DESCRIPTIVE  GILOGRAPIIY. 


Part  III. 


in  the  boWncss  arl  peculiar  character  of  its  rock  scenery,  is  witiiout  a  match  in  any  other 
put  of  tlie  world.  The  counties  of  tiiis  province  are,  Fermanagh,  Donegal,  Londonderry, 
Antrim,  Down,  Armajjh,  Tyrone,  Monaghan,  Cavan. 

Permanagli  is  a  ssomcwhut  rough  county,  comprising  a  large  proportion  of  mountain  and 
bog,  but  with  fertile  valleys,  in  which,  besides  the  usual  products  of  oats  and  potatoes,  flax 
is  cultivated  to  the  extent  of  about  5000  acres.  The  waters  of  all  the  high  grounds  flow 
down  into  Lough  Erne,  a  noble  lake,  upwards  of  twenty  miles  in  length.  It  is  studded  with 
numerous  islands,  covered  with  fine  woods ;  long  wooded  promontories  are  seen  stretching 
far  into  the  waters ;  and,  though  the  immediate  borders  of  the  lake  are  not  mountainous, 
.ofty  distant  eminences  form  the  general  background  to  its  prospects.  Castle  Caldwel' 
turbet,  and  Belleisle  are  the  spots  in  which  its  beauties  are  peculiarly  concentrated 
chief  town  is  EnniskiUen,  delightfully  situated  on  an  island,  accessible  only  by  two  oi.i>o.,ite 
bridges;  this  site  enabled  it  to  make  its  noble  stand  against  the  army  of  James  II. 

Donegal  includes  a  groat  extent  of  tlie  north-western  coast  of  Ireland,  full  of  deep  bays 
and  fine  harbours.  In  its  interior,  however,  it  consists  almost  entirely  of  mountain,  moas, 
and  mcxir,  witb  only  a  few  productive  valleys.  It  is  often  called,  with  some  adjoining  dis- 
tricts, "the  black  north  of  Ireland."  Distillation  forms  an  active  branch  of  its  industry. 
Lifibrd,  its  Hniall  county  town,  stands  on  the  Foyln,  upon  the  borders  of  Derry.  Ballyshan- 
non,  almost  at  the  opposite  extremity,  is  a  thrivnig  town,  beautifully  situated  on  the  channel 
by  which  Lough  Erne  pours  its  waters  into  the  Atlantic.  Raplioe  is  a  celebrated  episcopal 
see,  but  now  only  a  decayed  village. 

Derry,  or  Londonderry,  a  large  and  fine  county,  is  crossed  by  a  range  of  mountains,  whose 
principal  peaks  are  from  1000  to  1500  feet  high,  and  a  considerable  part  of  whose  surface 
consists  of  heath  and  bog.  There  are,  however,  tine  valleys,  and  extensive  plains,  which 
are  cultivated  with  some  diligence,  but  according  to  that  sy.itcm  of  minute  subdivision  which 
is  the  bane  of  Irish  agriculture.  The  linen  manufacture  flourishes  in  full  vignui,  chiefly 
according  to  the  Irisli  system,  among  the  little  farmers  and  cotters,  who  combine  il  witii  thp 
cultivation  of  a  few  acres.  Londonderry  is  a  fnie  city,  situated  at  the  point  wliore  the  Foyle. 
after  traversing  a  groat  part  of  this  county  and  tliat  of  Tyrone,  falls  into  t!io  broad  basin  of 
Louf  h  Foylc.  It  is  ancient,  being  the  theatre  of  remarkable  events  even  in  the  time  of  the 
Dane.  In  I60S,  after  the  nttainrler  of  O'Neale,  it  was  granted  by  James  I.  to  the  citizens 
of  London,  whence  it  derived  the  first  j)art  of  its  name.  But  its  ciiiof  distinction  was  from 
the  siege  sustained  by  tlie  city  in  1690-1,  against  the  united  iiircos  of  Ireland  under  James 
II.  Londonderry  is  corniwsed  of  tour  main  streets  crossing  each  other  at  right  angles,  and 
surrounded  still  by  its  (dd  walls  in  full  repair,  serving  ratlior  liir  ornament  tium  defence.  It 
has  an  ancient  Golliic  cathedral,  and  some  handsmne  modern  edifices.  It  is  now  supported 
by  an  extensive  oommfrce,  for  which  liough  Foyle,  though  its  entrance  is  somewhat  impeded 
by  a  bar,  affords  a  spacious  and  secure  harbour.  Its  chief  intercourse  is  with  the  United  States 
and  the  West  Indies,  to  which  it  exports  the  linen  manufactured  in  this  part  of  the  country. 
Coleraine  is  a  well-built  town  on  the  Baim,  which  flows  from  I/)Ugh  Noagh,  and  on  which 
is  the  most  extensive  salmon  fishery  in  the  island  ;  but  the  rapidity  of  the  stream  obstructs 
the  navigation  upwards. 

Antrim,  occupying  the  north-eastern  corner  of  the  kingdom,  opposite  the  coiwt  of  Scotland, 
is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  districts  of  Ireland,  in  regard  to  natural  features  as  well  as  to 
commerce  and  industry.  A  groat  part  of  the  surtiice  consists  of  rugged  mountains,  com- 
posed chiefly  of  rock  and  moss,  and  even  its  best  soils  are  scarcely  available  for  agricultural 
purposes  till  improved  by  the  use  of  the  lime  with  which  the  country  abounds.  The  moun- 
tains, where  they  face  the  ocean,  are  broken  into  vast  perpendicular  precipices,  exhibiting 
the  Imsaltic  columnar  form  on  a  grander  scale  than  exists  in  any  other  part  of  tlie  wor'd. 
Of  these  objects,  the  Giant's  Causeway  {fig.  221.)  is  the  most  celebrated  and  magnificent. 
221  Three  natural  piers  or  moles,  400  feet 

■**  in  height,  here  stretch  out  into  the 

sea,  and  are  visible  above  the  water 
ftr  about  300  yards.  The  walls  are 
composed  oi'  dark  l)as;iltic  columns,  of 
the  most  regular  form,  and  so  closely 
united,  that  only  the  blade  of  a  knife 
can  bo  thrust  between  them.  Each 
column  is  distinct  from  the  others,  and 
divided,  into  joiiitfd  portions,  as  per- 
fect as  if  art  hud  fi)rmi?d  thorn;  there 
being  in  each  part  a  projection,  which 
18  lodged  in  a  corresponding  concavity  or  socket  of  the  one  contiguous.  The  roast  eastward 
of  the  causeway  is  composed  of  a  succession  of  capes,  presenting  the  most  siiblimo  scenery; 
dark  precipitous  cliffs,  rising  regularly  in  srradiially  retiring  strata,  and  formi'il  into  various 
broken  rolonnndc;.-  which  might  sip^'gest  the  idea  of  palaces  overwhidinci!  in  ruins. 
Other  striking  tL-afure;;  distinguish  ttie  coa,st  of  Antrim.     Conspicuous  above  all  ofhcra  is 


Tho  Gianl'i  Cauieway. 


UOOK  I. 


^ue 


R  moun- 
{hihiting 
.'orhl. 
h.iificent. 
400  feet 
I  into  the 
in  water 
mils  are 
liimns,  of 

closely 

a  knife 
.  Each 
|iprs,  and 

as  piT- 
In;  tiirrii 
In,  which 

■astwiird 
Isconory ; 
1)  various 

I  others  is 


i 


: 


IRELAND. 


459 


Fairhcod,  called  also  Benmore ;  a  promontory  which  forms  nearly  the  north-eastern  point  of 
Ireland.  It  consists  of  a  vast  mass  of  columnar  greenstone,  coinpoi-iiig  a  mural  precipice, 
rudely  columnar,  and  350  feet  high.  At  its  feet  lies  a  chaos  of  hui,'R  musses  of  rock,  heaped 
together  in  tlie  wildest  confusion,  and  forming  a  scene  of  ruin  the  awful  prandeur  of  which 
222  ^""^  scarcely  a  parallel.     A<jainst  this 

the  sea  heaves  in  a  solemn  majestic 
swell,  the  peculiar  attribute  of  the  At- 
lantic waters.  Carrick-a-Redo  {Jig.  222.) 
is  a  small  island  composed  of  a  mass  of 
basalt,  imperfectly  formed  into  columns, 
separated  from  the  continent  by  a  chasm 
of  sixty  feet.  The  fishermen,  however, 
have  occasion  to  resort  to  it  with  the 
view  of  placing  nets  to  intercept  the 
salmon;  to  reach  it,  thercii,  »hey  have 
constructed  a  daring  and  singular  bridge, 
Carrick-Q-Rcrii;.  formed  of  two  Strong  parallel  cables  fixed 

to  each  side,  with  planks  inserted  between  them.  This  slight  pontage  is  subject  to  violent 
movements,  and,  if  not  judiciously  trodden,  may  precipitate  the  passenger  into  tiie  abyss; 
but  the  fishermen,  accustomed  to  tread  it,  carry  great  loads  across  without  the  slightest 
apprehension.  Several  of  the  precipitous  cliffs  are  adorned  with  the  ruins  of  ancient  castles, 
the  grandest  of  which  is  Dunluce  (jig.  223.),  whose  extensive  area  covers  the  long  ridge  of 

an  almost  insulated  rock,  which  presents 
its  perpendicular  face  to  the  ocean.  The 
walls  enclose  the  entire  surface  of  the 
rock,  and  rise  up  as  a  continuation  of  its 
precipitous  side;-.  In  one  place,  the  rocky 
base  having  given  way,  the  apartment 
above  actually  overhangs  the  sea. 

Belfast,  the  gnind  emmjriuni  of  the 
north  of  Ireland,  has  risfu  to  greatness 
by  rapid  steps.  Ciirrickfergiis,  liy  means 
of  peculiar  privileges,  monopolised  all 
the  trade  of  this  part  of  Ireland,  till  these 
privileges  were  bought  up  by  the  Earl 
of  Strafllml.  The  career  of  competition 
was  then  opened  to  Belfast,  and  she  gradually  outstripped  all  her  rivals.  In  1G60,  tiio  town 
contained  about  6500  inhabitants.  At  present  the  population  is  5'3,()00,  exclusive  of  a  large 
suburb  in  the  county  of  Down.  The  linen  manufacture  is  very  flourishing  at  Belfast,  and 
that  of  cotton  is  rapidly  e.\tending;  besides  which  there  are  various  minor  fabrics.  Com- 
merce, however,  is  the  main  source  of  its  wealth.  The  linen  fabrics  of  tiie  north  are  largely 
exported,  along  with  oats,  oatmeal,  and  salted  provisions ;  the  entire  value  of  which,  in  1810, 
amounted  to  2,900,000?.  The  duties  of  customs,  which  in  1801  were  182,314/.,  had  risen 
in  1829  to  259,000Z.  Belfast  Lough  forms  a  noble  and  secure  bay,  and  the  channel  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Lagan  has  been  so  deepened  by  art  that  vessels  drawing  thirteen  feet  water 
can  come  close  to  the  wharves.  Belfast  is  mostly  built  of  brick ;  but  several  public  edifices, 
recently  erected,  the  Commercial  Buildings,  the  Museum,  St.  George's  Church,  &c.,  are 
ornamented  with  pillars  of  freestone.  Belfast  has  several  commercial  and  literary  institu- 
tions ;  and  in  1810,  the  Royal  Academical  College,  a  seminary  on  an  extensive  scale,  was 
founded. 

The  other  towns  of  Antrim  can  boast  little  more  than  names  known  in  history.  Antrim 
itself  has  lost  its  former  importance,  though  beautifully  situated  near  the  great  body  of  water 
called  Lough  Noagh,  which  covers  about  100,000  English  acres,  and  bonlers  on  five  coun- 
ties,— Armagh,  Tyrone,  Londonderry,  Down,  and  Antrim.  Its  flat  shores  possess  little  of 
interest  or  ho-.iuty ;  and  its  overflowings  have  converted  into  bog  abo\it  60,000  acres  round  it. 
Carrickfergus,  at  the  mouth  of  Belfast  I/iugli,  is  a  very  ancient  town,  once  the  emporium 
and  key  of  nortliern  Ireland,  but  it  has  yielded  the  palm  of  commerce  entirely  to  Belfiist, 
and  is  supported  ordy  by  being  the  county  town  iind  resorted  to  as  a  watering-place.  Lis- 
hurn  is  a  prosperous  town,  with  a  manufacture  of  damask. 

Down  is  n  liin^  county,  penetrated  by  several  largo  lakes,  ns  those  of  Strangford  and  Car- 
lingford.  The  last  of  these  receives  the  Newry,  which  coinrniniicates  by  a  canal  with  Lough 
Neagh.  The  Mourno  mountains,  on  the  southern  border,  exceed  2600  fei^t  in  height,  and 
form  a  conspicuous  object;  hut  a  largo  extent  of  the  county  is  level,  and  a  greater  propor- 
tion is  under  tillage  than  pasturage.  The  combination  of  tiirming  and  weaving  exists  in  a 
remarkable  degree ;  and  the  linen  fabrics  are  not  only  extensive,  but  some  of  them  very  fine. 
Of  late,  however,  those  of  cotton  have  gained  a  iirofiTeiicn  in  many  districts.  Down,  or 
Downpatrick,  celebrated  in  tradition  as  the  burial-ulace  of  the  patron  saint,  is  cf  miderate 


Duntuee  Castle. 


:^:^;.:iii 


!•«, 

,;i> 
ji 


VA^ 


y 


460 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pabt  ITT. 


dimensions,  and  its  public  buildings  respectabl?.  Newry  is  larger  and  more  flourishing. 
These  advantages  are  owing  to  its  situation  in  the  bay  of  Carlingford,  p-  '*s  canal  commu- 
nication with  Lough  Neagh,  which  enable  it  to  export  the  linen  manuf'  '  and  provisions 
produced  in  an  extensive  district  It  is  ancient,  but  in  1689  was  redu  ju  to  asiies  by  Mar- 
shal Berwick ;  so  that  it  is  now  quite  a  new  town.  Donaglmdoc,  a  considerable  port,  with  a 
large  substantial  quay,  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  tiie  ferry  between  it  and  Portpatrick,  tlie 
shortest  sea  communication  with  Britain,  and  by  which  packets  are  despatched  and  live  stock 
in  very  great  quantities  conveyed  over. 

Armagh  is  also  a  fine  and  agreeable  county.  In  general  it  is  only  pleasingly  diversified 
with  little  hills,  the  bogs  are  no  more  than  requisite  for  supplying  fuel,  and  only  a  small  part 
is  left  unproductive.  Both  culture  and  manufacture  are  prostcutcd  with  great  activity. 
The  linens  produced  in  1824  were  reputed  at  568,000/.,  exceeding  a  fifth  of  the  produce  of 
the  whole  kingdom.  Armagh,  the  capital,  was  celebrated  in  the  early  history  of  Ireland 
as  one  of  its  most  extensive  and  populous  cities,  and  has  always  been  the  ecclesiastical  me- 
tropolis of  the  kin(,dom.  The  Augustine  monastery,  and  tlie  college  attached  to  it,  ranked 
for  a  long  time  ar.iong  the  most  celebrated  institutions  in  Europe  for  religion  and  learning; 
the  latter,  it  is  said,  could  once  boast  of  7000  students.  Armagh  sunk,  however,  under  suc- 
cessive ravages  by  the  Danes,  tlie  English,  and,  finally,  the  Irish  insurgents  under  O'Neale, 
and  fell  into  decay ;  but  by  good  fortune  had  for  its  primate  Dr.  Richard  Robinson,  to  whose 
munificent  exertions  is  :^cribed  its  revival  and  its  having  become  one  of  the  prettiest  little 
cities  in  Ireland.  To  him  Armagh  is  indebted  for  the  repair  of  its  cathedral,  for  a  library, 
and  an  observatory.  The  linen  market  is  well  supported  by  the  flourishing  state  of  the 
manufacture  in  Armagh.  The  only  other  place  of  consequence  is  Lurgan,  a  thriving  manu- 
&cturing  town. 

The  three  counties  of  Tyrone,  Monaghan,  and  Cavan  occupy  a  great  proportion  of  the 
interior  of  Ulster,  and  present  a  very  uniform  aspect ;  a  considerable  extent  of  mountain  and 
bofe,  fertile  plains,  rude  cultivation,  and  the  luien  manufacture.  O'Neale,  E!arl  of  Tyrone, 
was  long  one  of  the  most  formidable  enemies  of  the  English  power.  Omagh  is  the  county- 
town  of  Tyrone,  but  is  not  so  considerable  as  Dungannon,  a  large,  populous,  and  handsome 
place,  once  the  chief  seat  of  the  O'Neales ;  but  this  powerful  castle  was  demolished  by  the 
parliamentary  forces.  Strabane  is  also  a  populous  place,  finely  situated  on  the  Foyle. 
Monaghan  and  Cavan  are  both  tolerable  county-towns,  which  alone  possess  any  importance 
in  their  respective  shiies. 

FINANCES  OF  TIIE  UNITED  KINGDOM. 
I.  Income  for  the  year  1834. 

CmtomB £21,118,920 

Excise 10,756,716 

Stamps  ami  Hackney  Coaches,  &c 7,4(i2,7SS 

Taxes 4,fi«7,.'WO 

Post  Office 2,;n«,i>80 

MieccllaneoiiB 456,118 

East  India  Company 60,000 

Balance  on  hand 1,007,  IPO 

Kepayments 018,738 

£53,450,571 

n.  Expenditure  for  the  year  1834. 

Payments  tmt  of  the  gross  Revenue, 

Drawhuckii,  Ri-pavments,  &c £3,204,290 

Cliaret'S  of  Collection,  See 3,582,635 

,  Miscellaneous 738,810 

*                                                                                                                                        6,525,741 

Paid  at  the  Exchequer. 

Interest  antl  Manafrcnient  of  Permanent  Debt 24,158,870 

Terminable  Annuities 3,653,923 

Interest  on  Exchequer  Bills 0»1,2!14 

Russian  Loan,  raised  in  Holland 1110,810 

Civil  List 5I0,(HK) 

Civil,  Naval,  Military  and  Judicial  Annuitiea  and  Pensions 50-2,310 

Salaries  and  Allowances 162,030 

Diplomatic  Balarics  and  Pensions 181,448 

Courta  of  Justice 4;I3,610 

Mint 14,850 

Army 6,493,025 

Navy 4,503,910 

Ordnance 1,068,223 

Miscellaneous : 2,;n5,5no 

Advances  for  Public  Works 2,014,513 

Total  Expenditure £53,441,955 

III.  Public  Debt— January,  IBM.  Chavfre  for  1833. 

Funded  Debt £751,rh'i8,R8,3  £27,782,1 10 

UofUnded  Debt 27,0O;;,9OO  770,769 

Totals £770,565.783  £28,501,885 


I  IK 


Book  L 


TRADE  OF  THE  UNITED  KINGDOM, 


461 


I.  Accuunt  of  the  Ofllcial  and  of  the  Riml  or  Duclarcil  Value  oC  the  principal  Articles  of  British  Produce  and 
Maiiuructuru  oxportcil  iJi  IS^S,  1833,  uiiil  1H34.— (Frum  the  Jlniiuat  /''inano  Book  fur  ISIS,  pp.  idl— 128.) 


Artidn. 


■an. 


Rr«M  and  copper  Quiiuhcturai 

I'oltou  maiiuijclurei 

—~'—  yarn 

HardmrM  and  cuUerjr  .  *  •  • 
Iron  tod  •letl,  wrought  and  uo 

wnmM 

UiMn  iRv^tifacturei 

-.^—  yam 

Salt 

Silk  Dunuhcturea  ....... 

Soap  and  c  indies 

Su^r,  rctined 

Tin,  wniugUl  and  unwraught 

Wool,  •heo])'. 

Woollen  and  wonted  yarn  -  - 
Woollen  m.inubclurea  .... 
AlloUierarticlea 

Tolali 

Whereof  Irom  Great  Britain  • 
From  Ireland 


L.         I.  d. 

1,196,246  IB  3 

37,2(le,4«0  10  4 

e,T26,Ml  17  6 

inistwi  17  1 

l,«le,l83  18  3 

l,78V>lt)  13  « 

S,lft8    7  8 

363,824  19  9 

475,16S  18  3 

34!l|2)«    8  3 

I,2u3,48l>    S  8 

ISiflM  10  1 

149,091  \i  4 

122,|2I'19  a 

e,&'«,<U4    8  8 

4,332,981     I  5 


6!t,(BS,701  II    0 


64,581,01)7    9    7 
444,665    1    S 


Official  Value.* 
~lb33! 


L.  >.  </. 

1,018,234  !l    6 

40,133,343  2    3 

e,i'9,076  S    8 

9et,'«3  4    7 


2,690,253  14  3 

3,5B»,639    0  8 

50,116  16  5 

392,053    7  8 

685,324    0  6 

4'>3,»I0  17  5 

693,131   14  4 

371,634    3  4 

1-5,479  12  3 

113,191    3  9 

7,7!*,842    6  3 

4,578,646  12  II 


69,969,339  13    8 


9,633,853  16 
355,48S  17 


1634. 


Declared  Value. 


L.  I.  i. 

1,0M,594    2    4 

44.2t«,902  13    0 

6,802,2S7  18    9 

MT^e  18  11 

2,621,672    9  8 

3,850,763  14  5 

82,169  10  9 

371,469  19  10 

633,683    9  7 

382,198  10  0 

1,141,663  14  4 

370,115  18  10 

81,319  17  10 

99,933  II  9 

6,514,703    3  10 

4.678,680    1  8 


18J2. 


L.  I.  i. 

916,563  1    5 

12,675,612  6    6 

4,722,759  3    6 

1,434,431  7  11 

1,190,747  12  10 

1,774,7^6  13  9 

8,105    7  0 

149,678    1  6 

529  990  10  10 

315,644  16  3 

1,038,789  16  0 

355,3j«    9  2 

2I9,(K0    1  0 

235,307    7 

5,244,558  II  8 

5,532,293  II  6 


1833. 


73,831,550  15    4     36,444  524  18    7     39,167,347    8    5 


L.  I.  d. 

884,149    4    a 

I3,7»2,.>7l>  17    6 

4,7(M,U24    9    I 

1,466,361  12  II 

1,405,034  19  3 

a,l67,a23    7  I 

T2/1C-    6  0 

184,1,5  10  2 

737,400  17  10 

362,284  19  1 

563,092    4  3 

369,162    0  2 

332,503  17  4 

246^    0  0 

6,204,432    3  9 

6,097,113    0  3 


73,495,536  11    3     36,046,027  11    5  |  39J05,5I2  19    8 
336,015    4    I  I       39M97    7    2  |       361,834    9    9 


le34. 


L.  $.  d. 

861,823  2  II 

15,302,571  7  I 

5,211,014  17  8 

1,485,233  I  1 

1,406,872  9  I 

2,443044  18  7 

136,312  11  S 

152,126  14  10 

637,198  6  4 

•itaitvt  4  II 

916,391  9  6 

370,382  II  S 

192.175  14  1 

238,543  19  ( 

5,i;«i,h70  II  0 

6,194,368  I  8 


41,619,19:    e   6 


II.  Account  of  the  Real  or  Declared  Value  of  the  various  Articles  of  the  Manuflicture  and  Produce  of  the  United 
Kingdom,  exported  to  Foreign  Countries  during  the  eight  years  ending  with  1834 ;  specifying  their  Value,  the 
Countries  to  which  exported,  and  tlie  Value  of  those  annually  shipped  for  each.— (Pajin-t  published  by  Board  qf 
Trade,  vol.  iv.  p.  337.) 


Countriea  to  which  exported. 


Ruwia 

Sweden 

Norway  .-•• 

Denmark 

Pru>iia 

Germany 

llolUud 

Belfium -• 

France 

Purlugal,  Proper 

Ar^iea 

Madeira 

Spain  and  the  llalearic  Islanda*  ■ 

Cimry  lalauds 

Gibnltar 

Italy  and  the  Italian  Islands 

Milla 

loniau  IsLlnds 

Turkey  and  Continental  Greece  (ex- 
clusive of  the  .M(irea) 

Morea  .ind  Greek  Islands 

Ei^ypt  (I'oria  on  the  Mediterranean) 

Tripoli,  llarltary,  .ind  Morocco  •  •  ■ 

Wee  em  Coast  nf  Africa 

Cape  of  Good  Hope 

Cape  Verd  lalands 

St.  Helena 

Isle  of  Bourbon 

Mauritius 

Arabia 

East  India  Company's  Territories 
and  (^cylon 

China 

Sumatra  and  Java 

Philippine  Islands 

New  South  Wales,  Van  Diemen's 
land,  and  swan  Hiver 

New  ^.ealaiid,  and  South  Sea  Islands 

Ports  nf  Siain 

British  North  Americin  Colonies-  - 

British  West  Indiea 

Hayti 

Cuba  and  other  Foreign  West  Indies 

United  States  of  America 

Mexico  -  •  - 

Gualeinala 

Colomblt 

Brazil 

SUtes  of  the  Rio  dc  la  Plata 

Chili 

Peru 

Istei  or  Guenuey,  Jeiaey,  Aldemey, 
and  Man 


Totals  .  .  -  -  .  -      37,181,335  ,    36,812,756 


•  The  rate  at  which  nil  orticlcs  of  I'jpnrt  and  import  arc  oiflcially  valued  was  fixed  in  11396,  but  nn  arrount  nf 
the  real  or  declared  value  nf  'Ma  export.^  is  also  prepared ;  there  is,  however,  no  such  account  of  the  imports,  and 
therefore  their  olficial  value  alone  can  be  given. 

ao* 


;^ 


I 


' : .  \ 


DESCRIPTIVE  (SEOGRAl'IIY. 


Part  IIL 


Itt.  Actiiunt  or  ilic  Uiiniililli'ii  iif  llw  rrhu'i|inl  ArliiliH  ol'  Knrcluii  iiiiil  ('(iluiiinl  Morcliuiiiliau  iiii|iiir(u(l  Into, 
ux|»<rli'il  niiiM, niid  ri'iniiii'il  l'>r  ('iiiiHuiii|ili(iii  In  tlin  I'jiitcil  KiiiKiluiii,  with  Iho  Nitt  Hi'vuiiuu  uixriiiii||  tliurouii 
(liiring  tlio  Vi'iirn  ciiiliil  Slli  Jaiiuiiry,  IKll.  iiiiil  l«W.-(;'iijifr»jiuWl.«*ii/  Inj  IlMni  ,\f  Trndii,  vo..  iv.  pii.  I'J-ltl.) 


; 

J  i 


*. 


DoKri|)lkin  nf  Mei«luuid>w< 


A%llM,  (HMrl  AII.I  [Mil,    ' 

IUrill.1  .II..I  alk.\U   '  ' 


Hjirli  tnt  iMiiiliif  nr 

•l>ii  « — • 

ll.il!.lil.lJulill..u !t.., 

V,jM  liklis  .iihl  Mauriliui — 

I'lMviin  itUiiUlluu -~ 

IViul 

C1X.M lU 

lliaki  i»l  ihelh - 

r-ltiHi  .t.<<4  rniiii  U)tv\   i  ctiunlrle-, 

^'iillnl  S!''ei  ./  .'.i>irtirK — 

Bu/i!  — 

■r.irh,;    ...IKji.t - 

ui  ^*<jiil  Ainu  BrtUith  |Kw<«*totit, 

'  -  IrJIma.ilMHU  iliut  . .  .  .  — 
\^•l    .Xi  W    I    ..KIWI,   llio  (ruwlll 

fnt^:    Upj  lutlitfi,  imiiorlL'd 

*!  >ui       — 

tnhei  Ji  i'ishi''«iMd<iiu — 

'liiJil  luantilict 

IkIIm  •  ■  •  ll». 

Uc  Ax« — 

I,rt«wp^v! tniil. 

W*i'l,r cwU. 

Hu!.U'  :■«< 

PUk  »n.2  h>t»,  or  aVitlU  of  flik 

»Al  Iicnif) 

I  'umiiii — 

.'  fmoiuaifcl  (inmrt clit^i* 

Km«iiu *  cwli. 

H.»  ^  of  ilr^ir Sti. 

riai.imcor>irmr .  .Us. 

Mwiip  uiulrmc^l cwli. 

lU'M,  iiiiiaiiat^l,  l\t.  i~~ 

lt'ilTal»,  lull,  (4,  C'MT,  or  hone 

IiWp» c«ts. 

Millet,  tuinnl,  tU.  ;— 

lliilTilii,  bull,  nx,  niiv,  i>r  luinr 

hiilr Ilil. 

I.(utlicr  gl 'ITS \\\in 

Miiluics rwli. 

Ull— 

01i« iiilli. 

Wm cwt% 

'I'raiti,  ■iwrmamtt  vA  bliiliber  •  •  turn 

S»l'.i«»iv  ,iihl  niliic  ni'nj cwii. 

►1*1  ami  LiiLKol biishfU 

iiilk- 

Raiv 11,1 

Wa.1i-  anil  knutilia - 

r.ufcia  lajfiwa — 

|Jll« - 

niiieub> — 

Sajnir,  \\t,  :— 

VVefl  liHlia cwlt. 

lUit  Imlia  aiul  Maunitul — 

ViirriKn — 

T»lU)w - 

To. - 

Tiniirr,  \i  .  :— 

Ballena  and  tutten  Mull — 

Ileal  ajkl  ileal  einli  .  •  .  -  rpral  hund. 
Maati  ti  ami  iiikler  |i  iiichn  in  dia- 
meter     No. 

Maala  8  ami  under  12  iurhr*  in  dlt. 

meler — 

Maala  1^  inrhe;  and  upnaida  *  •   lila. 

lU|il<nk> — 

Slaves tX.  hund. 

Kir.  !l  incliea  eenatv  and  upmirda,Ii-i«ili 

(!•».  illim 

llnetnuiiierstod,  diltn 

WAin*ei»l  In^  dmo — 

T^ibftrco,  vir.  J  — 

Unnuimfaelured It». 

Manufactuml  iir  lei^ra — 

Snuff  ■ — 

U  Till,  iheep  and  UniU' — 

Wine,  vi^ ;  — 

r*(«    imp.  gallt. 

French 

r  irtu<al 

Statiiah - 

MaJrini     - 

ijlher  «1l - 

Jkil  lorti 


tiuamitin  inijiurleil, 
lam  iKU. 


I(!!l,7a 
llll,'*J 


1-,".1.1,».I0 

b.ii^iyii 

ll,37.l,l'l!0 

H-uOilou 


«,0llli,7IH 
tlS,liHII 


in7,v<e,7.« 

1II,«CI|HII 

um.itiii 
I.UMi.lO:! 


a],75^liM 
l,653,II» 


WI.OW 
IUI,mU 


3a3,66li,l«)7 


6,635,4.16 

'M,OKO 
bl.9»; 
Mi,li«J 

l,l«.K» 
UJiWW 

;i>i,'ni 
i.Mi,aM 

.'U7,4i!l 


>I,IX 
1113,1171 


U,ONI.I£l 
U.liil.UI 
Il,^ii,»l7 

4I,SU,II1 


a,'iM,"iw 

4IH,UW 


ift;!i,j(a,i)7j 

l>l,tUI,3M 

»41,107 

II,ibO,ui 


a3,g30,Hii 

I,<I7>I1II 


I24,3I« 
47,6«S 


3ig,ll7VU 


4.i.u,iig6 

70li,!l»B 
1I,(V>4 
7^IX)4 
l«),t»I 

WI.7/2 
ll«,7l« 
lll*,ail 

ii:i,7a 

lli,.MI 
■I'vaTi! 
CTJ.iill 


996,900  !        <.t7,IOI 


(«,702  I 

l,-t«l,472  ! 

717,934  j 

I.f»l,(l|ll 
l!6:.llM  , 
:«,li78 
ll>S.7lli 

!,i;u,iaj 

SiTSSjira 

v4U,4^l 

l,'.".>7,710 
N7i»,M2 
«,li44,t)73 

3,6'i',,62l 

7:17,1,1.1 
:i4(>,iiH 

l,ll'i,4i7 
3i,0'J7,KU 

IIUOT 
S6,7W 


3.136 
4.416 
i.38l 
la.lilM 
4«6,lfl4 

ii7,ati 

3i.4W 


!>0,2ia 
I  UI7,il44 

c^^wi 

2,3111.1-11 
i7li,lie!l 
1S3.'M 
»V(,4» 

l,>lll,237 

a,643,S'i 
l,UI2,l>'il 
3,ll6ti,s3ll 
7,67»,341l 
1,106,7-3 

3,844,24.1 

6U7,I4I 

1JS7,407 
33,6,    IMO 

I3JM0 
67,105 

Ha 

.',T.!«> 
tii,:--|i> 
41  ",410 
.!t>,4»> 


((uanlltiea  eiptirted. 


11,306 
il,4.1« 


I'.I4,!*0 
3,V»li,0l<7 
II,I6(|,WI 


«,3,M,II77 


I7,363,S!S 


3fl84.»l4 
6AIIII 


I0,U4 
.VBI 
36.li7 

i.NII 
32,170 


10,110 


3,03! 

22,0fl2,<79  3«,,M7.s<il 

386,609  «.i9.Ii"2 

.1,l«4  1^ 

38,046,(IS7  46,iV'.23i 


3!l7,3i;7 
l!l,73S 
2,0SJ 
M\737 


I        C(i,IS7 

l,14I.M6 

3.1W7.W7 

2,«I0,3,M 

Ri 

I      3(16.iV) 

Ri-lii 

3!l,!4ri 
2M,<(>I 


46» 

10 

soul 

010 
42 
W 


6,136 
3,233 


1,1.12 

768,046 
6,9U3,M;2 
M77,!)7J 

IS2/iO,4M> 


tfia^yt 


24,46l,Ilb3 


3,92t<.220 

88,234 

4,'>4K 

I,:i27 


lO.MM 
12,067 
l.lliO 

27,ia'i 

33,066 
2,8.'a 
10,672 


4.(164 
12,63S 
1,3:12  2,078 


234,030 
20,412 

3,727 
68,2-6 

7,'>23 

207,007 
l,680.3,-)0 
6,301,247 
I,79I>,I43 

,',98,744 
I. 

4CI,l)44 
III.II6K 

l,i8i,oin 

86 

860 


110 
8« 
1 


Quanlitiea  rv-UiiMxl  for 
tunauilipliuil. 


1116,422 
210,603 


Il64,27g 

20,041.104 

I,7»»,3I9 

1,471 

U,74I,W4 


l,!M8,2tl7 
440.168 


293,(iK.,97a 


2,30,300 

436,672 

I7,.'>l« 

72,lr6 

60,640 

1,1 12,  mi 
140.446 

3MI.U7 
137.8112 
21,460 
22,079 
512,023 


206,861 


48,678 
1,411.216 
64.1,886 

1,368,217 
210,226 
.11,242 
ll)t,23.S 

2,222,Mi7 

4,417,027 
267,472 
77,1167 

2,228.303 
330,246 


2,634 
624 
32 
34 


8,000,.'>62  12,080,951 

2;a9:4  273,360 

-2.;»69 1  in.:ui;i 

442,606  I         807,:162 


464,,104 
2:5,.16<i  , 
2,22lj,7:U 
3,368,^,30  I 
,10t,n-,7  I 
817,761 


4114,208 

363,37- 
4.213,427 
■',446,.'^63 

372,rtlS 

886 


7,44a.»4l  I     9,7e8,l]6T_  1.613 


i86 i764  I 
«8,116T    I. 


1,090.766 
I,H!0,6I9 

12,384 

67,201 

8,756 

.1,209 
4,«33 
2.V1I) 
M.1>.1 
l»l,i.M 
27.236 
03,111 


20,61B.97I 

I4;I,H',6 

i:i8 

30,0«i,l:20 

M6,K11 
2:12,660 
i.VM  Kill 
2,240,liK6 
li;i.042 
420,372 

6,207,770 


IIO,0<0 
IHI,4'I0 


2-2,224,073 

I  .ri,>,u)4 

2,418 
23,786,006 


1,173,796 
443,786 


302,101,66; 


2,447,827 

303,474 

14.020 

70,061 

75,271 

791,-272 
I6.l,.62:i 
164,7X1 
147,407 
11,487 
26,4711 
6b6,006 


40,3.19 

I,«I3,M28 

607,080 

2,225,227 
264,806 
21.402 
2|->,»63 

i,2l  1,068 


1110,182 

2,4.'i7,ll20 

323,761 


3,741,679 

l,l'«,IH) 
H069,O61 

13,660 

ei,808 

0,586 

3,612 
3,-'ll 
2.616 

taiso 

493,20(1 
26,8.64 
40362 
3,209 

2l,048,:<2l 

I4-.,3V, 

161 

40,840,271 

.624,091 

201,100 
2,7M),:)03 
2,270,8',,1 

l'fl,31,9  ,  t  ■ 

486  308  I  1 


Ntll  Revenue. 


16.703 
linn  1,41  ki  ill 
re|«yineliU 


(     601,241 


12,026 


473,011 


1834. 

"i! 

i,a>H 

QniH  rev. 
17,764 

j        «.«» 
13,999 

2a^7« 


6I4,4M 


29,781 

32,066 

1,170 

1,067 

.1,402 

2,949 

14.7:10 

7,907 

3,721 

1,8112 

4,728 

3.406 

311,06:1 

242,180 

60,392 

67,434 

149,101 

192,272 

0,092 

3,VU1 

18.708 

20,016 

2,110 

2,844 

632 

289,623 

46.743 
27,IU.I 
l,7bl 
4.184 
i:i,tt23 

15,000 

202 

1,778 

111,174 

6,894 


171,605 
3,444,102 


116,216 
621,494 


10,110 
-l,1,.186 
437,620 
33.776 
8,308 


3,I40,0M 
137,865 


7'.,075 
63,l66 


S,4H1.644l       1 .1129,219 


617 
29.052 
228,621 

46386 
23,606 
l,.'i60 
6  0O2 
13,8WI 

I3,l«0 

450 

2.106 

122.862 

0,726 


I8!,998 
3,589,361 


129,774 
601,914 


10,442 

511,7.66 
440.300 
;I3,07S 
10,170 
8,867 


3,223,648 
131,319 


72,048 
71,131 


1,662,341 


1,706,»W 


% 


J2,n68 

7^7 


5,4(0 

t>7,434 


t\,im 


HI 

23,U)ti 

iJ.eoo 
3.iw> 

li,72(i 


H9,T7« 
Ii0l,9l4 


10,«42 

5H,7SC 
44U.30O 

:o,(n5 

10,170 

6,8e7 


I  3,223,648 
131,310 


71,131 


i^ 


Book  L 


DENMARK. 


468 


tV,  Account  of  Iho  Slilpping  umployeil  in  (ho  Truclii  miil  Nuvixation  ut  Iho  Uiilloil  Kiiigilwii  in  IHIM;  apvcirymi 
til*  NuinlMir  niicl  Ti>nnn«.i  iif  VixhuIn  vulcriiig  Inwnnl-i  iiml  climrHig  OulwiinlK  (iniliKliiiK  lliilr  niifuloil  Voy- 
age*), anil  iln!  Nuinltcr  iif  Ihiiir  Vtawt  j  mipuriiling  llrltiah  fniin  Ptiroign  Vi'IwIh  ;  nnil  ilinlingiiialiing  tlio  Navi- 
gation  wllh  uucli  Counlry. 


Rtiiil>-- 
HwsJcn  ■ 
Norway 


17 

llnlUial- 

Neliluin 

fnacn    

Hirlugil,  Pn>|>ar 

A/ttrni 

M,i<lnln 

fltalD  iml  th«  Halearle  Mtni* 

(4iiury  liUiitta 

(llbnillar 

Italy  umI  llaliM  Ulaikla  •  ■  • 

M.fli 

lualan  ItUiklt 

Tiirlir)  itCoiitliiriiuUiraflce 
Mitrva  aiKl  llraak  lalanda  -  • 

R«r|il 

TrIfMilt.  Kartiara,  k  iMoruceu 
CiMal  (II  A  rricA,fmni  Monwco 

tn  Ihn  i'A\m  ofOfHii]  Hiipa 

r^lMiirdiMiil  llnpfl 

Baalarn  CtKisI  fnim  tha  Caps 

or  (iofNl    iloitfl   tu  Oabel 

Mariild 

laleof  Hoiiilxm     

ra|«  (la  Vrrl  iilamla   •  ■  •  - 
HI.  Hnlann  and  Aaaiwlna  •  • 

M.iunliua 

Aniili 

Kaal  linlia  ('oi!i|Mi>y^l  Trrri* 

Inriaa,  }ilH(a|]or«  k  Ceylou 

Stunaln 

China 

Java 

Illlllpiiliia  Iilauda 

Rirta  of  Si-im 

Naar  Nmilh  Walea 

Briliah  Nonhrni  Coldola,  • 

Hriliali  WM  liHllaa 

Ilavll 

Cul»,ali(Iniherl\>relKaWaat 

lidlaa 

Unitad  KlatM 

Maiicn 

OualemaU 


Hrillah. 


Brailla 

Statoa  (if  nio  lie  la  I'UU  •  •  • 

Chili 

IVu 

The  Whale  riiheriaa  -  ■  ■  • 
lalaa  nr  (iiiariuey,  Jrney,  and 

Man 

OTvenland  (Ice) 

Foreijcn    parta    (nol   dilUn- 

piiahed) 


Tnlali  ' 


Mici. 

IIXI 
lU 
47 

im 

701 
1,011 

407 
Ifiti 

m 
m 

14 

4sn 

30 
'U 

» 

134 


9117,013 

6,40] 
S,WI 
33,Oil 

ii'i,a7H 

I37,%4I1 
40,1171 

li><,017 
MO  5 
12,3311 

;t,47ii 

4A,ri4 
S,KIO 
3,710 

M,m 

1,0(0 
K,4<W 
lll,l>llll 
9,311 
1,114 
4,014 

33,313 


41 

illH 
13 

M 

mi 

36 

1 
.10 
140 
(i 
17 
15 
107 

1,3«0 


13,M0 


nsoo 


75,481 


a>,908 
1,IWI 
l,SMI 


11,400 

ea4,(»G 
i,a>H 
7,ir,i 

0,11113 

IW 

7,4»a 

18,371 
lO.IJO 
6,341 
2,766 
34,101 

146,543 


Mn. 

13,'itM 

764 

311s 

176 

1,0116 

9,VIJ 

6,6k4 

.1,W. 

I1,IIM 

3,401 

7V) 

160 

1,MM 

Its 

207 
3,1IH 
67 
462 
1,012 
111 
ri7 
200 

1,763 
330 


1* 

1,073 


4,638 


1,»1B 


no 

616 
057 
5i7 
644 
646 
371 
1,40a 
36 


Kuniipi. 

1\t»i, 
50,166 
35,1110 

im^Ki 

53,'2II2 

llHglll 

45,471 
07,230 
43,6K1 
74,3IU 
4,5.10 


671 
23,270 
13,367 

113 

3-i9 

1,078 

366 

II 

414 

1513 

596 

356 

107 

3,0113 

10,103 
Gl 


6 

401 

1 


3J«U 
104 


14,360 


664 
371 


1J6T 

904,529 

490 


608 


Mm. 
2,721 
1,731 
,5,1311 
3,116 
5,061 
1,551 
3,1167 
1,2U) 
U,207 
322 


7W 
0 


54 

8,417 

93 


96 


1,074  56 

5,661        lag 


Miiii. 
l,6-2 
101 
44 
33.5 
155 
7I'J 
677 
873 
1,574 
60S 
165 
10 
341 
34 
04 
473 
60 
49 
140 
10 
14 
90 

161 

47 


l,l«0 
900 
40 

KT 
3(0 
29 


2,141 


Urillih. 

Tiftii. 

217,:i75 

17,2711 

4,177 
66,7ia 
9',  Mill 
117,1161 
I20,.'i>>4 
34,11,1 
131,611 
01,11111 
12,4li3 

3,4:12 
3a7UU 

3,' 1 1 
11,734 
71,076 
12,022 

\753 
90,7MI 

1,166 

6,087 

9,614 

96,633 
9,146 


195 

Kin 
9,1511 
11,102 

UI7 

90,633 

270 

6,W7 

2,706 

726 

3.17 

lO.Mn 

fiia,3'i3 

IIU.UU 

7,726 

l«,7',5 

i;o,7ri 

6,502 

3,fl20 
41,154 
9,2II« 
6,532 
2, 1:0 
33,014 

122,305 
231 


1,296,283  ,'ll6,7«  ,    6,604    |»33,«16  I  46,697  j   n,339  |  2,296^15 


1I,!MI 

770 

9ii3 

9,lill7 

1,216 

ri,i«u 

6,647 

1,WI0 
I2,3li1 

3,KI2 
h4a 
IU7 

1,176 
IWi 
046 

3,1143 
645 
306 

1,160 
00 
200 
141 

3,091 
630 


119 
490 

m 

5,l«0 

21 

632 

lUI 

46 

20 

1,7.56 

23,315 

I3,KIU 

4.'>4 

000 

6,217 

314 

203 

2,101 
513 
3*6 
I3'i 

4,275 

S,!ill 
10 


hi 

125 
612 

hl7 
425 
Ml 
5117 
3.12 
1,.'U2 

mi 


fiireiipi, 

'/•.nil. 
36,l'2ll 
2j,I14 
MI7,M10 
Nj,720 
I«I«,3(I6 
4a,nt,6 
61,214 
;H,,.16U 
0(l,4'iU 

iii.na:! 
21,1 


1,476 
1,623 


546     220011 
2  I         4tlU 


l,T.ll 
1,061 
^408 
4,6a<l 
3,«IT 
1,721 
3,601 
1,1*0 

7,eHi 

HI6 


6,499 

W 

1,161 

12,047 

964 

too 

8 

6« 
TOS 

ei 

im 

14 

ICO 
321 

14 

M 

854 

620 


2  249 

IM      20,G09 


129,504  I     5,1123   i  «52,l>27 


148  I 
0,901 
24 


49  I 

41 


913 
46,629 


CHAPTER  V. 

DENMARK. 

Denmark  is  an  ancient  kin^rdom,  formerly  very  powerful,  holding  sway  over  the  surround- 
ing regionw,  and,  as  a  predatory  state,  the  terror  of  all  Europe.  'I'hougli  now  reduced  to 
the  secondary  rank,  her  situation  renders  her  of  importance  in  the  general  Kystein  of  the 
Continent. 

Sect.  I. — General  Outline  and  Aspect. 

Denmark  consists  mainly  of  an  extensive  peninsula,  shooting  out  from  the  north-west 
comer  of  Germany,  and  a  cluster  of  large  islands  to  the  cast  of  the  peninmilii.  Tlio  norlliurn 
shoios  of  Denmark  approach  close  to  the  southern  jwint  of  the  Scandinavian  peninsula, 
bounding  the  great  interior  sea  of  the  Baltic.  She  commands  the  only  channel  by  which 
the  countries  around  this  sea  can  transmit  their  pro<iiictH  to  tiio  rest  of  ]';iiri:p(i ;  a  circum- 
stance which  gives  her  some  consideration  ns  a  nmritiniL  f-tato,  at  the  s-uiic  tiini!  tluit  the  toll 
she  imposes  on  ships  pa.s.sing  and  repassing  the  Sound,  is  prmliictivc  of  ri'vciiiie.  The  Danisli 
peninsula  is  lermod  .Futliind ;  and  the  islands  in  the  interior  of  tlio  Hiiltir,  interposed  be- 
tween Jutland  and  Scandinavia,  are  Zealand,  Fiinen,  Odcnsee,  and  ii  few  others  of  smaller 
note.  Denmark  hold.^  clso  the  Gorman  territories  of  Sleswick  and  Ifol.sloiii ;  with  Iceland, 
the  Faroe  Islands,  and  some  settlements  on  the  coa.st  of  Greeiilund,  rciiiiiant!-  ul'  liur  former 
maritime  power. 

The  extent  of  the  dominions  of  a  country  broken  into  such  a  variety  of  detached  portions 
can  with  difficulty  be  estimated.    The  only  compact  mass  consists  of  Jutland,  Slcswick, 


#n 


MAP  OF  DENMARK. 


Fra.  228. 


9        l/iBgilurl*;  But         10      fn'rii  firircnwich       11 


Jh 


I.  228. 


«t 


VI 


BooE  I. 


DENMARK. 


466 


and  IIolHtoin;  boiinilod  on  the  went  nnd  north  by  tho  North  Sea  or  German  Ocean ;  on  the 
oiiNt  by  tho  hoiiiuIh  whicli  form  the  ontrnnco  of  tbo  liiiltic;  on  tlio  south  by  the  Elbe.  This 
tract  licH  jfiMirrully  between  •liM^"  and  574°  north  hititiidc,  and  8°  and  IP  east  longitude. 
Wo  hiivc  Hum  a  lenffth  of  V.'H(|  milt?»,  anil  a  breadth  of  120.  Tho  total  area  of  tho  Daniih 
monarchy,  w  iilxmt  'J'i,00()  w'lire  iiiileH. 

The  Hiirtiico  of  Denmark  in  neiirly  Hat;  forminff,  with  tho  exception  of  Holland,  the  lowest 
part  (if  tlio  tfri'at  i)lain  of  Northern  Germany.  The  iHland.s,  in  particular,  in  many  places, 
rise  only  a  tew  foot  above  the  level  of  the  Hoa.  The  soil,  aa  in  the  rest  of  this  plain,  is  fre- 
quently Handy  anil  marshy ;  the  climate  humid,  though  not  liable  to  those  severe  frosts  which 
prevail  in  tho  interior  of  Scandinavia.  Hence  it  oifords  good  pasturage,  and  its  soil  is  favour- 
able to  tho  growth  of  the  coarser  species  of  grain. 

Tho  waters  of  Denmark  consist  chiefly  of  its  numerous  sounds  and  baya;  the  Skagerrack, 
which  comes  in  from  the  North  Sea,  and  separates  Jutland  firom  Norway;  the  Categat, 
which,  running  southward  nearly  at  right  angles  to  the  Skagerrack,  separates  that  peninsula 
from  Sweden ;  the  Sound,  a  narrow  strait  at  the  extremity  of  the  Cattegat,  between  Zealand 
and  Sweden,  and  which  forms  the  main  entrance  into  the  Baltic.  The  insular  and  penin- 
sular character  of  her  territory  gives  Denmark  an  extent  of  coast  wnich  certainly  does  not 
fall  short  of  GOO  miles ;  and  there  is  said  to  be  no  part  of  the  land  more  than  ten  miles  distant 
from  the  sea.  This  structure  leaves  no  room  for  the  formation  of  any  rivers  of  the  least 
,  consequence,  except  the  Eyder  in  Holstein,  and  the  canal  of  Kiel,  by  which  an  important 
communication  is  formed  between  the  ocean  and  the  Baltic.  Jutland  contains  a  number  of 
shallow  but  extensive  lakes,  closely  bordering  on  the  sea,  with  which  they  in  many  places 
communicate,  and  may  hence  be  regarded  as  bays. 

Sect.  II. — Natural  Qeography,        -  ,,    . 

SvBSECT.  1. — Geology. 

Denmark.  The  geology  of  this  low  and  flat  country  has  not  been  completely  ascertained. 

As  far  as  is  known  ut  present,  it  contains  neither  prunitive  nor  transition  rocks:  the  only 

secondary  deposits  are  Weald  clay,  and  the  various  members  of  the  chalk  formation ;  both  of 

which  are  generally  covered  up  with  tertiary  soils ;  which,  in  their  turn,  are  as  deeply  covered 


Referencct  to  the  Map  of  Denmark. 


NORTH  PART. 
1.  liykomhuus 
S.  lllurinfT 

3.  Ilnmlmls 

4.  Tooraltiil 

5.  Skuieii 

6.  Aiill)«k 

7.  Flaclitranil 
R.  e<a!b|re 

0.  Hottomanr:! 
10.  Hlokhuus 
ll.Tolatrup 

13.  'I'hUM 
■:).  Dysli^t 

14.  Hieretud 
1.5.  Y»ai 
lA.  Allz 

17.  ITIited 

18.  Hall 

in.  Sundbjc 
itO.  Aalliont 
31.  liORStor 
'H.  KoVleiUD 
a.  Kioiup  Vr»- 

Btegaanl 
21.  Kolbyo  Hctru- 

gaard 
'iS.  TislHl 
W.  Forbye 
S!7.  Ajster 
!».  Viibyo 
tS).  Sundhr 

:I0.  RoaKMl 

!)1,  Nykiitbins 
:K.  Ilierk 

33.  Sirnndbyv 

34.  Mallu 

3.'>.  Giinderuted 
3K.  Aara 
37.  llialoy 
X>.  Klluihny 
311.  KiingBley 

40.  8iom 

41.  Vivo 

41.  Sodrinnhulm 

43.  Mariager 

44.  Ili>bru« 
4.1.  titinilum 
4li.  nnhlriip 

47.  Ulbiprg 

48.  Skive 
4U.  Kaaa 
SX).  Rorbcirg 
51,  Lemvig 

Vot.  I. 


K.  Ilaiboo  Oil! 
.U.  Neoi 
M.  IJIhorg 
.V».  Vringelberg 
511.  Iloliibrui) 
!i1.  Hiidaagur 
•Tfi.  Sdnip 

."iO.  KnudstrupOver 
m.  Wiboig 
fil.Bkierne 
r>'2.  l.aurbfirff 
lU,  Kandera 
ri4.  Horning 
fi.5.  Oeritecr 

06.  [JlMrup 

07.  Giurild 

08.  Grepnaao 
01).  Albo^io 

70.  ElielloKt 

71.  lleUenaca 

72.  Agfin 

73.  Thoraagnr 
71.  Ilnrnalc't 
7.5.  Skeibye 
70.  Aathuui 
77.  Duver 

7P.  Dallerup 
70.  Midslriip 
K).  Agnrakov 
HI.  Kngiivung 
P2.  Bunda 

83.  Arnnburg 

84.  Norninnio 
Ki.  Soiulcrvmig 
W.  Kirikiopin? 

87.  I)ijl)rr(llund 

88.  Ht^rningtihulni 
80.  Kauriiaard 
W.  Rrandholin 
01.  Snne 

!«.  Givo 

y;l.  Gn'ndstrup 

04.  Hcanderbiirg 

0.").  TvwiBlrup 

'.Hi.  Haldnip 

^17.  Horaens 

98.  Aaairup 

00.  Kngum 
100.  Veile 
101  Ringgivo 

102.  Greene 

103.  (Mdain 

104.  Froatrupgaard 

105.  Lundage 


lOli.  \orili  Rurk 
107.  Ilnureig 
106.  Kiorgaard 

SOUTH  PART. 


..  III. 

2.  Varde 

3.  Jorno 

4.  llndilo 

."i.  Gionling 
fi.  Fiilduig 

7.  Vaaibaae 

8.  OiIiImI 

0,  Bmidtlrnp 
0.  Froderica 

11,  Guiding 

12.  Chrialianalblde 

13,  Aarne 

14.  Hadervleben 
1.5.  Gram 

10.  Hyim 

17.  Ilio>>land 

IB.  Ripen 

lU.  Reii'iyo 

20.  Ralluin 

31.  Iluyer 

32. 1.ygum  Kluatcr 

23.  Hi.iil 

24.  Schrurfilrup 

25.  Apenrade 
20.  Gravenalein 

27.  llnlebul 

28.  Ucke 
20.  Tondcr 

30.  Kinbibull 

31.  Lock 

:W.  Ockkolm 

33.  llriidileilt 

34.  Mcflelburg 

35.  Jorl 

:tfi.  Arenholt 

37.  Fionaburg 

38.  Hlfprup 
30.  GpKing 
411.  Kiippol 

41.  Windemark 

42.  Fokernforde 

43.  Sleawick 

44.  Hnllingfltcde 

45.  Troya 

46.  Huium 

47.  Mildsted 

48.  Frederickatadt 

49.  Girding 


50.  Tonningrn 

51,  W4!itlingbnrcn 
,W.  'I'l  llingbleilt 
•V,l.  RLMi(Nt)urg 

54,  Rnrluch 

55,  Bclinelm 
.SO.  Kiel 

,57.  Kumor 
58,  Reeadorf 
50,  Preol/. 
00.  PliHin 
til.  Siearn 
62,  Kriikan 
ti3.  Dranann 
61.  Liitgunburg 
65.  H.'ilundnrr 
CO.  Olik'nburg 

67.  Hurg 

68.  Iliiingenharun 
O*.),  Grciinnit 

70.  Nijualadl 

71,  Kuiin 
7'2.  Piirau 

73.  Snhamcrddorf 

74.  Neuniunater 
7.5,  VVildenscliarun 

76,  Oiiletatod 

77,  (JriblMim 

78,  Muldorf 
70,  Mama 

80.  Brunsbutlcl 

81.  Itzehne 
83.  Kreinpo 

83,  Gluckaiadt 

84,  Uotoraen 

85,  Barinaledl 

86,  Hubenhorat 

87,  Oldealiih 

88,  Bedgborg 

89,  Travemunde 
OO,  Lubeck 

91,  Labenz 

92,  Sicrlpy 
U:i,  Guduw 
94.  Greven 

0.5.  Roitzenburg 

90,  Lauunburg 
97.  Biunau 
88.  Wolhorn 
99.  Lemial 

100.  Pinneberg 

101.  Wedel 

102.  Hamburg 
1U3.  Bergador 


Rivtrt. 
n  Skiern 
b  Gielil 
c  Widaw 
d  Kydor 
e  Blur 
r  KIbo 
g  Trave 

I.AAI.AND, 

1,  Frederickadal 
3.  Raunaholl 

3.  Nakikov 

4.  Skibbelunde 

5.  Rrdo 

0.  Marieboe 

7.  Rodhye 

8.  Nyeated 

9.  Baxkioping 

FAL8TER. 

1.  Onulev 

2.  Slubbekioping 

3.  Karleby 

4.  Nyukioping 

MOF.N. 

1.  Mdndomark 

2.  Steefro 

3.  Phanefiord 

ZEALAND, 
1,  Tumnuerup 
3.  Rumloa 

3.  Gillulye 

4,  Klflinure 

,5,  Froloniborg 
0,  Blangorup 

7,  Lyngbye 

8.  (^uponnagcn 
0.  GiiUlrup 

10.  Hullerup 

11.  Gylling 

12  Knibbesholm 

13,  Ilulbek 

14,  Nyckinping 

15,  Egemnrk 
10.  Calliindborj 

17.  Giorlov 

18.  Undlose 
39.  Aagerup 
ao,  Roachild 
31,  Kioge 


23.  Oitettnip 
?.'■  I'rggevelde 

24,  Ruhulte 
35.  Glumaoe 
20.  Ringited 
37.  Suroe 

88,  Antvorakov 
W,  aiagelaa 

30,  Bhielakiov 

31,  Baltoealot 
33.  Vallenavod 

33,  Neatved 

34,  Proealo« 

33,  Wordiogborg 

SAM80G, 
1,  Nnrdbye 
3,Bolvef 

FUNEN, 
1,  MiddelfarUi 
3.  IndaloT 

3,  Bogeniee 

4,  Bederiluv 

5,  Kierteminde 
0.  Rnnkebye 

7,  Nyborg 

8,  Bellinge 

0,  Odenw 

10.  Broebye 

11.  Hunabya 
13.  Oeraied 

13.  Asaoni 

14.  Drmlalte 

15,  Sallinge 

16,  Rialing 

17,  Gudbiet 

18.  Svendborf 
19  Faabotg 

ALSEN. 

1,  Nordbuiff 

3,  Angustcnburg 
3.  Sunderburg 

ARROE, 
1,  Boel>ye 
3,  Kioping 

LANGELAND: 
I.  Humble  K. 
3,  Rudkiobibe 
3,  Stocnie 

3L 


slip 

am 


w 

■'■''^  ■l 

■it' 

,    '  H 

fm 

'.<- 


i't 


ItK) 


DESCRIPTIVK  OEOGRAPIIV. 


p*i»T  m 


with  (liliiviiirn  ofnanil,  nnd  ciilcnrf>)ii*  luam;  wliicli  latter  arc  occncionnllyroiicfnlcd  hy  nowo* 

lllllU  illl  lll<|)*)Hit.S, 

Inliniil.  'W\»  Uhw\,  Ko  tiir  lis  ii  known  to  ffrnlngxntit,  is  pntirclv  coniptmiMl  ('(((niitrpnoni 
fix'liM.  'I'lii'xc  nriMit" tw(i  rliiHw'!!;  viz.  I'liitimiiin  and  volcaiiic.  Thn  I'liitoniin  i'')riii.ilions 
iiri'  iini iiKii>iir,  and  itH  ai-ciinijiiitiyin;,'  rocits,  and  himiill,  with  its  nssociatcd  tiililiji,  nniygtin- 
liiidn,  &c.  Ot'alj  thi!  ri'ckM  ot'lht"  trap  wrioH,  ninypfdaloid  Ih  that  wIjk'Ii  cnntaiiiM  tiic  HTcntcst 
varu^ty  <)t'iiiiMrral.M;  nnd  oC  thi'.to  the  '/.nnlitnH  and  cnlcareou*  ^[)ar»  arc  llif  numt  inlcri'stintf 
ami  hcaiitirui.  Tho  volcNinic  rucks  exhibit  tho  UHiial  cliaractcrs,  nnd  in  leoiiuid  nru  spread 
nroniid  in  vnMt  ahnndnnro. 

Fiirnr  hland*.  This  cniall  inHnlar  ifronp  consints  of  spvontcon  largp  inhahiti'd  iHlnndn, 
and  of  many  smaller,  witli  nnd  without  iidinbitantH.  In  nono  of  tlio  ndinljitcd  iKiandH  nro 
the  most  olovated  Bummits  lower  than  1(H)(I  foot ;  the  hifjhest  land  in  in  tlie  inland  of  ONteroo, 
wliioh  rises  tn  fully  '2,8(M(  feet  nlxwo  tho  level  of  tho  sen.  Tho  two  prevuilinjr  roekn  arc 
ffreinflonf  (dolerite)  nnd  rl<n/nlon(:  The  greenstone  is  sometimes  hnsnltic,  sonietinies  por- 
phyritic,  or  nmypfdaloidni.  The  claysfono  is  red,  yellow,  brown,  nnd  preen.  It  altemntos 
with  the  tfrc^enstone,  in  hods  of  varyinjj  thicknesH.  Tho  beds  of  precnntone  nnd  elaystone 
of  the  proui)  nil  incline  or  ilip  townrds  a  central  jwint  of  tho  protip,  rendering  it  probnblc 
that  the  iHlatiiis  nro  Imt  portions  of  one  whole.  The  upper  surface  of  the?  preenstone  is 
sinjrev,  showinp  that  the  mass  had  l)een  in  a  state  of  iffneons  s(dntion,  'J'liero  nro  two 
principal  varieties  of  rrrecufifoue ;  one  porphyrifie,  with  crystals  of  ix^nK'y  felsimr,  the  other, 
without  the  porphyrilic  strnrturo.  In  some  of  thn  islands  there  are  IxmIs  of  pitchriwl,  asso- 
ciated witli  fire  clny,  slnte  clay,  and  splm-roslderite,  re.itinfr  upon  the  trnp,  and  covered  by  it. 
The  beds  of  ffrcenstono  and  slate  clny  are  oHeii  traversed  by  veins  or  dikes  of  Imsnltic  and 
porphyritic  ftreenstone,  which,  however,  do  not  appear  to  occasion  nny  chnnijfo  in  them;  but 
the  greenstones  nre  chniiged  in  position  nnd  direction  by  the  invasion  from  Indow  of  a 
conjjiomernted  rock,  n  kind  of  trap  tutlii.  Tho  trap  rocks  of  the  Faroes  have  been  lonof 
celebrated,  on  nccount  of  the  (•plciuiid  zonjites  theynHiird:  some  species  of  this  beuutil^il 
fcmily  appear  to  be  daily  forming.  The  chioropttrilc,  pcridote,  nnd  precious  opul  nre  also 
productions  of  this  insular  ^roup. 

SunsECT.  2. — Tinlnvy. 

Denmark  and  Sweden,  Norwii'j  nnd  Laphiml,  the  Fame  hhtwh,  nnd  /c<7«hi^,— tho  Intter 
giving  n  name,  indeed  to  n  plant  eciiially  comnion  in  the  other 
countrie.".  Lichen  islandicus,  or  Iceland  Moss,  (fi/f.  224.), — 
iniiy  he  considered  under  one  head,  so  far  us  regards  their 
^•(^getublo  prwliietions ;  for  it  is  ditficult  to  draw  an  e.\acl 
lino  of  demarcation,  and  even  of  these  the  very  nature  of  our 
work  does  not  allow  us  to  treat  much  at  largo  ;  this  is  the 
le.';s  to  be  regretted,  because  the  classical  works  of  Linimms 
and  Wahlonberg  are  in  the  hands  of  every  botanical  student; 
I  Mjjp  I  ^y  ""J  t''-'y  contain  n  mine  of  valuable  inliirination  in  the  Flwa 
Tl^l^yi'^lffli^EISfr?  ftAl,      ftfipponicn  and  Sutrica  of  both  these  authors,  and  a  fund  of 

inlerest'ug  and  delightful  narrative  in  the  Liirhrsis  Ltip- 
ponica  of  the  great  Swedish  naturalist.  The  various  writings 
of  Q?der,  Vahl,  and  Ilornemann  nllord  much  useful  matter 
rcltttive  to  the  plants  of  Denmark.  Tho  vegetation  of  ngreat 
portion  of  these  countries  may  be  considered  the  same  as  that 
of  the  more  northern  and  monntiiiiious  parts  of  Groat  Hritnin. 
Yet  as  the  nortliern  regions  of  the  continent  of  Europe  jire- 
sent  an  alpine  and  nrr:ic  vegetation,  in  a  much  more  perfect 
degree  than  islands,  we  should  scarcely  do  justice  (o  our  subject,  did  we  not  offer  some  re- 
inark.-?  on  tho  distribution  of  the  vegetable  productions  f  a  portion  of  that  more  interesting 
and  o.vireme  northern  Europfi»n  territory;  namely  I.aplaiid.  The  natural  iHnmdarinsof this 
country  are  formed  by  some  low  mountains,  aboit  oOO  feet  in  heigbt,  at  a  distance  of  from 
fivo  to  eight  iSwedisli  miles  from  the  extremity  of  the  Gulf  of  Hothnin.  They  present  no 
naked  summit.«,  hut  arc  covered  with  forests  of  Spruce  Fir*  {/i;s.  225."):  these  may  be  con- 
sidi-red  as  the  Inst  sulmlpiiie  r.nige  in  northern  Europe.  Comii  •^ncing  in  tho  south-east,  a 
little  beyond  tho  lake  Kemi.-trask,  in  lat.  (J7^,  it  tends  towards  I'pper  Toriioa,  and  near  to 
Glover  Cali.x  in  the  west;  stretches  south  to  Editors,  in  I,ulca;  and  reaches  its  southermost 
point  at  the  Tafvelsjon,  in  riiie.ui  I.aplaiul,  l,it.  04°.  This  mountain  chain  exhibits  Calla 
paliistris  (fir,  22(i.),  (n  plant  of  a  jioisonous  fiiniily,  closely  allied  to  the  Arum  maculntum 
or  Wake-robin,  and  to  the  Caladium  esciilentum  of  tho  tropics;  and,  as  with  them,  a  kind  of 
bread  called  Misioiibnid,  or  the  bread  of  famine,  is  made  by  the  Laplanders  from  the  nwts) ; 
Sweet  gale*,  comiuoii  S|)oedwell*,  Ox-eye*,  Meadow  Fesciirc-grass*,  nnd  Cnrex  stellulata*. 
The  Birch*  there  produces  its  leaves  in  the  beginning  of  June. 

*  Tlic  nanica  markuil  with  an  nstcriak  are  ttinic  nf  plants  foand  also  in  Britain. 


Icslaad  Mott 


-tlin  latter 
n  tlif  ollirr 
ff.  ^•24.),- 
liinrds  thr.r 
iin  cxdcl 
lurn  of  our 
this  i»  the 
liinnn'us 
stiuloiit ; 
10  Flora 
fund  of 
is  Lop- 
18  \vritinj;s 
iiinttcr 
of  a  pront 
me  us  tliiit 
utnritHin. 
rope  ]m- 
ro  perfect 
some  re- 
iiteresting 
ies  of  tliis 
0  of  from 
resent  no 
y  be  con- 
itli-enst,  a 
id  near  to 
jthermost 
tiits  Calla 
laculatum 
a  kind  of 
|ie  nxits) ; 
;ellulata*. 


Rook  I. 


Dr-NMAUK. 


407 


The  inferior  and  woody  diHtrirt  of  Li)i1iiiid  lins  itH  iipjKT  liiiiit  at  Sotnlankylu  in  Kenican 
Ijapland,  iK'tween  Keii(riH  and  MunoniHku  in  Tonica,  at  JiH'kniock  in  l.iiiea,  and  atFalitrak, 
in  Unii'iiu  Lapland;  and  it  virldn,  hesides  ihn  Spruce  Fir,  tiie  Mcndov  Trefiiil,  tiie  I.VHinm- 
chia  tliyrnillora*,  l.ily  of  tm-  Valley*,  and  White  Water  I.ily*,  whicli  jjrow  aliundnntly. 
Some  platu.i  whicli  are  peculiarly  eiubulpinc  be|{iii  lo  appear,  as  Tofic?tdia  palustrid*  and  Hor- 
ratula  alpiiia*. 


226 


Spruce  Fit. 


Ri'in-(lo«r  MoKs. 


The  upper  woody  district  is  distinguished  by  the  absence  of  the  last-mentioned  plants;  but 
the  tbrests  of  npriice  still  abound.  Where  the  Spruce  ceases,  in  places  of  warm  exposure, 
the  upper  limit  of  this  repion  is  indicated.  It.s  boundary  in  Kemean,  Tornean,  and  Pitean 
Lapland,  is  more  distinctly  marked,  because  the  country  is  flatter,  and  di^stituto  of  deep 
valleys;  but  in  such  situations,  in  Lulea  and  Umea,  the  Spruce  Fir  approache*'  nearer  to  the 
Alps,  and  the  sides  of  the  mountains  are  covered  with  it.  There  its  utmost  northfrn  limits 
are  found  to  be  at  Kyro,  near  the  preat  lake  of  Enare,  in  laf.  60°  north.  Here,  tix>,  is  the 
most  northern  boundary  of  many  well-known  plants,  such  as  Trifoliuni  repons*,  Festuca 
rubra*,  Rume.x  aquaticus*,  the  Yellow  Water  Lily*,  and  several  other  aquatics.  Many 
nlpine  plants  commence,  as  Salix  plauca*,  extending  south  to  the  middle  of  this  region, 
Salix  hastata*,  contined  to  the  north,  and  Bartsia  alpina*,  with  Lychnis  alpina*,  on  the  banks 
of  the  streams.     The  culture  of  barley  still  succeeds;  but  scarcely  beyond  this  line. 

The  subalpine  mountains  in  this  region  are  very  dry  and  remarkably  gravelly  and  stony ; 
abounding  in  that  plant  which  Linnrens  has  so  beautifully  described,  in  his  Flora  Lamioiiirfi, 
as  the  main  support  of  the  Rein-deer,  and  consequently  of  the  Laplander,  Lichen  Rangife- 
rinus*  (Jiff.  227.),  or  Rein-deer  Moss.  Ill  could  the  I^plander  subsist  without  the  supplies 
afforded  by  that  iiseful  animal ;  it  is  his  solo  wealth.  Almost  the  only  winter  food  of  this  ser- 
viceable animal  is  the  moss,  which  the  deer  are  so  fond  of,  that  though  it  is  commonly  buried 
at  that  season  under  a  great  depth  of  snow,  yet,  by  scratching  with  tlirir  feet,  and  digging 
with  their  antlers,  they  never  fail  to  get  at  it  In  short,  without  this  lichen,  both  the  rein- 
deer and  the  Laplander  must  perish.  "Thus,"  adds  Linnn'us,  "things  which  are  of>"ii 
deemed  the  most  insignificant  and  contemptible  by  ignorant  men,  are,  by  the  good  providence 
of  Go<l,  made  the  means  of  the  greatest  blessings  to  his  creatures."  Linnteus  assures  us 
that  this  lichen  grows  so  luxuriantly  in  Lapland,  as  to  be  fmnd  sometimes  a  foot  in  height. 

But  as  the  hills  scarcely  rise  to  the  limits  of  perpetual  snow,  about  200  or  300  feet  higher 
than  the  woods  are  found,  they  are  fertile  in  such  plants  as  flourish  in  a  dry  and  barren  soil , 
viz.,  Menzicsia  cierulea*,  Arbutus  alpina*,  Juncus  trifidus*,  Lycopodium  alpinum*,  Azalea 


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(716)  872-4503 


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DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


pakt  ni 


CodbMi. 


procumbeiu,*  and,  thouf^  luely,  Diapensia  lapponica.  Here  the  Lichen  tortareus  (Jig.  228.) 
noQ  or  Cudbear,  abounds,  and  is,  both  here  and  in  Sweden  and 

"^  Norway,  collected  and  exported  to  the  dye-manu&cturers. 

WahlenberfT  distinguishes  by  the  term  "  Regio  subsylva- 
tica,"  or  partially  wooded  region,  that  where  the  Scotch 
Fir  grows,  but  not  the  Spruce.  This  is  more  contracted 
than  the  other  regions,  and  more  difficult  to  be  defined.  It 
is  not  unfirequently  eight  Swedish  miles  broad  in  northern 
Lapland;  in  Kemea  extending  to  nearly  70°  of  lat  Be- 
fore the  Scotch  Fir  ceases,  the  Carex  globularis  disap- 
pears, and,  in  the  more  northern  parts,  Prunella  vulgaris. 
Within  the  Fir  region,  the  beautiful  Pedicularis  lapponica 
appears  scattered  through  the  woods;  Viola  bifolia,  and 
Thalictium  alpinum*  following  the  course  of  the  streams;  Salix  lanata,*  with  its  splendid 
golden  catkins,  at  the  margins  of  marshes  and  springs,  and  also  Ranunculus  lapponicus. 
The  cultivation  of  barley  scarcely  succeeds,  and  the  colonists  are  miserably  poor.  The 
Birch  comes  into  leaf  at  the  summer  solstice.  The  lakes  and  rivers  have  an  elevation  of 
about  1000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  subalpine  region  still  yields  the  Birch* 
(Betida  alba),  though  other  trees  will  not  grow.  Its  upper  boundary  is  marked  by  the 
dwarf  stature  of  these,  where  thev  scarcely  attain  a  height  of  six  feet  The  Aspen*  (fojm- 
lu$  tretntda)  and  the  Bird-cherry  (Pruniu  Padut)  cease  before  the  Birch :  the  Sorbus  Aucu- 
paria,*  or  Mountain  Ash,  extends  as  &r.  The  Birch  always  in  Lapland  reaches  to  a  much 
greater  elevation  and  more  northern  latitude  than  the  Scotch  and  Spruce  Firs.  Its  limits 
are  more  easily  determined ;  yet,  on  a  geographical  map,  they  are  with  difficulty  expressed, 
because  the  Burch  ascends  to  the  alpine  regions,  circumscribes  all  the  mountains,  and  pene- 
trates all  the  lesser  valleys:  thus  it  extends  almost  to  lat  71°  in  Western  Finmark,  and 
stops  but  little  short  of  the  North  Cape.  The  dry  portion  of  this  region  is  again  the  habi- 
tation of  the  Lichen  rangiferinus,  and  of  Azalea  procumbens,*  LuzuTa  spicata,*  and  Juncus 
trifidus.*  On  the  borders  of  Russia,  the  Birch  as  well  as  the  Scotch  Fir  extend  even  to 
the  Northern  Ocean. 

The  lower  alpine  region,  or  the  Lower  Alps,  commence  where  the  Birch  ceases  to  exist 
and  where  the  snow,  not  of  perennial  duration,  except  in  oaves  and  hollows,  melts  before 
the  middle  of  July.  There  the  Diapensia  lapponica,  Silene  acaulis,'"  and  Andromeda  hyp- 
noides  are  found.  The  Salix  myrsniites'*'  and  Dwarf  Birch  still  grow  erect  Nearly  the 
^^  same  vegetation  as  is  met  with  on  the  Lower  Alps  exists 

**"  -        *i^    •  upon  the  maritime  alps  of  Finmark,  to  the  most  northern 

promontory,  with  this  difllerence  only,  that  the  steep 
and  precipitous  rockd  harbour  more  moisture  and  snow, 
and  the  affinity  is  greater  with  the  alpine  range  in  the 
higher  mountains,  which  retain  the  snow  during  the  whole 
summer,  the  partial  melting  of  which  creates  a  moist 
and  even  a  boggy  soil.  Here,  therefore,  are  seen  the 
little  Dwarf  Willow*  (Jg.  229.)  (Salix  herbacea,)  Ra- 
nunculus  glacialis  and  nivalis,  Pedicularis  hirsuta  and 
flammea,  Stellaria  biflora,  Erigeron  uniflorum;*  plants 
eminently  alpine,  and  peculiar  to  those  situations. 
Beyond  these  is  the  region  of  perpetual  snow.  Towaras  the  Norwegian  Ocean,  another 
fbrm  of  the  alps  presents  itself;  lofty  mountains  without  any  plains,  circumscribed  with  very 
narrow  zones,  which  Wahlenberg  defines  as  the  more  elevated  sides  of  the  alps,  reaching 
nearly  to  the  limits  of  perpetual  snow,  consequently  always  irrigated  with  snow-water : 
they  nourish  a  few,  and  those  marshy,  plants.  The  Ranunculi  (Crowfoots)  principally 
abound. 

The  lower,  or  less  elevated,  sides  of  the  alps,  generally  destitute  of  perpetual  snow,  yield 
the  Dwarf  Birch*  in  the  moister  spots ;  and,  on  the  drier,  Andromeda  hypnoides,  the  Alpine 
Speedwell*,  Juncus  bifidus*,  and  the  Procumbent  Azalea.* 

The  bases  of  the  alps  are  where  the  Birch  grows,  but  no  Pines.  Among  the  Burches, 
scarcely  six  feet  high,  the  Purple  alpine  Saxifrage*,  with  Saxifraga  nivalis  and  cemua, 
abound  in  the  moist  and  precipitous  places,  and,  in  those  that  arc  more  dry,  Aspidium 
Lonchitis.  The  lower  portion  of  this  zone  ai&rds  tall  birches,  such  as  are  found  in  the  more 
northern  regions,  only  in  the  inmost  recesses  of  the  deep  hays,  and,  beneath  them,  Aspidium 
Filix  Mas*,  Osmunda  Struthioptcris,  the  Blue  Alpine  SowUiistle*,  and  the  Red  Currant* 

The  maritime  alps  include  the  islands  and  promontories ;  so  exposed  to  the  winds  that 
they  derive  their  alpine  character  more  from  their  peculiar  situation  than  from  their  eleva- 
tion above  the  level  of  the  sea :  and  so  bare  are  they  of  trees  and  shrubs,  that  even  the 
Juniper  will  not  succeed  there.  They  are  almost  equally  destitute  of  the  more  alpine  shrubs, 
such  as  Andromedas;  but  they  are  adorned  with  succulent  alpine  plants,  such  as  Soxifhiga 
oppoeitifolia*,  Silene  acaulis*,  and  Dryas  octopetala.    Near  the  shore  occur  some  produc- 


Dwarf  WUIow. 


'^^ 


Book  I. 


DENMARK. 


fm 


The  Arclie  Raiipberry. 


tions  of  the  alps  of  the  south  of  Europe,  such  as  Eri((cron  alpinum'",  Sedum  villosiim'*  and 
Gentiana  involucrato,  which  in  Lapland  are  found  nowhere  inland.  The  Norwegian  alpt 
nourish  numerous  annual  plants;  but  the  dryer  ones  of  Sweden,  remote  from  t)ie  sea,  are 
remarkuble  for  the  little  alpine  shrubs,  particularly  Azalea  lapponica,  which  scarcely  occura 
in  Norway ;  Salices  alone,  such  as  S.  myrsinites*,  occupying  their  place. 

The  siihalpinc  spots  and  valleys  are  marked  by  tiie  presence  of  the  Pine;  but  the  most 
extended  Fir  forests  are  only  found  at  tlie  heads  of  the  deep  inlets  of  the  sea,  in  narrow 
ravines,  sheltered  by  the  lotticst  mountains.  These  valleys  enjoy  a  much  milder  climate 
than  all  the  rest  of  Lapland :  there  are  found  the  Convallaria  verticillata*.  Campanula  lati- 
folia*  and  Fragaria  vesca*,  in  abundance ,  but  no  alpine  plants  will  grow,  except  the  Starry 
Saxifrage*  {Saxifraga  gtcllaris)  along  the  margins  of  the  rills. 

A  more  interesting  account  of  the  vegetation  of  Lapland,  at  different  elevations,  is  pub* 
lished  by  Sir  J.  E.  Smith,  in  the  Appendix  to  the  Lachesis  Lapponica  of  Linneus.  It  is 
translated  from  the  Swedish  of  Dr.  Wahlcnberg ;  his  "  Observations 
made  with  a  view  to  determine  the  height  of  the  Lapland  Alpe." 
(1.)  On  approaching  the  Lapponese  mountains  {Fjiiu),  we  first 
reach  the  line  where  the  Spruce  Fir  ceases  to  grow.  This  tree 
had  previously  assumed  an  unusual  appearance ;  that  of  a  tall 
slender  pole,  covered  from  the  ground  with  short,  drooping,  dark 
branches:  a  gloomy  object  in  these  desolate  forests!  The  Arctic 
Raspberry*  Qig.  2:^0.)  (^Ruhus  arclicus)  had  already,  before  we 
arrived  at  this  point,  ceased  to  bring  its  fruit  to  maturity.  With 
the  Spruce  we  lose  the  Cinnamon  Rose  {Rosa  cinnamomea*),  and 
the  Tv/in-leaved  Solomon's  Seal  (Convallaria  Infolia),  Sic. ;  and 
the  borders  of  the  lakes  are  stripped  of  their  ornaments  of  Reeds 
(Arundo  Phragmite^),  Lysimachia  thyrsiflora*,  Galium  boreale*, 
and  Carex  globularis.  Here  is  the  true  station  of  the  Arctic  Colts- 
foot {Thustlago  nivea).  The  last  beaver-houses  are  seen  in  the 
rivulets ;  and  no  pike  nor  perch  is  to  be  found  in  the  lakes  higher 
up.  The  boundary  of  the  Spruce  Fir  is  3200  feet  below  the  line 
of  perpetual  snow,  and  the  meun  temperature  37°  of  Fahrenheit. 

(2.)  Scotch  Firs*  {Pinus  syhestris)  are  still  found,  but  not  near 
so  tall  as  in  the  lower  country.  Their  stems  here  arc  low,  and  their 
branches  widely  extended.  Here  are  seen  the  last  of  Jjodum  pa- 
lustre*,  Salix  pentandra*,  Veronica  serpyllifolia*,  &c.  The  bogs  have  already  a  very  sterile 
appearance.  Near  the  utmost  boundary  of  the  Scotch  Fir  grows  Phaca  alpina.  Higher  up, 
hardly  any  bears  are  to  be  met  with ;  and  the  fruit  of  the  Bilberry*  does  not  ripen  well. 
The  Gwiniad  and  Grayling,  two  species  of  the  Salmon  tribe,  soon  aller  disappear  from  the 
lakes.  The  upper  limit  of  this  zone,  at  which  the  Scotch  Firs  cease,  is  2800  feet  below  the 
line  of  perpetual  snow,  and  the  mean  temperature  about  36°  Fahrenheit.  A  little  short  of 
this  point,  or  about  3000  feet  before  we  come  to  perpetual  snow.  Barley  will  not  ripen ;  but 
email  farms,  the  occupiers  of  which  live  by  grazing  and  fishing,  are  met  with  as  far  as  400 
feet  higher ;  for  instance,  Naimaka  in  Enontekis,  and  so  far  also  potatoes  and  turnips  grow 
largo  enough  to  be  worth  cultivating. 

(3.)  Beyond  this,  the  dwarf  and  stunted  forests  consist  only  of  Birch.*  Its  short,  thick 
stem,  and  stiff,  widely-spreading,  knotty  branches,  seem  prepared  to  resist  the  strong  winds 
from  the  Alps :  its  lively  light  green  hue  is  delightful  to  the  eye,  but  evinces  a  weakness 
of  vegetation.  The  birch  forests  soon  become  so  low,  that  they  may  be  entirely  commanded 
from  the  smallest  eminence.  Their  uppermost  boundary,  where  the  tallest  of  them  do  not 
equal  the  height  of  a  man,  is  2000  feet  below  the  line  of  perpetual  snow.  This  zone  is 
therefore  much  wider  than  the  preceding.  Lon?  before  its  termination,  the  Alder*  {Alntu 
incana),  the  Bird-cherry*  {Primus  Padns),  and  the  Aspen  {Popnlus  tremula*),  were  no 
more  to  bo  seen.  A  little  before  the  Birch  ceases,  we  miss  the  Mountain  Ash*,  which  for 
some  time  had  not  presented  us  with  any  fruit;  the  Arctic  Bramble*  {Rubus  arcticus)  was 
already  likewise  barren;  the  Ling*  {Erica  vulgaris),  Aconitum  Lycoctonum,  &.c.  Where 
the  birch  forest  becomes  thinner,  the  reflection  of  the  heat  from  the  sides  of  tlie  mountains 
is  the  strongest.  Here,  in  many  spots,  we  find  the  vegetation  of  Sonchus  alpinus*.  Strut!)!- 
opteris,  and  Aconitum  Lycoctonum  remarkably  luxuriant  The  dryer  spots  now  become 
covered  with  the  Iceland  Moss*  {Lichen  rangiferinus) :  Tussilago  ftigida  and  Pedicularis 
sceptrum-carolinum  extend  to  the  utmost  boundary  of  the  Birch.  Thus  far  only  the  Char 
(Salmo  alpinus)  is  found  in  the  lakes,  and  higher  up  all  fishing  ceases. 

(4.)  All  mountains  above  this  limit  are  called  Pjall  (alps).  Near  rivulets,  and  on  the 
margin  of  bogs  only,  is  found  a  little  brushwood,  consisting  of  Salix  glauca*,  whose  gray 
hue  affords  but  little  ornnment  to  the  landscape.  The  lower  country  is  covered  with  the 
dark-lookinsj  Dwarf  Bircli*  {Betula  nana),  which  still  retains  its  upright  position.  A  few 
Juniper  bushes*,  and  some  plants  of  Salix  hastata*,  are  found  scattered  about.  Every  hill 
is  covered  witli  Arbutus  alpina*,  variegated  with  Andromeda  Cffirulea*,  and  the  Wintergreen* 
VouL  40 


< 


A 


^, 


(  a  ^ 


I  ! 


470 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY, 


Part  111, 


{Trientalis  curopaa).  Tlie  more  boggy  ground  is  decorated  with  Andromeda  polifoliai*  in 
its  greatest  beauty,  and  Pcdicularia  lapponica.  On  tiie  sides  of  the  mountains,  where  the 
reflected  heat  bears  most  power,  grow  Veronica  alpina*,  Viola  biflora*,  Pteris  crispe*,  and 
Angelica  archangel ica.*  This  zone  extends  within  14(t0  feet  of  tlie  line  of  perpetual  snow. 
The  glutton  {Muslela  Oulo)  goes  ro  higher  than  tiiis.  The  berries  of  the  Cloudberry 
{Rubtis  ChanuBmorui)  still  ripen  here,  but  not  at  a  greater  elevation. 

(5.)  Now  no  more  brushwood  is  to  be  seen.  The  white  Salix  lanata*  is  not  above  two 
feet  high,  even  about  the  rivulets,  and  Salix  myrsinites*  is  of  still  humbler  growth.  The 
Dwarf  Birch*  occupies  the  dry  spots,  and  creeps  entirely  upon  the  ground.  The  hills  are 
clothed  with  the  rather  brown  than  green  Azalea  procumbens*,  and  A.  lapponica,  which 
give  this  zone  its  most  peculiar  feature.  Verdant  spots  between  the  precipices,  where  the 
sun  has  the  greatest  power,  produce  Lychnis  apetala*,  Erigeron  uniflorum*,  Astragalus 
leontinus  and  montanus,  with  Ophrya  alpina.  In  boggy  places,  Aira  alpina*,  Carex  ustu- 
lata*,  and  Vaccinium  uliginosum'"  are  observable.  The  only  berries,  however,  which  ripen 
at  this  degree  of  elevation  are  those  of  the  Crowberry*  {Empetrwn  nigrum) ;  but  these  are 
twice  as  large  as  what  grow  in  the  woodlands,  and  tetter  flavoured.  The  upper  boundary 
of  this  zone  is  800  feet  below  the  line  of  perpetual  snow.  The  Laplanders  scarcely  ever 
nx  their  tents  higher  up,  as  the  pasture  for  their  reindeer  ceases  a  very  little  way  above 
this  point    ITie  mean  temperature  is  about  34°  Fahrenheit. 

(6.)  Next  come  the  snowy  Alps,  where  are  patches  of  snow  that  never  melt.  The 
bare  places  between  still  produce  a  few  dark  shrubby  plants,  such  as  the  Crowberry*,  des- 
titute, however  of  fruit;  Andromeda  tetragona  and  hvpnoides,  and  Diapensia  lapponica. 
Green  precipices,  exposed  to  tlie  sun,  arc  decorated  with  the  vivid  azure  tints  of  Gentiana 
tenella  and  nivalis*,  and  Campanula  uniflora,  accompanied  by  the  yellow  Draba  alpina. 
Colder  and  marshy  situations,  where  there  is  no  reflected  heat,  produce  Pedicularis  hirsuta, 
and  Dryos  octopetala.*  This  zone  reaches  to  within  200  feet  of  the  limits  of  perpetual  and 
almost  uninterrupted  snow. 

(7.)  Beyond  it,  the  eternal  snows  begin  to  cover  the  ground,  and  we  soon  arrive  at  a  point 
where  only  a  few  dark  spots  are  here  and  there  to  be  seen.  This  takes  place  on  the  alps 
of  Quickjock  at  the  elevation  of  4100  feet  above  the  sea ;  but  nearer  the  highest  ridge,  and 
particularly  on  the  Norway  side  of  that  ridge,  at  3100  feet.  Some  few  plants  with  succulent 
leaves  are  thinly  scattered  over  the  spongy  brown  surface  of  the  earth,  where  the  reflected 
heat  is  strongest,  quite  up  to  the  line  of  uninterrupted  snow :  tliese  are  Saxifraga  stellaris*, 
rivularis*,  and  oppositifolia* ;  Ranunculus  nivalis  and  glacialis ;  Rumex  digynus*,  Juncus 
arcnatus*,  and  Silene  acaulis.  The  mean  temperature,  at  the  boundary  of  perpetual  snow, 
is  32i°  of  Fahreniieit. 

(8.)  Above  the  line  of  perpetual  snow,  the  cold  is  occasionally  so  much  tempered,  that  a 
few  plants  of  Ranunculus  glacialis,  and  other  similar  ones,  may  now  and  then  be  found  in 
the  clefts  of  some  dark  rock  rising  through  the  snow.  This  happens  even  to  the  height  of 
500  feet  above  that  line.  Farther  up,  the  snow  is  very  rarely  moistened,  though  some  um- 
bilicated  Lichens  (Gyrophora:),  Sic.  still  occur  in  the  crevices  of  perpendicular  rocks,  even 
2000  feet  above  the  line  of  never-melting  snow.  These  are  the  extremes  of  vegetation, 
where  the  mean  temperature  seems  to  be  30°  Fahrenheit.  The  Snow  Bunting  {Emberixa 
nivalis)  is  the  only  living  being  that  visits  this  elevate?  spot. 

ScBSECT.  3. — Zoology. 
The  native  Zoology,  in  conjunction  with  that  of  Norway,  has  been  ably  illustrated  by  the 
celebrated  Danish  naturalist  Miiller,  and  shows  that  the  f&una  of  those  kingdoms  is  much 
richer  than  tlieir  northern  and  ungenial  climate  would  lead  us  to  imagine.  The  total  num- 
ber of  land  quadrupeds,  including  the  domestic  species,  is  forty-one.  Among  these  we  find 
the  lynx,  the  glutton,  the  beaver,  the  leming,  and  the  flying  squirrel ;  together  with  four 
of  the  largest  deer  inhabiting  Europe ;  namely,  the  elk,  the  stag,  the  rein-deer,  and  the 
fiillow-deer. 

The  Elk  {Cervua  Alces)  {Jig.  231.)  of  Europe  is  not  the  same  with  tlie  Moose-deer  of  Ame- 
rica :  it  is  found  in  Europe  between  latitude  53°  and 
65° :  in  size  it  is  higher  than  a  horse ;  and,  to  support 
tlie  enormous  weight  of  its  horns,  sometimes  nearly 
fifty  pounds,  its  neck  is  short,  thick,  and  very  strong. 
Its  movements  are  rather  heavy :  it  does  not  gallop,  but 
ambles  along,  the  joints  cracking  so  much  at  every 
step,  that  the  sound  is  heard  to  some  distance.  During 
winter  it  chiefly  resides  in  hilly  woods;  but  in  summer 
it  frequents  swamps  and  the  borders  of  lakes;  oflen 
going  deep  into  the  water,  to  escape  the  stings  of  gnats, 
&c.,  and  to  feed  without  stooping.  Witli  its  enonnous 
horns  it  turns  <lown  brandies  of  trees,  to  feed  upon  the 
bark,  witii  great  dexterity ;  and  these  are  also  used  as 
shovels,  to  g:et  at  pasture  when  covered  with  snow. 
The  young  are  so  simple  and  fearless,  that  they  will 


v&y%^/^   ^ 


TtwElk. 


^t 


\ 


.     The 
"*^  des- 


BookL 


DENMARK. 


471 


The  Mocking  Juj. 


suffer  themselves  to  be  taken  by  the  hand.  An  unusually  large  oik,  killed  in  Sweden,  ia 
said  to  have  weiglicd  1800  lbs.  These  animals  do  not  now  appear  to  be  employed  in  any 
domestic  office. 

The  Wolverine,  or  Glutton,  is  one  of  those  animals  whoM  history  has  long  been  shrouded 
in  fiction  and  romance.  It  is  only  now  that  its  true  habits  have  been  given  to  the  world,  oy 
that  enterprising  traveller,  Dr.  Richardson.  The  Wolverine  of  America,  generally  consi- 
dered the  same  with  the  European  Glutton,  feeds  chiefly  upon  beasts  that  have  been  acci- 
dentally killed ;  but  it  will  hunt  smaller  animals,  as  meadow-niicc,  marmots,  Sic.  and  occa- 
sionally attack  disabled  animals  of  a  larger  size.  In  its  gait  it  resembles  the  bear ;  and, 
although  not  fleet,  is  very  industrious.  Mr.  Graham  observes,  that  it  does  more  damage  to 
the  small  fur  trade  than  all  the  other  rapacious  animals  conjointly ;  as  it  will  follow  the 
martin-hunter's  path  round  a  line  of  traps  extending  sixty  miles,  and  render  the  whole 
unserviceable,  merely  to  get  at  the  baits.  Yet  it  flies  from  the  face  of  man,  and  may  be 
killed  with  a  stick.  Its  total  length  is  not  more  than  two  feet  and  a  half. 
The  Birds,  according  to  Miiller,  amount  to  232  species :  the  greater  part  of  these  are 

common  to  tlie  northern  countries  of  Europe ;  but  the 
Mocking  Jay  {Corvus  infaitstns  Lin.)  {fig.  232.),  and 
the  Nutcracker  {Nucifraga  caryocatactes)  are  unknown 
in  Britain  and  more  southern  latitudes :  the  bill  of  the 
latter  is  shaped  much  like  that  of  a  woodpecker,  and  ia 
said  to  be  used  for  breaking  the  shells  of  nuts :  whence 
its  name.  The  species  of  fish,  from  the  maritime  nature 
of  the  region,  are  numerous. 

Domestic  animals.  It  appears  that  the  breeds  called 
tlie  lesser  and  greater  Danish  Dogs  are  much  more  com- 
mon in  other  countries  than  in  thot  from  which  they 
have  been  named.  The  horses  and  cattle  are  of  very 
large-sized  breeds,  generally  called  the  Holstein.  The  greatest  number  of  oxen  seem  to  be 
bred  in  Jutland :  they  arc  fattened,  during  summer,  in  the  rich  marshes  of  Holstein,  and 
driven,  in  the  autumn,  to  Hamburg. 

Sect.  III. — Historical  Geography. 

During  the  early  period  of  the  middle  ages,  the  swarms  of  pirates  sent  fortli  by  Denmark 
spread  desolation  and  terror  to  the  remotest  extremities  of  Europe.  Canute  king  of  Den- 
mark even  ascended  the  English  throne  in  1017.  Denmark,  at  the  same  time,  carried  on 
frequent  wars  against  tiie  contiguous  districts  of  Gennany  and  Pofand,  and  oflcn  held  sway 
over  large  portions  of  them.  But  her  most  brilliant  era  was  the  reign  of  Margaret  of  Wal» 
demar,  sumamed  the  Semiramis  of  the  North,  who,  by  her  courage,  popularity,  and  address, 
succeeded  in  effecting  the  union  of  Calmar,  which  placed  on  her  head,  and  on  that  of  her 
nephew  Eric,  the  crown  of  the  three  northern  kingdoms  of  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway. 

The  decline  of  Denmark  began  in  the  thirteenth  century,  under  the  violent  and  tyranni- 
cal reign  of  Christian  I.  The  sanguinary  course  by  which  he  sought  to  punish  an  insurrec- 
tion of  the  Swedes  roused  all  the  dormant  spirit  of  that  brave  people,  who  found  a  deliverer 
in  Gustavus  Vaso,  and  were  Anally  freed  from  the  Danish  yoke.  During  the  two  following 
centuries,  Sweden,  led  to  victory  by  a  succession  of  heroic  monarchs,  rose  to  the  highest 
pitch  of  military  glory ;  while  Denmark,  always  defeated,  was  stripped  of  many  of  her  most 
important  territories,  and  sunk  into  the  rank  of  a  secondary  state.  Still  she  successfully 
cultivated  maritime  commerce  and  shipping,  and  obtained  some  valuable  possessions  in  the 
East  and  West  Indies. 

In  the  great  crisis  produced  by  the  conquests  of  Napoleon,  Denmark  was  thrown  into  an 
unfortunate  predicament.  Placed,  as  it  were,  at  the  point  of  collision  between  France  and 
Russia,  she  could  with  difliculty  escape  being  crusiied  between  them.  Circumstances  of 
peculiar  hardsliip  threw  her  into  the  arms  of  Prance,  to  whose  cause  she  adhered,  and  at  the 
great  contest  which  ended  in  the  downfall  of  Napoleon,  she  became  a  victim.  First,  she 
was  deprived  of  Norway,  that  it  might  be  ceded  to  Sweden,  and  that  Russia  migiit  retain 
Finland.  Denmark  received  in  return  Swedish  Pomerania  as  an  inadequate  compensation. 
Next,  she  was  required  to  exchange  Pomerania  for  Iiauenburg,  a  territory  of  still  inferior 
extent  and  value ;  but,  as  it  borders  on  Sleswick  and  Holstein,  it  has  rendered  her  dominion 
more  compact,  and  extended  her  frontier  to  the  Elbe,  so  that  she  is  perhaps  rather  a  gainer 
by  tiie  exchange. 

Sect.  IV. — Productive  Industry. 

Tlie  agriculture  of  Denmark  is  conducted  under  considerable  disadvantages  both  of  cli- 
mate and  soil.  The  climate,  though  not  subject  to  severe  frost  or  intense  cold,  is  chill  and 
damp ;  and  the  land  consists  in  a  great  measure  of  sand  and  marsh.  Every  part  of  the  king- 
dom, however,  ia  capable  of  some  cultivation,  and  occasional  tracts  of  luxuriant  fertility 
occur.     Such  are  the  islands  of  Zealand  Laaland,  and  Falstcr ;  ond,  in  a  still  greater  degree, 


H 


T%- 


-HI 


^ 


%    4 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  10. 


'1^- 


^f  the  waFCoast  of  Sleswick  and  Holstnin ;  for  tho  interior  is  arid  an<I  windv.  TIio  industry 
™f  of  the  peasant  in  Denmark  Proper  Buffers  many  aevrtro  cliccks ;  ho  has  been  but  recently 
emancipated  from  personal  bondage,  and  is  still  subjected  to  many  feudal  usages.  Life- 
leases,  under  which  the  payment  is  made  in  produce  or  pergonal  services,  are  common.  The 
proprietors  are  generally  embarrassed,  and  unable  to  expend  much  on  the  improvement  of 
their  lands.  The  farmers  of  Holstein  and  Sleswick  carry  on  tho  process  of  cultivation  with 
^at  skill  and  activity.  The  chill  moisture  of  the  climate  is  less  tavourable  to  tiie  cultiva- 
tion of  wheat  than  of  barley,  rye,  and  oats ;  all  of  which  afford  a  large  surplus  for  exporta- 
tion. The  rearing  of  cattle  is  also  an  e.xtensive  branch  of  industry,  though  too  litllc  atten- 
tion has  been  paid  to  the  improvement  of  the  breeds,  unless  on  the  west  coast  of  Sleswick, 
on  whose  moist  and  rich  meadows  is  produced  what  bears  a  high  reputation  under  the  name 
of  "  Hamburg  beef."  Over  all  Denmark,  the  produce  of  the  dairy  forms  the  basis  of  a  large 
export  trade. 

The  manu&cturea  of  Denmark  are  extremely  rude,  and  consist  chiefly  in  working  up  the 
flax  and  wool  of  the  country  in  a  coarse  form  for  domestic  use.  A  great  proportion  also  of 
the  wool  is  exported.  Government  have  employed  ^eat  efforts  to  raise  Denmark  to  the 
rank  of  a  manu&cturing  country ;  and  some  fabrics  m  the  diflferent  kinds  of  cloth,  brandy, 
'  migar-refining,  dtc.,  liave,  under  its  patronage,  been  set  on  foot  in  the  large  towns ;  but  these 
are  all  languishing,  and  with  difficulty  support  foreign  competition. 

The  commerce  of  Denmark  is  in  a  more  active  state  than  the  other  branches  of  industry ; 
though  it  is  still  not  such  as  to  give  her  a  prominent  place  among  the  powers  of  Europe. 
The  basis  consists  in  the  exportation  of  its  raw  produce.  The  grain  exported  from  Jutland 
and  the  islands,  at  an  average  of  seven  years  to  1827,  amounted  to  29,000  quarters  of  wheat ; 
141,000  quarters  of  rye ;  190,000  quarters  of  barley ;  43,000  quarters  of  oats.  The  rye 
was  chiefly  exported  to  Norway,  to  be  used  as  bread-corn,  and  the  barley  to  be  employed  in 
distillation.  The  value  of  these  articles  amounted,  in  1825,  to  $6,300,000.  That  of  butter 
and  cheese  exported  was,  in  the  same  year,  |ll,300,000.  Holstein  and  Sleswick,  called  the 
duchies,  exported  at  an  average  also  of  seven  years,  78,000  quarters  of  wheat ;  55,000  of 
rye ;  75,000  of  barley ;  1.30,0(W  of  oats.  The  value  of  butter,  cheese,  and  solted  meat,  is 
still  greater.  Denmark,  from  its  situation  between  the  northern  and  middle  states,  has  a 
considerable  carrying  trade  of  the  bulky  articles  produced  by  the  former ;  and  has  also  a 
good  deal  of  ship-building.  Both  the  whale  and  herring  fisheries  arc  likewise  carried  on  to 
some  extent 

Sect.  V. — Political  Geography. 

The  constitution  of  Denmark,  originally  founded  on  the  basis  of  the  most  complete  feudal 
independence,  to  the  extent  of  rendering  the  monarchv  itself  elective,  underwent  a  com- 
plete change  in  1660,  when  Frederick  III.  had  the  oddfss  to  obtain  an  act  by  which  the 
crown  was  declared  hereditary,  and  himself  invested  witli  supreme  and  absolute  power. 
The  sway  of  the  Danish  princes  has,  however,  been  exceedingly  mild  and  popular,  and  their 
despotic  power  exerted  in  a  manner  beneficial  to  the  people,  as  it  limited  the  oppressive 
rights  exercised  by  the  nobles.  These,  however,  continue  to  be  extremely  obnoxious ; 
and  it  is  only  within  a  very  few  years  that  the  body  of  tlie  people  were  emancipated  from 
a  state  of  personal  slavery.  The  nobles  are  few  in  number,  consisting  only  of  one  duke, 
nineteen  counts,  and  twelve  barons.  The  king  himself  presides  at  the  supreme  national 
tribunal. 

The  revenue  amountstofrom  about  1(7,500,000  to  1^,000,000.  There  is  a  nominal  debt  of 
975,000,000 ;  but  the  interest  paid  upon  it  is  small. 

The  military  and  naval  establishments  are  on  a  scale  suited  to  a  greater  country  Uian 
what  remains  of  Denmark.  The  army  is  kept  up  to  nearly  40,000  regular  troops  and  60,000 
militia.  The  navy  has  not  recovered  from  the  severe  shock  which  it  received  during  the 
last  war :  at  present  it  consists  of  six  ships  of  the  line,  six  frigates,  and  four  corvettes,  besides 
smaller  vessels.  The  sailors  being  all  registered,  no  difficulty  is  ever  found  in  manning  the 
navy. 

Smct.YI.— Civil  and  Social  State. 

The  population  of  the  Danish  dominions  in  1832,  amounted  to  2,049,000;  of  which 
1,540,000  were  in  its  ancient  domain  of  the  islands  Jutland  and  Sleswick ;  404,000  in  Hol- 
stein; 40,000  in  Lauenburg ;  51,000  in  Iceland  ;  14,000  in  Greenland  and  the  Faroe  Islands.* 

National  character.  The  Danes  are  generally  quiet,  tranquil,  and  industrious.  The 
inhabitants  of  the  towns,  who  are  chiefly  engaged  in  trade,  have  a  great  share  of  the  patient, 
ihrilty,  and  persevering  habits  of  the  Dutch.  The  pcosantry,  poor  and  oppressed,  arc  begin- 
ning, however,  to  raise  their  heads  ;  and  the  nobles,  no  longer  addicted  to  those  rude  and 

*  The  Danish  nilnnio  are  OhriolianiiborK  and  nthor  fitatinnfi  in  Guinea,  with  44,000  inh.ibilnnt9 ;  Snnitt  C'lux, 
8t. Thomas,  and  St.Jnhn  in  the  Weft  Indies,  with  47,000;  and  Tranquebarand  nictorieiinntbcCuiomandelc 
in  the  East  Indies,  with  UO.OUO.— Aa.  Ed. 


■<y. 


'♦ 


Book  I. 


DENMARK. 


478 


vhich 
Hol- 
inds.* 
The 
tient, 
•egin- 
e  and 

I  Ciux, 

Icout, 


daring  pursuits  which  rendered  them  once  so  formidable,  live  much  in  the  stylo  of  opulent 
proprietors  in  other  European  countries. 

The  Lutheran  religion  was  early  and  zealously  adopted  in  Denmark,  to  the  extent,  indeed, 
of  granting  toleration  to  no  other ;  but  the  liberal  principles  now  diffUsed  throughout  Europe, 
have  mode  their  way  fully  into  that  country.  Science  was  at  one  era  somcwliat  brilliantly 
patronised  in  Denmark.  The  cbservatory  at  Orienbaum  was  the  theatre  of  many  of  the 
most  important  modem  observations;  and  Tycho  Brahe  ranks  as  one  of  ttio  fittliera  of 
modern  astronomy.  (Elenschlager  and  other  writers  have  introduced  a  school  of  poetry  and 
dramatic  literature,  founded  upon  that  of  the  modem  German.  The  government  has 
bestowed  a  laudable  attention  on  the  general  education  of  iu  people,  and  has  even  passed  n 
law,  requiring  every  child,  of  a  certain  age,  to  be  sent  to  school.  The  schools,  on  the  plan 
of  mutual  instruction,  amounted,  in  1829,  to  2500,  and  more  were  in  progress ;  there  are  also 
3000  grammar  and  parish  srhools. 

Sect,  VII. — Local  Geography, 
The  local  divisions  of  continental  Denmark  present  little  variety  in  consequence  of  the 
uniformity  of  its  surftice,  and  the  small  number  of  considerable  cities.  Its  divisions  are  Zev 
land  and  the  other  islands ;  Jutland,  Sleswick,  Holstein,  LAUcnburg ;  with  the  remote  terri- 
tories of  Iceland,  Greenland,  and  the  Faroe  Islands. 

Zealand  is  a  flat,  fertile,  and  extensive  island,  separated  from  Funen  by  the  Great  Belt, 
and  f5rom  Sweden  by  the  Sound.    Including  the  capital,  and  chief  seats  of  trade,  it  forms  the 
most  important  part  of  the  Danish  dominions. 
Copenhagen,  (Jg.  233.),  (in  Danish,  Kiobenhafo,  or  the  "  merchant  port,")  the  capital 

of  Denmark,  is  situated  on  the  east 
coast  of  Zealand,  with  the  island 
of  Amak  oppposite  to  it,  and  seve 
ral  little  lakes  in  it«  vicinity.     Its 
walls  enclose  a  circuit  of  five  miles, 
a  great  part  of  which,  however,  is 
covered  with  open  spaces,  and  with 
the  harbour  and  docks.  The  houses, 
with  a  few  exceptions,  are  built  of 
brick,  plastered  over,  and  painted 
in  different  colours.    The  number 
of  inhabitants   is  about  115,000; 
the  houses  dre  lotly,  and  contain 
many  fiimilies  in  each.    The  city 
is  divided  into  three  ports;  the  old  town,  which  contains  the  greater  part  of  the  population; 
the  new  town,  in  which  are  all  the  finest  edifices;  and  the  port,  or  Christian's  Haven.    In 
the  midst  of  the  principal  square  is  the  bronze  statue  of  Frederick  V.,  weighing  45,000  Ibe. 
This  square,  with  the  adjoining  one  called  the  King's  Mark  Place,  surrounded  by  the  palace 
of  Charlottcnborg,  the  theatre,  the  principal  hotel,  and  other  stately  buildings,  forms  the 
handsomest  part  of  Copenhagen.    The  cathedral  was  destroyed  during  the  bomWdment  by 
the  English,  and  is  left  in  ruins ;  but  the  Frue  Kirke  is  an  elegant  Grecian  edifice,  215  feet 
by  180,  with  a  Doric  portico,  and  for  which  Thorwaldsen  is  preparing  statues  of  the  apostles 
and  evangelists.    The  palace  of  Rosenborg,  though  now  unoccupied,  contains  an  extraor- 
dinary display  of  jewels,  precious  stones,  and  porcelain.    The  collections  in  science  and  art 
ore  equal  to  those  of  the  greatest  capitals.    The  king  has  a  library  of  400,000  volumes,  with 
numerous  manuscripts  illustrative  of^the  history  and  literature  of  the  North,  as  well  as  those 
brought  by  Niebuhr  from  the  East;  an  extensive  museum  of  northern  antiquities:  a  gallery 
of  pictures,  comprising  some  fine  specimens  of  the  greatest  masters,  and  a  numerous  collec* 
tion  of  engravings.    The  University  of  Copenhagen,  a  highly  respectable  institution,  has  a 
valuable  library  of  about  100,000  volumes,  and  an  excellent  collection  of  northern  manu- 
scripts.   The  arsenal  is  said  to  equal  that  of  Venice  in  beauty,  and  to  surpass  it  in  extent. 
The  mint  throws  off  200  pieces  in  a  minute. 

The  other  towns  in  Zealand  and  the  islands  are  of  comparatively  small  magnitude.  Ros- 
child,  the  ancient  capital  of  Denmark,  which  contained  once  thirty  convents  and  thirty 
churches,  is  now  remarkable  only  for  its  Gothic  cathedral,  in  whose  vaults  arc  deposited  the 
remains  of  the  kings  of  Denmark.  Several  of  the  monuments  are  fine.  Elsinore,  with  its 
castle  of  Cronborg,  is  important  from  its  situation  on  the  Sound,  which  being  commanded 
by  the  castle,  the  government  is  enabled  to  levy  what  are  called  the  Sound  dues.  The  pas- 
sage to  Helsinborg,  in  Sweden,  may  be  made  in  half  an  hour.  Elsinore,  from  its  favourable 
situation  and  good  roadstead,  carries  on  a  considerable  commerce,  and  contains,  among  its 
inhabitants,  many  British,  Jews,  and  even  Mahometans.  It  has  a  handsome  cathedral,  with 
(»me  fine  tombs.  Population  7000.  At  Cronborg  is  shown  the  chamber  in  which  the 
unfortunate  Matilda  was  confined.  This  castle  commands  a  noble  view  over  the  sea,  the 
Vol.  I.  40*  3K 


f 


CopenbM'B. 


!.!R 


'••■•     t^   ^JT 


'      % 


< 


474 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY 


Pabt  in. 

iilandg,  and  the  oppoaite  coant  of  Sweden.  The  torracn  from  which  these  are  viewed 
recalls  to  the  En^'lish  reader  the  first  scenes  of  Hamlet,  tlic  tradition  of  whose  story  is  still 
prevalent  here.  Soroe,  in  the  interior,  surrounded  by  a  tine  country,  has  a  noble  academy ; 
and  contains  the  toinlw  of  Eric,  Canute,  and  other  princes.  Odensee,  tiie  capital  of  Funen, 
has  a  collen^c,  and  is  riithcr  a  thriving  town,  with  manufactures  of  woollen  and  soap.  Nye> 
bor^,  in  Funcn,  and  Cori<oer  in  Zealand,  derive  some  im|x>rtancc  from  their  situation  on  the 
passage  of  the  Great  Belt;  and  Middelfurth,  in  the  former  island,  from  the  passage  of  the 
Little  Belt 

The  towns  of  Jutland  are  of  small  interest,  and  have  been  little  observed,  with  the  excep* 
tion  of  those  which  lie  on  the  high  rood  from  Hamburg  to  Copenhagen.  Aalborg,  near  the 
northern  extreft^ity,  is  the  seat  ofone  of  the  four  bishoprics;  and,  being  situated  on  a  narrow 
arm  of  the  8eA,'wit,h  a  good  harbour,  carries  on  some  trade.  Aarhuus,  on  the  eastern  coast, 
is  the  seat  of  another  bishopric ;  and,  being  in  tlie  midst  of  a  fertile  country,  exports  some 
grain.  Population,  5,000.  Colding  derives  some  importance  from  its  vicinity  to  the  passage 
of  the  Little  Bolt.     Wiborg  and  Ripen  are  also  deserving  of  mention. 

In  Sleswick,  the  city  of  that  name  is  agreeable,  though  irregularly  built.  Its  cathedral, 
with  numerous  monuments  of  ancient  dukes,  is  viewed  with  interest.  Flemsborg,  on  a  deep 
and  winding  hanf,  or  bay,  with  an  excellent  harbour,  possesses  a  much  greater  commercial 
importance,  while  it  carries  on  the  communication  with  the  Baltic:  it  has  15,000  inhabitants. 
Tonningcii,  on  tiic  otiier  side,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Eyder,  communicates  with  the  coun- 
tries situated  round  the  Gorman  Ocean ;  and,  by  the  canal  of  Holstein,  it  has  now  a  water 
communication  with  the  Baltic. 

Holstein,  the  most  southern  province  of  Denmark,  ranks  as  a  part  of  the  German  empire, 
to  which  it  once  belonged,  and  gives  to  the  king  of  Denmark  a  vote  in  the  diet.  Reaching 
to  the  Elbe,  and  being  more  in  tlie  commercial  circle,  it  has  a  considerably  brisker  trade  than 
the  northern  or  peninsular  territory.  Altona,  a  few  miles  below  Hamburg,  is  a  repetition  of 
that  city  on  a  smaller  scale ;  having  25,000  inhabitants,  busily  employed  in  the  commerce 
of  the  Elbe,  in  shi|>-huilding,  and  in  several  manufactures.  Gluckstajilt,  about  twenty  miles 
lower,  though  inferior  in  extent,  is  a  handsome  and  regular  town,  with  considerable  naval , 
establishments.  Kiel,  on  the  eastern  or  Baltic  coast,  has  an  excellent  harbour,  and  derives 
importance  from  its  situation  at  the  extremity  of  the  canal  which  connects  the  eastern  and 
western  seas.  It  contains  an  university.  Lauenburg,  a  level  tract,  intersected  with  several 
small  lakes,  thougli  it  rounds  the  Dnnisli  borders,  does  not  possess  much  importance,  either 
in  itself  or  its  little  capital,  with  3,(XK)  inhabitants. 

Iceland,  an  appendage  of  the  Danish  crown,  unimportant  in  a  political  view,  but  interest- 
ing from  its  physiiui  and  moral  aspect,  is  situated  in  the  Northern  Ocean,  on  the  border  of 
the  arctic  circle,  i.nd  at  the  farthest  verge  of  the  civilized  world.  It  is  a  liirge  island,  220 
miles  in  length,  and  210  in  breadth;  containing  about 40,000  square  miles.  Iceland  belongs, 
by  its  situation,  to  the  polar  world  ;  and  the  mountain  chains,  from  3000  to  6000  feet  high, 
with  which  it  is  everywhere  intersected,  give  it  a  still  more  severe  and  stern  character. 
Barley  is  the  only  grain  that  can  be  raised,  and  this  only  in  patches ;  cabbages,  and  a  few 
other  imported  vegetables,  may  be  produced,  but  Iw  no  means  in  perfection.  The  dependence 
of  the  inhabitants  is  chiefly  upon  the  abundance  of  flsh  which  the  surrounding  seas  oifbrd ;  so 
that  the  interior,  comprising  about  half  of  the  island,  is  a  desert  of  the  most  dreary  character. 
The  mountain  phenomena  of  Iceland  are  very  striking.  According  to  Glieman,  the 
jokuls,  or  hills  covered  with  ice,  rise  to  the  following  heights :  Oerefe,  6240  feet ;  Snafell, 

4572;  Findfiill,  5368;  Hecia,  5210;  Eya- 
flail  Oester,  5794.  All  these  mountains 
are,  at  the  same  time,  glaciers  capped 
with  ice  which  never  melts;  but  these 
glaciers  consist  not,  like  those  of  Switzer- 
land, of  great  masses  sloping  down  from 
upper  regions  of  the  mountains  to  the  val- 
leys ;  they  are  the  snows  of  winter  melted 
and  frozen  where  they  fall.  Beneath  this 
mantle  of  ice  and  snow  burns  a  perpetual 
fire,  which  in  every  part  of  the  island 
bursts  forth  in  the  most  strange  and  fear- 
ful phenomena.  Hecla  (Jig.  234.),  with  its  flaming  volcano,  is  the  most  celebrated ;  but  its 
eruptions,  of  which  six  have  occurred  in  the  course  of  a  century,  are  at  present  suspended. 
There  are  six  other  volconoes,  which,  in  the  course  of  a  century,  have  emitted  twenty 
eruptions. 

The  Geysers  form  a  phenomena  strikingly  characteristic  of  Iceland,  and  rank  with  the 
most  extraordinary  that  are  produced  on  any  port  of  the  globe.  They  consist  of  fountains, 
which  throw  up  boiling  water,  spray,  and  vapour,  to  a  great  height  into  the  air.  The  erup- 
tions are  not  continuous,  but  announce  their  approach  by  a  sound  like  that  of  subterraneous 


Hecla. 


'  V 


■€■ 


Book  I. 


DENAfARK. 


476 


with  the 
luntains, 
e  erup- 
raneoua 


Ciretfct  Opyger. 


tliundcr;  immediately  after  whicli,  a  column  of  water,  acconipnMJcil  with  prodigious  volumes 

of  steam,  burKtu  forth,  and  rui«hi-H  up  to  the  neifflit  of  titly, 
sixty,  ninety,  or  even  a  hundred  an<l  titly  feet.  The  water 
soon  ceases ;  but  the  spray  and  vapour  continue  to  play  in 
the  air  for  several  hours,  and,  when  illuminated  by  the  sun, 
produce  the  most  brilliant  rainbows.  The  largest  stones, 
when  thrown  into  tlie  orifice,  are  instantly  propslled  to  an 
amazing  height,  and  remaining  otlen  tor  some  minutes 
within  the  influence  of  the  steam,  rise  and  fall  in  singular 
alternation.  Stones  thrown  into  the  fountain  have  the 
remarkable  effect  of  acting  as  a  stimulus  to  the  enip- 
tion,  and  causing  it  to  burst  from  a  state  of  tranquillity. 
The  basin  of  the  Great  Geyser  (Jig,  235.),  is  of  an  oval 
form,  with  diameters  of  finy-eight  and  sixty-four  feet. 
Every  spot  around  the  Geysers  is  covered  witli  varic^ 
ted  and  beautiful  petrifactions.  Leaves,  grass,  rushes, 
are  converted  into  white  stone,  preserving  entire  every 
fibre. 

The  Sulphur  Mountains,  with  their  caldrons  of  boilmg 
mud,  present  another  phenomenon  which  the  traveller  be- 
holds with  the  utmost  astonishment  These  consist  chiefly  of  clay,  covered  with  a  crust, 
which  is  hot  to  the  touch,  and  of  sulphur,  from  almost  every  part  of  which,  gas  and  steam 
are  perpetually  escaping.    Sometimes  a  loud  noise  guides  the  traveller  to  a  spot  where  cal- 

drons  of  black  boiling  mud  (Jig. 
238     ^^  236.),    largely    impregnated   with 

this  mineral  substance,  are  throw- 
ing up,  at  short  intervals,  their 
eruptions.  Tliat  on  the  Krabla, 
observed  by  Mr.  Henderson,  had  a 
diameter  equal  to  that  of  the  Great 
Geyser,  and  rose  to  the  height  of 
thirty  feet.  The  situation  of  the 
spectator  here  is  not  only  awful,  but 
even  dangerous;  standmg,  as  Sir 
George  Mackenzie  observes,  "  on  a 
support  which  feebly  sustains  him, 
over  an  abyss  where  Are  and  brim- 
..  .  stone  are  in  dreadful  and  incessant 

Caldroa  of  BoUmi  Mud.  action  " 

The  civil  and  social  state  of  Iceland  presents  features  no  less  interesting.  It  was  dis- 
covered about  the  year  840,  by  Nadod,  a  Danish  pire.i.3.  After  its  settlement  it  became  a 
little  independent  republic ;  and  the  arts  and  literature,  driven  before  the  tide  of  barbarism, 
which  then  overwhelmed  the  rest  of  Europe,  took  reftige  in  this  remote  and  frozen  clime. 
Iceland  had  its  divines,  its  annalists,  its  poets,  and  v.-as  for  some  time  the  most  enlightened 
country  then  perhaps  existing  in  the  world.  SuV;  :t^d  first  to  Norway,  in  1261,  and  after- 
wards to  Denmark,  it  lost  the  spirit  and  ene.;.  >(*  an  independent  republic.  Yet  the 
difiusion  of  knowledge,  even  among  the  lowest  c^  -r<,  which  took  place  during  its  pros- 
perous period,  still  exists  in  a  degree  not  paralleleu  in  the  most  enlightened  of  other 
nations.  Men  who  seek,  amid  the  storms  of  the  surrounding  ocean,  a  scanty  provision 
for  their  families,  possess  an  acquaintance  with  the  classical  writings  of  antiquity,  and 
a  sense  of  their  beauty.  The  traveller  finds  the  guide  whom  he  has  hired  able  to  hold  a 
conversation  with  him  in  Lutin,  and  on  his  arrival  at  his  miserable  place  of  rest  for  the  night, 
is  addressed  witii  fluency  and  elegance  in  the  same  language.  "  The  instruction  of  his  chil- 
dren," says  Dr.  Holland,  "  forms  one  of  the  stated  occupations  of  the  Icelander ;  and  while 
the  little  hut  which  he  inhabits  is  almost  buried  in  the  snow,  and  while  darkness  and  deso- 
lation are  spread  universally  around,  the  light  of  an  oil-lamp  illumines  the  page  from  which 
he  reads  to  his  family  the  lessons  of  knowledge,  religion,  and  virtue." 

The  Faroe  Islands  compose  a  group  in  the  Northern  Ocean,  between  61°  15'  and  62°  20' 
N.  lat.,  to  the  N.W.  of  Shetland,  which  they  resemble.  The  principal  are  Stromsoe,  Osteroe, 
Suderoe,  and  Norderoe,  with  the  smaller  islands  of  Nalsoe,  Vogoe,  and  Sandoe.  Their  only 
wealth  is  produced  by  the  rearing  of  sheep,  fishing,  and  catching  the  numerous  birds  which 
cluster  round  the  rocks.  With  the  surplus  of  these  articles  tliey  supply  their  deficiency  of 
grain.    Thorsharn,  on  Stromsoe,  is  the  only  place  tliat  can  be  called  a  town. 


*•*. 


*<ttr. 


|- 


wr 


'if 

•  * 


DESCRIPTIVE  UROGRAPHY 
CHAPTER  VI. 

SWEDEN  AND   NORWAY. 


PABTin 


SwiOM  and  Nobwav,  now  united  into  ono  kinf^dom,  form  an  pxtpnaivf)  regrion,  atretchinff 
from  the  utmoat  verge  of  the  temperate  xunc  tar  h'to  the  tVozcn  range  of  the  arctic  circle. 
Alonf;  the  north  ana  west  itrotch  the  wide  vhoroa  of  the  Frozen  Ocean,  m  fkr  as  yet  known. 
The  Bouth-wost  point  of  the  kinfjfdom  borders  on  the  North  Sea  or  German  Ocean.  •  The 
Baltic  and  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia  encloHO  it  on  the  south  and  onHt;  so  that  it  formH  an  immense 
peninsula.  The  isthmus  by  which  it  is  joined  to  Russia  is  above  200  miles  broad,  but  lo 
closely  baned  by  mountains  and  frosen  plains,  that  the  kingdom  is  nearly  inaccessible, 
except  by  sea. 

SiOT.  I. — Oeneral  Outline  and  Aipeet. 

This  kinffdom  is  of  vast  extent  Its  lenf^th,  from  the  extreme  point  of  Scania  to  the  Nortli 
Cape,  is  1C60  miles.  Its  breadth,  from  the  extreme  points  of  tlie  provinces  of  Stockholm 
on  the  east,  and  Bergen  on  the  west,  will  little  exceed  360  miles.  Its  area  is  207,000  square 
miles.  Of  this  large  territory,  scarcely  a  half  can  be  considered  as  belonging  to  the  civi- 
Hzed  world.  The  Laplander,  who  derives  his  whole  subitistence  from  the  rein-deer,  can 
hardly  be  included  within  the  pale  of  civilized  society.  Even  tlie  southern  districts  have  a 
rugged  and  repulsive  aspect,  when  compared  to  almost  any  other  European  state.  Forests 
of  tall  and  gloomy  pine  stretch  over  the  plains,  or  hang  on  the  sides  of  the  mountains ;  the 
groimd  for  hve  months  in  the  year  is  buried  under  snow ;  cultivation  appears  only  in  scat- 
tered patches,  and  was  long  c^uite  insufficient  to  furnish  bread  to  the  inhabitants. 

The  mountains  consist  chiefly  of  tho  dark  and  lofty  chain  of  the  Dofrines,  which  were 
for  ages  a  barrier  between  the  two  separate  and  hostile  states  of  Sweden  and  Norway,  but 
are  now  included  within  the  united  kingdom.  It  commences  near  Oottenburg,  on  a  low 
scale,  and  becomes  much  more  elevated  in  passing  through  Norway,  where  some  of  its  pin 
nacles  exceed  8000  feet  Chains  of  secondary  elevation  run  through  Lapland ;  but,  in 
approaching  the  North  Cape,  they  again  rise  as  high  as  before,  and  fkce  the  polar  seas  with 
ciifis  of  prmligioua  magnitude. 

The  nvers  are  numerous,  Sweden  being  a  country  profusely  watered ;  but,  as  they  rise  in 
the  Dofrines,  and  traverse  the  divided  breadth  of  the  peninsula,  they  seldom  attain  any 
material  length  of  course.  The  largest  is  the  Dahl,  which  crosses  Dafecarlia,  and  ftJls  into 
the  sea  at  Geffle,  after  a  course  of  260  miles.  The  most  important  as  to  navigation  are  those 
which  form  the  outlet  to  the  lakes,  particularly  the  Gotha,  reaching  from  the  lake  Wener 
to  Gottcnburg.  The  Glomme  and  the  Dramme  are  pretty  considerable  rivers,  running 
from  north  to  south,  and  down  which  considerable  quantities  of  timber  are  floated.  Lapland 
pours  a  number  of  large  streams  into  the  head  of  tho  Gulf  of  Bothnia ;  but  these  are 
usually  chained  in  ice,  and  at  no  time  can  be  subservient  to  the  purposes  of  agriculture  or 
navigation. 

Lakes  form  the  grand  depository  of  the  surplus  waters  of  Sweden.  The  Wener  bears 
almost  the  character  of  an  mland  sea,  and  the  completion  of  the  canal  of  Trdlhfttta,  by 
enabling  its  coasts  to  communicate  by  the  Gotha  with  Gottenburg,  has  given  them  almost 
the  full  advantages  of  a  maritime  site.  The  Wetter,  though  equal  in  length,  covers  not 
nearlv  so  great  an  extent  of  ground.  Mftler,  or  Malar,  is  a  narrow,  winding  loch,  or,  more 
strictly,  a  oay,  running  sixty  miles  into  the  interior  from  Stockholm,  to  whose  environs  its 
variegated  and  rocky  shores  give  a  beautiful  wildness.  Small  lakes,  enclosed  between  hills, 
are  of  very  frequent  occurrence,  both  in  Norway  and  Sweden. 

Scot.  II. — Natural  Geography. 
■  '  SuBSKCT.  1. — Geology. 

(1.)  Geolooy  of  Sweden. — I.  Primitive  rocks.  Granite  occurs  in  the  mountains  of 
J&mtland,  in  Herjeadalen,  in  Lulea  Lappmark,  in  Pitea  Lappmark.  It  occurs  also  in  the 
plains,  without  any  covering  of  other  rocks,  as  in  Upland,  Wcstmanland,  Sudermanland,  and 
a  part  of  East  and  West  Gothland.  It  passes  into  gneiss  and  syenite.  Gneiss  occurs  in 
many  places  in  Sudermanland,  East  Gothland,  inc.,  with  beds  of  copper  and  iron  ore.  Mica 
slate  aoounds  not  only  in  the  principal,  but  also  in  the  subordinate  chains,  and  contains  the 
greater  number  of  the  metalliferous  beds  met  with  in  Sweden.  It  often  alternates  with  vast 
beds  of  primitive  limestone,  quartz,  &.c.  In  the  high  mountain  ridges,  the  strata  of  this 
rock  are  generally  disposed  at  an  angle  of  45°;  while  in  the  subordinate  chains  they  aie 
vertical.  In  many  places  it  abounds  in  garnets,  when  it  is  known  under  the  name  noorka, 
or  murkstein,  the  garnet  rock  of  geologists.  Clay  slate  occurs  sparingly :  talc  slate,  in 
several  quorters,  occurs  in  considerable  abundance.  Porphyry  occurs  only  in  Sraaland, 
where  the  basis  is  a  quartzy  homstone  (hallejlinta)  with  embedded  crystals  of  felspar,  and 
grains  of  quartz.     Primitive  limestone  occurs  generally  in  the  secondary  mountain  chains. 


'liv 


t'. 


^' 


DookL 


SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY. 


4T7 


but  snlilom  in  tho  noighbourhuod  of  tlio  ccntriil  chniiiH.  It  i*  mixed  up  with  iiornblende 
tromolitu,  quartz,  Borptmtinv,  ifaniet,  ma^nutic  ironHtonc,  and  mica.  It  ia  odon  iiivtallifonmii, 
coiitainint;  ffnlena,  copper,  aiid  iron  pyritoH.  Hcrppntino,  with  the  exception  of  nuuncii  in 
Rome  mntalliforuuR  beds,  8oldom  occun  pure :  it  w  ntton  mixed  witli  limniitono,  when  it 
occurM  in  primitive  limostono.  Quartz  ri>ck  occtirs  eitlipr  pure,  and  in  whole  mountuini,  m 
in  Dahlxlund,  Hnmland,  and  many  other  plucen;  or  it  altonmtoH  with  mica  MJute,  oh  in  Dahln- 
land,  and  qIho  in  tiio  metallifurouii  bedi  of  I'entborK  and  Klacka.  Tlin  limovtono  of  Dane- 
mora  contains  mica  iilate.  It  also  occum  in  veins  in  Kranito  and  mica  Hlat(!,  &c.  Porphyri- 
tic  quartz,  n  {granite  rock,  with  embedded  gminn  and  cryHtala  of  fubpar,  occurs  in  Hmuland, 
Tomea  LAppmark,  &c.  Primilive  trap.  Of  this  interestinp[  irroup  of  rocks,  tlie  foliowinif 
kinds  are  met  with;  viz.  hornblende  rock,  hornblende  witli  felspar,  and  hornblende  with 
mica. 

II.  7Van«i7(on  rocki.  Congflomerate  and  sandstuno,  which,  in  some  ploces,  are  covered 
with  transition  limestone,  occur  in  Jftmtland,  Tomea  Ijappmark,  An^ermanland,  Dalccarlia, 
SchOnen,  islands  in  the  Lake  Wetter,  East  and  West  Gothland,  Nerika,  Dularnia.  Transi- 
tion porphyry :  in  tho  parish  of  Elfdal,  in  Dalarnia.  The  basis  is  of  the  nature  of  hom- 
■tone.  It  rests  upon  transition  sandstone,  and  is  covered  by  syenite,  porphyry,  and  transition 
ffreenstono.  Greywack  .  slate  lies  upon  sandstone,  and  is  covered  by  transition  limestone. 
It  sometimes  cnntainc:  ( jal,  and  Uien  passes  into  a  kind  of  shale.  It  also  contains  fossil 
remains  of  marine  animals.  Transition  limestone  occurs  in  Gothland,  (Eland,  SchOncn, 
East  and  West  Gothland,  Nerika,  Dalarnia,  and  Jiimtland.  In  the  re^^ular  succession,  it  lies 
immediately  upon  alum  slate,  but  in  Gothland  directly  upon  sandstone.  It  is  seldom  covered 
oy  other  rocks,  excepting  in  West  Gothland,  where  it  is  covered  by  clay  slate  and  green- 
stone. It  contains  many  diflercnt  petrifactions,  as  orthoceratites,  ammonites,  anomites,  ochi- 
nitea,  cornllites,  and  entrochites.  Its  colour  is  commonly  gray,  or  bluish  gray,  and  reddish 
brown,  often  varied  with  veins  of  a  green  colour.    Transition  trap  is  tho  youngest  rock  of 

ho  transition  class  in  Sweden.  In  Elfclal  it  rests  upon  porphyry;  upon  transition  clny  slate 
and  alum  slate  in  Kennekulle,  Billengen,  the  Hunno  and  Hallebcrgc,  and  others,  in  West 
Gothland. 

III.  Secondary  rocki.  The  mountain  chain  around  Helsingborg,  in  Schdncn,  is  composed 
of  secondary  sandstone.  It  contains  beds  of  slate  clay,  bitummous  shale,  and  black  bitumi- 
nous coal.  This  sandstone,  which  belongs  to  the  black  bituminous  coal  formation,  is  covered 
with  other  secondary  deposits,  as  limestone,  the  age  of  which  is  not  well  known.  The  only 
one  of  these  newer  secondary  deposits,  tho  gcognostical  history  of  which  has  been  mode 
out,  is  Chalk.  This  intorestmg  formation  occurs  at  Limhamii,  near  to  Malma  It  encloses 
balls  of  common  flint,  and,  at  its  lower  part,  posses  into  a  more  solid  chalk  and  secondary 
limestone. 

IV.  Tertiary  rocks.  The  tertiary  deposits  seem  to  occur  in  some  points  of  the  land  not 
far  distant  from  tho  sea-coast ;  but  they  have  not  been  carefully  explored. 

V.  Alluvial  rocks.  Many  tracts  more  or  less  deeply  covered  with  gravel,  sand,  and  clay, 
occur  in  Sweden. 

Mines.  The  mines  of  Sweden  have  been  long  celebrated  all  over  the  world,  and  have 
been  frequently  described  by  travellers.  Oold  and  silver  mines.  The  Adelfora  mine,  which 
formerly  yielded  thirty  or  forty  marks  of  gold  annually,  now  furnishes  only  three  or  four ; 
those  of  Fahlun,  where  copper  predominates,  return  annually  four  marks  of  gold  and  fitly 
marks  of  silver.  The  silver  mme  of  Sahla,  which,  during  the  reign  of  Queen  Christina, 
yielded  annually  20,000  marks  of  silver,  does  not  at  present  afford  annually  more  than  2000 
or  3000  marks.  Copper  mines.  The  most  considerable  copper  mines  arc  those  of  Fahlun, 
which  is  also  known  under  tho  name  of  Kopparberff.  The  mines  of  Atwidabcrg,  in  East 
Gothland,  furnish  about  a  sixth  part  of  all  the  copper  which  the  Swedes  obtain  annually  from 
mines ;  those  of  Fahlun  yield  more  than  the  half  of  the  copper  raised  in  Sweden.  The  ore 
at  Fahlun  is  copper  pyrites,  disposed  in  an  immense  irregular-shoped  mass,  in  mica  slate: 
10,200  quintals  of  copper  are  yielded  by  it  annually.  Iron  mines.  Tho  greatest  iron  mines 
are  those  in  the  province  of  Upland :  of  tiiose  the  most  important  are  those  of  Skebo,  of 
(Esterby,  not  far  from  Donernora,  of  Gimo,  of  Ronaes.  Iron  is  mined  as  far  north  as  Gell- 
vara,  which  is  200  leagues  to  the  north  of  Stockholm.  The  island  of  Uto,  on  the  east  coast 
of  Upland,  also  affords  a  considerable  quantity  of  iron.  The  whole  mines  aflbrd  annually 
1,800,000  quintals  of  iron.  Cobalt  mines.  The  principal  mines  of  this  metal  arc  those  of 
Tunaberg,  near  to  Nykfiping,  and  nt  Awed,  in  East  Gothland.  These  mines  afford  excel- 
lent  cobalt,  but  the  quantity  is  not  great.  Coal  mines.  Coal  mines  have  been  worked  for 
some  time  in  Scania,  two  leagues  from  Hclsinborg,  and  are  affonling  a  considerable  return. 
Sulphur  and  vitriol.  The  pyritical  minerals  of  Dylta  afford  annually  10.50  quintals  of  sul- 
phur, and  those  of  Fahlun  about  100  quintals  of  the  same  substance.  Tho  vitriolic  waters 
of  Fahlun  afford  annually  about  600  quintals  of  green  vitriol,  or  sulphate  of  iron,  and  a  small 
quantity  of  blue  vitriol,  or  sulphate  of  copper,  ilium.  The  annual  produce  of  alum  is 
about  42,600  quintals.  Quarries.  Sweden  possesses,  besides  its  regular  mines,  olso  valua- 
ole  quarries  of  granite,  porphyry,  and  marble.    The  porphyry  quarries  of  Elfdal  are  the 


*•- 


'•:^!  * 


MAP  OF  SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY. 


Fio.  337 


M. 


10.  337 


■n 


BdOBi 


SWTBDEN  AND  NORWAY 


470 


•M 


in 


HI 


-M 


larirmt  nml  mntit  celebrated  in  Europe.    Nearly  all  the  fine  moilum  work*  in  |«>rphyry  arc 
in  thu  norpiiyry  nf  RllUal. 

(3.)  UKOMKiv  or  NnitWAT  and  I.ArtAND. — I.  Primilivn  ritekt.  TIipno  wild  but  highly 
intereiitin)(  coiintrio*  are  principally  compoeed  of  primitivn  niui  tmniiitior.  nickii ;  Mconiliiry 
rockii  occur  but  mrnly,  nnd  nlltiviiildnpniiita  are  not  lo  abundant  m  in  niiiny  othur  Iniauxtcn- 
■ivo  roKlonH.  Ornntle  \n  a  rarn  mck  in  Norway  and  I^plnnd,  and  iniiy  \ro  con«idorod  one 
of  thn  iGiMt  abundant  roc kN  in  Scandinavia.  The  granite  tVonunntly  ii|)|Hiara  in  vuina  tra> 
verMing  tho  primitivn  utrntitlnl  rockH,  or  running  mrallol  with  bedioriitrrita;  and  noinetimca 
it  can  bo  mhmi  Mprrad  ovor  tho  mirfkco  of  mica  alate,  aa  at  Forvig,  or  irro(;ularly  aiwociati'd 
with  cluy  Hinto  and  diallago  mck,  aa  in  tlie  ialand  of  Magcroo,  Unrin  mum*  to  bo  by  tiir 
tho  moMt  fVoqucnt  nnd  abundant  rock  in  Hcandinavia,  all  tno  othnr  primitivu  rockn  anpoaring 
to  be  in  aomo  dngroo  lubordinntn  to  it.  Mir.a  ilate  roata  upon  nnd  Bltnrniiti>ii  with  tlio  gnoiiw, 
but  ia  fhr  iVom  ixting  ao  (fcnomlly  diatributcd  aa  that  rock.  Vlny  iliittt  nUmg  with  the  mien 
■Into  ia  not  of  fVo<pi»>nl  occurrrnco.  Quartz  rock,  variout  hornblendi'  ri>ck»,  und  limetlone, 
occur  in  bmla  aubordinatn  to  thn  gnniaa  and  mica  alato.  Oabhro,  or  dialla^c  rork,  uno  of  tiio 
moat  hnautiftil  of  tho  older  rocka,  occura  in  great  quantity,  connected  witli  clay  alnte,  in  tho 
inland  nf  M nirerno,  and  othnr  pnrta  of  Norway. 

II.  Traimtion  rocki,  Thia  claaa  containa,  boaidea  greywacke,  nhim  tlntr,  nnd  limeitone 
(which  containa  much  tromolite),  ami  other  rocks  well  known  to  mineraloi;itita  na  inombcra 
of  thia  claaa,  the  following : — 1.  Granite,  which  aometimea  containa  hornblende.  2.  Syenite, 
which  containa  a  bcautiflil  iMhradnric  variety  of  common  fehpar,  and  nuninroiia  cryatala  of 
the  gem  named  zircon.  8.  Porphyry,  and,  aaaociated  with  it,  various  trap  rocka  allied  to 
baaaR  and  amygdaloid. 

III.  Secondary  rock*.  The  groat  primitive  land  of  Scandinavia  continuca  onward  to  the 
extreme  northern  point  of  Norway ;  but  in  thia  high  latitude  aome  now  formntions  make 
their  appcarnnco  among  the  older.  The  aandatone  mmrtz  of  Alten  hua  been  known  ainco 
the  publication  of  tho  travela  of  Von  Buch.  On  the  Eaat,  towards  tho  Russian  dominiona, 
there  ia  a  conaiderable  tract  which  difTora  more  fVom  tho  primitive  fornmtiuna  timn  the  aund- 
Btone  quartz  of  Alten  does.  Sandstone  and  conglomerate  extend  acroaa  tlio  subjacent  gnoisa 
in  a  horizontal  position.    These  rocks  probably  Mong  to  the  old  red  nandttone. 

IV.  Alluvial  rocki.  Old  alluvium  occurs  on  the  const,  and  in  tho  interior  in  many  of  the 
valleys,  and  the  new  everywhere  in  greater  or  loss  quantity. 

Imnet.  The  only  itilver  tninen  in  Norway  are  those  of  KAngsbcrg,  situated  in  mica  slate, 
which  formerly  afforded  rich  returns,  but  of  late  have  yielded  no  profit.  Tho  ffold  mine  of 
Eldswold,  and  the  mines  of  lead  and  st/ver  in  Jarlsberg,  have  been  hut  frcbly  worked.  The 
.opper  mine»  are  principally  situate<l  in  the  northern  division  of  tho  kingdmii.  The  most 
onsidcrable,  near  luDraaa,  were  discovered  in  1644.  They  have  afforded  conHidernble  quan- 
ities  of  copper :  in  1805,  the  annual  return  was  7800  (|uintal8  of  copper.  Tlio  other  mines 
of  copper  are  from  15  to  20  leagues  of  Drontheim,  at  Quiknc,  I.irkken,  SellKx;,  nnd  in  the  dis- 
trict of  Christiania,  at  Frederic ksgave  or  Foledal.  The  principal  iron  minis  are  those  of  Aren> 
dal  end  Krageroe,  in  southern  Norway.    The  mine  of  I*urwig,  near  tho  town  of  that  name, 


IRTH  PART. 

ynat 
LtbabiJ* 
-.  JjifflmorTanl 

JAIisniiianl 
Jukiby 
Abnpiihui 
9.  Pviviukantft 

10.  Kiiutnkeino 

11.  KnlliunuiM 
13.  Finland 

13.  OriHtfin 

14.  Anki'nn 
Mi,  Kurravaart 
IB.  RaiiivatI 

17.  Bnp|»ro 

18.  Hiianvn 
10.  Oellivaia 
SO.  Ilipni 

81.  (iiilrkjdck 
S*i.  Rtintiviiro 
Zl.  Salldaien 
34.  IjonM 
3.5.  eiipflM 

36.  Snfatwi 

37.  8llb<>^ek 
24.  Rinilijaur 
3D.  yValmat 

30.  Liilna 

31.  Oras 

33.  SopijanM 

33.  Pulla 

STRaJalaKengia 

3.V  Pello 

30.  Uppor  Tainca 

37.  Turnea 

38.  Kalix 
30  Kum 
«>.Harada 
41.  Tvan 


RrfertMu  to  tKe  Map  of  Sweden  and  Noruay, 


^ 


JukroMle 
Lrokwia 
Raika 

nutelo 

naddodelt 

Foldereld 

Htram 

OidorncM 

Hnnitad 


Tl.lfi 

74.  St 


Moiiniot 

iTi 


ndanuker 
^alligon 
olinca 
itrom 


Awie 

Junacic 

Amund 

Nordmalinff 

Patvikcn 

ReMcIa 

Nordinira 

HenKwaiid 

Fora 


I.  Ditanuad 
Mariaibv 
Hemdal 
pronlhalm 

eg,  Leimvia 

go.  flaibarc 

M.  Ilavna 

BOirrH  PART. 
I.  Bundiwall 
9.  Rraeka 

fir* 

5.  Liniliatli 
<l.l(wle 

2:  to 

9.  f«Moe 

10.  Opdal 

11.  Rbmtdal 
13.  Oraknui 

13.  Bnndel* 

14.  Slavum 

15.  Fonia 
Ifl.  Bofnadal 
17. 1«nm 

IH.  Riniabo 
19.  n«am 

30.  nrolle 

31.  F.niadal 
3).  Aibrn 
S3.  Hencn 
34.  I.inidal 
fa.  Aibra 

3n.  Rndeihamn 
37.  Ilamranfo 
3H.  Oeflo 
39.  Fahlun 


Moa 
^lath«n 


''laa 
loel 


30.  Mora 
1.  Mall 


31. 


...Junt 
n.  Dunbr 
33.Gnue1 


I.- 

3R.  Kiglvi 
30.  Barf  en 

tAarevig 
Oddan 
Tuiaunidal 
Nora 

Chritllania 
Frirkiande 
Narrna 

47.  Ncirrbarko 

48.  Tuna 

49.  HeilfnoFa 
90.  Ferneb 
SI.  Lolbta 
!».  Um 
S3.  Waddu 
S4.Upaal 
SS.  Htuckholm 

MnriafVol 
^.nkopini 
ATeaterai 
iSe.  Orahm 
m.  Hhilipiiad 
ni.  Parlilad 
63.  Hnlmodal 

63.  Mnll 

64.  Tumberg 

8V  Ovamen 
X  Ranland 

67.  Bfllaoi* 

68.  F.gflriund 

69.  Rakke 

70.  Chriitianaund 

73.  MoklaiM 

74.  Arendal 

75.  Solids 


Dj,  niuc 
.W.  Mar 
.W.  F-ok 
.18.  Wei 


76.  HnMrn 

77.  Fn»b>ri''knlnd 

78.  Fmlirirkihali 

79.  Uddevnihi 

80.  Wcni-rbdrg 
81. 1.ldknping 
83.  flkam 

83.  Marlniind 

84.  Ilaiina 
HI.  Njknping 

86.  Norkiipinir 

87.  Wnli'rwir.k 
8H.  I.inkiiping 

89.  Saby 

90.  F.kitHJn 

91.  Jonkuping 
93.  Hj() 

93.  Orerird 

94,  Oan'nrm 
9.V  (j<iii(<nbur( 

07.  Halmnlad 
98.  NiMliOiBPk 
91).  Miirliindii 

100.  Minrrhuit 

101.  Wiibr 

103.  Nan 

10.1.  Itiimpfkiilla 

104.  Calmar 
\M,  RurshMlm 
100.  (.''arlscriitia 

107.  Cnilsliamm 

108.  I.iilliiilni 
10!l.  LandgCTona 

1 10.  Chrlitiandnd 
Ill.Rnrum 
113.  Faliterbo 
113.  Halmo 


_  Rtvtre. 
a  Tana 


b  Alton 
c  Itannena 
d  lyaniMn 

r  Mdolvon 
1  Itoina 
1  Ciliimmea 

Klar 
.  I'aga 
[  Miirrint 

I  Duhl 
in  IJiimo 

n  IVijurunda 

II  liiilal 

p  Aiinvrmana 

q  Umca 

r  Windal 

•  Pitea 

t  I.ulua 

II  I.lna 

V  K>ilii 
w  'I'ornea 

X  l.iijniii 

T  Muonio 

a*  lloin 
b*  Stiira 
c*  Ave 
d»  llinea 
•■*  Walgoinaa 
f*  Apiinua 
u*  Knili 
1*  Siori 

Fnemnnd 

MiniteQ 

Malar 
I*   lljelniat 
m»  Wetter 
n*  Wenar 
o*  Bolmco 


*> 


480 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY, 


Pabt  m. 


.^ 


affords  annually  20,000  quintals  of  bar-iron  and  0000  quintals  of  cast-iron.  The  establish- 
ment of  the  same  kind  at  Moss  affords  annually  10,000  quintals  of  iron  in  bars  and  cast 
The  same  annual  quantity  is  afforded  by  the  mines  of  Bmrum,  Bolvig,  Ulfoss,  Eidfoss,  Ege- 
land,  Naes,  Dikkemarken  Possum,  and  Oudalen.  Lastly,  the  mines  of  Hassel,  Froeland, 
I^ssoe,  and  Mostmarken,  furnish  from  30(K)  to  5000  quintals  of  iron  annually.  The  annual 
produce  of  the  iron  min«s  of  Norway  is  estimated  by  a  well-known  statistical  writer  at  about 
150,000  quintals.  The  mines  of  cdtalt,  which  are  wovked  at  Modum  and  Fossum,  are 
extensive  but  not  deep.  In  the  year  1792  they  yielded  2917  quintals  of  ore.  There  is  a 
mine  of  plumbago  and  black  lead  at  Engledal.  The  mines  of  alum,  which  are  worked  in 
t|ic  mountain  of  Egeberg,  near  to  Christiania,  afford  not  only  a  sufficiency  for  tlie  consump- 
tion of  the  Danish  states,  but  also  a  considerable  quantity  for  exportation.  Norway  possesses 
quarries  of  granite,  marble,  millstone,  whetstone,  slate  and  clay.  Granite  is  exported  to 
Holland ;  the  marble  and  other  minerals  supply  the  Danish  states. 

SuBBEOT.  2. — Botany. 
The  Botany  of  these  countries  has  been  noticed  under  that  of  Denmark. 

SvBHEOT.  3. — Zoology. 

The  Zoology  of  Sweden,  the  native  country  of  the  celebrated  Linnoius,  is  so  well  known 
to  naturalists,  by  the  writings  of  that  great  man,  that  to  them  the  subject  is  familiar.  Nor 
does  it  present  any  thing  very  different  in  its  general  character  from  that  of  Denmark.  The 
bleak  aii4  inhospitable  regions  of  Norway  and  Lapland,  to  which  nature  has  denied  the  rich 
and  verdant  pasturage  of  Britain,  and  the  consequent  abundance  of  grazing  animals,  are, 
however,  tlie  chief  metropolis  of  the  Rein-deer,  whose  diversified  qualities  are  beautifully 
adapted  for  supplying  such  deficiencies. 
The  Rein-deer  (Kangifer  Tarandus  H.  Smith)  {fig.  238.)  forms  the  sole  riches  of  the 

Laplander,  and  its  care  is  almost  his  only  occu- 
pation. According  to  the  season,  he  migrates 
to  the  sea  shore,  the  plains,  or  the  mountains. 
The  rich  oflen  possess  2000  head;  and  the 
poorer  seldom  less  than  100.  The  adult  male, 
in  a  wild  state,  is  even  larger  than  a  stag ;  but 
the  domesticated  races  ere  somewhat  smaller : 
the  sight  and  scent  of  these  creatures  are  aston- 
ishing, and  guide  them  witli  wonderful  precision 
through  the  most  dangerous  passes  and  in  the 
darkest  stormy  nights  of  an  arctic  winter.  To 
this  sagacity  the  Laplander  trusts  his  life  witli 
confidence;  and  accidents  rarely  happen :  they 
draw  his  sledge  with  such  amazing  rapidity, 
that  in  twenty-four  hours  a  pair  of  Rein-deer  have  been  said  to  perform  a  journey  of  100 
miles.  In  a  wild  state  they  are  gregarious ;  and,  when  domesticated,  evince  an  excessive 
attachment  to  each  other.  During  summer  they  are  much  tormented  by  a  species  of  gad-fly; 
but  the  old  account  of  the  glutton  falling  upon  them  firom  a  tree,  and  then  devouring  them, 
is  now  considered  fabulous.  During  life  this  useful  animal  supplies  its  master  with  lalwur  and 
milk ;  and,  when  dead,  every  part  becomes  serviceable,  the  skin  for  clothing,  and  for  boots ; 
the  horns  to  make  utensils ;  the  sinews  for  thread,  and  the  flesh  for  food :  the  intestines  are 
also  used ;  and  the  tongue  is  a  well-known  article  of  commerce. 
Tiie  Birds  are  not  numerous,  and,  with  few  exceptions,  differ  not  from  those  of  Denmark 
and  the  other  northern  king'doms.  The  Iceland  Falcon  [Falco 
islandictts)  (Jig.239.)  rarely  wnndrrs  to  more  temperate  climes;  and 
a  gigantic  Owl  {Strix  lapponlca  Lin.)  is  a  peculiar  inhabitant  of 
the  dreary  solitudes  of  La;)lir.d ;  to  tliesc  we  moy  add  two  other 
species;  the  large  JUral  Owl,  an^  the  Great  Snowy  Owl.  These 
formidable  birds  prey  upon  numcnms  ptsirmigans  and  grouse,  great 
numbers  of  which  inhabit  the  confines  of  the  arctic  circle.  The 
Curruca  suecica  Sw.  or  Blue-throated  Reed  Warbler,  one  of  the 
most  elegant  birds  of  Europe,  is  not  peculiar,  as  its  name  would  im- 
ply, to  Sweden,  being  common  in  France  and  Switzerland. 

The  insects  of  Sweden,  during  its  short  summer,  are  very  numer- 
ous; ond  many,  enumerated  by  Acerbi,  very  beautiful;  but,  in 
autumn,  nearly  the  whole  country  is  terribly  infested  by  Musqui- 
toes,  these  tormenting  little  animals  being  beyond  calculation  more 
numerous  in  high  northern  latitudes  than  in  the  woods  of  tropical 
America. 


The  Rein-Doer. 


239 


Iceland  Falcon 


^sr 


BookL 


SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY 


[enmark 

{Falco 

les;  and 

litant  of 

|o  other 

These 

,  great 

The 

of  the 

\\ili  im- 


Seot.  III. — Hittorical  Otography  " 

The  early  history  of  Scandinavia  is  deeply  involved  in  fable  and  uncertainty.  Ptolemy 
and  Pliny,  the  best  informed  of  ancient  geographers,  seem  to  distinguish  it  from  "  Great  Ger- 
many," off  the  coast  of  which  they  represent  Busilin,  or  Baltia,  as  a  large  is.and,  though  not 
nearly  approaching  to  the  real  dimensions.  The  Goths  were  fi)und  in  early  possession  of 
Sweden,  and  its  southern  provinces  have  been  denominated  Gothland ;  but  the  question, 
whether  they  were  the  native  possessors,  or  entered  it  as  conquerors,  is  one  wliich  can 
scarcely  be  now  decided.  Scandinavia  has  been  called  the  "  storehouse  of  nations ;"  and 
"  the  blue-eyed  myriads  fh>m  the  Baltic  coast"  are  supposed  to  have  been  among  the  moet 
numerous  of  those  who  spread  war  and  desolation  throughout  Europe.  Dr.  Clarke  ridicules 
this  idea,  as  inapplicable  to  a  country  of  unbroken  forests,  and  a  slowly  advancing  popula- 
tion, making  the  first  essays  of  agriculture ;  yet,  though  the  population  could  never  be  great, 
the  simple  and  pastoral  habits  of  the  people  might  dispose  emigrants  to  seek  subsistence  with 
the  sword  in  happier  climates. 

Scandinavia,  flrst,  by  a  aeries  of  formidable  expeditions,  made  a  figure  in  history  at  the  end 
of  the  nintjj  century. '  Harold  Harfager,  or  the  Fair-haired,  the  first  of  the  great  sea-kings 
of  the  North,  having  united  the  formerly  independent  districts  of  Norway  under  hia  sway, 
undertook  triumphant  expeditions  against  Shetland,  Orkney,  and  the  Hebrides.  For  several 
centuries  the  Danes  and  Norwegians  held  full  possession  of  those  islands ;  gave  a  king  to 
England,  and  formed  a  permanent  establishment  in  Normandy.  The  defeat  of  Haco  in  Got- 
land, and  of  Harold  III.  in  England,  during  the  eleventh  century,  put  an  end  to  this  maritime 
dominion :  and  tho  northern  nations,  notwithstanding  their  immense  supply  of  naval  stores, 
have  never  since  attained  to  more  than  a  secondary  rank  among  the  maritime  powers. 

The  union  of  the  kingdoms  of  Scandinavia,  in  1388,  under  Margaret,  called  the  Scmiramis 
of  the  North,  forms  a  memorable  era.  Immediately,  however,  after  the  death  of  that  able 
princess,  the  Swedes  began  to  struggle  for  independence.  But  their  repeated  attempts  to 
establish  a  separate  kingdom  were  always  defeated,  till  the  cruel  and  tyraimical  reign  of 
Christian  11.  drove  matters  to  extremity,  and  brought  on  a  new  revolution. 

Gustavus  Vasa,  in  1520,  hoisted  agam  the  national  standard  in  the  province  of  Dalecarlia, 
and,  in  three  years  subsequently,  entered  Stockholm  in  triumph.  After  a  long  struggle,  the 
Danes  were  compelled  to  recognise  the  independence  of  Sweden. 

The  reign  of  Gustavus  Adolphus  formed  a  glorious  era  for  Sweden.  The  Protestant  reli- 
gion having  been  established  under  Gustavus  Vasa,  Sweden  began  to  be  looked  to  as  its  sup- 
port when  assailed  by  a  formidable  confederacy.  In  1630,  Gustavus  took  the  field  at  the 
head  of  only  ten  thousand  Swedes;  but  around  this  gallant  band  rallied  all  the  Protestant 
powers  of  Germany.  The  splendid  victory  of  Breitenfeld  humbled  the  house  of  Austria,  and 
re-established  tlie  civil  and  religious  libertiesof  the  empire.  Even  after  his  fall,  intlie  glori- 
ous field  of  Lutzen,  his  generals  continued  to  wage  that  desperate  war  of  thirty  years,  which 
was  necessary  to  compel  the  Catholic  league  finally  to  renounce  its  pretensions.  Sweden, 
at  the  peace,  obtained  Pomerania,  and  other  important  possessions  in  Germany ;  and  con- 
tinued, till  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century,  to  exercise  a  powerful  influence  on  the  afibirs 
of  Europe. 

The  victories  and  reverses  of  Charles  XII.  threw  a  wild  and  romantic  lustre  around 
Sweden,  which  terminated,  however,  in  the  loss  of  her  station  and  greatness.  Being  de- 
feated at  Pultowa,  by  the  Czar  Peter,  and  driven  to  seek  shelter  from  the  Turks  at  Bender, 
he  was  obi  iged  to  purchase  peace  by  the  sacrifice  of  Livonia,  and  others  of  his  finest  provinces. 
The  influence  of  Sweden  was  thenceforth  confined  within  its  own  barren  limits,  and  it  ranked 
with  difficulty  as  a  power  of  the  tecond  order.  The  only  remarkable  change  in  the  course 
of  the  century  was  produced  by  the  revolutions  of  1772  and  1789,  when  Gustavus  III.  suc- 
ceeded in  converting  the  government  into  an  absolute  monarchy,  though  in  other  respects 
his  reign  was  advantageous  to  Sweden. 

The  election  of  Bernadotte,  one  of  Bonaparte's  commanders,  to  fill  the  throne,  left  vacant 
through  the  rash  conduct  of  the  legitimate  monarch,  made  a  great  change  in  the  relations 
of  Sweden.  To  conciliate  his  now  subjects,  he  restored  in  full  plenitude  the  representative 
constitution,  which  had  been  reduced  to  a  mere  shadow.  Having  joined  the  confederacy 
against  his  fo.mer  master,  he  recaived  Norway  in  compensation  for  the  loss  of  Finland,  and 
had  thus  a  more  compact  and  defensible  territory.  The  Nor\vegians  exclaimed,  not  without 
rcagon,  against  this  compulsory  transference ;  yet  Denmark  had  deprived  them  of  their  free 
constitution,  which  they  now  regained,  and  had  in  so  many  respects  depressed  the  country, 
with  the  view  of  concentrating  every  thing  at  Copenhagen,  that  the  connection  now  termi- 
nated has  been  considered  the  bane  of  Norway. 

Sect.  IV. — Political  Geography, 

The  constitution  of  Sweden  is  one  of  the  few  in  Europe,  which  has  always  preserved 
some  portion  of  that  representative  system  which  had  been  formed  in  remote  ages.  Towards 
the  close,  indeed,  of  the  last  century,  it  was  reduced  by  Gustavus  III.  to  little  more  than  a. 

Vol.  I  41  3L 


4B2 


DKSCniPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pabt  III. 


I 


!    ; 


1    ( 


'   \ 


>j^%* 


M 


form.  BrrnaddUc,  however,  an  clcctwl  inoiiurcli,  without,  any  national  claim,  was  obliged 
to  court  Ihp  favour  of  Iho  nation,  and,  witli  that  view,  to  re-cstabliah  the  rights  of  itH  ancient 
diet.  Tliis  is  now  ratlicr  nn  anticjiic  and  cumbrous  form  of  logisloturo,  consisting  of  four 
orders;  tJio  nobles,  the  clorgy,  the  peasants,  and  the  burghers;  who  sit  ond  vote  in  seporatc 
houses. 

Of  these  liouses,  tlrnt  of  the  nobles  consists  of  about  1200  members  ;  the  head  of  each 
fainily  lieing,  by  inheritance,  its  legal  representative.  They  are  divided  into  three  classes : — 
herra,  counts,  barons,  &c. ;  rcddar,  knights;  and  sivena,  or  gentlemen  who,  though  without 
any  title,  have  received  letters  [Kilent  of  nobility.  The  house  of  clergy  consists  of  tlie  arch- 
bishop and  all  the  bishops;  while  the  rest  of  the  cccJRsiastical  body  is  represented  by  depu- 
ties. The  burghers  are  chosen  by  the  tow.is,  every  fVeeman  who  pays  taxes  having  a  vote : 
they  form  on  iiidependont  l)ody,  partly,  perhaps,  because  the  honour  of  a  scat  is  not  eagerly 
contested.  The  peasants  do  not  exactly  correspond  to  our  idea  of  that  term:  they  consist 
of  a  body  of  little  proprietors,  or  lairds,  who  cultivate  their  own  ground,  and  who  are  numer- 
ous in  Sweden.  Their  allowance  of  a  dollar  a  day  is  provided  by  a  subscription  among 
their  constituents ;  and,  in  some  cases,  two  or  three  districts  must  combine  to  furnish  out  one 
deputy.  The  nobles  have  bestirred  themselves  much  to  keep  down  the  attempts  made  by 
this  class  to  rise  in  society.  Tlioy  have  procured  regulations,  according  to  which  no  person 
could  sit  in  the  house  who  allowed  himself  to  be  called  llrrr  (or  Mr.),or  wlioworeacoatof 
fine  cloth.  Notwithstanding  all  their  efforts,  however,  this  house,  and  tliat  of  the  burghers, 
are  daily  increasing  in  strength. 

In  the  division  of  powers,  the  royal  prerogative  is  ample.  The  king  appoints  to  all  offices 
civil  and  military,  and  he  is  obliged  to  convoke  the  dint  only  once  in  five  years,  and  to  con- 
tinue its  sittings  three  months ;  but  he  may  make  the  meetings  more  frequent,  and  longer. 
He  has  also  a  negative  upon  the  laws  projxised  by  the  diet.  In  regard  to  the  diet  itself,  the 
division  rests  with  a  majority  of  the  houses ;  but  if  they  be  two  against  two,  the  balance  is 
struck  by  tlic  committee  of  state,  a  body  composed  of  a  certain  number  of  members  from 
each.    No  tax  can  be  levied,  or  loan  obtained,  without  the  consent  of  tho  diet 

The  gtorthing  of  Norway,  restored  by  Bernadotte,  is  possessed  of  much  higher  privileges 
than  tho  Swedish  diet  It  assembles  more  frecjuently,  and  at  its  own  time,  without  any  con- 
trol from  the  king;  and  it  allows  to  him  only  a  suspensive  vvto,  obliging  him  to  accept  any 
project  which  has  been  three  times  presented  by  the  storthing.  These  rights  having  been 
once  granted,  Bernadotte,  who  found  them  pressing  soinewhat  liord  against  his  prerogotive, 
has  in  vain  made  several  attciiiiits  to  abridjie  tliem.  A  highly  republican  spirit  prevails  in 
Norway,  and  the  influence,  and  almost  e.xii-lencc,  of  the  nobles  is  nearly  annihilated. 

The  revenue  of  Sweden  arises  from  a  poll-tax ;  the  produce  of  the  royal  demesnes,  duties 
on  exports  and  import",  mines  and  forges,  distilled  spirits,  and  some  monopolies.  Tho  whole 
produce  is  alwut  ■'$.5,000,000  a  year,  exclusive  of  lands  assigned  to  soldiers  and  sailors,  and 
by  which  these  classe.",  in  time  of  peace,  are  chiefly  supported.  The  military  force,  is  at 
present, — 

Sweden.  Nurway.  Total. 

Infantry 26,2-21  -  -  -  -  9,642  -  -  -  35,863 

Cavalry 4,.'i80  -  -  -  -  1,070  -  -  -  5,6.50 

Artillery      -    -    -    -  2,400  -  -  -  -  1,278  -  -  -  3,678 

Undwehr    -    -    -    -  a*3,368  -  -  -  -  10,000  -  -  -  93,368 

The  troops  are  raised  by  conscription :  they  only  receive  pay  when  on  actual  service ;  re- 
maining, at  other  times,  in  the  provinces,  where  they  employ  themselves  in  cultivating  lands 
aseigoed  to  them  for  their  support. 

Sbct.  V. — Productive  Industry.  \  ' 

Sweden  seems  doomed  by  nature  to  be  a  poor  country.  Her  most  southern  districts  are 
beyond  the  limits  of  that  zone,  in  which  alone  the  finer  and  more  valunblo  kinds  of  grain, 
and  the  richer  fruits,  come  to  maturity.  Her  scanty  harvest  consists  solely  of  rye,  bigg,  and 
oats,  scarcely  accounted  as  food  in  more  favoured  climates.  Scandinavia  is  described  gene- 
rally as  one  unbroken  boundless  forest  varied  only  in  its  aspect  by  little  patches  of  cultivated 
land. 

Agricultural  industry  till  of  late  had  not  done  much  to  remedy  natural  doficioncics.  Ac- 
cording to  the  valuable  statistical  detoils  collected  by  Dr.  Thomson,  the  arable  land  in  Swe- 
den amounts  to  1,818,450  English  acres,  which  is  only  a  sixty-second  of  the  entire  surface, 
or,  throwing  out  the  Norrland  deserts,  a  thirty-second.  Of  this,  1,363,000  acres  are  returned 
as  under  ciHtivation.  But  the  average  size  of  a  Swedish  farm  is  only  twenty-seven  and  a 
half;  the  annual  average  of  grain  sown  on  each  farm  does  not  amount  to  a  Winchester 
bushel ;  and  the  nniuial  ])r(Mluee  of  the  whole  country  was  only  5,700,000  spanns,  or  alwut 
71,000  quarters.  Hence  Sweden  was  obliged  to  imiwrt  grain  to  a  great  extent ;  and  such  is 
the  scarcity,  that  the  peasantry  oflen  grind  the  bark  or  even  wood  of  the  fir-tree  into  floui 


Part  III. 

wan  nbligcd 

fitB  ancient 

ting  of  four 

in  scparntc 

cad  of  ciicli 
B  classes : — 
iigh  without 
of  tho  arch- 
ed by  depu- 
ling  B  vote : 
not  eagerly 
they  consist 
I  are  numer- 
)tion  among 
nish  out  one 
pt«  made  by 
:h  no  person 
iroroacoatof 
he  burghers, 

to  all  offices 
,  and  to  con- 
and  longer. 
ict  itself,  the 
ic  balance  is 
ombere  from 

er  privileges 
lout  any  con- 
)  accept  any 
having  been 
;  prerogative, 
it  prevails  in 
ilatcd. 

csnes,  duties 
Tho  whole 
sailors,  and 
ftrrce,  is  at 


BOOE  1. 


SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY. 


488 


service;  re- 
vating  lands 


districts  are 
ids  of  grain, 
e,  bigg,  and 
:ribod  gcnc- 
if  cultivated 

ncics.  Ac- 
md  in  Swe- 
tire  surface, 
re  returned 
seven  and  a 
Winchester 
ns,  or  iilwut 
and  such  is 
5  into  floui 


a  nutriment  equally  scanty  and  unwholesome.  Tlicse  stjitements  ore  given  in  1912 ;  since 
which  lime  wo  fmd  it  mentioned  that  agriculture  hns  made  a  very  rapid  progress ;  that  im- 
proved processes  have  been  introduced  from  other  countries  ;  and  that,  in  the  most  southern 
provinces,  a  great  extent  of  moving  (and  before  entirely  barren)  sand  has  been  rendered  solid, 
and  covered  with  plantations  and  grain.  The  consequence  has  been,  that  in  1827,  Sweden  even 
exported  HO.CMK),  and,  in  1828, 104,000  tons  of  grain  of  every  description.  Every  fhrm  has  a  tract 
of  forest  of  about  1000  acres  attached  to  it,  on  which  cattle  are  fed  :  these  arc  reported  as 
only  amounting  to  40:i,0()0  horses,  1,475,000  cows,  and  1,212,000  sheep.  The  most  valua- 
ble product  of  land  is  tbrmcd  by  the  vofit  forests  with  which  nature  has  covered  the  whole 
240  country.    The  trees  over  all  Scandinavia  are 

small,  and  consist  chiefly  of  the  birch,  the 
pine,  the  spruce  and  Scotch  firs.  Wooden  in- 
closures  (Jig.  240.)  of  a  peculiar  form,  are  uni- 
versally employed.  The  poplar  and  the  willow 
are  also  indigenous.  The  timber  of  these  trees, 
as  well  as  the  tar,  pitch,  and  turpentine,  drawn 
from  tliem,  forms  the  chief  objects  of  Scandi- 
navian exports.  Those  on  the  hills  of  Nor- 
way are  in  much  demand  for  masts.  Accord- 
Swe.ii.hMod«ofincioiuF«.  jng  ^  j^   Hegelstamm,  not  more  than  the 

115th  part  of  the  surface  of  Norway  is  under  cultivation,  chiefly  in  oats;  a  space  which 
might  be  greatly  extended ;  yet  the  annual  production  is  stated  at  2,650,000  tons. 

The  manufactures  of  Scandinavia  are  inconsiderable,  unless  we  should  class  their  mines 
as  such.  Even  in  the  common  trades  the  work  is  lazily  and  ill  performed,  and  charged  at  a  high 
rate,  which  renders  this  the  most  expensive  country  in  Europe  for  those  who  live  luxuriously. 
It  is  a  curious  fact  that  some  great  merchants  in  the  western  towns  send  their  linen  to  be 
washed  in  London. 

The  mines  of  Sweden  are  peculiarly  rich  in  important  products.  Its  iron,  found  chiefly 
in  primitive  rocks,  is  the  finest  in  the  world,  and  is  widely  diffused.  In  1812,  there  were 
176  mines;  624  smelting-houses ;  764  forges;  producing  in  all  1,293,411  cwt.  of  iron.  The 
exportation,  in  1821,  amounted  to  340,000  skippund,  ond  in  1824  had  risen  to  373,000,  of  which 
345,000  were  in  burs,  and  28,000  in  .  jdcr  forms.  There  are  also  some  valuable  mines  in  tho 
southern  provinces  of  Norway.  A  most  extensive  deposit  of  copper  occurs  in  the  province 
of  Dalecarlia,  particularly  at  Fahlun.  Gold  occurs  at  Adelfors,  in.  Sweden,  to  no  great 
amount ;  but  tho  silver  mines  of  Kongsberg,  in  Norway,  arc  the  richest  in  Europe.  The 
metal  occurs  in  musses,  of  which  Uiere  was  once  found  one  weighing  600  lbs.  There  arc 
also  lead  mines  of  some  importance  at  Scola,  and  in  other  parts  of  Sweden. 

Fishery  appears  a  pursuit  peculiarly  appropriate  to  the  extensive  coasts  of  Scandinavia. 
Yet  the  Swedes  are  not  much  addicted  to  it,  probably  teciiuse  the  Baltic  during  a  groat  part 
of  the  year  is  frozen.  Gottenburg  had  once  a  herring  fishery,  now  nearly  lost,  the  shoals 
having  taken  another  direction.  The  Norwegian  fishery  is  considerable,  though  bearing  only 
a  small  proportion  to  the  almost  unlimited  opportunities  aflbrdcd  by  its  wide  seas,  and  its 
deep  and  commodious  bays.  Its  chief  theatre  is  fiir  to  tlie  north,  off  the  Isles  of  Ix)flbden. 
The  season  lasts  only  for  seven  or  eight  weeks  in  the  year,  when  fishermen  crowd  thither 
from  nil  quarters.  Codfish  is  the  chief  object :  it  is  cut  into  pieces,  and  spread  on  the  rocks 
to  dry,  whence  it  receives  the  names  of  stockfish  and  clipfish.  According  to  Mr.  Brooke,  the 
number  taken  in  a  year  was  700,000,  which  may  be  worth  nearly  $600,000;  tliey  are  sent 
chiefly  to  Germany,  Spain,  and  Italy.  The  roes  are  also  salted  and  barrelled  for  exportation 
also  the  fish  oil  to  the  amount  of  about  30,000  barrels. 

The  commerce  of  Scandinavia  is  greater  than  its  unimproved  agriculture  and  total  want 
of  manufactures  might  lead  us  to  suppose.  But  nature  has  gifted  these  bleak  regions  with 
an  almost  inexhaustible  store  of  timber  and  iron,  two  of  the  prime  necessaries  of  human 
life;  the  main  implements  in  shi|)-building  ond  in  the  construction  of  houses,  nmchincry,  and 
furniture.  These  articles  are  indeed  also  the  produce  of  North  America;  and  Britain,  which 
affords  tho  best  market,  has  lately  sought  to  favour  her  colonies  in  that  quarter  by  a  great 
inequality  of  duties.  Yet  tho  superior  quality  of  the  Scandinavian  commodity  always  .secures 
it  a  sale.  The  entire  exports  of  Norway  are  estimated  by  Dr.  Clarke  at  1,8()0,0(K)/.  sterling ; 
but  we  believe  that  this  is  very  much  beyond  the  mark.  The  commerce  of  Swecion  is  not 
on  so  great  n  scale ;  her  surplus  timber  being  not  nearly  so  ample,  though  her  iron  is  superior. 
She  hns  suffered  much  injury  from  the  absurd  prejudices  of  the  peasantry,  who  obtained  the 
prohibition  of  colonial  produce,  and  of  almost  all  foreign  articles  of  consumption  ;  and  though 
these  were  regularly  imported,  and  in  daily  use,  the  trade  was  greatly  fettered  by  being 
carried  on  only  as  contraband.  In  1828,  however,  commercial  treaties  were  concluded  on  a 
more  liberal  footing.  The  total  number  of  merchant  vessels  belonging  to  tlie  different 
towns  of  Sweden,  in  1829,  was  1178,  of  the  burthen  of  61,000  tons. 


':'! 


!l 


II 


tt 


484 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III 


8bct.  VI.— dm/  and  Social  Slate. 

Tho  population  of  Sweden,  acconling  to  the  Intcxt  coiiHim,  inadi)  in  18*25,  amoiintod  to 
2,771,252 ;  of  whom  20,409  woro  nobles ;  18,U77  occluHiiwticH ;  (tt),(i(>4  citi/ciw ;  tho  rciniiin- 
dcr  boionjjroil  to  tlm  clatw  of  peawints.  Of  theiie,  I,:it)2,U70  wore  nmles,  and  1,4JW,282 
femuloii;  'M*i^>V7;i  resided  in  the  country,  281,279  in  tho  uiticH.  This  was  a  rino  of 
im,mi  since  1W20.* 

The  population  of  Norway,  by  a  cenBus  mode  in  November  1820,  amounted  to  I,()a0,i:j2 ; 
of  whom  105,021  inhabited  cities,  0:)4,414  tho  country.  This  was  a  rise  of  164,062  since 
1815. 

The  national  character  of  the  Swedes  is  usually  painted  under  favourable  colours.  Their 
honesty  is  described  as  proverbial ;  and  Dr.  Clarke  considers  the  contrast  between  them  and 
the  Russian  {leople,  in  this  re8|)cct,  as  most  striking.  Highway  robbery,  Uiouj;h  it  has  been 
known,  is  exceedingly  rare ;  and  cliarity  boxes,  which  are  otlcn  set  up  on  tho  public  roads, 
have  never  been  plundered.  "  The  nation,"  says  Mr.  James,  "  has  its  sinfjularities :  tliero 
exists  something;  of  a  reciprocity  between  the  moral  and  political  constitution  of  Sweden. 
Rigidly  ceremonious,  they  make  their  stiff  and  measured  courtesies  the  essentials  rather 
than  the  fonns  of  life ;  and  seem,  in  a  stranger's  eye,  a  people  cold  in  their  nature  as  tho 
very  snows  they  dwell  u|)on.  Their  characterisitics,  a  passive  conmffe,  not  unmixed  witli 
indolence ;  a  pride  not  tVee  from  ignorance ;  a  disuosition  that  is  not  ill-humoured,  from  hav- 
ing no  humour  at  all,  from  indiflerence,  from  apatny.  But  a  Swede  is  never  in  extremes ; 
even  these  traits  are  not  deeply  markctl ;  and  if  we  review  the  more  favourable  side  of  his 
character,  we  shall  find  in  him  an  undaunted  spirit  of  jwrsevernnce,  and  an  honest  love  of 
freedom,  to  which  tlie  feelings  of  every  one  do  hoinoge."  The  same  writer  mentions  a 
cold-blooded  obduracy,  connected,  perhaps,  with  a  sanguinary  turn  of  mind,  displayed  in 
tliose  frequent  assassinations  which  have  stained  tiie  pnges  of  Swedish  history.  The  man- 
ners of  tlie  higher  ranks,  in  coiii4e<iucnce,  perlm|>H,  of  jxilitical  connexion,  have  been  studi- 
ously formed  on  the  French  model,  which  dues  not  accord  very  happily  with  the  somewhat 
rude  simplicity  of  the  Swedes,  wiio  find  it  easier  to  imitate  the  frivolity  and  dissipation  of 
tiiat  people,  tlian  their  easy  and  careless  grace.  Several  habits  arc  enumerated  as  preva- 
lent even  among  the  higher  classes  in  Scandinavia,  which  seem  to  negative  its  pretensions 
to  any  high  pitcli  of  refinement.  Among  these  are,  spitting  even  on  handsome  carpets,  blow- 
ing the  nose  with  the  finger.^,  imd  recording-games  on  tho  table  with  chalk. 

The  religion  of  Sweden  is  Lutlierun,  ami  tho  ciiurch  Episcopal.  This  country,  which 
stood  long  at  the  head  of  the  great  Protestant  confederacy,  is  animated  with  an  ardent  zeal 
for  the  reformed  religion.  The  Catliolics,  till  of  late,  scarcely  enjoyetl  common  toleration, 
and  they  are  still  excludetl  from  the  diet  and  the  higiier  offices  of  state.  Tho  Swedish  people 
are  commended  for  tlieir  regularity  in  performing  the  duties  of  their  religion:  at  tho  same 
time  it  has  been  remarked  that  the  dissenters  from  the  established  church  are  much  fewer 
than  in  other  Protestant  countries;  which  has  been  imputed  to  the  want  of  any  peculiar 
fervour  upon  the  subject.  Tlie  wide  extent  and  thin  iwpulation  of  the  northern  districts 
must  often  render  the  provision  for  their  religious  instruction  very  defective.  The  diocese 
of  Tornea,  in  Lapland,  is  750  miles  in  circumference ;  and,  what  is  more  blameable,  the 
small  number  of  clergy  employed  arc  not  required  to  understand  the  language  of  the  natives. 
The  income  of  the  largest  bishopric  in  Sweden  is  about  )|5000  a  year. 

In  science,  tlie  Swedes,  considering  their  |X)verty  and  remote  situation,  have  made  a  very 
distinguished  figure.  Gustiivus  Adolpiius  favoured  the  interests  of  literature  with  a  degree 
of  ardour  not  generally  known.  Of  the  spoils  of  place.s  conquered  by  him,  he  set  a  ]>articular 
value  upon  broks  which  he  triuiKinitlod  to  Sweden,  in  order  to  form  the  foundation  of  several 
largo  libraries.  The  Swedes  cultivated  with  peculiar  ardour  botany  and  mineralogy,  which 
some  of  their  countrymen  mainly  contributed  to  raise  to  the  rank  of  sciences.  In  botany,  the 
name  of  Linnsus  is  yet  without  a  rival ;  and  Cronstadt  and  Bergman  were  in  their  day  little 
interior,  though  they  now  yield  to  Werner  and  other  great  names  which  have  arisen  in  other 
countries.  Bergman  and  Scheele  made  also  large  contributions  to  chemistry,  which  is  still 
ably  pursued  by  Ekeberg,  Berzeliiis,  and  Afzelius.  Although  history  and  poetry  have  been 
cultivated,  they  have  not  produced  any  writers  whoso  reputation  has  spread  throughout 
Europe.  From  the  limited  sphere  of  the  Swedish  language,  few  works  of  science  are 
written  in  it,  or  translated  uUo  it :  hence  the  literati  of  Sweden  are  particularly  well  versed 
in  the  languages  of  foreign  nations.  One  of  the  subjects  in  which  Sweden  may  most  justly 
exult  is,  the  general  spread  of  c<lucation  among  the  lower  orders,  which  seems  to  equal  or 
exceed  that  which  Scotland  enjoys ;  and  to  this  may  probably  be  in  a  great  measure  ascribed 
tlieir  generally  meritorious  conduct  Norway  is  not  nearly  so  literary  a  country  as  Swe<len ; 
Dr.  Clarke  even  states  that  there  is  not  in  the  whole  country  a  single  liookscller's  shop. 
This  was  in  a  greot  measure  owing  to  the  jealousy  of  Denmark,  which  would  not  allow  an 
university  to  be  founded  even  in  Christiania,  which  used  to  be  a  rival  to  that  of  Copenhagen. 

*  The  only  SwnliKli  coUnw  i»  01.  Uartholoniew  in  tlie  W.  Iiuliea,  with  about  OUM  iiilmbitanta.— Au.  Ed. 


I 


f    ! 


U<)OK  I. 


SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY. 


485 


PaktIII 


lountod  to 
10  reinain- 

1,4:W,'J83 

u  ritiu  uf 

1,(»50,132; 
1,062  Hinco 

urs.  Their 
[)  them  and 
it  htts  been 
ublic  rottds, 
itic«:  tl\erc 
of  Sweden, 
itiala  ruther 
turo  88  the 
iniixed  witli 
d,  iroin  hav- 
r»  extremes  -, 
e  Bide  of  his 
meat  love  of 
mentions  a 
displayed  in 
.    Tiio  man- 
c  been  studi- 
le  somewhat 
lissipation  of 
cd  as  preva- 
U  pretensions 
mrpcts,  blow- 

juntry,  whicii 

],n  ardent  zeal 

ion  toleration, 

odish  people 

at  the  same 

much  fewer 

any  peculiar 

lern  districts 

The  diocese 

[lameable,  the 

)f  tlie  natives. 

made  a  very 
[with  a  degree 
Tt  a  jmrticular 
lion  of  several 
[ralogy,  which 
[n  botany,  the 
heir  day  little 
[risen  in  other 
which  is  still 
try  have  been 
"  throughout 
science  are 
ly  well  versed 
liy  most  justly 
Ins  to  equal  or 
lisure  ascribed 
ly  as  Sweden ; 
seller's  shop. 
,  not  allow  an 
"Copenhagen. 


Yet  Norway  can  boast  of  literary  nomes;  Holherg,  Pontoppidan,  Valil  the  botnnist,  Tnrftriip, 
und  Snorro  Sliirleuoii,  the  'I''  iilHtoriaiiH.  A  vein  of  Ixild  iind  ruile  (Nx-try  is  eiillivatrd  with 
peculiiir  ardour;  and  l)r,  (.'liirku  exliibits  a  roll  of  names  unknown  to  10urop<<,  whose  claims 
to  distmction  appear  Ui  Ix)  sDiiiewhat  justitied  by  a  spi'cimr>n  given  to  us  by  Mr.  Wilson. 

Of  till!  Ieiirni!il  establiNlinicnts  of  Sweden,  tlie  most  eminent  is  the  university  of  Upsaj, 
the  chief  imrse  of  all  the  griMit  men  wiio  have  distini;iiisli(!d  her  iilernry  records.  TIiIh  rc^le- 
bniti'il  s«!iit  of  northf^rn  leiiriiing  wiw  tmmded  in  147H,  by  Steno  Stiiro,  was  enlarged  by 
(lusliivus  Vasa  and  (Justavus  Adolpluis,  but  reached  if«  iiigliest  eminence  in  tin?  lust  century, 
when  it  was  iidorned  by  I.imueuH,  and  all  tiiu  men  of  science  who  have  Ixien  ilistinguisiied 
as  relli'cting  glory  on  Sweden,  Since  that  time  its  lustre  has  Imen  somewhat  diminished, 
tluiu^iji  statements  on  this  subject  vary  considerably.  Tlie  professors  have  sitliiries  of  aUuit 
iiiHH)  II  yeur ;  and  are  left  thus  ulmost  wholly  demnident  tm  tlieir  students,  who  live  in  priviiti; 
loilgiiigs.  'i'liey  attend  what  und  wiiom  tiiey  pieuse;  anil  their  exertions  are  not  stimulated 
or  tried  by  any  public  exuminiitidiis.  The  mineralogiciil  colh-ction  is  one  of  the  most  com- 
plete in  Kiiropi!;  and  the  library  contains  riO,(NH)  volumes.  Its  most  precious  treiisiire  is  the 
Uodex  Argeutens,  a  mamiscript  of  the  four  Gospels,  written  in  silver  characters,  and  sup- 
)Hised  to  (late  as  fiir  back  us  the  Iburth  century.  The  giirdcMi  of  Linnieus  has  been  neirlected 
for  a  liirger  one  lately  founded,  but  which  scarcely  corresiKinds  to  the  br>tanical  fame  of  Upsal. 
The  iciyiil  library  at  Stxickholm  is  still  more  extensive.  It  is  particularly  rich  in  manuscripts, 
in  siigas,  and  otJier  historical  works,  and  in  original  drawings  by  the  great  iiiasters.  This 
coll(!Cti(iii  is  open  to  the  public.  The  Swedisli  academy  of  science's,  tbundiMl  in  IT.'IO,  by 
learned  private  iiiilividiials,  has  published  aliovu  KM)  volumes.  It  is  considered  one  of  tbt! 
most  distinguished  in  Europe,  and  the  greatest  men  in  otlier  countries  have  viewed  it  as  an 
honour  to  lie  enrolled  among  its  members.  In  the  college  of  mines  arc  preserved  copious 
specimens,  drawn  from  a  country  so  rich  in  metallic  pnNhictions.  The  cabinet  of  mixlels, 
jiresentiiig  the  various  mechanical  contrivances  employed  through  the  diilerent  parts  of  Swe- 
den, is  also  considered  very  interesting. 

The  fine  arts  in  Sweden  have  Injen  cultivated  amidst  considerable  difficulties.  The  opera 
is  conducted  with  splendour  and  taste;  Itcrgell,  as  a  sculptor,  has  Uten  ranked  second  to 
Canova,  and  even  culled  the  Michael  Angelo  of  the  North.  Breda  in  portrait,  and  Fuleraiifz 
in  landscape,  enjoy  reputation. 

The  habitations  of  Scandinavia  are  very  simple  and  uniform.  "Having,"  says  Dr.  Clarke, 
"once  figured  to  the  imagination  a  number  of  low  red  houses,  of  a  single  story,  and  each 
covered  with  turf  and  weeds,  a  picture  is  pre.soiited  of  the  oppidan  scenery  of  Sw(!deii." 
The  hou.ses,  howev<!r,  ore  well  finished  within,  and  elegantly  furnished ;  and  by  means  of 
stoves,  double  windows,  and  close  doors,  they  ure  kept  comfortably  warm,  even  during  the 
iiiost  rigorous  winter.  Swedes  have  even  complained  that  they  suH'ered  much  more  from 
cold  in  Iionilon  than  in  their  native  city. 

The  drt>ss  is  described  by  Dr.  Clarke  as  oiiually  uniform  with  the  habitations.  "  A  skull- 
cap, fitting  close  to  the  crown,  edged  with  a  little  stiff  lace,  the  hair  being  drawn  as  tight 
and  straight  as  possible  beneath  the  cap  from  all  parts  of  the  head,  as  if  to  start  from  the 
roots;  add  to  this,  a  handkerchief  thrown  over  the  cap  when  they  go  out;  a  jacket;  short 
petticoat;   stockings  of  coloured  or  wliite  wo(dlen;   and  high-heeled  shoes:"  this  is  the 

general  costume  of  the  Swedish  women.  Mr.  Wilson  thus 
(le.scril)(!S  the  dress  of  the  representatives  of  that  class  of 
|iea.«ants: — "  White  worsted  stockings,  half-lxmts  extend- 
ing above  the  calf  of  the  leg,  yellow  leather  small-clothes 
with  knee-buckles,  a  short  brown  coat  and  waistcoat,  and 
a  plain  handkerchief  tied  round  their  neck.'-."  The  an- 
nexed cut  (Jiff.  241.)  may  give  an  idea  of  the  attire  and 
aspect  of  the  Norwegian  peasantry.  In  winti.-r  these  gar- 
ments must  he  reinforced  to  the  utmost  ability  of  the 
wearer,  as  a  fence  against  the  excess  of  the  cold.  The 
peasantry  wenr  a  sheepskin  cloak,  with  the  wool  towards 
the  bo<ly,  and  close  fur  caps.  Dr.  Clarke  mentions  as  a 
travelling  dress,  thick  yarn  stockings  covered  by  stout  lea- 
ther boots,  and  over  these  again  boots  made  of  the  hides 
of  rein-deer,  with  the  hair  on  the  outside,  and  doubly  lined 
with  sheepskin  covered  with  black  wool.  The  people  wear, 
besides,  fiir  caps  on  the  head,  bearskin  pelissps  over  the 
body,  besides  several  flannel  waistcoats,  and  on  the  hands,  gloves  of  sheepskin  covered  by 
double  gloves  of  fur  and  wool.  Yet  these  accumulated  guards  are  insufficient  to  ])revent 
the  feeling  of  the  most  inttmso  cold,  which,  in  those  not  duly  fenced  against  it,  soinetimes 
produces  ileatli,  and  fre<iuently  a  frost-bitten  limb, 

41* 


Nctrwoffian  PimBnntg. 


Ita.— Am.Ed. 


.f*^< 


486 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pabt  III 


Seot.  VII. — Local  Oeography, 

This  section  naturally  divides  itself  into  three  subordinnte  parts : — 1,  Sweden ;  2.  Norway  • 
and  8.  Lapland ;  which,  tliough  accounted  partly  Swedish  and  partly  Norwegian,  has  a  dis- 
tinct character  of  its  own. 

SvBSECT.  1. — Sweden. 

Sweden  is  formed  into  three  great  divisions :  Svcaland,  or  Sweden  Proper ;  Gotaland,  or 
Gothland ;  and  Nordland,  or  Norrland.  In  the  following  statistical  table,  the  extent  and 
arable  produce  are  from  materials  collected  in  1812,  since  which  time  cultivation  has  been 
greatly  extended ;  but  the  population  is  from  the  census  of  1825. 


Mrdtand. 

Norrholtcii 

VuaterbuttoiiK  ■  •  • 
Venter  Norrland  ■ 
Jaiiilland 


Sutdm. 

Stockholm 

U|Mala 

VentoroB 

Nykiipiiig 

Orchro 

Carlxtnilt 

8torR  Kappnrberg. 
Oeflcbnrg 


aolUand. 

Linkcipiiig 

Calinnr 

Jonki'ining 

Kronoherg 

niekiiigu 

SkaraMrg 

Eirtbnrg 

Rottcnbnrg  ... . 

Ilalniatactt 

Clirisliaiiitadt  ■ 

MnlinnhiiB 

Gothland 


Stockholm  city.. 
Total. 


Anbis  QiDund, 
Tunnbnd*. 
(IS^acn.) 


8,a« 

I0,S3U 
98,780 
10,7!0 


S3,110 


71,410 

84,3m 
U,S1S 
M.UIl 
48,333 
fB,473 
.11,347 
38,3U7 


473,916 


104, 

tiU, 
53, 
37 
31 

143, 
73, 
43, 
43, 
8U, 

233, 
30, 


,061 
131 

684 

.ma 

,71J 

1«3 
1,808 

,458 
l,U83 

341 
t,«09 
i,064 


Beinc  lo  tha 
wlwltu  I 


3,1S1 

1,403 

390 

917 


»1S 


13 

27 
24 
36 
43 
139 
140 


45 


31 
34 

40 
48 
27 
13 
37 
23 
33 
13 
4 
20 


938,734 


1,454,760 


30 


Nunilicr  of 

VUBU, 


533 

694 

1,563 

U4S 


3,734 


4,056 
3,548 
2,853 
3,376 
2,T74 
1.708 
1,703 
2,080 


33,006 


5,458 
3,347 

3,<.I05 
2,Kr7 
1,089 
4.804 
4,309 
3,783 
3,H2iJ 
3.003 
4,0:<3 
1,098 


39,487 


05,309 


Oneraliv 
rarnien 


din 
rarnien. 


22,824 
3:1,870 
30,813 
20,381 


103,787 


58,049 
48,657 
49,INI3 
59,791 
01,730 
92,592 
79.313 
50,034 


499.809 


Qriin  pmduced 

In  npinm. 
(140111  buibel.) 


37,570 
56,576 
103„»9 
48,348 


345,098 


316,987 
285,350 
311,100 
235,006 
198,379 
377,514 
240,781 
153,996 


2,009,017 


94,194 
83,404 
76.115 
56,010 
31,533 
89,910 
103,715 
66,409 
47.485 
70,331 
95,6:f7 
17,560 


840,363 


1,443,858 


300,044 
330,£66 
33.1,:)46 
175,239 
139,143 
435,864 
334.382 
315,757 
167,130 
306,037 
548,334 
83,523 


3,204,184 


5,703,835 


Fopublion. 


40,634 
44,911 
73,237 
30,133 


195,894 


103,095 
81.897 
88,618 
106,793 
109,254 
163,372 
139,388 
90,736 


879,153 


182,280 
160,720 
13!i,990 
109,709 

85,314 
159,614 
187,021 
146,691 

85,657 
145,.180 
193,199 

:i8,151 


1,635,633 
79,473 


3,771,353 


Sweden  Proper  occupies  the  centre  of  the  kingdom,  and  includes  the  capital,  and  the 
great  mining  districts.  It  consists  of  an  immense  plain,  covered  by  almost  boundless  forests, 
intermixed  with  patches  of  cultivation ;  only  a  few  hills  of  moderate  height  breaking  its 
vost  uniformity.  Three  great  lakes,  like  inland  seas,  the  Wener,  the  Wetter,  and  the  Malar, 
form  almost  a  continuous  chain  across  its  centre.  Besides  these,  there  is  an  immense  num- 
ber of  smaller  lakes,  especially  towards  the  north,  communicating  by  river  channels  with 
the  greater.  These  lakes  do  not  display  the  grandeur  which  belongs  to  those  of  Switzer- 
land ;  but  their  wide  and  winding  shores,  broken  with  rocks,  and  fringed  witli  a  profusion  of 
wood,  present  many  romantic  scenes. 

The  division  into  provinces,  of  Sweden  Proper,  as  well  as  of  Gothland,  as  given  in  the 
preceding  table,  was  made  recently  by  government,  and  is  the  only  one  upon  which  statisti- 
cal details  have  been  collected.  But  there  is  another  and  earlier  division,  which  remains 
still  fixed  in  the  Swedish  mind;  and  corresponds,  in  foct,  both  to  the  aspect  of  nature  and  to 
the  peculiarities  in  the  people.  These  are  Sudcrmanland,  the  province  which  contains  the 
capital,  and  is  situated  on  the  south  side  of  the  hike  Malar;  Upland,  a  high  territory  on  the 
northern  side  of  that  lake;  Westmanlnnd,  to  the  west  of  Upland  ;  Nerike,  a  beautiful  little 
rpffion,  completely  enclosed  between  the  three  gront  lakes;  Warmolnnd,  to  the  north  of  the 
Wener,  covered  with  a  multitude  of  little  lakes;  and,  lastly,  Dnlccarlia,  called  also  Dalarne, 
or  the  Plains,  a  province  which,  of  all  others,  presents  the  most  striking  and  peculiar  fea- 
turpiJ.  It  is,  above  all,  distinguished  by  the  energetic  character  of  its  peasantry,  whose 
exertions  at  one  time  reared  the  fallen  monarchy,  and  who  continue  to  form  its  most  power- 
ful (lefonce.  They  still  hold  as  a  maxim,  that  one  Dalecarlian  i.s  eijual  to  two  of  any  otlier 
Swedes.  Their  diet  is  poor  in  the  extreme,  consi.sting  in  a  groat  measure  of  bark-bread : 
ypt  their  health  .Tiid  vigour  do  not  sulfer;  and  a  number  of  tliom,  who  were  quartered  as 
tixwps  iit  Stoc.'kh  )lin,  were  airected  with  fevers  in  consequence  of  the  repletion  caused  by 


Pabt  hi 


I.  Norway  • 
,  haa  a  dia- 


lotaland,  or 
extent  and 
n  has  been 


FopuUlioii. 


40,034 
44,911 
72,237 
3»,13a 


105,804 


103,005 
81,807 
88,618 
100,703 
100,254 
103,372 
120,388 
00,730 


870,153 


182,280 
100,730 
130,900 
102,700 

85,314 
159,014 
187,031 
140,691 

85,057 
145,380 
192,100 

:I8,151 


1,025,032 
79,473 


3,771,352 


lital,  and  the 
idless  forests, 

brcnking  its 
nd  the  Malar, 
iincnse  num- 

hannels  with 
of  Switzer- 

profusion  of 

given  in  the 

■hich  statisti- 

hich  remains 

nature  and  to 

contains  the 

rritory  on  the 

cautit'ul  little 

north  of  the 

also  Dalarne, 

peculiar  fca- 

antry,  whose 

most  power- 

of  any  other 

f  bark-bread : 

quartered  aa 

)n  caused  by 


Book  I. 


SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY. 


487 


Btockbolm 


eating  whcaten  bread.    The  memory  of  the  great  Gustavus  Vasa,  tlio  founder  of  the  Swe- 
dish monarchy,  is  cherished  in  this  pruvincu  with  the  utmost  warmth ;  and  many  memorials 
of  him  arc  preserved  in  different  places. 
Stockholm  (Jig.  242.),  with  which  wo  shall  commence  our  details,  is  finely  situated,  at  the 

junction  of  the  extensive  and  beau- 
**2  tiful  lake  of  Malar,  or  Mftler,  with 

the  sea.  It  stands  partly  on  some 
small  islands,  and  two  peninsulas, 
presenting  a  view  as  beautiful  and 
divorsified  as  imagination  con  con- 
ceive. Innumerable  craggy  rocks 
rise  from  the  water,  partly  covered 
with  houses,  and  partly  planted 
with  wood;  while  vessels  of  all 
forms  and  descriptions  are  seen  passing  to  and  fro.  White  edifices,  consisting  of  public  and 
private  palaces,  churches,  and  other  buildings,  rising  fiom  an  expanse  of  waters,  produce  an 
effect  of  incom]>arable  grandeur.  When  the  lake  and  sea  are  frozen,  they  are  covered  with 
sledges  of  all  kinds,  and  exhibit  one  of  the  gayest  scenes  imaginable.  If  external  appear- 
ance were  alone  to  be  relied  on,  Stockliolm  might  be  deemed  tlie  most  magnificent  city  in 
the  world.  This  impression  is  not  sustained  by  any  beauty  or  convenience  in  the  interior. 
Except  the  great  square  of  Norden  Malm,  the  streets,  though  of  very  considerable  length, 
are  neither  broad  nor  handsome.  There  is  no  foot  pavement;  the  houses  are  lolly,  all  white- 
washed, and  the  shops  arc  extremely  poor.  The  different  families  reside  in  separate  floors 
or  stories,  one  above  another,  the  ground-floors  being  usually  occupied  as  shops.  The  royal 
palace,  however,  begun  by  Charles  XI.,  and  fmishcd  by  Gustavus  III.,  may  vie  with  any 
structure  of  the  kind  in  Europe.  It  is  in  the  Grecian  style,  quadrangular,  four  stories  high, 
built  of  brick  only,  but  faced  with  stone-coloured  cement.  Its  situation,  facing  the  quay, 
and  commanding  a  view  of  all  parts  of  the  city,  adds  greatly  to  its  beauty.  It  contains 
some  fine  specimens  of  sculptiire  and  painting,  curiosities  connected  with  Swedish  history, 
and  a  range  of  small  apartments  embellished  by  Gustavus  III.  in  a  fanciful  manner.  This 
palace,  with  the  finest  buildings  of  the  city,  stands  on  one  of  the  islands.  The  kings  of 
Sweden  have  in  the  country  other  palaces :  tiiat  of  Drottningholm  is  a  handsome  stuccoed 
building,  roofed  with  copper,  and  having  side  wings ;  but  the  gardens  are  barbarously  laid 
out  in  the  old  fashion,  with  trees  and  hedges  clipped  into  funciful  shapes. 

Nykflping  is  the  only  tract  of  Sweden  Pro])er  which  is  south  of  the  lakes.  The  town  of 
that  name,  though  small,  has  an  air  of  magnificence.  The  houses  arc  of  wood  painted 
yellow. 

The  provincesof  Westeros,  Orebro,  and  Cnrlstadt,  along  the  north  side  of  the  lakes,  reach 
across  the  kingdom.  Enkdping,  on  a  branch  of  the  Malar,  is  the  first  town  which  occurs 
westward  from  Stockholm,  but  it  is  not  of  great  consequence.  Westeras,  on  the  same  lake, 
has  more  commercial  importance,  as  a  link  between  the  ca|)itul  and  the  northern  and  western 
provinces.  There  is  only  one  principal  street,  about  two  miles  in  length ;  the  houses  are 
only  of  one  story,  and  often  roofed  with  turf.  It  is  the  see  of  the  richest  bishopric  in  Swe- 
den. The  cathedral  is  a  simple  edifice ;  but  one  of  the  most  elegant  in  Sweden,  adorned 
with  a  very  elegant  porpliyry  monument  erected  to  Eric  IV.,  who  died  by  poison  in  1577. 
Next  comes  Kdpmg,  small  and  poor ;  but  celebrated  as  having  been  the  residence  of  Schcele. 
It  lies  at  the  extreme  interior  point  of  the  Malar.  Quitting  that  lake,  and  proceeding  soutli- 
west,  we  come  to  Arboga,  a  beautiful  little  town  on  a  river  which  fulls  into  that  lake,  and 
ne-ir  a  canal  which  connects  it  with  the  lake  Hjelmar.  A  steam-packet,  established  by  an 
Englishman,  now  enables  it  to  couimunicate  with  the  capital.  Nearly  due  west  is  Orebro, 
a  more  considerable  town,  and  the  occasional  place  of  meeting  for  the  Swedish  diet  It  ia 
reckoned  tiie  fifth  town  in  Sweden,  containing  about  4()0()  people,  and  the  streets  are  broad 
and  spacious,  though  the  liousos,  as  elsewhere  in  Sweden,  are  low,  and  of  painted  wood. 
The  stadtiius,  or  governor's  residence,  which  includes  also  tiio  prison,  is  a  huge  shapeless 
edifice.  The  churcli,  which  forms  also  the  place  of  meeting  for  the  diet,  is  an  ancient  struc- 
ture, originally  Gothic,  and  built  of  stone,  but  patched  with  brick,  and  in  various  styles. 
Procecdinij  wcstwnril,  we  enter  Carlstudt,  or,  as  anciently  called,  Warmeland,  a  region 
entirely  of  mines,  foroats,  and  likelots,  and  bounded  on  tlie  south  by  the  extended  shores  of 
the  Wener  lake.  CarK-tadt  is  situated  near  the  jroint  where  this  lake  receives  the  (31ara,  a 
considerable  river,  wliicii  traverses  these  wooded  regions,  and  down  wliich  inmiense  (luanti- 
ties  of  timber  are  floated ;  advantage  for  this  purpose  being  taken  of  tlie  floods  to  which  i 
is  occasionally  subject.  One  company  from  Gottenburg  has  saw-mills,  at  which  are  annually 
cut  upwards  of  50,(KK)  planks.  Carlstadt  is  a  place  of  Irom  20(X)  to  8000  people,  presenting 
the  ordinary  aspect  of  Swedish  towns.  It  collects  the  vast  produce  of  the  mines  and 
forests  of  Warnieland,  and  transmits  them  across  the  Wener  to  Wenersberg,  whence 
they  find  tli(Mr  way  to  Gottoriburg.  Considerably  in  the  interior  is  Philipstodt,  in  thn 
very  licart  of  the  iron  uiino:«,  by  wjiicli  it  is  supported. 


r 


if-' 

Ml 


t 


I 


I 


I  i 


hi 


if 


-> 


488 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAl'lIV. 


Part  III 


The  most  reinarkablo  are  those  of 


Pcnbcn  Mine. 


Porabcrg  (Jig.  2't3.)i  a  few  niiloa  to  thu  cn.»l 
ward.  They  arc  thirteen  in  nuinlier,  ilii^ 
into  a  mountain  entirely  coniiMtHcd  of  voins 
and  beds  of  iron  ore.  ])r,  Clarke,  alter 
having',  in  the  couise  of  ten  ycart*'  travel, 
inHpected  many  of  lliu  principal  workw  of 
thiH  kind  in  didercnt  countries,  declaroH,  that 
he  had  never  lieheld  any  thin;,'  equal  to  this 
for  (;nuideur  u^  eH'ect,  and  tor  the  trcnicn* 
dously  Btrikin^r  circumstances  under  which 
liunian  laliour  ih  hero  perturined.  In  the 
wide  and  open  abyss  suddenly  appeared  n 
vast  proupcct  of  yawninn;  caverns  and  prodi- 
frious  machinery,  hnnicnsc  buckets,  sus- 
pended by  nittlinj;  chains,  were  iwssing  up 
and  down;  ladders  were  scalinjr  all  the  in- 
ward precipices;  upon  whicli  the  work- 
people, reduced  by  their  distance  to  pifrmics, 
were  ascendiii<;  and  descending.  The  clank- 
injf  of  cliain.«,  the  p^roanin^  of  the  pumps, 
the  hallixiinj,'  of  the  miners,  the  creaking 
of  the  bl(x;ks  and  wheels,  the  tram|)ling  of 
horses,  the  bt^ating  of  the  hammers,  and  the 
loud  and  frecpient  subterraneous  thunder 
from  the  blastinjr  of  the  rocks  by  gun|K>wder, 


in  the  midst  of  all  this  scene  of  excavation  and  vapour,  produced  an  effect  that  no  stranger 
could  witness  unmoved. 

Dalecarlia,  or  Daknie,  e.xtonds  to  the  north-east  of  Warmeland.  It  is  covered  with  an 
extraordinary  prolusion  of  mosses  and  fungi,  so  that  it  is  termed  by  Dr.  Clarke  the  suprentc 
court  of  the  cryptogamin.  We  have  already  remarked  the  peculiar  character  of  the  people, 
who  preserve  entire  the  dress,  habits,  and  tlie  daring  energy  of  the  ancient  Swedes.  The 
most  important  branch  of  prodiuitive  industry  oonsi.-tts  in  the  mines,  piirticularly  the  great 
copper  mine  at  Fahlun  (Jlf[.  244.).     It  is  imniediaUdy  adjoining  to  the  town,  and  consists  of 

an  enormous  conical  mass  with  the  top 
downwanls.  The  Iwttom  of  the  cone,  be- 
ing the  top  of  the  mine,  was  the  first 
worked;  and  the  galleries  being  made 
through  it  without  due  precaution,  the 
whole  fell  in,  producing  an  immense  open 
crater  which  .still  remains.  Regular  stair- 
cases of  easy  descent  traverser  this  im- 
mense crater  or  biisin,  from  its  outer  lip 
to  the  lowermost  [wint,  whence  arise  vast 
volumes  of  smoke  and  vnjKJur,  giving  it 
the  appearance,  on  a  greater  scale,  ot"  the 
Neapolitan  Solliitra.  It  is  divided  into  no 
less  than  1200  shares  or  sections,  among 
which  tlio  ore  is  divided  immediately  on 
being  brought  up,  and  it  is  then  smelted 
on  a  small  scale  by  the  difiennit  indivi- 
duals. The  ore  is  not  rich.  In  1000,  this 
mine  is  said  to  have  yielded  8,000,(KM) 
pounds  of  copper;  in  lOiM),  .'},r>00,(KH) ;  but 
at  pre.sent  only  1,120,000  pounds.  The  workmen  have  now  reachetl  the  bottom,  or  the  sur- 
face of  the  cone,  and  are  still  working  through  the  ground,  in  the  fond  hope  of  coming  to  the 
top  of  another  cone,  reaching  downwards.  Unless  this  chimera  should  be  realise<l,  the  mine, 
it  is  said,  will,  in  a  few  years,  cease  to  be  productive.  Fahlun  is  a  regularly  built  but  old- 
fashioned  and  dirty  town,  subsisting  solely  by  the  mine.  It  has  two  churches,  one  covered 
with  copper,  but  this  has  not  a  handsome  appearance,  the  colour  of  that  metal  being  converted 
into  a  whitish  green  sixm  after  exposure  to  the  weather.  Near  Fahlun  is  the  house  where 
Gnstaviis  Vasa  lay  concealed,  the  proprietor  of  which  has  studied  to  preserve  in  its  pristine 
state  this  asylum  of  the  Swedish  king.  His  chamber,  bed,  and  clothes  are  still  shown;  his 
•shirt  of  worsted  mail  fitted  similar  to  tliose  made  by  the  Circassians,  and  his  other  weapons. 
Sala,  which  is  proi^rly  in  Westinanlnnd,  may  be  mentioned  here  as  another  mining  town 
on  a  smaller  scale,  neat,  regular,  but  ill-pnved.  The  only  importjuit  mine  is  one  of  galena, 
which  yields  2000  marks  of  silver,  and  32,000  pounds  weight  of  lead.     There  is  also  a  cop- 


Fahlun  Mino. 


i  !i 


flip', 


■••*' 


OOOK   I. 


SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY. 


Upfals. 


por  mine,  which  produccH  littlo;  and  one  of  iron,  wliich  ia  nut  contiidercd  worth  tho  oxpenM 
of  working. 

Upliinii,  coinciding  nearly  with  the  modern  Upsaln,  \e  an  interesting  province,  extending 
from  a  pnrt  of  the  luko  to  tho  river  Dal.  It  is  flat,  but  divcrHificd  with  numerous  little  round 
knolls,  which,  with  the  nmnll  lakes  and  the  numerous  lino  forests,  render  it  picturesque.  It 
contains  Upsnia,  tho  seat  of  tho  great  northern  university,  and  Danomorii,  the  most  valuable 
of  the  iron  mines. 

Upsalo,  or  Upaul  (,Jig.  245.),  is  the  place  in  Sweden  most  venerable  for  its  antiquity.     It 

was  long  the  residence  of  the  kings, 
245  and  has  always  been  tho  cliiof  scut 

of  religion  and  learning.  Even  in 
pagan  times  it  wns  the  residence  of 
the  highpricst  of  Odin ;  and  in  1026, 
Evorinus,  a  bishop  from  England, 
was  ploced  thero,  tor  the  purpose  of 
converting  the  natives  to  Christiani- 
ty. The  cathedral  is  the  largest  and 
nnest  ecclesiastical  monument  in 
Sweden,  a  country  not  eminent  for 
such  structures.  The  exterior  is  in- 
deed only  of  brick,  and  tlioro  is  an 
injudicious  mixture  of  tint  Gothic 
with  the  Doric  towers.  Uiit  the  in- 
terior is  very  striking,  adorned  with  a  double  row  of  fourteen  fluted  columns,  a  magnificent 
altar,  and  above  all  by  many  monuments  of  the  kings  and  heroes  of  Sweden.  Particular 
notice  is  attracted  by  that  of  Gustavus  Vasa,  and  the  three  Sturcs,  successively  regents  of 
the  kingdom,  who,  in  that  station,  earned  the  title  of  fathers  of  their  country.  The  shirt  of 
mail  of  Margoret,  the  Seminimis  of  the  North,  is  also  kept  as  a  warlike  relic.  Upsala  con- 
tains also  a  palace  fininded  by  Gnstnvus  Vasa,  now  half  burnt  down.  It  is  at  present  sup- 
ported solely  by  the  university,  of  which  an  account  has  already  been  given.  It  is  destitute 
of  all  trade  or  industry.  It  is  thorefbro  small,  but  very  regular  and  neat,  having  a  large 
square  in  the  centre,  where  all  the  streets  converge. 

Tho  mine  of  Danemora  is  situated  near  the  small  town  of  Osterby.  Swedish  iron  is  the 
best  in  the  world,  and  the  iron  of  Danemora  is  tho  best  in  Sweden.  Dr.  Thomson  was  told 
at  Stiefficld,  that  cast  steel  could  not  be  made  with  any  other.  Danemora  was  first  wrought 
as  a  silver  mine,  but  this  was  soon  exhausted.  The  iron  then  began  to  bo  wrought,  and  soon 
established  the  high  character  it  now  holds.  The  great  opening  is  filly  fathoms  deep,  and 
tho  mine  has  been  wrought  thirty  fothoms  lower  down.  The  ore  is  blasted  with  gunpowder. 
At  short  intervals  arc  heard  tremendous  explosions,  like  the  discharge  of  the  heaviest  artil- 
lery, which  are  echoed  through  the  caverns,  and  shako  the  earth  like  a  volcano,  v/hilo 
volumes  of  smoke  burst  forth  aflcr  each  crash.  From  the  mouth  of  the  cavern  enormous 
masses  of  iron  are  raised  up  by  machinery.  The  mine  belongs  to  a  nimibcr  of  private  indi- 
viduals, who  have  erected  a  steam-engine  at  an  expense  of  36,000  rix-dollars.  The  produce 
is  estimated  at  4000  tons.    There  are  twenty-seven  other  mines  in  the  province  of  Upsala, 

Gothland,  or  Gotaland,  tlie  southern  division  of  the  kingdom,  forms  a  large  peninsula,  with 
a  wide  circuit  of  shores.  It  enjoys  a  considerably  milder  climate,  and  is  the  only  part  of  the 
kingdom  where  wheat  is  raised  in  any  considerable  quantity.  It  is  here  also  that  the  recent 
improvements  in  agriculture  have  been  chiefly  observable.  There  is  thus  more  land  in  cul- 
tivation, and  trees  will  not  grow  in  tho  immediate  vicinity  of  tlie  coasts;  so  that  Golhlatid  is 
not  so  thoroughly  covered  witii  wood,  as  tho  provinces  to  the  north  of  the  lakes.  If  we 
except  the  capital,  this  division  contains  almost  all  the  sea-ports  and  naval  arsenals ;  and 
consequently  engrosses  nearly  all  the  foreign  commerce  of  the  kingdom. 

The  modern  and  official  divisions  of  Gotliland  have  been  exhibited  in  the  statistical  table. 
The  ancient  divisions  arc  into  Eastern  and  Western  Gothland,  divided  from  each  other  by 
the  long  line  of  tho  lake  Wetter;  Smaland,  an  extensive  but  barren  tract,  to  the  south  of 
that  lake ;  and  Scania,  or  Schfinon,  the  southern  peninsular  extremity  of  Sweden,  a  better 
peopled,  and  better  cultivated  district  than  any  other  in  the  kingdom. 

Eastern  Gothland  comprises  chiefly  tho  modern  provinces  of  Nykoping  and  I,.ink6ping. 
The  town  of  Nykdping  is  agreeably  situated  at  the  extremity  of  a  small  bay  of  the  Baltic, 
and  though  small  has  an  air  of  magnificence;  but  it  carries  on  little  or  no  trade.  It  is  now 
much  outstripped  by  Norkftping,  the  largest  of  all  the  kiipinffs  (i.  e.  markets),  and  the  fourth 
town  in  Sweden.  Norkop'mg  lies  upon  the  large  river  Motala,  which  communicates  between 
tho  lake  Wetter  and  tho  Baltic,  and  which  is  here  broken  into  numerous  rocky  channels. 
Tim  cliief  branch  of  industry  consists  in  the  manufiicture  of  broadcloth,  which  is  produced  so 
tliip  as  to  sell  at  twenty-seven  shillings  per  ell,  of  one  yard  and  throe  quarters  broad.  Tho 
bipivl  of  shopp  in  the  iiPi^'iilKiiirhooi!  has  been  considerably  improved  by  tho  introduction  of 
lii'Tino'.  Tlio  town  is  rpguliirly  built,  of  neat  wooden  houses.  I.inkiiping  is  another  pro. 
Vot,.  I.  3  M 


4- 


w 


W 


'"* 


h 


■■i^# 


no 


-u 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


tl^ 


Part  III. 


■4,1 


;jB 


vincial  capital,  hiin(!Noinnr  in  its  aspect,  thou((h  much  flmullRr,  than  NorkAping.  Tho 
C&tliedriil,  ri'Imiit  four  liiimlrcd  vcarH  ttfuo,  in  one  of  the  flnuxt  uccinsiuatical  MtructurcH  in  tlio 
kinffdom,  and  noiir  it  in  a  very  liandfioiiifl  thoatro. 

Tho  district  ol'Siniklund  ha.i  tor  it«  cliinf  town  Jonkt'tpin);,  sitnated  at  tho  oxtreniity  of  the 
Wetter,  und  coniniiiiuiiii);  gnnii  and  beautiful  views  ovor  that  imnicnso  lake,  which  has  horu 
a  wide  border  of  low  Init  flnoly  wooded  rocks.  Tho  town  has  been  entirely  rebuilt  sincu 
170U,  when  it  wus  burnt  to  tho  (ground.  Though  built  chietly  of  wotxt,  liku  other  Swedish 
towns,  it  contains  niiiny  good  and  couunodious  houses,  the  residence  of  wealthy  inhabitants, 
who  have  been  attracted  by  the  amenity  of  the  site.  A  hijfh  court  of  appeal  for  this  part  of 
Sweden  is  estitliliahnd  hero.  About  tei>  miles  distant  is  Tubertr,  a  longf  round-backed  hill, 
composed  wholly  of  one  unbroken  mass  of  fine  ma^'netic  ironstone.  It  presents  such  a 
colossal  mass  as  in  Ilausmunn's  opinion  nuist  continue  to  alFurd  a  source  of  riches  to  tho 
remotest  posterity,  '''ho  upper  bed,  370  feet  thick,  has  been  wrought  for  850  years.  It  is 
merely  blasted  with  (rimpowdcr,  when  the  flraf^ments  full  to  tho  bottom,  and  are  conveyed  to 
neighbouring'  furnaces.  The  ore  is  not  very  rich,  the  proportion  of  pure  iron  varying  from 
21  to  92  [wr  cent. ;  but  it  is  very  tractable,  and  tVco  fVoin  any  hurtful  ingredients.  The  hill, 
tliough  only  4U0  feet  high,  commands  an  almost  boundless  view  over  the  vast  wooded  flats 
of  Smaland.  This  district  contains  also  a  considerable  quantity  of  bo(f  iron  ore  of  inferior 
quality,  and  some  copper  mines. 

The  sea-coast  of  Smaland,  consisting  of  tho  modem  provinces  of  Calmar  and  Bieking,  is 
of  a  naked  and  unpromising  aspect,  but  contains  some  havens  of  importance.  Calmar  is 
noted  in  Swedish  history  as  a  strong  fortress,  and  still  more  because  in  one  of  the  apartments 
of  its  castle  was  signed  tho  celebrated  treaty  which  united  the  three  crowns  of  the  north  on 
the  heiul  of  Margaret.  Carlscrona  is  the  chief  naval  arsenal  and  one  of  the  largest  towns  in 
Sweden.  It  is  built  on  throe  small  islands  connected  with  each  other  and  with  the  coast  by 
long  wooden  bridges,  while  other  islands  serve  for  tho  erection  of  works  for  the  defence  of 
the  harlwur.  I'liese  are  s<|uare  batteries  of  stono,  well  mounted  with  ordnance,  which  appear 
formidable  enough,  though  probably  not  capable  of  coping  with  a  ship  of  tho  line.  Separate 
establishments  exist  for  the  large  vessels,  and  tor  the  flotilla ;  but  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
features  consists  of  the  covered  docks,  partly  excavated  out  of  tho  vast  masses  of  solid  rock. 
The  want  of  tides  in  the  Baltic  is  supplied  by  sluices,  which  open  into  the  port,  and  aro 
emptied  again  at  pleasure.  Ciul  liamn  is  a  smaller  town,  romantically  situated,  like  ii  cluster 
of  nests,  on  the  tops  of  clitTs.  During  war  it  enjoyed  a  considerable  projwrtion  of  the  neutral 
trade,  which  it  lias  since  lost.  Christianstadt  is  a  fortress  of  considerable  celebrity,  tho  cap- 
ture of  which  formed  the  first  military  achievement  of  Gustavus  Adolphus.  Some  fragments 
of  the  fortifications  riMimin,  and  the  approach  to  them  is  defended  by  an  extensive  swamp 
which  surrounds  the  place. 

Scania  begins  here,  a  flat  and  fertile  peninsula,  forming  the  most  southern  part  of  Sweden. 
There  are  numerous  German  residents  in  Scania,  supposed  to  have  sought  refuge  there 
during  the  Protestant  persecution  in  Germany ;  and  some  Scotch  farmers  have  also  sought  to 
introduce  an  improved  system  of  agriculture.  In  the  centre  of  Scania  is  Lund,  the  seat  of 
Uie  second  university  in  Sweden,  containing  30,000  volumes,  a  good  observatory  and  botanical 
garden,  and  a  noble  cathedral  in  the  Norman  style  of  architecturi!.  JVlalmo,  formerly  one  of 
Uie  Hanseatic  towns,  is  the  chief  seat  of  trade.  Helsenving  and  Ystadt,  neat  little  |X)rt8,  are 
the  chief  places  of  embarkation  for  Denmark  and  Germany.  All  these  towns  command 
magnificent  views  of  tho  Sound,  enlivened  by  the  crowds  of  shipping  that  are  continually 
passing. 

Having  turned  the  southern  point  of  Sweden,  we  come  to  the  coast  of  West  Gothland, 
#  situated  on  that  great  gulf  of  the  German  Ocean  called  the  Cattegat.  Being  the  part  of  the 
kingdom  nearest  tn  the  great  states  of  Europe,  it  carries  on  a  principal  part  of  the  commerce 
of  Sweden.  Laholm  and  Ilalmstadt  are  ports  of  some  consideration,  in  the  gloomy  and 
heathy  province  of  Halland,  but  almost  the  whole  of  the  western  commerce  of  Sweden  centres 
at  Gotten  burg. 

Gotlenburg  is  built  in  the  interior  of  a  bay  set  round  with  rugged  and  naked  rocks,  and 
the  whole  country  round  is  sterile  and  desolate.  It  is  supported  by  its  situation  at  tho  mouth 
of  the  Gotha,  tlie  broadest  ond  most  navigable  of  the  rivers  of  Sweden,  which  by  means  of 
tho  canal  of  Trolhiitfa  afTords  a  full  communication  with  the  great  interior  lake  of  Wener, 
and  the  opportunity  of  bringing  down  those  immense  stores  of  wood  and  iron  produced  around 
its  shores.  The  prosperity  of  Gottenburg  was  also  greatly  promoted  by  the  French  anti- 
commercial  system,  under  which  this  port  remained  one  of  the  few  channels  by  wliicii  British 
goods  could  force  their  way  into  the  Continent.  It  is  a  very  handsome  city,  built  entirely  of 
stone,  the  use  of  wood  having  been  prohibited  since  the  last  gnmt  conflagration,  the  second 
which  had  occurred  in  the  course  of  ton  years.  A  magnificent  church,  lately  built,  is  con- 
structed, in  a  great  measure,  of  stone  imported  from  Scotland.  The  principal  street,  which 
is  long  and  wide,  has  a  canal  running  through  it;  the  others  strike  off  from  it  at  right 
angles.     The  principal  merciiants  are  Scotch,  who  live  in  a  style  of  great  magnificence. 

West  Gothland  presents  still  some  other  striking  features.     Among  these  rank  foremost 


I    < 


Part  III. 

kpinff.     Tho 
cturcM  in  tlio 

■eniity  of  th« 
licli  nnii  licru 
rebuilt  lincu 
her  Hwmlish 
inliabitanU, 
r  ttiis  imrt  of 
■backed  hill, 
<Rnta  audi  a 
riches  to  tho 
years.  It  is 
i  conveyed  to 
varying  from 
U.  The  hill, 
woo<led  rtata 
re  of  inferior 

d  Blcking,  is 
.  Calmar  is 
c  opartmcnts 
tiie  north  on 
l^est  towns  in 
I  the  coast  by 
e  defence  of 
which  appear 
10.  Separate 
at  renmrkable 
of  solid  rock, 
port,  and  aro 
like  II  cluster 
of  the  neutral 
)rity,  the  cap- 
nie  fragmenta 
jiisive  swamp 

rt  of  Sweden, 
refuge  there 
iIho  sought  to 
the  seat  of 
and  botanical 
■merly  one  of 
ttle  jjorts,  are 
vns  command 
e  continually 

est  Gothland, 
lie  part  of  the 
lie  commerce 
gloomy  and 
vcden  centres 

ed  rocks,  and 
at  tho  mouth 
by  means  of 
:o  of  Wener, 
(lured  iiround 
Frnnch  atiti- 
uliicli  British 
It  entirely  of 
1,  the  second 
built,  is  con- 
street,  which 
m  it  at  right 
lificonce. 
ank  foremost 


Boot  I. 


SWEDEN  AND  NORW.VV. 


41)1 


the  cataracts  and  canal  of  TrolhUtta.  Above  the  fiirmor  tho  river  is  a  mile  broad ;  but  being 
Rontlned  Uitween  two  lolly  rookn,  it  pours  down  its  wutera  with  priKligioiia  tl)rce.  The  de- 
Hcent,  howf^ver,  is  only  a  hundred  feet  in  the  course  of  two  miles,  iimkuig  tliUH  u  rapid  rathur 
than  a  fall ;  the  water  ruHhiiig  along  with  inconceivable  rapidity,  lioiliug  up,  and  covcre<l 
with  fiMiui.  Tho  noise  is  prodigious,  and  clouds  of  vapour  are  thrown  ui).  Theso  caturacta 
opposed  a  complete  obHtruclioii  to  the  navigation  of  tho  (lotha,  which  the  kings  of  Sweden 
ox|ien<led  immense  sums  in  endeavouring  to  overcome;  but  their  works  were  too  impurfuct 
to  resist  the  impi'tuoHity  of  the  current.  At  length,  in  171W,  the  enterprise  was  taken  up 
bv  a  company  of  private  merchants,  who  in  seven  years  brought  it  to  a  happy  completion. 
The  canal  is  twenty-tiiur  feet  wide,  and  eight  feet  deep.  It  extends  only  two  miles;  but 
being  cut  through  a  granite  rock,  sometimes  to  tho  depth  of  one  hundred  and  tllly  toot,  it 
proved  a  work  of  very  great  laUiur.  Wonerborg,  at  the  junction  of  the  (Jotha  with  the 
Wener,  is  the  channel  by  which  tho  products  of  the  interior  are  brought  down  tho  river; 
yet  it  does  not  derive  fVom  this  trade  much  prosperity  or  importance.  Uddevulla  and  Stron- 
atadt,  are  small  sea-ports,  with  somo  trade  and  flshery,  but  they  have  sutl'ercd  since  the 
lierriiigs  deserted  the  coast.  Skaru  and  Fahlkoping  are  places  of  somo  conse<iuenco  in  the 
interior  of  West  Gothland. 

Norrland  forms  a  third  division,  which,  if  considered  oa  including  Lapland  (and  it  is  so 
considered  politically),  would  be  much  more  extensive  than  all  tho  rest  of  tho  kingdom  put 
together.  It  is,  however,  our  intention  to  reserve  for  a  particular  section  tho  vast  and 
peculiar  region  known  under  tho  name  of  Lapland.  Norrland,  in  a  restricted  sense,  com- 
prises the  liiur  provinces  named  in  tho  table,  but  is  better  known  under  tho  divisions  of 
Jamtland,  .\ngermanland,  Mcdelpad,  and  Helsingland.  Jamtland,  where  it  Itordcrs  on 
Norway,  includes  some  of  tho  highest  mountains,  several  of  them  r\nna  to  6(N)0  or  7()U0 
feet.  The  rest  of  Norrland  is  flat,  and  tho  climate  moist  and  variable,  like  that  of  Jamt- 
land, but  colder.  Wheat  scarcely  ripens  beyond  Sundswall ;  near  to  tlio  northern  border, 
barley  and  ryo  ripen  with  ditficulty.  Almost  the  only  fruits  arc  cherries  and  gooseberries. 
Tho  land  under  cultivation  did  not,  in  IHI'2,  exceed  52,(X)0  acres,  which  is,  in  projiortion  to 
the  whole,  only  as  1  to  915,  Yet  the  people  are  industrious ;  and  Von  Buch  observed  a  greater 
air  of  prosperity  here  than  in  the  rest  of  the  kingdom.  The  woods  which  cover  almost  the 
whole  country,  are  infested  by  numerous  herds  of  wolves.  Of  the  entire  {lopulation,  amounting 
to  159,1(N),  only  tiUlH  live  in  the  towns,  which  of  course  must  be  very  unimportant.  Sunds- 
wall and  Ileriiosand  are,  however,  sea-ports  of  some  little  consequence,  as  is  Umca;  but  this 
last  properly  belongs  to  Iiapland. 

SuBBECT.  2. — Norway. 
This  extensive  portion  of  the  Swedish  monarchy,  recently,  by  compolsion,  but  in  all  like- 
lihood permanently,  united,  comprises  a  very  long  line  of  maritime  territory,  facing  the 
boundless  expanse  of  the  Northern  Ocean.  Throughout  its  whole  length,  m  an  oblique 
line  parallel  to  the  sea,  runs  the  chain  of  tho  Dotrines,  presenting  many  lx)ld  and  lofty 
summits  covered  with  perpetual  snow.  Sneehatta,  the  highest,  is  8100  feet.  These  moun- 
tains throw  out  numerous  chains,  sloping  downwards  to  the  sea,  which  form  romantic  valleys 
and  deep  and  winding  bays.  Norway  produces  some  corn,  not  nearly  sufficient,  however, 
tor  its  own  consumption ;  but  exports  large  quantities  of  timber  and  tish,  receiving,  in  return, 
those  commodities  of  which  it  stands  most  in  need. 

The  southern  Norwegian  provinces  of  Aggerhuus,  Christiania,  and  Christiansund,  include 
a  considerably  greater  proportion  of  level  territory  than  the  others.  They  have  the  great 
range  of  mountains  to  the  north  and  west,  and  are  not  separated  trom  Sweden  by  these 
natural  barriers.  Through  these  provinces  flow  southward  into  the  bay  of  Christiania  the 
Drammen  and  the  Glommen,  the  two  greatest  rivers  of  tho  North,  and  bring  with  them  an 

immense  quantity  of  timber,  which 
246  is  cut  into  deals,  and  exported  to  all 

parts  of  Europe.    Tho  export  of  iron 
IS  also  considerable. 

Christiania,  (fif{.  246.),  capital 
of  all  this  district,  with  a  |)opulation 
of  20,,581,  now  ranks  as  the  capital 
cf  tho  whole  kingdom.  It  is  situated 
at  the  head  of  a  long  interior  Imy  or 
fiord,  and  enjoys  a  situation  which 
Von  Buch  considers  as  altogether 
wonderful.  The  bay,  its  islands, 
tho  crowds  of  sails  spread  among 
them,  with  the  view  of  majestic  hills 
rising  over  hills  in  the  distance,  appeared  to  him  equalled  only  on  the  lake  of  Geneva,  wliich, 
however,  has  not  the  vessels  and  islands.  Christiania  is  chiefly  supported  by  the  trade  in 
deals  I  and  those  cut  in  its  saw-mills  are  considered,  by  the  traders  in  this  article,  to  be 


Chriftiania. 


403 


DESCRirnVK  (iKOGIlAl'llY. 


Part  III. 


I     ♦ 


iiin 


H  > 


11 


■uporior  to  all  othori.  Homo  nf  it*  mnrchniiU,  |Nirticiiliirly  tint  Ankt-rii,  iimintnin  tlio  Ntato 
of  pritic('i4,  iiihI  uro  cdimiilfiriNl  (•qiml  m  woiiltli  niul  lilMTiil  vh'wh  to  uny  in  Kiiriipo.  Olirir 
tiaiiia  (■umi'i*  intiru  iiilo  (uiiituct  than  ll<'r((i'ii  witli  tlin  ninro  mlvanci'd  coiiiitrit'ii  nl'  Kiiropc, 
tml  liAH  mliipti'ti  itliiKiiit  i-xt'liixivt'ly  till'  iiiipriivciiicntMuliM'li  (llhtinKiiiHJi  tlu'in.  'I'lii'  liiiililinfR 
bro  ri>){iilar,  iinii  niiwtly  ot'ittoni';  no  tliiit  in  tliii  L'oiirM'  nt'  'J(H)  yi'iirn,  wliili^  ntliiT  H<:utuiiiuf 
vian  townH  liitvo  Ix-vn  riMNuitnilly  ri'duonil  toni<lii>)<,('liriiitiiiniii  Iiiih  HiiHi'ml  only  xli^ht  injury 
(Wini  flro.  Hinco  tlio  union  witli  Hwfden,  it  ImM  rt'OMvcij  lui  uiiivKrHity,  with  tsvo  prufuHiiur*, 
who  hiivo  inotloruto  iiiooiiu'M,  nlii<>||y  ilcrivixl  iVoni  ((rain. 

Thcro  iiro  othor  Imvt'iin  of  iwniu  iinprtniico  in  lliix  wiuthcrn  Irnct  of  Norway.  On  Uie 
wevturn  ciNiHt  of  ('hriiitianiu  ttonl,  thn  two,  lirH|;(Mia'H  niiil  HlrniiiMH>,  iinitti  in  forming  what 
b  called  l)riinuii<?ii,  at  thti  iiiuiith  of  the;  iiii|Nirtant  rivrr  of  lliiit  iiunio.  ToiiHlicr^,  nt  the 
bottom  of  tliu  Miiiiu  lido,  iii  a  town  of  Roinu  anuient  ri'Ifhrity,  hut  now  n  ffi*n\  di'itl  decayed. 
On  the  oantorn  vide  of  the  Manio  bny  in  Maui,  watered  h^  a  Mtreain,  tiirninft  twenty  Miw-inillt, 
by  which  lUi  iininonne  i|uantity  of  dealit  are  pre|)iired  tor  exportation.  FrcderiekMliall,  an 
ancient  and  atill  important  tVonticr  town,  i*  beautifully  Mitiutlcd  in  an  interior  hiiy,  wiiidin(( 

aniiintt  lumintiiini.     Nenr  it  iH  the  tttroiiK 
847  fortreHH  of  I'Vcderiekntadt,  the  wene  of  tho 

deoth  of  (.'harh'd  Xll.  The  inwm  of  tho 
Hwinitund  (./iic,  'JI7.),  on  th(-  iuunediatu 
tVontier,  preHentn  one  of  the  iiuiHt  romantic 
and  picturi'M|ue  HeeneM  in  Sciiiiiiinuvia. 
ChriNtiuiiMund,  tho  moHt  Houthern  provinco 
of  Norway,  haw  a  cn|)ital  of  the  Mime  name, 
tho  fourth  town  in  the  kiii|;^doni,  which, 
fhim  itii  Hituntion  on  the  Skaj^errack,  ia 
viflited  for  Hlielter  and  HU|>plieH  hy  nurno- 
nnm  vcs.scIk  enterin);  and  leavinjf  tho 
Baltic.  Tho  interior  fVom  Christiania, 
Bmimmirttty.  tlioiijfh  It  inehideH  Iledeniarken,  and  other 

ItiTgo  paatoral  valloyH,  and  thouffh  iU  communicationH  arc  facilitated  hv  tho  lurj^c  lake  of 
Miooen,  doos  not  contain  a  ainirio  town.  That  of  Hammer  attoHts  itH  (urnicr  ma|;niflccnco, 
by  tlio  remaina  of  a  palacn,  ana  of  Hcveral  churchcH  now  restored.  Tho  whole  ot  thiu  terri- 
tory Ih  hemmed  in  on  tho  west  and  north  by  thn  gifrantic  rangCH  of  the  Doverfield  and 
Fillcticld,  which  separate  it  from  Drontheim  and  Derfren. 

Tho  province  of  Bergen  is  rude,  rocky,  and  niountaiiion)<,  consiHtinff  of  the  nlopo  down- 

wnnis  to  the  sea  of  tlu;  hij^heHt  part 
of  tho  Dofrino  ran|;c.  The  town  of 
Btirgen,  (.A/if.  248.),  at  tho  head  of  a 
lon)j  interior  buy,  was  fonnerly  ac- 
counted the  capital,  and  contains  a 
population  of  18,511.  Its  commerce, 
which  is  considerable,  is  founded  on 
tho  exportation,  Iohh  of  tho  produce 
of  the  country  behind  it,  than  of  tho 
northern  fishery  at  Dairodcn,  of  which 
the  produce  is  brouGrht  to  Bergen  by 
_^  numerous  barks.     Its  merchants  hud 

*"■  lonjqr  the  monopoly  of  this,  and  still 

retain  much  the  greatest  share.     They  are  chiefly  Dutch,  and  send  a  vessel  weekly  to 
Amsterdam  for  a  supply  of  the  prardcn  stuffs  which  their  own  soil  docs  not  yield.     Bergen 
is  built  of  large  masses  of  wooden  houses,  amid  rocks,  and  has  suffered  severely  by  fire. 
Tho  provinco  of  Drontheim,  to  tho  north  of  Bergen  and  Christiania,  and  separated  from 

them  by  vast  mountains,  cor- 
responds in  latitude  with  tho 
Swedish  Jamtland.  Tho  capital 
^Jiff.  249.),  of  tho  same  name, 
ia  situated  on  tho  shore  of  a 
winding  fiord,  but  subsists  less 
by  foreign  commerce  than  by 
the  internal  communication  be- 
tween numerous  valleys  and 
districts  to  which  it  forma  a  cen- 
tral point  of  union.  Of  these 
volleys,  that  of  the  GuWal  is  the 
most  extensive  and  bcautifiil, 
and  singularly  celebrated  in  Swedish  story  and  tradition.  Here,  it  is  lioosted,  dwelt  tho 
mighty  Haco,  tho  noble  and  wise  Olaf  Tryggvason.    The  society  of  Drontheim  is  always 


Drontheim. 


Part  111. 

iniii  tilt)  Htato 
•ii|X'.  V.htur 
'H  (if  Kiimpa, 
riif  liiiiMingii 
iiT  Hcuiuliiw 
xliijlit  injury 
ivu  |irutl'itiiur(, 

ny.  On  Ihu 
lornunK  what 
itlxT^,  »t  tlio 
liMil  ilccuyotl, 
ity  wiw-inillt, 
'rickHliitll,  on 
biiy,  winding 
JM  tlio  Htronif 
<  nct'Mo  of  tlio 

'    jIUHM    l)t'    tho 

i(!  iiiiiiKMliatu 
iiDHt  romantic 

Scitndiiiuviu. 
icrn  provinco 
o  Hniiic  name, 
idoin,  which, 
kii(;c<rrack,  \» 
k'H  by  numc* 

loiiviii);  tho 
Christ  iania, 
[Pii,  and  other 
liir((c  lake  uf 
inuifniflccnce, 
!  of  this  terri- 
lovcrficld  and 

f  dlope  down- 
hiifhcHt  part 
The  town  of 
tiio  liood  of  n 
fonnerly  ac- 
id contains  a 
iH  coiimicrce, 
H  tiiundud  on 
tlio  produce 
I  than  uf  the 
Icii,  of  wiiich 
to  IJorfjen  by 
lorc'huntii  had 
:his,  and  still 
cl  weekly  to 
eld.     Bergen 
by  fire, 
pa  rated  from 
lUMtains,  cor- 
ido   with  tho 
Tho  capital 
same  name, 
Bhorc  of  a 
mibsists  less 
rcc   than   by 
unication  bc- 
valleys    and 
t  forms  a  ccn- 
Of  these 
Oiildnl  is  the 
ml   beautiful, 
1,  dwelt  the 
im  is  ttlway.f 


Book  I. 


RWFOKN  AND  NORWAV. 


400 


i 


h)*ld  forth  ({'■>  r<>promnt!n|(  umlnr  thn  hnppimt  liuht,  the  iffnuitm  Nnrwi'ffian  rhnmrtor;  it* 
warmth  ofku:  liie^^,  ami  irmcrouM  himpitAlity.  Ur.  t'lurlic  prniM'it  chietiy  ito  truly  Norw(<- 
fian  iiiiii|iJ>rity ;  biif  Von  liiich  ciiintiilcrN  it  hn  miirknl  by  nuiri'  rcHiied  taNte,  iiiori*  irrai'oful 
anil  attriii-tjvt-  mannrm,  tlm'i  tin  -Krii'ty  of  <'liriiitiania.  In  no  tliiitrict  of  Norway  m  thi'ro 
Haiti  to  III-  mvU  i  l°<'*'liii^  ol  i«iI>m  ikui  mid  public  npirit.  Droiithciiii  i«  built  wholly  of  wifid, 
and  hn»  in  i'oii.«i>>|ii''i)''''  btt'ii  i'cvimi  'fni'o  burnt  to  the  i;r<>*>iid;  yxt  tlinhoiiwitari'  iiiiiidMonii', 
and  on.  I'K'iited  with  ra«i<:  There  m  M  'pncioui)  ^Inco,  built  wholly  of  iIiIn  mnlerial,  and 
partaking'  iio|M'rti.>ctiiiii.  i^rontbrim  iilmi  coiilniliH  the  reniainii  of  a  cathi'dnil,  the  lur|{i'Ht 
ediHcn  in  ih,  <'i>i)ii(ry,  ami  to  whii  li  the  whole  impulatioa  of  llie  North  came  onrit  in  pil> 
IfrimaDfo.  Tho  ciif  rronH  arc  very  lM>aiitifiil,  with  numeroiii  coiintry-iieatH,  and  lolly  iinuw- 
crowned  hilla  in  the  (jiriluiice.  OhrintiaiMiind  is  al--"'  a  aiiioll  »ea-port  ami  liitliiii(r  town  in 
thia  province. 

Beyond  Dmntheim  commencPH  Norrland,  a  diHtrict  rather  than  a  province,  the  name 
boin((  vaguely  applied  to  all  the  north  of  Hcandinavia.  Ileliitivoly  to  Norway,  it  w  marked 
by  an  increaMingr  inteniity  of  cold ;  the  mouiitiiins,  oven  at  9(N)0  feet  UigU,  beiii)(  capiN'd  with 
p«r|wtual  Hiiow,  and  vawt  tablo-plaiitN  or  fleldH  reiiminliiK  covered  with  it  duriii;(  the  whole 
■ummer.  Ornin,  even  of  the  coarxeHt  dencription*,  riptMi*  only  in  a  few  ilivoured  xiMitu,  Thu 
apruco  Hr  i^rradually  dioapiiearM,  and  «heltor  ii  noceHMary  to  allow  tho  Hcolch  lir  and  the 
birch  to  Mnrini;  up.  The  climate,  however,  Im  anmewhat  milder  than  that  of  ri'uiono  under 
the  name  latitudo  on  the  Baltic;  vo  that,  while  the  port*  of  Htockholm  and  ('iirUcroiia  are 
ahut  durin((  xoveral  monthii  of  tho  year,  thnwo  of  Norrland  remain  continually  o|)«>n.  Yet 
in  thiN  dreary  re^fion  occurH  a  huHy  iicene  of  human  action  and  cxiitenre.  The  luinioroiifi 
iaIaiMis,  and  the  deep  bayo  iM'tween  them  and  the  land,  atTord  Hpotn  to  which  nlioiils  of  IihIi 
come  fhim  the  farthest  depths  of  tho  North  Hea  to  deputtit  their  ipawn.  During  the  wlioli* 
year,  the  herring  atlbnlii  a  rejifiilar  occupation  tn  tho  Norrland  boatman;  but  from  Kc^briiary 
to  April,  the  hIkkiIh,  miKratin^  tVoin  thniire,  and  tVom  all  tho  surroundin);  conntj*,  crowd  to 
tho  Iiotroden  Islands,  the  central  seat  of  the  northern  fishery.  These  islands  tbriii  n  chniii 
mrallel  to  the  land,  and  separated  by  narrow  channels  throu(;h  which  the  tides  of  tlie 
Northern  Ocean  rush  with  tremendous  rapidity.  The  sea  flows  as  in  the  most  rapid  rivers,  and 
tho  name  of  stream  is  employed ; — Malstrlkni,  tho  fiimoua  whirlpool,  Grimi<triini,  Hiiiidsf  rftin, 
which,  when  the  tide  is  high,  produce  the  efli'ct  of  a  init^hty  cataract.  Waves  are  seen 
Btni^ll[liii((  ajfainst  waves,  toweruif;  alotl,  or  wheeling;  about  in  whirl|Kiols;  the  dashin;';  and 
roarinfr  of  which  arc  heard  many  miles  out  at  sea.  The  produce  oi'  tho  fishery,  which  has 
been  rendered  much  more  abundant  by  tho  intruluction  of  larj^o  nets  insteud  of  hooks,  is 
convoyed  to  Berxcn  in  a  great  number  of  little  bnrks.  Tho  Danish  jrovernment  endeavoured 
to  form  at  Htromsoo  a  commercial  de|)<)t  for  the  produce  of  Norrland ;  but  in  this  bleak  situa- 
tion it  has  not  flourished,  Tho  Kussians  come  with  numerous  veKscls  fVom  Archangel, 
bringing  meal  and  provisions,  which  they  give  in  exchange  for  the  fish  caught. 

SuiMKOT.  n. — Lapland, 
The  vast  region  of  Lapland  is  divided  from  the  rest  of  Scandinavia  b^  a  line  drawn  across 
it  nearly  coinciding  with  tho  Polar  Cjrcle,  so  as  to  render  it  almost  entirely  an  arctic  region. 
It  consists  partly  of  great  chains  of  mountains,  some  of  which  are  400()  feet  high,  while 
other  extensive  trocts  are  level.  Through  these  roll  tho  Tornoa,  the  Lulea,  the  I'itea,  and 
other  rivers  of  long  course,  and  navigable  for  the  few  boats  which  have  any  occasion  to  jmss 

along  them.    The  Laplanders  are  a  peculiar  race, 
/*■>>  '-iao  short,  stout,  brown,  with  black  hair,  pointed  chin, 

f         nWX  y^         ond  eyes  rendered  weak  by  exposure  to  tho  smoke 

^      ^^  '■   —        '  and  snow.    They  are  divided  into  the  mountain 

or  wandering  Iioplanders,  and  those  who  dwell  in 
what  arc  called  villages;  but  Kaiitokcino,  which 
forms  a  sort  of  Ijapland  capital,  when  visited  by 
Acerbi,  was  found  to  contain  not  more  than  four 
tiitnilies  and  a  priest.  The  swirt-tJwtcd  rein-fleer, 
which  they  tram  to  draw  them  in  slcdijes  over  tho 
snow,  form  their  riches;  the  flesh  and  milk  of 
these  animals  compose  their  fixxl,  and  the  skins 
their  furniture.  The  tents  of  the  I.aplanderH 
(.fin.  250.)  ore  formed  by  six  beams  of  wmxl 
meeting  nearly  nt  top,  covered  with  cloth,  a  flap 
of  which,  left  between  two  of  the  beams,  serves 
as  tho  door.  The  floor  is  spread  with  rein-deer 
skins,  having  the  hair  upwards,  and  which  thus 
serve  for  either  lying  or  sitting,  the  tent  being  too 
low  to  stand  hi,  except  in  one  place.  A  stone 
(Vame  is  made  in  the  middle,  for  the  fire ;  and  there  is  a  hole  at  the  top,  to  which  the  smoke 
Vot.  I.  42 


r 


250 


ri?" 


'  w 


'I 


1 . 


f  (' 


MounUin  Laplander'!  Toni. 


404 


nESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


pAHTin. 


i 


Laplaodera  TraTellinf. 


must  find  its  wby ;  but  this  it  does  not  effect  till  it  has  thickly  imprejinated  the  whole 
tent  with  its  fumes ;  which,  however,  nrc  valued  as  affording  a  protection  in  winter  a^inat 
the  cold,  and  in  summer  against  the  iswarms  of  musquitoes  with  which,  during  a  period  of 
short  and  extreme  heat,  the  air  is  infested.  The  herds  of  rein-deer  vary  from  300  to  up- 
wards of  1000,  according  to  the  wealth  of  the  possessor.  All  day  they  wander  over 
the  hills,  nnd  in  the  evening  ore  driven,  not  without  some  occasional  resistance,  into  an  en- 
closed park,  where  tliey  are  milked.  Each  yields  only  about  a  tea-cupful  of  milk;  but  rich, 
aromntie,  and  of  cxijuisitn  taste.  Linnoius  mentions  nineteen  farms  in  which  milk  is  pre- 
pared for  iJiod ;  but  cleanliness  does  not  preside  over  their  cookery ;  and  the  use  of  the  hand, 
without  knife  or  fork,  to  carry  every  thing  to  the  mouth,  and  of  the  tongue  to  lick  the  dishes, 
prevents  an  European  from  joining  these  meals  with  any  relish.     The  liaplanders  travel 

from  place  to  place,  and  move 
^1  As:.  tiieir  families,  usually  at  the  be 

ginning  of  winter  and  summer, 
in  sledges  made  in  tlie  fonn  of  a 
boat,  and  drawn  by  rein-deer 
(fig.  251.).  These  animals  are 
tamed  and  trained  with  con- 
siderable difficulty,  and  they  are 
sometimes  restive ;  but,  in  gene- 
ral, they  bound  over  hill  and 
dale  with  surprising  celerity. 
The  natives  have  also  a  species 
of  snow-shoe ;  not  a  broad  flat  board,  like  that  of  America,  but  somewhat  in  the  form  of  a 
Bkate,  with  which  they  glide  rapidly  along  the  surface  of  deep  snow,  and  even  up  and  down 

the  steep  sides  of  the  hills  (jig.  252.), 
Their  dress  is  carefully  contrived  for 
the  purposes  of  warmth.  The  under 
part,  or  shirt,  is  composed  of  sheep's 
skin  with  the  wool  inwards ;  while  the 
exterior  coat  is  formed  by  the  skin  of 
the  rein-deer,  or  some  other  animal, 
having  the  fur  outwards.  They  add 
fur  gloves,  and  a  woollen  pointed  red 
cap  (Jg.  253.). 

The  entire  population  of  Lapland, 
spread  over  asurfaceofl5()  miles  square, 
is  stated  by  Dr.  Thomson  not  to  exceed 
60,000,  or  one  inhabitant  to  every  three 
square  miles.  Even  this  scanty  mea- 
sure is  supported  only  on  the  sea- 
coasts  by  a  supply  of  fish.  The  parish 
of  Kautokeino,  in  the  interior,  extending  200  miles  in  length  and  96  in  breadth,  was  re- 
ported to  Acerbi  as  containing  not  more  than  ninety  families,  of  whom  twelve  only  are 
fixed.  The  I^planders  arc  a  harmless  race,  among  whom  great  crimes  are  unknown.  Only 
one  murder  has  been  heard  of  in  twenty  years ;  and  the  absence  of  theft  is  proved  by  that 
of  bars,  bolts,  and  other  safeguards.    They  do  not  show  that  open  hospitality  and  warmth 


Laplander  deaceixlinf  ■  Bnow-Flake. 


Laplundcr  with  Maiie  Dmn. 


Mountain  Laplander. 


of  heart,  for  which  rude  nations  are  so  often  celebrated.  They  arc  cold,  shy,  mistrustful, 
and  difficult  to  treat  with,  at  least  unless  tobacco  or  brandy  he  broujrht  in  ns  mediators.  They 
were  formerly  very  superstitious ;  and  the  I/iiplaml  witches  were  famous  for  their  empire 
over  the  winds,  which  they  enclosed  in  bags,  and  sold  to  the  mariner.    TIk;  magic  dnii. 


M 


"  rr 


Part  in. 

he  whole 
IT  as^ainst 
period  of 
iOO  to  up- 
wler  over 
ito  an  en- 

but  rich, 
Ik  is  pre- 
the  hand, 
;he  dishes, 
Drs  travel 
and  move 
at  the  be 
1  summer, 
3  form  of  a 

rein-deer 
nimals  are 
with  con- 
id  they  are 
it,  in  gene- 
r  hill  and 
r    celerity. 

0  a  species 
e  form  of  a 
p  and  down 

(jig.  25a.). 

intrived  for 
Tlie  under 

1  of  sheep's 
;  while  the 
the  skin  of 
her  animal, 

They  add 
pointed  red 

if  Lapland, 
liles  square, 
it  to  exceed 
lovery  three 
iciinty  mca- 
(n  the  sea- 
The  parish 
fth,  was  re- 
re  only  are 
iown.  Only 
,'ed  by  that 
ind  warmth 


listnistful, 
Itors.  They 
leir  empire 
liagic  Uru<. 


Book  I. 


HOLLAND  AND  BELGIUM 


405 


255 


{Jig.  254.)  and  die  enchanted  cliain  (Jig.  255.)  arc  still  in  occasional  use.  Yet  the  liaplandcrs 
have  been  converted  to  Christianity,  and  are  attentive  to  its  duties,  coming 
often  from  vast  distances  to  attend  divine  service,  though  the  instructions  arc 
conveyed  to  them  only  through  the  broken  medium  of  un  interpreter. 

The  sea-coast  of  Lapland  presents  a  continuation  of  the  snnie  bold  and  rocky 
features  which  distinguish  that  of  Norway.  Here,  too,  the  fishery  is  carried  ou 
with  activity.  It  is  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  a  Finnish  race,  called  Quans,  who 
liave  pushed  across  Lapland,  and  exert  an  activity  unknc  . ,;  to  the  natives  of 
that  region.  The  Russians  from  Archangel,  also,  not  only  bring  their  meal  to 
exchange  for  fish,  but  carry  on  the  fishery  themselves  to  a  great  extent.  In 
July  and  August  they  cover  with  their  small  three-masted  vessels  all  the  fiords 
and  sounds,  and  throw  out  lines  that  are  sometimes  two  miles  long,  and  contain 
600  or  700  hooks ;  so  that  their  vessels  are  filled  with  tlic  utmost  rapidity.  The 
government  has  founded,  on  the  large  island  of  Qualoe,  tiic  town  of  Hammcrfest, 
the  most  northern  in  the  world,  and  destined  as  a  rival  to  Archangel ;  but  the 
settlement  has  never  taken  root  in  this  ungenial  climate,  and  continues  also, 
with  one  exception,  to  be  the  smallest  that  exists.  On  the  other  .side  of  the 
North  Cape,  on  the  extreme  frontier,  the  fort  of  Wardhuus,  defended  by  twenty 
men,  forms  the  only  barrier  to  prevent  the  Russians  from  taking  possession  of 
the  whole  country.  Mageroe,  the  most  northerly  of  the  islands,  consists  of 
steep  rocks  rising  perpendicularly  from  the  sea,  and  ascended  as  if  by  stairs.  In 
a  rocky  recess  stands  Kielvig,  with  four  or  five  fiimilies,  on  a  level  spot,  barely 
Magk  Cham,  affording  a  site  for  the  houses,  and  exposed  to  the  perpetual  war  of  tiie  elements. 
The  tempests  here  rage  with  such  fury,  that  it  is  often  impossible  to  leave  the  house  without 
danger  of  being  blown  into  the  sea.  At  the  northern  point  of  this  island  is  formed  by  the 
North  Cape  the  grand  boundary  of  the  European  continent,  facing  the  depths  of  the  Polar 
Ocean.  It  consists  of  an  enormous  mass  of  naked  rock,  parted  by  the  action  of  the  waves 
into  pyramidal  cliffs,  down  which  large  fragments  are  continually  falling. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

HOLLAND    AND    BELGIUM. 


Ttre  Netherlands,  comprising  now  the  two  kingdoms  of  Holland  and  Belgium,  form  a 
maritime  territory,  which,  situated  almost  in  the  centre  between  the  noitli  and  tlie  south  of 
Europe,  and  penetrated  by  the  Rhine  and  its  tributaries,  possesses  great  natural  advantages 
for  industry  and  commerce.  It  has,  accordingly,  from  a  very  early  period  of  modern  history, 
ranked  as  one  of  the  most  prosperous  and  flourishing  parts  of  Europe.  Tlie  union  of  the 
Batavian  and  Belgic  Netherlands  into  one  kingdom,  though  in  fact  only  a  renewal  of  that 
which  subsisted  at  a  former  period,  was  suddenly  terminated,  in  1830,  by  a  revolution  of  the 
Belgians.  The  separate  existence,  however,  of  Holland  and  Belgium  being  yet  recent,  and 
the  statistical  information  respecting  them  having  for  a  number  of  years  been  collected  with 
reference  always  to  the  entire  Netherlands,  they  will  be  still  treated  most  advantageously 
in  combination.  It  may  be  sufficient  to  observe,  that,  since  the  revolution  of  1830,  Belgium 
has  been  erected  into  a  separate  monarchy,  through  the  mediation  of  the  five  great  powers 
of  Europe ;  and  the  crown,  with  their  consent,  has  been  conferred  on  prince  Leopold,  formerly 
of  Saxe-Coburg. 

Sect.  I. — General  Outline  and  Aspect. 

Holland  and  Belgium  may  be  regarded  as  a  large  corner  or  segment  cut  off  from  France 
and  Giermany,  which  form  round  it  a  species  of  irregular  arc.  Arbitrary  line?,  drawn  con- 
formably to  treaties,  mark  all  except  its  maritime  boundaries ;  for,  though  several  of  the 
greatest  rivers  of  Europe  cross  its  territory,  none  of  them  have  any  limitary  cliaracicT.  The 
maritime  boundary,  which,  like  the  inland,  extends  from  north-east  to  south-west,  is  the 
North  Sea,  or  German  Ocean,  which  is  formed  here  into  a  species  of  largo  gulf  by  the  oppo- 
site coa.st  of  part  of  the  English  Channel.  Holland  is  also  penetrated  by  the  deep  inlet  of 
the  Zuyder  Zee.  The  whole  territory  extends  between  49°  30'  o-d  53°  34'  N.  lat.,  and 
2°  30'  and  7°  12'  E.  long. ;  making  about  280  miles  in  length,  am.  220  miles  in  breadth. 
The  entire  extent,  according  to  the  best  calculations,  amounts  to  24,870  square  miles,  or 
1.5,900,000  English  acres. 

In  respect  to  surface,  this  country  includes  the  lowest  portion  of  tlie  great  low  land  of 
the  European  continent.  The  northern  parts,  composirig  the  new  kingdom  of  Holland,  are 
mostly  below  the  level  to  which  the  bordering  sea  rises  during  high  tides  or  swells.  Hence 
originated  an  imminent  danger  of  inundation,  till  the  Dutch  constructed  tho.=e  mighty  dikes. 
by  which  the  sea  is  excluded,  and  which  form  so  extraordinary  a  monument  of  their  industry. 
Holland  is  humorously  described  by  Butler  as  a  country  that  draws  fifty  feet  of  water." 
The  Belgic  provinces  are  also  flat,  but  not  lower  than  the  surface  of  the  sea,  nor  much  exposed 


m 

'■v\ 

!:■''! 

t 


■I 


,  I 

J. 

1,; 


M 


i 


(,!■: 


k 

;  f 

■^ 
if.* 


!  if 


m^ 


MAP  OF  HOLLAND  AND  BELuIUM. 


Fio  8sa 


II 


11 


Book  I. 


HOLLAND  AND  BELGIUM 


407 


to  river  inundation.  In  the  south-eastern  district  of  Liege  and  Nomur,  branches  of  the 
Rhenish  mountains  render  the  surface  irregular,  and  sometimes  hilly,  particularly  in  the 
tract  fanning  part  rf  the  ancient  forest  of  Ardennes. 

Several  rivers,  which  rank  among  the  greatest  in  Europe,  and  are  derived  from  distant 
sources,  pass  through  this  territory;  ond,  separating  into  numerous  channels,  form  broad 
estuaries  at  their  entrance  into  the  ocean.  They  all  unite  in  the  channel  of  the  majestic 
Rhine ;  yet,  by  a  singular  fortune,  this  great  name  is  not  retained  by  the  moin  branch  of  the 
river,  which,  in  turning  to  the  westward,  receives  the  name  of  Waal,  and  afterwards  that 
of  its  important  tributary  the  Maese,  under  which  designation  it  flows  into  the  sea  below 
Rotterdam.  The  Yssel,  another  considerable  branch,  runs  northward  into  the  Zuyder  Zee ; 
while  the  name  of  Rhine  is  retained  by  another,  comparatively  a  rivulet,  which  passes 
through  the  provinces  of  Gueldres  and  Utrecht  The  Maese  or  Meuse  is  the  only  great 
river  which  has  the  larger  part  of  its  course  through  the  Netherlands,  traversing  the  mterior 
of  Belgium  from  south  to  north.  Its  main  tributaries,  the  Sambre  on  the  west,  and  the 
Roer  on  the  east,  have  only  a  portion  of  their  course  through  Belgium.  The  Scheldt  has 
not  nearly  so  long  a  course ;  but  this  river,  and  its  tributaries,  the  Lys,  the  Dyle,  the  Dender, 
and  the  Neethe,  water  the  most  improved  districts,  and  visit  the  greatest  cities  of  Belgium. 
When  united  under  their  main  branch,  they  form  a  broad  navigable  channel,  opening  into 
an  estuary,  which  affords  to  Antwerp  the  means  of  carrying  on  an  extensive  maritime  com- 
merce. 


Referenctt  to  the  Map  of  Holland  and  Bdgium. 


HOLLAND. 

I.  FriesluHtL 
1.  PnHiena 
S.  Huitenpost 

3.  DobKum 

4.  Leuwardon 

5.  St.  Jacob 

6.  Franoker 

7.  Harlingen 
B.  Knrnwurt 
9.  Biilttward 

10.  Workum 
n.  Ilindelupen 
1*2.  Stavui'un 
i;i.  Sloipn 

14.  Kuinder 

15.  Trrkappcl 

16.  nrouw 

17.  SchiiDt 

18.  Noiirdwplde 
It).  lltiQritcr  ZwanR 
20.  DuiikGiliiiuk 

U.  Groningen. 
31.  Mariim 
3*i.  (■ryp«kerke 
%<.  Knlikamp 
24.  Uikert 
2.*).  liMpperium 

26.  PiMfiyl 

27.  Winschotcn 
^.  Fort  Bourtange 
2!>.  Ter  Apel 

30.  Ti'rMaarech 
ai.Kolhiim 

'Ai.  Gronini^en 

III.  Drenthe. 
3.1.  Riion 

31,  Gaitcron 
lis.  Aisen 

36.  Smildi 

37.  Dievprhurg 

■  :t8.  VVesU'rliorg 

39.  Odi>nni 

40.  Soliooneboek 

41.  Kdovnnien 
4'i.  Kdincii 

43.  Mcppcl 

IV.  Overussel. 

44.  i^teenwyk 
4.'i.  RIookzyl 

46.  Votli'nhnvnn 

47.  B^tarirvldis 
4H.  Kainpen 
49.  HiittHm 
51).  /wall 

^].  Oonemuiden 
H'i.  Ornmpn 
.5;).  HaTileiiberg 
m.  Doll  Main 
.•J.*.  Almelo 
.5ti.  Ootmnrsiim 
.v.  nidenznal 
.W.  Gnicliedo 
.W.  Delden 
60.  llaa.\borgen 
ni.Cnor 
H2.  RrMen 
63.  Ilolten 

Vol.  I. 


(M.  WeMP« 

65.  Iluyno 

76.  Deventer 

V.  dueliUrland. 

66.  Elburg 

67.  Poiihula 

68.  Harderwyk 
119.  Leuvenum 

70.  Nrkerk 

72.  Rarnevold 

73.  Koolvyk 

74.  Apclduum 

75.  Vaaicn 

77.  /utphen 

78.  l..ochem 

79.  Hcirkulo 

80.  Ruorlo 

81.  Biodevort 

83.  Heerenberg 
Kl.  Dduiichem 

84.  Dowburg 
85.DeWni!ilHoer 

86.  Arnht>iin 

87.  HuiMMi 

88.  Herveld 

89.  Wageningon 
go.Thiel 

91.  Kuilenburg 

VI.  UtrecU 

93.  Wyk 

03.  Venendaal 

94.  laselitetn 
m.  Montlaort 
lie.  Ultecht 

97.  Nieuwprsluifl 

98.  Naarden 

71.  Ainerefoort 

VU.JforlhHol- 

land. 
99.  AniPterdam 

100.  Do  Kodg 

101.  Monnikendam 

103.  Punnorend 
111.3.  Fdam 

104.  Huorn 
1ir>.  Knkhuiien 
ion.  Medenblick 

1117.  Kolhnrn 

1118.  The  Hnldar 

109.  Calandsoog 
111).  Poiton 
in.Rrnek 

113.  Alkinaar 

113.  Egniundaan 

Zoe 

114.  Revonryk 
lj.l  Zandvoort 

116.  Haarlem 

VUI.  South  Hol- 
land, 

117.  Lime 

118.  Leimuden 

110.  Lpyden 

130.  The  Hague 

131.  ftravpzande 
133.  Wiliveen 
133.  Gouda 


134.  Sclioonhoven 

135.  Lnedam 

136.  Gorcuiu 

137.  Rottordam 

138.  Chailoi 

139.  Sireen 

1:I0.  Helvoetsluys 
131.  Goeree 

IX.  Zealand. 
133.  Zieriktes 

133.  Ooei 

134.  Veere 

13.5.  Middleburg 
im.  Sluyi 
137.  Biervliut 
i:w.  Alol 

139.  Hultt 

140.  Tholon 

141.  Steenbcrgen 


186.  N.  Anwen 

187.  Mortch 

188.  F.ttelbruck 

189.  Diekiich 
100.  Gchtenach 
191.  Grerenma- 

cheten 

BELGIUM. 
I.  ^^ntieerp. 

1.  Arendonck 

2.  Tiirnhuut 

3.  Minderhnut 

4.  <>orinft 

a.  OiiBl  Mails 

6.  Sant  Vliet 

7.  Fort  Lillii 

8.  Fort  St.  Pbilip 

9.  Antwerp 
snnoi 


10.  nergenhout 

11.  Berchein 
IX  JtrorthOrnliant.  13.  Boom 

143.  BbrgenopKooin  13.  Mechlin 
14.3.  Ruzendaal  14.  Lier 

144.  WilliamBtad       15.  Voidoneken 


16.  Herenlhali 

17.  Gestnl 

18.  Lomtnol 


145.  Breda 

146.  Ohnam 

147.  Tilburg 

148.  Gei'rtruidonberg 

149.  Heusdon  It.  /.I'mJurjr. 
1.50.  Bommel             19.  Heiek  Teren 

151.  Fori  St.  Andtiea  20.  Pcor 

152.  Grave  31.  Hamont 
153  Vechel  23.  Maaeyck 
1.54.  Bdia  le  Due       3:1.  Aaoh 


56.  Haiiiine_ 

57.  Burcht  Town 

and  Fort 

58.  Tetn  de  Flandrea 

59.  Doe  I 

60.  Gnvekle 

61.  St.  Laurens 

V.  fTeit  ftanders. 

63.  Cuooko 
Ua.  Blankenburg 

64.  Brugoa 

65.  Ostond 
1)6.  Nieuport 

67.  Thorout 

68.  Dixmuidc. 

69.  Loo 

70.  Rouatbrugge 

71.  Pmioringhe 
73.  Warnelon 

73.  Yptoa 

74.  Menin 
7.5.  Courtray 

76.  RouBselaorc 

77.  Thiolt 


1.5.5.  HouvpI 
1.56.  RciibpI 
l.'i7.  l.iiika  Gcatet 
158.  I-^rzel 
1.59.  Leende 

160.  Aaten 

161.  Helmont 
Iftl  WantDT 

163.  Verliiigbeck 

X.  /.imburg. 

164.  Veltpn 

165.  Polorworlh 

166.  Vonio 

167.  Helden 

168.  Mpyel 
160.  Weett 

170.  Ruremrindo 

171.  Wepapn 

173.  Oinliei'ck 
in.  RuililiiP 

174.  Mneatricht 

175.  Gulpen 

XI.  Tjuzemiurg. 

176.  Wie.  Warn- 

nach 

177.  Clervaux 

178.  Vianden 

179.  Gachdorf 

180.  Martelnngo 
Wl.NidprPallen 
IHij.  Luxemburg 

183.  Fjich 

184.  Friaann 

185.  Canach 


VI.  Hainaull. 

78.  Pottea 

79.  Depret 

80.  Temp  Leuve 

81.  Tournay 

82.  Fontenoy 

83.  Peru  vela 

84.  Ouivrain 

85.  Sara 

34.  Reckem  86.  Mona 

35.  Hoaielt  87.  Lena 
28.  Hil»en  88.  Ath 

37.  Tongroa  89.  Eiighien 

38.  Manahoven         90.  Roeulx 

91.  Goaaeliea 
III.  ."foul*  Brabant.  93.  Charleroi 
30.  Tirlemont  93.  Merbet  lo 

30.  Incourt  Chnliaii 

31.  Miiualier  94.  noaumuiit 
:!3.  Nivelica  9.5.  KaiiRRo 
3.3.  La  Bollo  Alliance  96.  ^himay 
.34.  Halle 


;«.  Walprloo 

36.  Briiaaela 

37.  Vianden 

38.  Tiouvnin 

39.  Haerleii 

40.  Diiat 

41.  Aerachot 
43.  Ecliiae 

43.  Donderzecl 

44.  Aaclia 


VII.  JVaniir. 

97.  Marienbourg 

98.  Pbilipvillo 

99.  Ligny 
100.  Thil  Raudian 


101.  Graux 

102.  Namur 
10^1.  Gembloiix 
104.  Eghezco 
Ia5.  Andonnoa 
106.  Nattore 

IV.  Eait  flandcn.  107.  Pesauulx 
4.5.  Aloat  108.  Dinant 

40.  Ninovo  109.  Jambeline 

47.  Grammont  110.  Beau  Rains 

48.  Parieke  111.  Gedinne 

49.  Oudenarde 

50.  TjCPUwprKhom 


42* 


51.  Dcncnock 
.12.  Deinao 
.5.3.  Ghent 

54.  Weteren 

55.  Caleken 


Vlll.  I.ieet. 
113.  St.  Hubert 

113.  Beauaainte 

114.  Marchfl 
lis.  Mucoui> 


116.  Grand  Menil 

117.  Tohogne 
lia  Mierati 
119.  Huy 

130.  Neuvill* 

131,  Omal 
133.  Landen 

133.  FIcmalle 

134.  Liege 
125.  Viae 

136.  Limburg 

137.  Heron 

138.  Baufayt 

129.  Spa 

130.  Solvaatre 

131.  DouBame 

132.  Stavclot 
i:)3.  Theasion 
i:U.  Vieil  Salm 

IX.  Luztmturt 

135.  Traillea 
i:i6.  Haetogne 

137.  Neuville 

138.  Thau  de  Bo- 

logna 
13D.  Arlun 

140.  Virion 

141.  Ueile  Fontaine 

142.  Perenaart 

143.  Bouillon 

144.  Orchimool 

145.  Anioy 

146.  Rpcogne 

147.  NoufChalaau 

Riveri. 
a  Schuyten 
b  Honrn 
c  Kuinder 
d  Reeat 
e  Dinkel 
f  Vcchl 

USSil" 

i  Chipbeech 
t  Rprkel 
k  Rhine 
I   Waa. 
m  Meuae 
n  Great  Aa 
0  Donimel 
p  Mcrk 
<1  Spholdt 
r  Vpctlee 
a  Lya 
t  Scnne 
d  Haine 
v  Sambre 
wDyle 
X  Dormer 
y  Littin  Lcihea 
z  Great  LeCnea 
a*  Ourl 
b»  Our 
c*  Sure 
d*  Scmoy 
e*  Leaao 
f»  Alaotle 
t*  Hoaelle 


(    I 


'fliW 


8N 


HI 


4gs 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  HI. 


|i » 


i!  I 


The  only  considerable  lake  in  Holland  is  Haerlom-Mcor,  a  wide  shallow  expnse ;  which, 
however,  was  of  great  service  to  the  Dutch  during  their  grand  struggle  for  independence, 
by  giving  them  the  means  of  laying  the  surrounding  country  under  water."  There  are  several 
smaller  mkea  of  the  same  ciiaracter  in  Friesland. 

Sect.  II. — Natural  Geography. 
SiiBHECT.  1, — Geology, 

The  higher  parts  of  this  country  are  composed  o(  strata  of  transition  slates  and  quartzes 
more  or  less  inclining  to  sandstone,  generally  directed  from  N.  E.  to  S.  W.,  and  traversed 
by  numerous  veins  of  quartz.  These  slates  are  clay  slate,  whet  slate  or  hone,  drawing  slate 
or  Mack  chalk.  Resting  uiwn  the  transition  rocks  occur  various  secondary  deposits.  The 
first  formation  is  the  old  red  sandstone,  upon  which  rests  the  mountain  limestone.  Asso- 
ciated with  these  rocks  are  various  slate  clays,  and  beds  of  anthracite  or  glance  coal.  Mines 
of  brown  iron  ore,  or  hydrate  of  iron,  and  of  red  iron  ore,  or  o.\ide  of  iron,  occur  among 
these  rocks.  A  great  field  of  the  coal  formation,  resting  upon  this  mountain  limestone, 
extends  from  Aix-la-Chapelle  to  Douay.  The  coal  formation  in  this  tract  of  country  forms 
a  series  of  irregular  basins,  of  which  the  most  considerable  are  thase  of  Lidge  and  Cliarleroi, 
which  nrf!  separated  from  each  other  by  a  small  ridge  of  limestone.  The  chief  rocks  of 
these  coal-basins  are  sandstone,  slate,  clay  ironstone,  and  coal.  The  most  important  coal 
mines  are  those  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Mens  and  Charleroi ;  but  the  mines  of  Jiioge  are 
remarkable  on  account  of  the  difficulties  the  miners  meet  with  in  their  workings ;  the  number 
of  beds  of  coal  being  reckoned  as  high  as  eighty-three  by  M.  Dumont.  From  Aix-la-Cha- 
pelle by  Maestricht  and  Brussels,  tlie  country  is  composed  of  chalk,  with  occasional  displays 
of  green  sand,  gault  and  Shanklin  sand,  rising  from  under  it. 

The  tritonian  or  lower  tertiary  rocks  form  in  the  Netherlands  a  very  considerable  Kasin, 
in  which  is  situated  the  city  of  Brussels.  It  is  composed  principally  of  sands,  ferriferous 
sandstones,  white  sandstones,  flint,  limestone,  and  clayey  marl.  These  tertiary  deposits  are 
observed  more  or  less  deeply  covered  with  diluvium ;  and  at  the  mouths  of  the  Scheldt, 
Meuse,  and  Rhine,  there  are  vast  deposits  of  river  nlluvium,  whicli  alluvium  forms  also  the 
islands  of  Zealand,  and  the  greater  part  of  Holland. 

SuBSECT.  2. — Botany. 

The  Botany  of  this  country  is  noticed  under  that  of  Germany. 

SuBSECT.  3. — Zoology. 

The  Native  Zoology  otTors  nothing  peculiar.   Tlic  Dutch  horses  (_Jig.  257.)  arc  only  valu- 


257 


Dutch  Iloreo. 


able  for  draught:  those  of  Friesland,  Berg,  and  the 
country  of  Julicrs,  are  the  best;  but  their  feet  are  gene- 
rally large,  they  eat  much,  and  have  little  endurance. 
This  race  appears  to  have  been  derived  from  Den- 
mark, and  to  have  produced  the  Ilolstein,  which  was 
the  parent  of  the  old  unimproved  English  breeds  of 
horses.  The  Flemish  sheep  arc  of  a  breed  common  to 
France  and  the  Netherlands,  being  in  general  horn- 
less, high  on  the  legs,  and  derived  from  an  intermix- 
ture with  the  Barbary  long-legged  sheep.  The  Dutch 
oxen  are  cf  an  immense  size,  sometimes  weighing  2000 
pounds. 

Skct.  III. — Historical  Geography. 

The  Netherlands  formed,  in  ancient  times,  the  princiiwl  part  of  Gallia  Belgica.  The 
Bolgir  wore  the  rudest,  tlio  bravest,  and  the  fiercest  of  the  three  nations  of  Gaul.  A  despe- 
rate struggle  was  maintained  before  they  yielded  to  the  genius  of  Ctesar,  and  the  superior 
discipline  of  the  Roman  armies.  At  length  the  country  within  the  Rhine  was  reduced  to 
the  condition  of  a  Roman  province;  but  the  Batavi  the  ancient  Hollanders,  united  them- 
selvps  to  Rome  rather  as  allies  than  subjects. 

During  the  middle  ages  the  Netherlands  passed  through  a  series  of  vicissitudes.  So  early 
as  the  era  of  Clinrlernagne,  they  had  acquired  distinction  in  the  pursuits  of  industry ;  and 
some  of  their  fabrics  wore  sent  by  tliat  monarch  to  the  caliph  Haroun  Alraschid,  as  speci- 
mens of  the  arts  and  indn.«try  of  Europe.  When  tlie  empire  of  Charlemagne  fell  to  pieces, 
these  states  were  divided  into  a  number  of  separate  principalities,  all  successively  united,  by 
marriage  contract  or  inheritances,  under  the  sway  of  the  house  of  Burgundy.  It  was  at  this 
time  that  the  Flom'^li  provinces  rose  to  the  highest  pitch  of  manufacturing  and  commercial 
■prosperity.  Tlioy  received  nil  the  raw  materials  of  France  and  England,  coimtrics  then 
rude  and  ngricnlfunil.  and  returned  them  in  a  manufiictured  state.  Ghent  alone  is  said  to 
have  emnloved  40.000  looms  ;  though  this  is  most  probably  much  exaggerated.   Bruges  first, 


Part  111. 

use ;  which, 
lependence, 
I  are  several 


nd  quartzfs 
nd  traversed 
rawing  slate 
posits.     The 
itone.     Asso- 

coal  Mines 
occur  among 
lin  limestone, 
;ountry  forms 
nd  Cliarlcroi, 
hief  rocks  of 
tnportant  coal 

of  Liege  arc 
! ;  the  number 
n  Aix-la-Cha- 
iional  displays 

derablo  basin, 
ids,  ferriferous 
:y  deposits  are 
fthe  Scheldt, 
forms  also  the 


are  only  valu- 

Berg,  and  the 

[  feet  are  gene- 

[tie  endurance. 

•d  from  Den- 

[in,  which  was 

llish  breeds  of 

jcd  common  to 

[general   horn- 

an  intermix- 

The  Dutch 

eighing  2000 


iBelgica.    The 

|aul.     A  dcspe- 

id  the  superior 

livas  reduced  to 

tmitcd  them- 

hdcs.  So  early 
1  industry ;  and 
Irhiil,  as  spcri- 

■  foil  to  pieces, 
Ivcly  united,  by 
1  It  was  at  this 
Ind  commercial 

biuntrics  then 
lone  is  said  to 
Bruges  first. 


Book  1. 


HOLLAND  AND  BEI/3TUM. 


499 


and  then  Antwerp,  formed  tlie  grand  dep6t  for  the  commerce  of  the  norfhcm  and  middle 
states  of  Europe. 

The  house  of  Austria,  by  the  intermarriage  of  Kluximilian  L  and  Mary,  the  heiress  of 
Burgundy,  succeeded  to  the  rich  dowry  of  the  Seventeen  Provinces.  They  formed  one  of 
tlie  chief  sources  of  the  power  of  Charles  V.,  who  transmitted  them,  with  Spain  and  liis 
Italian  dominions,  to  his  son  Philip  II. 

The  Reformation  was  early  introduced  into  the  Netherlands,  and  had  a  most  powerful 
influence  upon  their  destiny.  Being  suited  to  the  sober  and  thinking  habits  of  a  manufac- 
turing population,  it  was  soon  embraced  by  a  majority  of  the  people,  who  were  thus  placed 
in  direct  collision  with  the  fierce  and  gloomy  bigotry  of  Philip  II.  The  Inquisition  being 
introduced,  in  its  most  unrelenting  severity,  with  a  view  to  the  suppression  of  the  new  doc- 
trine, drove  the  people  into  open  rebellion ;  and  a  contest  of  fifty  years'  duration  arose,  the 
most  fierce,  bloody,  and  important  in  its  consequences,  of  all  those  to  which  difiercnces  of 
religion  have  given  rise.  The  duke  of  Alva,  who  boasted  that,  during  his  government  in 
tlie  Iiow  Countries,  18,000  persons  had  peHshed  on  the  scaffold,  was,  however,  unable  to 
subdue  the  independent  spirit  and  determined  enmity  to  Spanish  dominion  which  he  had  been 
instrumental  in  kindling.  The  more  moderate  conduct  of  his  successors,  and,  above  all,  of 
Ale.vmder  Farnese,  succeeded  in  re-establishing  the  Spanish  sway  over  the  Belgic  provinces 
which  were  not  defended  by  any  natural  barriers.  Even  the  Dutch  were  reduced  to  the 
disastrous  necessity  of  opening  their  dikes,  and  allowing  a  great  part  of  their  territory  to  be 
inundated.  Their  cfturage  and  perseverance,  however,  the  great  talent  of  the  first  two 
princes  of  the  house  of  Orange,  and  the  aid  afforded  by  Elizabeth,  enabled  them  finally  to 
achieve  their  independence.  The  union  of  Utrecht,  when  they  constituted  themselves 
into  an  independent  state,  by  the  title  of  the  Seven  United  Provinces,  was  concluded 
in  1.597. 

From  this  period  the  destiny  of  the  United  Provinces,  called  more  commonly  by  the  name 
of  Holland,  tlie  chief  province  among  them,  was  entirely  different  from  that  of  Belgium. 
They  speedily  attracted  many  of  the  manufactures,  and  all  the  commerce,  which  hod  raised 
the  Flemish  cities  to  prosperity.  The  Dutch  conquered  from  Portugal,  at  that  time  under 
the  dominion  of  Spain,  the  finest  of  her  possessions  in  the  Jkst  Indies ;  obtained  a  temporary 
footing  in  Brazil ;  and  rendered  Amsterdam  the  centre  of  a  flourishing  trade  with  India : 
they  carried  on  the  fisheries,  especially  those  of  herrings,  upon  an  unprecedented  scale;  and 
became  the  first  maritime  people  in  the  world.  The  commercial  greatness  of  Holland  pre- 
sents so  remarkable  a  phenomenon,  that  we  cannot  forbear  availing  ourselves  of  some  part 
of  that  luminous  illustration  of  it,  which  has  been  aflbrded  by  the  researches  of  Mr.  M'Cul- 
loch.    That  able  writer  observes : — 

"  Between  the  years  1651  and  1672,  when  the  territories  of  the  republic  were  invaded  by 
the  French,  the  commerce  of  Holland  seems  to  have  reached  its  greatest  height.  De  Witt 
estimates  its  increase  from  the  treaty  with  Spain,  concluded  at  Munster  in  1643,  to  1669,  at 
fully  a  half.  He  adds,  that,  during  the  war  with  Holland,  Spain  lost  the  greatest  part  of 
her  naval  power ;  that  since  the  peace,  the  Dutch  had  obtained  most  of  the  trade  to  that 
country,  which  had  been  previously  carried  on  by  the  Hanscatic  merchants  and  the  English ; 
that  almost  all  the  coasting  trade  of  Spain  was  carried  on  by  Dutch  shipping ;  that  Spain 
had  even  been  forced  to  hire  Dutch  ships  to  sail  to  her  American  possessions ;  and  that  so 
great  was  the  exportation  of  goods  from  Holland  to  Spain,  that  all  the  merchandise  brought 
from  the  Spanish  West  Indies  was  not  sufficient  to  make  returns  for  them. 

"At  this  period,  indeed,  the  Dutch  engrossed,  not  by  means  of  any  artificial  monopoly,  but 
by  the  greater  number  of  their  ships,  and  their  superior  skill  and  economy  in  all  that  regarded 
navigation,  almost  the  whole  carrying  trade  of  Europe.  The  value  of  the  goods  exported 
from  France  in  Dutch  bottoms,  towards  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  exceeded 
40,000,000  livres  ;  and  the  commerce  of  England  with  the  Low  Countries  was,  for  a  very 
long  period,  almost  entirely  carried  on  in  them. 

"  The  business  of  marine  insurance  was  largely  and  successfully  prosecuted  at  Amster- 
dam ;  and  the  ordinances  published  in  l.'VJl,  VbdS,  and  1.570,  contain  the  most  judicious  regu- 
lations for  the  settlement  of  such  disputes  as  might  arise  in  conducting  this  difficult  but 
highly  useful  business.  It  is  singular,  however,  notwithstanding  the  sagacity  of  the  Dutch, 
and  their  desire  to  strengthen  industrious  habits,  that  they  should  have  prohibited  insurance 
upon  lives.  It  was  reserved  for  England  to  show  the  advantages  that  might  be  derived  from 
this  beautifiil  application  of  the  science  of  probabilities. 

"  In  1690,  Sir  William  Petty  estimated  the  .shipping  of  Europe  at  about  2,000,000  tons, 
which  he  supposed  to  be  distributed  as  follows: — viz.  England,  500,000  ;  France,  100,000; 
Hamburg,  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Dantzic,  250,000 ;  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Italy,  2-50,000 
that  of  the  Seven  United  Provinces  amounting,  according  to  him,  to  900,000  tons,  or  to  nearly 
one  half  of  the  whole  tonnage  of  Europe !  No  great  dependence  can,  of  course,  be  placed 
upon  these  estimates;  but  tlie  probability  is,  that,  had  tliey  been  more  accurate,  the 
pre(X)nderance  in  flavour  of  Holland  would  have  been  greater  than  it  appears  to  be;  for 
the  official  returns  to  tiie  circulars  addressed  in  1701  by  the  commissioners  of  customs 


i 


^y 


I'll 


lU 


Hi 


Mi 


nr 


l#.,.i  S'  111 

ff  r  rw 


m 


1 


;■:  I- 

(, 

m 


\t 


■.*!■ 


•i 


soo 


DESCRIPTIVE  (iEOO  RAIM I V. 


Part  IIL 


I  ■ 


Mil 


'1 

i 
.1 


;    'li' 


to  the  officers  at  the  difTercnt  ports,  hIiow  that  the  whole  mcrctintilc  navy  of  Enirhiiul 
amounted  at  that  pi^riod  to  only 'iOl/^VM  tona,  carryin;;  27,U)0  nicii.  (,Miicphtriion'»  An- 
nah  qf  Commrrce,  anno  1701.) 

"  It  may,  therefore,  be  fairly  concluded,  that,  during  the  seventeenth  century  the  foreign 
commerce  and  navigation  of  Holland  was  greater  than  that  of  all  Europe  besides ;  and  yet 
the  cotuitry  which  was  the  seat  of  this  vast  commerce  had  no  native  produce  to  ex|)<)rt,  nor 
even  a  piece  of  timber  fit  for  ship-building.  All  hud  been  the  fruit  of  industry,  ecunumy, 
and  a  fortunate  combination  of  circumstances. 

"  Holland  owed  tliia  vast  commerce  to  a  variety  of  causes :  partly  to  her  j)eculiar  situa- 
tion, the  industry  and  economy  of  her  iidmbitants,  the  comparatively  liberal  and  enlightened 
svstem  of  civil  as  well  as  of  commercial  p)licy  adopted  by  the  republic ;  and  partly  also  to 
the  wars  and  disturbances  that  prevailed  m  most  European  countries  in  the  sixteenth  and 
seventeenth  centuries,  and  prevented  them  from  emulating  the  successful  career  of  the 
Dutch. 

"  Many  dissertations  have  been  written  to  account  fi)r  the  decline  of  the  commerce  of 
Holland.  But,  if  we  mistake  not,  its  leading  causes  may  be  classed  under  two  prominent 
heads,  viz.  first,  the  natural  growth  of  commerce  and  navigation  in  other  countries ;  and 
second,  the  weight  of  taxation  ot  home.  During  the  period  when  the  republic  rose  to  great 
eminence  as  a  commercial  state,  England,  France,  and  Spain,  distracted  by  civil  and  reli- 
gious dissensions,  or  engrossed  wholly  by  schemes  of  foreign  conquest,  were  unable  to  apply 
their  energies  to  tiie  cultivation  of  commerce,  or  to  withstand  the  co(ppetition  of  so  indus- 
trious a  people  as  the  Dutch.  They,  therefore,  were  under  the  necessity  of  allowing  the 
greater  part  of  their  foreign,  and  even  of  their  coasting  trade,  to  be  carried  on  in  Dutch 
}ttoms,  and  under  the  superintendence  of  Dutch  fiictors.  But  after  the  accession  of  Louis 
XIV.  and  the  ascendency  of  Cromwell  had  put  an  end  to  internal  commotions  in  France  and 
England,  the  energies  ot  these  two  great  nations  began  to  be  directed  to  pursuits  of  which 
the  Dutch  had  hitherto  enjoyed  almost  a  monopoly.  It  was  not  to  be  supposed  that,  when 
tranquillity  and  a  regular  system  of  government  had  been  established  in  Franco  and  Eng- 
land, their  active  and  enterprising  inhabitants  would  submit  to  see  one  of  their  most  valu- 
able branches  of  industry  in  the  hands  of  foreigners.  The  Dutch  ceased  to  be  tlie  carriers 
of  Europe,  without  any  fault  of  their  own.  Their  performance  of  that  function  necessarily 
terminated  as  soon  as  other  nations  became  possessed  of  a  mercantile  marine,  and  were  able 
to  do  for  themselves  what  had  previously  been  done  for  them  by  their  neighbours. 

"  Whatever,  therefore,  might  have  been  the  condition  of  Holland  in  other  respects,  the 
natural  advance  of  rival  nations  must  inevitably  have  stripped  her  of  a  large  portion  of  the 
commerce  she  once  posscbsed.  But  the  progress  of  decline  seems  to  have  been  considerably 
accelerated,  or  rather,  perhaps,  the  eflorts  to  arrest  it  were  rendere<l  inciTectual,  by  the 
extremely  heavy  taxation  to  which  she  was  subjected,  occasioned  by  the  unavoidable  expenses 
incurred  in  the  revolutionary  struggle  wilii  Spain,  and  the  subsequent  wars  with  France 
and  England.  The  necessities  of  the  state  led  to  the  imposition  of  taxes  on  corn,  on  flour 
when  it  was  ground  at  the  mill,  and  on  bread  when  it  came  from  the  oven;  on  butter,  and 
fish,  and  fruit ;  on  income  and  legacies ;  the  sale  of  houses ;  and,  in  short,  almost  every 
article  eitlier  of  necessity  or  convenience.  Sir  William  Temple  mentions  that  in  his  time 
— and  taxes  were  greatly  increased  afterwards — one  fish  sauce  was  in  common  use,  which 
directly  paid  no  fewer  than  thirty  different  duties  of  excise ;  and  it  was  o  common  saying  at 
Amsterdam,  that  every  dish  of  fish  brought  to  the  table  was  paid  for  once  to  the  fisherman, 
and  xto;  times  to  the  state. 

"In  consequence  princiiMilly  of  the  oppressiveness  of  Inxition,  but  jmrtly,  too,  of  the 
excessive  accumulation  of  capital  tliat  ha<l  taken  place  while  the  Dutch  engrossed  the  carry- 
ing'trade  of  Europe,  profits  in  Holland  were  reduced  towards  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  and  have  ever  since  continued  extremely  low.  This  circumstance  would  of  itself 
Iiave  sapped  the  foundations  of  her  commercial  greatness.  Her  capitalists,  who  could  hardly 
expect  to  clear  more  than  two  or  three  per  cent,  if  not  profit  by  any  sort  of  undcrtakinjj 
carried  on  at  home,  were  tempted  to  vest  their  capital  in  other  countries,  and  to  speculate 
in  loans  to  foreign  governments.  There  are  the  best  reasons  for  'liinking  that  the  Dutch 
were,  until  very  lately,  the  largest  creditors  of  any  nation  in  Europe.  It  is  impossible, 
indeed,  to  form  any  accurate  estimate  of  what  the  sums  owing  them  by  foreigners  previously 
to  the  late  French  war,  or  at  present,  may  amount  »o ;  !.i.'  there  can  be  :,o  (lotd)t  that  at  the 
former  period  the  amount  was  immense,  and  that  iL  -  -'.:ll  very  considerable.  M.  Demeunicr 
{Dictionnaire  de  VEconomie  Politique,  tome  iii.  p.  720.)  states  the  amount  of  capital  lent 
by  the  Dutch  to  foreign  governments,  exclusive  of  tlie  large  sums  lent  to  Fronco  during  tlio 
American  war,  at  srxf.nty-three  millions  sterling.  According  to  the  author  of  the  Rieiicsse 
de  la  Hollande  (ii.  p.  292.),  the  sums  lent  to  Franco  and  England  only,  previously  to  1778, 
amounted  to  1,.500,0()0  livres  tournois,  or  sixty  millions  sterling.  And  besides  tliese,  vast 
sums  were  lent  to  private  individuals  in  foreign  countries,  both  regularly  as  loans  at  interest, 
and  in  the  sliape  of  goods  advanced  at  long  credits.  So  great  was  the  difficulty  of  finding 
an  advantageous  investment  for  money  in  Holland,  tliat  Sir  William  Temple  mentions,  that 


I  \3 


I'ABrTlL 

'  Kiijjlund 
non's  Aii- 

Ihc  foreign 
<;  anil  yet 
exiM)rt,  nor 
,  ncononiyi 

lulinr  situa- 
anlishtennd 
irtly  alHO  to 
ttcenth  and 
irocr  of  the 

lommerce  of 

■0  prominent 

untries;  and 

rose  to  great 

vil  and  reli- 
able to  apply 

I  of  so  indus- 

allowing  tho 

on  in  Dutch 

ision  of  Louis 

in  France  and 

luitB  of  whicli 

3d  that,  when 

incc  and  Eng- 

icir  most  valu- 

be  tlie  carriers 

ion  necessarily 

and  were  able 

lurs. 

jr  respects,  the 
portion  of  the 

in  considerably 

fectual,  by  the 

idable  expenses 
with  Franco 

„  corn,  on  flour 

jon  butter,  and 
,  almost  every 
lat  in  his  time 
ion  use,  which 
imon  saying  at 
the  fisherman, 

lly,  too,  of  the 
Ijsscd  the  carry- 
[hc  seventeenth 
[would  of  itself 
Vo  could  hardly 
[of  undcrtakinj? 
[nd  to  speculate 
Itliat  the  Diitcli 
is  impossible, 
[ners  previously 
3nht  tliat  at  tiie 
M.  Demeimicr 
of  capital  lent 
Ince  during  the 
y  tlie  Rkhesse 
Jriously  to  1778, 
[ides  tlic3e,  vast 
„ins  at  interest, 
pity  of  finding 
[mentions,  that 


Book  I. 


HOLLAND  AND  IJEIX5IUM. 


601 


tiip  payment  of  any  part  of  the  national  debt  wan  luikeil  uiKin  by  the  crnditnrs  as  an  evil  of 
the  (irht  niugnituile.  '  'I'hey  receive  it,'  says  lie,  '  with  toarn,  not  knowing  how  to  diH|M.«o  of 
it  to  intcreht  with  nuch  safety  and  ease.' 

"  Aiiiiini;  the  siilKirdiimtc  causes  which  rontributed  to  tho  (Jecline  of  Dutch  conuncrce,  or 
wliii'h  have,  nl  all  events,  prevented  its  growtli,  wo  may  reckon  tlie  circimistanco  of  the 
coinincrco  wilii  India  liaving  lieen  suhjcctr'd  to  the  Imminels  of  iiiono|)oly.  Do  Witt 
expresses  his  lirm  cunviction,  that  the  alHilition  of  the  East  India  ('(im|Miny  wonhi  have 
added  very  greatly  to  lh<i  trade  with  the  V.mt;  and  no  doubt  can  now  reniani  in  tho  mind 
of  any  out;  that  hucIi  would  have  \x'.n\  the  case.  The  interference  of  the  adminislnition  in 
regiiliiting  the  mode  in  which  some  of  the  most  imiKirtant  hriinches  of  indutitry  should  be 
carried  on,  seems  also  to  have  lieeii  exceedingly  injurious.  Every  proceeding  with  reH|)ect 
to  the  herring  fishery,  fJir  exiiuiple,  was  regulated  by  the  orders  ot  government,  carried  into 
cfii'ct  under  tho  iiis|X'ct.i()n  ol"  offirc'rs  appointed  for  that  purpose.  Somk!  of  these  regulations 
were  exceedingly  vexnlious.  The  period  when  tho  fishery  might  hegin  was  fixed  at  five 
iniimteH  past  twidve  o'clock  of  the  night  of  the  '2-lth  of  June!  and  the  master  and  pilot  of 
every  vessel  leaving  Holland  for  tho  fishery  wore  obliged  to  make  oath  that  they  would 
respect  the  regulation.  Tito  species  of  salt  to  be  made  use  of  in  curing  difl'ereiit  wjrts  of 
herrings  was  also  fixed  by  law;  and  there  were  endless  regulations  with  respect  to  the  size 
of  the  barrels,  the  number  and  thicknesH  of  the  staves  of  which  they  were  to  be  made;, 
the  gutting  and  packing  of  the  herring;  the  branding  of  tlie  barrels,  &c.  &c.  {Hisloire  drr 
Pfciirs,  tjr.  danK  les  Mirs  du  Nord,  torn.  i.  chap.  '24.)  These  regulations  were  intended 
to  secure  to  the  Hollanders  that  superiority  which  they  had  early  attained  in  the  fishi;ry,  and 
to  prevent  the  reputation  of  their  herrings  from  being  injured  by  the  bad  faith  of  individuals. 
But  their  real  effect  was  precisely  the  reverse  of  this.  By  tying  up  the  fishers  to  a  system 
of  routine,  they  prevented  them  from  making  any  improvements;  while  tho  facility  of  coun- 
terfeiting the  public  marks  opened  a  nuich  wider  door  to  fraud,  than  would  have  been  opened 
had  government  wisely  declined  interfering  in  the  matter. 

"in  despite,  however,  of  the  East  India  monopoly,  and  the  regulations  now  diiscribcd,  the 
commercial  policy  of  Holland  has  been  more  liberal  than  that  of  any  other  nation.  And  in 
consecpience,  a  country  not  more  extensive  than  Wales,  and  naturally  not  more  fertile,  con- 
quered indeed,  in  a  great  measure  from  the  sea,  has  accumulated  a  population  of  upwards 
of  two  millions;  has  maintained  wars  of  unexampled  duration  with  the  most  powerful  mon- 
archies; and,  besides  laying  out  immense  sums  in  works  of  utility  and  ornament  at  home, 
has  been  enabled  to  lend  hundreds  of  millions  to  foreigners." 

The  French  revolution  produced  a  movement  so  great,  and  with  which  Holland  was  in 
such  close  contact,  that  it  acted  [wwerfiilly  upon  her  political  destinies.  The  revolutionary 
armies,  after  having  defeated  those  of  all  the  allied  powers  on  the  plains  of  Belgium,  advanc- 
ed into  Holland;  where,  meeting  with  support  from  a  (lowerfiji  internal  party,  they  had  no 
difficulty  in  subverting  the  dynasty  of  the  house  of  Orange.  In  its  stead  was  formed  the 
Bataviiin  republic,  virtually  tinited  to,  and  ruled  by,  the  republican  government  of  Franco. 
A  vigorous  attempt,  made  in  1799,  by  Britain  and  Russia,  to  re-establish  the  old  order  of 
things,  was  baffled ;  and  no  sooner  had  Napcdeon  been  made  emperor  of  France,  than  he 
bestowed  Holland,  formed  into  a  kingdom,  on  his  brother  liOiiis.  This  prince,  of  a  mild 
and  amiable  temper,  was  disposed  to  promote  the  welfare  of  the  Dutch;  but  he  was  allowed 
only  to  act  as  viceroy  to  his  brother,  and  was  obliged  to  assist  in  forwarding  those  measures 
by  which  Napoh'on,  in  the  vain  hope  of  ruining  Britiin,  endeavoured  hermetically  to  seal  all 
the  ports  of  the  Continent  against  foreign  commerce.  This  system  was  most  distressing  to 
all  countries  subjected  to  it ;  but  to  Holland  it  was  peculiarly  ruinous :  that  maritime  com- 
merce on  which  her  whole  greatness  had  rested,  received  a  blow  from  which,  perhaps,  it  will 
never  recover. 

The  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands  grow  out  of  tho  measures  adopted  by  that  great  coalition 
which,  after  a  long  scries  of  triumphs,  totally  overthrow  the  colossal  fabric  that  had  been 
raised  by  the  genius  of  Napoleon  and  the  bravery  of  the  French.  After  its  fall,  Austria 
might  have  advanced  a  claim  to  the  Netherlands,  so  long  a  portion  of  her  extended  dominion. 
Being,  however,  so  remote,  and  so  much  detached  from  her  other  territories,  it  was  likely 
to  prove  a  dependency  inconvenient  and  difficult  to  defend.  She  therefore  consented  to 
accept  indemnification  in  another  quarter,  and  to  allow  Belgium,  with  Holland,  to  be  formed 
into  a  representative  kingdom,  under  the  house  of  Orange;  believing  it  might  servo  as  a 
l)arrier  against  any  future  encroachment  of  France.  The  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,  thus 
formed,  was  divided  into  two  distinct  parts,  Holland  and  Belgium;  but  the  latter,  differing 
in  religion,  language,  and  manners,  was  always  discontented  at  this  union,  and  considered 
itself  as  a  subject  state.  Inspired  by  the  example  of  France  in  183(),  the  people  rose  in 
arms,  and,  after  a  short  but  desperate  struggle,  succeeded,  with  the  ultimate  consent  of  the 
great  powers,  in  forming  themselves  into  a  separate  kingdom,  under  the  name  of  Belgium. 
It  comprises  the  provinces  of  South  Brabant,  East  and  West  Flanders,  Antwerp,  Hainault, 
Namur,  Liege,  the  greater  part  of  Limburg,  and  a  small  part  of  Luxemburg.    Holland, 


i      ! 


■   \i 


H-.  '■'■ 


!i 


< 


MB 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY 


Part  Ilf. 


oesidcB  tho  ten  United  Provinucii,  has  nciirly  all  Luxemburg',  and  a  small  part  of  Limburg, 
containinff,  however,  Maeatricht,  its  largest  town. 

Sbot.  IV. — Political  Qeography. 

A  limited  monarchy  was  the  constitution  established  for  the  now  kinjfdom  of  tho  Nether- 
lands, and  continued,  with  some  modifiuations  in  Belgium,  in  both  the  parts  into  which  it  has 
been  separated. 

Tho  legislative  power  in  Holland  is  vested  in  the  States-Gcneml ;  a  popular  assembly, 
modified,  however,  somewhat  differently  from  those  either  of  Britain  or  France.  Each  pro- 
vince, as  under  the  ancient  Dutch  system,  has  an  assembly  of  its  own,  which  regulates  local 
aflaiij,  and  has  even  the  power  of  imposing  local  taxes.  It  cannot,  however,  injure  com- 
merce by  imposing  heavier  duties  on  the  produce  of  other  provinces  than  its  own.  The 
members  of  these  provincial  assemblies  are  chosen  by  electoral  colleges  formed  in  every 
great  town ;  not  by  public  meeting,  or  open  election ;  but  by  the  police  officerH  going  from 
liouse  to  house,  and  collecting  billets  signed  and  sealed.  The  members  of  the  second 
chamber  of  the  States-General  are  chosen  for  three  years,  one-third  of  the  number  being 
annually  renewed.  Tho  upper  chamber  does  not  consist  of  hereditary  nobles,  but  of  a 
council  of  from  forty  to  sixty,  named  by  the  king  for  life.  [The  Belgian  chambers  are  both 
elective ;  the  Senate  or  upper  house  being  chosen  for  the  term  of  eight,  and  the  Represent- 
ative cliamber  for  that  of  tour  years. — Am.  Ed.] 

The  revenue  of  tho  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands  amounted  to  about  l|'35,(K)0,000,  raised 
by  tho  usual  expedients  of  land-tax,  excise,  customs,  stamps,  post-office,  and  by  a  tax  on 
patents.  T'hese  are  re(|uire(l  to  be  taken  out  by  all  persons  exercising  trades  or  professions ; 
and  partake  of  the  character  of  an  income  tax,  inasmuch  as  their  magnitude  is  determined 
by  the  extent  of  tho  sales  made  by  the  parties  during  the  preceding  year. 


Pnxlucc  of  the  prioclinl  briDchM  of  the  lld?efiua  of  Iba  Natheriirvb. 
In  Flonm. 


Wrect  Taxet 

Stilnfn,  Reftifilmion,  ke. 

Import  and  Elport > 

Du'iw  mil  EiciM J 

Warranty  on  UolJ  and  Silver 

Pm'.  .  .  ■ 

Lotteiy  of  the  NetherUnds >  •  • 

l^terv  rf  DruHeU 

High  ttootla 


ISI6. 


2->J«3,700 

I'>.3l6.2e6 

22,I1T,9!)I) 

131,786 

1,066.308 

l.47.'>,l>47 
l,M6,080 


t<l,e72,8l3 

u,50i,go2 

31,121,(66 

IS8,9(>I 

■  ,9KM76 

5IM,4«S 

1,018,  W7 

l,IOe,HO 


rriDCipal  l>ranchM  of  the  Expendihlreofthe  NetlierlanJa. 
In  fioriiM. 


Kinx'i  KouwIioUl 

(Ireit  OlfiiT,  n(  State 

ForriKn  Affiirs  •     .-• 

Jui'ice 

laterior  and  Walcrstaat* 

HelijionYcafcpt  tlie  Catliolic 

Catholic  helUion 

Eiliication,  Arts,  Commerce,  and  Ciiloniea  - 

Finaneea 

Navy 

Army 


1616. 

>,eoo,(xio 

MIU,R33 
fia7.83s 
3,391. SI  I 
7,245,910 
l,2»l,2t>l 
I,3J%I76 
3.f94,73e 

23,314.342 
6,554,531 

27,128,374 


2,100,000 
1,061,430 
768,969 
2,191,049 
6,l»,249 
1,327,311 
1,6:11,413  I 
73,01911 

3!l,707,5<i2 
6,582,M] 

I8,444,53£ 


The  total  average  annual  produce  of  the  revenue,  during  this  period,  was  88,044,152 
florins. 

The  article  finances  means  chiefly  the  interest  of  the  public  debt.  This  amoimted,  in 
1826,  to  upwards  of  four  per  cent  on  a  capital  of  832,334,500  florins.  The  debt  was 
almost  wholly  contracted  by  the  Dutch,  principally  during  their  protracted  and  glorious 
struggle  for  independence,  and  partly  during  the  period  that  Holland  was  connected  with 
France. 

The  total  annual  average  expenditure,  during  the  above-mentioned  years,  was  98,106,820 
florins. 

[It  has  been  settled  that  Holland  should  assume  six-thirteenths  of  the  Netherlandish  debt, 
and  Belgium  the  remaining  seven ;  but  the  latter  has  not  hitherto  paid  any  part  of  the 
interest.  The  expenditure  of  the  Dutch  kingdom  in  1833  was  49,385,849  florins,  exclusive 
of  44,01M),000  for  extraordinaries  on  account  of  the  war  esbiblishments.  The  former  sum 
includes  the  interest  on  the  whole  debt,  amounting  to  21,021,484  florins. 

The  expenditure  of  Belgium  was  73,000,000  francs,  comprising  no  charges  on  the  debt ; 
but  nearly  three-fifths  of  this  simi  was  absorbed  by  the  military,  which  it  has  been  necessary 
to  keep  on  the  war  establishment. — Am.  Ed.] 

The  military  force  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands  was  in  a  somewhat  large  propor- 
tion to  its  resources.  This  was  supposed  to  be  rendered  necessary  by  the  proximity  of  so 
great  a  power  as  France,  whose  attack,  or  at  least  whose  dictation,  there  might  be  room  to 
apprehend.  The  army,  before  the  late  changes,  amounted  to  about  62,0(H)  men.  The 
Belgic  provinces,  having  been  long  the  principal  theatre  of  hostility  Iwtwoen  France  and 
Austria,  were  guarded  by  a  line  of  strong  fortresses.  These  had  been  allowed  to  fall  some- 
what into  decay ;  but  the  allies,  having  brought  their  contest  with  France  to  a  triumphant 
conclusion,  deterinine<l  to  strengthen  them  ns  a  barrier  against  the  future  encroachments  of 
tliat  (jower ;  and  tho  largo  contril)utions  levied  upon  her  were,  in  n  great  measure,  employed 
in  restoring  tlie  fortresses  to  Iheir  original  condition.  Sovoral  of  those,  however,  by 
an  agreement  made  between  tho  French  and  Englisii  governments,  have  been  recently 
dismantled.     Both  |x)w  ers  have  kept  up  large  forces  since  tlie  revolution ;  but  will  soon  re- 

*  Till!  expi'iiHt^s  orcnnalK,  ililicsi,  and  iiavicatinn  in  ||;cniTtil. 

t  "fho  cliargos  fiir  eilucation  are  now  incluileil  umltT  the  Itontl  of  "  .ntcrior." 


pabt  ni. 

if  Limburg, 


tho  Netlier- 
vliich  it  has 

ir  oBsenibly, 
Eacli  pro- 
rulatcs  local 
injure  corn- 
own.  The 
led  in  every 
1  Roinj?  fironi 
'  the  second 
imber  being 
es,  but  of  a 
)er9  are  both 
B  Reprosent- 

0,000,  raised 

I  by  a  tax  on 

professions ; 

i  determined 


letlierlanJa. 


a  88,044,152 

amounted,  in 

i'he  debt  was 

and  glorious 

nnected  with 

as  98,106,820 

rlandish  debt, 
part  of  the 

ins,  exclusive 
former  sum 

on  the  debt ; 
jen  necessary 

large  propor- 
oximity  of  so 
it  be  room  to 
men.    The 

France  and 

to  fall  some- 
a  triumphant 
oachmcnts  of 
ire,  employed 

however,  by 
)een  recently 

will  soon  re- 


T  V» 


'»^ 


■K  ,^  * 


Book  L 


HOLLAND  AND  BELGIUM. 


803 


duce  them  to  a  regular  peace  establishment,  of  which  it  is  impossible  at  present  to  give  any 
account. 

In  nuvul  afluirs,  Holland,  no  longer  tho  maritime  rival  but  the  close  ally  of  Britain,  made 
only  fuint  attempts  to  raise  her  iiuvy  tVom  the  low  statu  to  which  it  was  reduced  by  the 
disasters  of  the  rcvolutionarv  war. 

[It  consists,  at  present,  ot  six  ships  of  the  line,  sixteen  large  class  and  seven  small  clau 
frigates,  thirty  corvettes  and  brigs,  four  steam  vessels,  and  about  eighty  armed  barks,  of  five 
guns,  for  the  defence  of  the  interior  waters. — Am.  Ed.] 

The  foreign  possessions  of  Holland,  atler  being  entirely  wrested  fh>m  her  during  the  war, 
were,  with  tiie  exception  of  Ceylon,  tlie  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Demerara,  and  Berbice,  restored 
in  1814.  In  the  Ekst  Indies,  she  possesses  the  Moluccas,  the  extensive  and  fertile  island  of 
Java,  with  settlements  on  Sumatra,  Celebes,  and  Borneo;  and  some  factories  on  the  caojst 
of  Malabar  and  Coromandel.  In  Africa,  she  rctainn  El  Mina,  and  other  factories  on  the  Gold 
Coast.  Her  West  India  colonics  are  not,  and  never  were,  very  considerable,  unless  as  com- 
mercial dep6t8.  Both  tlio  navy  and  the  colonial  possessions,  in  the  separation  of  the  two 
kingdoms,  remain  witli  Holland. 

Sect.  V. — Prodtictive  Indmlry. 

There  is  no  country,  perhaps,  which  in  proportion  to  its  extent  and  original  resources, 
produces  so  great  an  amount  of  valuable  and  useful  commodities  as  Holland  and  Belgium. 

The  agriculture  of  the  Belgic  provinces,  though,  contrary  to  the  usual  course,  it  was  founded 
upon  their  manufactures  and  connnerce,  being  exempted  from  the  vici-ssitudes  which  befell 
them,  continues  to  form  the  most  ample  source  of  wealth.  The  whole  territory  of  Flanders 
is  cultivated  like  a  garden,  A  great  proportion  consisted  originally  of  harsh,  barren  sands, 
producing  nothing  but  heuth  and  fir;  yet  by  tho  application  of  manure  these  were  gradually 
reclaimed,  and  brought  into  their  present  state  of  high  fertility,  Tho  culture  of  artificial 
grasses,  and  especially  of  clover,  is  the  characteristic  process  of  Flemish  husbandry,  which 
it  has  taught  to  the  rest  of  Europe.  The  care  of  the  Flemish  farmers  in  collecting  manure 
was  early  conspicuous,  and  as  naturally  grew  out  of  the  use  of  artificial  grosses,  and  conse- 
quent stall-feeding.  The  use  of  liquid  manure,  collected  in  large  reservoirs,  is  common  to 
this  country  with  China,  and  not  known  in  any  other  part  of  Europe,  except,  perhaps 
Norway.  Turf  ashes,  especially  those  imported  from  Holland,  are  in  high  estimation, 
and  are  said  to  produce  an  almost  magical  effect  on  the  vegetation  of  clover.  In  general, 
the  Flemish  agriculture  is  conducted  on  a  careful,  economical,  antique  practice;  the  ftrmers 
not  having  adopted  many  modern  improvements  in  the  arrangements  of  husbandry,  such  as 
the  crossing  of  the  breeds  of  cattle,  and  the  use  of  machinery,  which  have  been  adopted  in 
England  with  such  happy  efl!ect.  But  this  system  of  agriculture,  after  supplying  the  most 
dense  population  in  Europe  with  the  standard  productions  of  the  soil,  yields  several  articles, 
such  as  madder,  rape,  clover,  and  mustard-seeds,  hops,  &c.,  for  exportation. 

The  objects  of  culture  in  the  Dutch  provinces,  in  consequence  of  their  humid  climate, 
and  of  the  demand  for  animal  food  for  the  great  cities,  are  almost  entirely  connected  with 
pasturage.  Holland  is  as  it  were  one  great  meadow,  intersected  by  canals,  and  traversed 
by  rows  and  groups  of  trees.  The  cattle  ore  stalled  in  the  winter,  and  fed  on  hay,  turnips, 
&c. ;  but  in  summer  they  are  kept  constantly  grazing  in  the  open  air.  The  produce 
of  the  dairy  has  been  brought  to  such  a  state  of  improvement  as  to  be  an  object  of  export- 
ation ;  Dutch  butter  enjoys  a  high  reputation,  and  the  cheese  is  in  good  repute  over  aU  Europe. 

Horticulture,  which  elsewhere  is  only  a  recreation,  has  in  tho  Netherlands  attained  such 
importance,  as  to  become  a  national  object.  Besides  amply  supplying  its  own  markets  with 
culinary  vegetables,  Holland  exports  them  in  large  quantities  to  Norway,  and  otiier  districts, 
where  the  growth  is  prevented  by  the  rigorous  climate.  Ornamental  gardening  has  been 
cultivated  with  peculiar  ardour,  especially  in  its  floral  department.  When  the  tulipo-mania 
reigned  in  Holland,  it  was  carried  to  such  an  excess,  that  lots  of  120  tulip-roots  sold,  in  1637, 
for  100,000  florins ;  and  particular  specimens  have  brought  from  8,000  to  10,000.  In  point 
of  fact,  however,  tiiese  roots  formed  a  kind  of  imaginary  currency,  or  medium  for  a  sys- 
tematised  species  of  gambling.  They  were  never  actually  transferred  from  one  individual 
toanotlier;  but  were  a  sort  of  stock  whose  whole  value  was  derived  from  caprice.  The 
government  at  length  put  down  this  species  of  gambling,  and  the  prices  of  tulips  fell  to  their 
natural  level. — Careful  cncpiiries  carried  on  by  the  government  of  the  Netherlands  are  con- 
.siderod  as  having  proved  that  the  agricultural  capital  of  the  whole  country  amounted  to 
10,.TJ.5,000,000  francs.     The  following  estimate  was  made  of  the  growth  and  produce : — 


llectir.-?.  Value  in  rnnrt. 

VVlKMlt    MO.tXM) 154,01)0,1)00 

Rye   700,000 leH,00(UH)0 

BiickHhent  200,000 K,(MK),(X)0 

Rarli-y a?0,UOO f  l.OOOJHH) 

Pulso...    110,000 ^HCMWDOO 

Potatot-a     i;il,000 41,000,000 


HecUrM. 

Orrhnrds 54,000 

Vei,'tlnlilc9 02,000 

Ileinp  n  ml  finx 210,000 

M.Kliler 30,000 

(.'uttiK  mill  animals 


Oau    300,000. 


iM,aOO,000 


•  ;     I 


■}■.; 


.■jrlr 


I,    1 


jil 


804 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY 


PartIII 


Manufhcturini;  industry  is  tho  branch  in  wliich  tlio  Belgic  nrovincps  fnrmorly  mnnt 
excelled,  and  in  wliicli  ttioir  docny  has  been  most  conHpiciionH,  Throo  centuries  npo,  tho 
linens  and  wooUcna  of  Ghent,  Ijouvain,  Uruaspls,  and  Mechlin,  clothed  tlie  hii'iier  raiiltH  in 
all  the  Burrunndincr  countries.  Since  that  time,  tho  tiitirics  of  Franco  and  Knffinnd,  liavc 
attained  sucli  an  ustonisliitij;  HUj)eriority,  and  uro  at  once  ho  cheap,  and  ho  wcjII  adapted  to 
the  taste  of  the  a^'c,  that  the  Ijow  Country  manufacturers  can  witli  diffiruUy  maintain  their 
fffound  oven  in  internal  consumption.  In  cottons,  especially,  they  arc  uuile  uiuilile  to  with- 
stand British  competition.  Tiiero  are  still,  however,  somo  finu  linen  hihrics,  laces,  lawns, 
cambrics,  in  which  the  manullicturers  of  Mechlin,  DrussolK,  &.c.  continue  unrivalled,  and 
which,  though  so  much  siijicrseded  by  muslin  and  Nottinijliam  lace,  still  enjoy  a  certain 
demand  throughout  Europe.  Tho  tini^  lanes  have  boon  sohlfor  seventy  or  eighty  Napoleons 
a  yard.     Tho  Flemish  breweries  nro  also  very  extensive. 

Tho  manufacturing  industry  of  Holland  is  not  on  so  great  a  scale  as  her  commcrco.  Tho 
pottery  ware  of  Dolft  has  1  wt  most  of  its  ancient  reputation,  and  even  in  Holland  is  super- 
seded by  the  earthenware  of  England.  Tho  spirit  called  gin,  geneva,  or  hoUands,  is  pro- 
duced at  Schiedam,  Amsterdam,  and  other  towns,  of  an  excellence  which  is  universally 
acknowledged.  The  refining  of  sugar,  and  tho  manufacture  of  snuff,  are  continued  on  a 
great  scale,  chiefly  in  Amsterdam  and  Rotterdam,  and  the  making  of  tobacco-pipes  at  Goudu 
IS  said  to  employ  5000  persons.  Silk,  leather,  and  woollens,  are  still  manufactured,  though 
not  to  such  an  extent  as  formerly,  nor  much  with  a  view  to  exportation.  Tho  general  value 
of  Dutch  ami  Belgian  manufactures  hos  been  estimate<l  as  follows: — Iron,  40,000,000  francs; 
copper,  5,000,000;  woollens,  80,000,000;  linens,  95,000,000;  lace,  25,(X10,000;  cottons, 
60,000,000;  refined  sugar,  14,000,000;  salt,10,0(K),000;  spi.ii  (,40,000,000;  beer,  110,0(K),0(K» ; 
tobacco,  28,000,000 ;  oil,  ;«),0(M),()00 ;  soap,  10,0(H),0C0;  ho.Uwr,  28,000,(K)0;  earthenware, 
4,000,000 ;  bricks,  0,000,000 ;  books,  15,000,000 ;  bleaching.  10,000,000 ;  dyeing,  10,000,000 ; 
paper,  8,000,000 :  in  all,  675,000,000  francs. 

The  commerce  of  the  Netherlands  has  declined,  both  absolutely  and  relatively,  but  in  a 
less  remarkable  degree.  Tho  causes  have  appeared  in  tho  hiscorical  survey.  The  total  sus- 
pension of  all  maritime  intercourse  with  other  countries  during  the  subjection  of  Holland  to 
France,  and  the  conquest  of  tho  Dutch  colonies  by  England,  rendered  it  necessary,  as  it 
were,  to  begin  every  thing  afresh  at  the  restoration  of  peace  in  1815.  But  the  large  capi- 
tals in  the  hands  of  tho  Dutch  merchants,  their  commodious  situation  in  the  cei\tre  of  the 
most  improved  states  of  Europe,  tho  recovery  of  some  of  the  most  valuoblo  of  their  foreign 
poescssions,  and  tho  considerable  surplus  of  native  commodities  which  their  country  affords 
for  exportation,  secured  for  them,  as  soti.i  as  tho  ports  were  open,  a  considerable  trade.  Since 
tho  peace,  it  has  been  continually  iuta  .sing;  and,  previously  to  the  late  revolution,  was 
more  equally  distributed  than  before  ain.)ng  the  Belgic  a«  well  as  the  Dutch  porta.  Holland 
exports,  of  its  own  produce,  butter,  cheese,  geneva,  tobacco-pipes ;  of  the  produce  of  its 
fishery,  herrings,  stockfish,  whalebone,  whale  oil ;  from  its  foreign  possessions,  cofToo,  sugar, 
rum,  cotton  wool,  cloves,  nutmegs,  mace,  pepper ;  with  linens,  wool,  and  various  articles 
from  Germany  and  tho  Baltic.  Belgium  exports  madder,  vegetable  oils,  lace,  lawn,  and  fine 
linen. 

There  are  no  official  returns  of  imports  and  exports  published ;  but  a  very  able  writer  in 
the  Foreign  Quarterly  Review,  to  whose  researches  wo  have  been  much  indebted,  has 
given  from  original  sources  the  following  account  of  the  importation  of  the  principal  articles 
of  merchandise  into  the  Netherland  ports  during  the  year  1827 : — 


Cofll'O,  bull's 

Ditto,  tniis 

Sui(Ar,  riM'fltrt 

Ditto,  nints 

Ditto,  ton.« 

Tolmcco  of  Aniorico,  tons. 

Rico,  bnlcs 

Ditto,  tons 

Cotton,  balM 

Indigo,  chests 

Ditto,  sproiins 

Ten,  quarter  chpsta 

Skins,  )»icccs 

Popper,  hftlcfl 

Wheat,  lasts 

Rye,  ditto 

Rarley.  ditto 

Potash  of  RiiKsia,  pnds*. .. 
r.inseed  Oil  ofdo.     do  — 

Tallow  of  ditto         do 

Hemp  of  ditto  do  — 


Amsterdam.    Roltenlom.     Antwerp.      Middleburg 


2,67fl 
117 


111 
8. 

13, 

o 

iS! 

IS, 

1, 

s, 

12, 


,n.TO 

,003 

ino 

,(•27 

fun 

,205 
,!1F0 
412 
,flfl2 

liO 
128 
121 
,271 

31 

:4'H 

S78 
,5«3 

,24r) 

i,41fl 
,110 


07,.')!»7 
1,079 
7,50S 
S.145 
3.H2:i 

i:i,!t34 

i;i,8!12 
.1,301 

1!I,(K)7 

47B 

RH 

ft.527 

34,.'>01 
.5,247 
1,002 
5,130 
1,412 

34,7U1 

fXi 
4,.55.'5 


370,102 

3,53!l 

50,3.10 

.Kins') 

4,02H 

1,331 

l(l,.^'i!• 

14,!a5 

■J2,a'Ki 

i.3:b 

on 

1,407 

215,W4 

21,847 

90 

06 

106,030 

1,191 

t-',372 


70 
2,009 


152 

4,300 


*  .\  Kuiisiun  weight  of  36  lbs. 


% 


WM 


^ 


Pabt  III 

crly  modl 

s  iiRo,  the 
•  riiiikn  in 
Innil,  Imvo 
iiiliiptcd  to 
itiiiii  tlipir 
Ic  to  with- 
;t!S,  liiwn», 
mllotl,  iind 
a  cprtttin 
Nnpolcona 

jrce.    The 
J  is  s«i)cr- 

,nili<,  in  pro 
imivcrsan.v 
imied  on  a 
es  lit  Goiulti 
red,  though 
jiiornl  vuluo 
,()00  francs; 
M);  cottons, 
10,0(K),0()0i 
iirtlicnwarc, 
10,000,000; 


ely,  but  in  a 
'he  total  8US- 
f  Holland  to 
cssary,  as  it 
3  large  cani- 
:entre  of  the 
their  foreign 
luntry  affords 
;rado.    Since 
olution,  was 
ts.     Holl:ind 
•odiice  of  its 
jnffcc,  sugar, 
Ions  articles 
,wn,  and  fine 

Ible  writer  in 
ndcbted,  has 
cipal  articles 


i 


Book  I 


HOLLAND  AND  BELGIUM 


OOB 


:»« 


The  herring  flnhory,  which  once  formed  so  ample  a  pource  of  Dutch  wealtli,  O'n  '^'h  in 
this  rciprct  its  importance  has  boon  greatly  exaggerated,)  was  uhnost  annihilated  dvn  mot  fJio 
war;  and  the  ground  having  since  been  occupied  by  neighbours  and  rivals,  Hoihtml  hasbcpti 
able  to  recover  only  a  small  portion.  Instead  of  l.Vx)  herring  busses,  hi  181S  !<iio  sent  out 
only  iitK).  Not  more  than  sixty  ships  go  annually  to  the  wlmle*  and  rod  tisherie:< ;  and, 
during  the  lute  war,  the  Knglish  undertixik  the  task  of  supplying  their  own  niurkots  with 
fresh  ilsh ;  in  which  business,  however,  the  Dutch  still  employ  aliont  fi(MN)  bontn. 

For  other  couunercial  particulars,  M,  de  Cloet  states,  that  on  an  averuL'e  of  twenty  years, 
between  1775  and  1705,  the  nrmber  of  vessels  enterc<l  inwards  in  all  the  Dutch  [xirts  was 
4140,  and  outwards  the  same ;  making  a  total  of  82S0  a  year.  The  entries  inwards,  in 
\f^J2,  for  Amstenlam,  Rotterdam,  and  Antwerp,  were  4051 ;  which,  adding  500  (ijr  llar- 
lin^en  and  Dort,  liecomes  4551.  The  number  outwards  for  the  same  three  |H)rts  was  4015, 
which  we  may,  with  a  similar  addition,  call  4,545;  making  a  total  of  UOOO  ships.  In  1827, 
the  number  entered  inwards  was  ,5203,  outwards  454S,  making  9761  altogether.  Taking 
the  average  number,  liowever,  at  10,000  (instead  of  0751),  so  as  to  cover  the;  trifling  trade 
of  Ostend  and  Nieuport,  and  valuing  each  cargo,  with  M.  do  Cloet,  at  40,000  francs,  a  sum 
moderate  enough,  the  amount  of  the  trade  by  sea  will  be  •100,(MK),OflO  fi-nncn.  The  trade  by 
land  with  France  and  Germany,  which,  in  1814,  was  estimated  at  15'J,000,()00  francs,  may 
now  be  takon  at  100,(KK),000 ;  so  that,  if  the  calculations  be  at  all  correct,  the  annual  value 
of  the  foreign  commerce  of  the  Netherlands  is  altogether  alwut  560,000,000  francs. 

MincH.  The  south-eastern  provinces  in  the  noighbourluxxl  of  Mens,  Charleroi,  and  Liege, 
are  said  to  contain  ;150  mines  of  coal,  employing  20,000  men ;  but  this  niiiiilier,  wo  shouhj 
think,  must  be  a  goal  deal  exaggerated.  Turf  is  the  fuel  chiefly  used,  especially  in  Hol- 
land. There  are  also  in  the  southern  district  ironworks,  supposed  by  Mr.  Jacob  to  yield 
about  1000  tons.  Clay  suited  for  the  manufacture  of  porcelain  is  found  in  Holland,  and 
there  ore  stone  quarries  in  the  south. 

Canah  form  one  of  the  most  remarkable  features  in  the  economical  amnrTcments  of  IIol- 
land,  and  a  leading  source  of  her  prosperity.  From  the  structure  of  the  country,  these  arc 
formed  with  peculiar  facility,  and  it  is  everywhere  intersected  with  them;  every  town, 
every  village,  being  connected  by  canals  of  greater  or  less  dimensions.  They  run  through 
the  streets  of  the  cities,  enabling  vessels  to  load  and  unload  under  the  eye  of  the  merchant. 
When  frozen,  they  serve  as  highways,  on  which  the  Dutch  females,  heavily  laden,  convey 
themselves  along  on  skates  witli  surprising  rapidity.  In  general,  from  the  flatness  of  the 
country,  and  the  abundance  of  water,  canals  may  be  made  without  much  exertion  of  art  or 
skill.  There  is  an  exception,  however,  in  the  canal  of  Pannerden,  constructed  with  the 
view  of  draining  off  the  superfluous  water  of  the  Uhine,  by  which  a  great  extent  fif  ground 
was  converted  into  a  marsh.  It  is  two  miles  long,  and  200  feet  below  the  level  of  the  sea, 
the  waters  being  received  into  three  different  sets  of  sluices.  It  is  considered  a  master- 
niece,  and  completely  answered  its  object.  Another,  on  a  most  magnificent  .scale,  connect- 
ing Amsterdam  with  the  Holder,  was  commenced  in  1819,  and  finished  in  182.5,  at  an 
expense  of  10,000,000  florins.  It  is  50  miles  long,  125  feet  wide  at  the  surface,  38  feet 
wide  at  the  bottom,  and  21  feet  deep.  It  is  calculated  to  admit  shifw  of  war  of  46  guns,  and 
merchantmen  of  1000  tons  burden.  It  was  constructed  '•>  avoid  the  troublesome  navigation 
to  and  from  Amsterdam  through  the  Zuyder  Zee,  and  the  necessity  of  lightening  large  ves- 
sels before  crossing  the  Pampus. 

The  canals  in  Belgium  are  spacious  and  commodious,  connecting  all  the  great  cities, 
though  not  nearly  in  equal  number,  nor  uniting  every  village,  as  in  Holland. 

Sect.  VI. — Civil  and  Social  State. 

The  population  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,  though  not  comparable,  as  to  absolute 
amount,  with  that  of  any  of  the  great  states,  is  superior  to  them  all  in  one  highly  important 
particular,  that  the  country  contains  a  greater  density  of  population  on  the  same  surface 
than  any  other  in  Europe,  or  perhaps  in  the  world.  This,  m  the  Belgic  provinces  at  least, 
is  the  more  remarkable,  as  they  are  inhabited,  not  by  a  manufacturing  population,  drawing 
subsistence  from  agricultural  countries,  but  by  a  population  subsisting  exclusively  on  the 
produce  of  the  land  itself.  The  census  of  1816  gave  a  total  population  of  5,491,945 : 
2,476,159  for  the  northern  provinces ;  3,249,841  for  those  of  Belgium  ;  and  22.5,945  for  the 
duchy  of  Luxemburg.  This  gives  an  aggregate  average  density  of  about  212  to  the  square 
mile;  but  the  rate  rises  much  higher  in  certain  provinces.  Throughout  Belgium  the  pro- 
portion is  296  to  the  square  mile ;  in  the  province  of  East  Flanders,  however,  it  is  as  high 
as  560.  In  the  United  Netherlands  the  average  density  is  only  180  per  square  mile ;  and  in 
Luxemburg,  which  has  much  of  a  German  character,  it  is  as  low  as  66.  The  census  of 
1 925  gives  a  population  of  6,013,.578 ;  and  some  further  augmentation  has  taken  place  since.f 

•  fin  iwn.  only  onn  ship  nalfed  to  tho  whnlo.fliihpry  from  Holland,  which  in  1680  had  out  WO  ships  manned  by 
1 1,000  sailors,  cngaixcd  in  that  branrh  uf  industry.— Am.  Eoj 

tfThc  population  of  tliR  two  kingdoms  in  li<33,  was  0,536,000,  of  which  3,791,000  belonged  to  Deli;ium,  and 
3  74.'!,000  to  Holland.— An.  Ed.J 

Vol  I.  48  ^O 


It'^l 


1,1 


'  k 

'    M    ll. 


t  ^ 


im 


m'»(;Rii>'rivK  gkogiiaimiy. 


Part  HI. 


The  fcjllowinir  ilct.iili  willi  ruapcct  to  tlio  iKiiiiilatinii  of  tlio  Nctlii'tlnnilN  nrr  nxtractcd  flrom 
th«  piiblk'iitioiiit  (if  M.  QuulL'let,  onu  of  llio  ulilekt  ■tatiiticul  writrni  of  liiu  ('untinunt  :— 


Table  of  the  Miwtmrnt  qfihe  Population  in  llnllaml  and  Belgium  for  Ten  Yean, 


fMfflMM 


Zenliirul 

(iiielilt'riiwicl,. .. 
Niirtli  llrulKiiit . 
Norlh  Miilhiiiil . 
Hoiilli  iloliaml. 

Ulnicht 

F'rieiliwiil  

Ovt'rj'Mi'l 

(troiiiiiui'ti  ,, .. 

Dmilhit 

iJmliiirH 

Li^KO    

Nkmiir 

LiKPiiiliiirR  .. . 

Ilainniill 

8()Ulli  HnilMtiit  . 
Koul  [•'luiiili'm . . 
Wiitt  Kliinitvn. 
Antw(>r|>  


Ull, 


T         MM. 


lit, KM 

SiH,(W 
3'.H,()H7 

1()7,W7 
17fi,SM 

wsan 

13ft.M9 

8N7,fil3 
35H,IH& 
l(H,«H) 

ai;»,.M*7 

4HH,.'Htt 

5lfi,:!8» 
!WI,.V«ft 


itw.S'.ni 

;«fi,fii7 
w;i,uin 

117,10ft 

itio,9;r7 

IStVtM.'k 

a;i,:)i'>h 
aai.ioi 

189,3U3 
SW,0IO 
ftl)'>,iyu 

■IWi.lflft 

t)H7.»;7 
w'i:i.Hv>o 

383,078 


a,434J)08  I    0.013,478 


■Into 

SA,331 
U«),Ml!i 
1(N),W>3 
119,714 
ltU,74l 
41.038 

cft,M'>a 

fil,UAl 

M.)n3 

lt),7«3 

101,781 

1I3.0!U 

0N,(1W 

0!t.iM9 

183,198 

inu.i8i 

818,8,10 

ioi,i:u 

101,471 
8,OI&.040 


4<,4ae 

.W,8|8 

f>'J,flo7 
181.78ft 
143,Ha() 
8V.U88 
38,81  U 

:i7.n'j 

DO,,"!:!!) 

y,a'i8  I 

70,64U  I 
88,fiU8 
34,134  , 

Msm  I 

118,889 
119,109 
1('>8,8.'M 
141,310 
70,f.«3 

l,481,fifl(ri 


Mutta«K 

„,«. 

1(),fV4ft 

n 

i9,3:n 

13 

80,:i80 

1 

34,789 

8«t9 

3'I,M8 

148 

8,988 

30 

i.v:w7 

40 

ll,fi89 

13 

11,498 

37 

3,9ft4 

3 

a8.9tlO 

ft 

8-l,;i87 

34 

18,ft98 

8 

18,740 

1 

39.ft91 

37 

30.483 

ft 

43,180 

0 

37.883 

fl 

83,07ft 

ii 

430,847 

flOS 

Tho  births  and  mnrrinpfos  in  tho  Notlicrlnnds  aro  proportioniillv  rnoro  niunorouN,  wiiilo  tho 
deaths  nro  alioiit  c(iiml  to  thoso  of  Franco,  ond  oxcoo<l  thoHo  ot  (irciit  Britain  in  tlio  ratio 
of  three  to  two.     The  account  stands  thus : — 

NflllMrlAudik                                                           rnnce.                                              QrMt  Britain 
ino  liirlhn  to  9.ra7  Inliiihllanti ,1, liM .1„1,14 

iiMi  iicni  iw a.iiHi 4,nm ,t,7H0 

lOU  iiinrrinKOi 13,130 13,4IH) VX'Xa 

There  has  been  a  vi^ry  matorinl  iiicroaso  in  tlio  hoiiithinosH  of  tiiu  people  of  the  Nether- 
lands, and  pnrtioiilitrly  of  Holland,  diirin);  tho  lost  thirty  or  forty  yearn. 

Tho  provision  for  the  siipiKirt  of  the  poor  of  the  Nt'llierlnnds  is  pretty  niiiplo,  ond  it  is 
applied  with  ^reiit  economy  and  skill ;  tbrminp,  indeed,  nn  imimrtant  brmirh  of  tlin  public 
administnition.  The  fbllowinfr  table,  compiled  fVoin  authentic  sources,  by  M.  Qnetelet, 
cannot  fuil  of  bcin<{  interesting: — 

Charitable  Inttitutionn  of  the  Netherlands 


Nilura  o(  iMlluliw. 


Adminiitmtioiia  fur  relieving  Iho  I'oornt  home 

Comminnioii!!  for  (llHlrihiiling  Fowl,  &c 

8ocinli<>fi  or  Mnlpriml  Chanty 

lIuRpilnlH 

Kunds  Ibi  Militarv  Sorvice 

Royal  Iliwpital  of  Meaino* 

Pimr  St'liiMilii  

Workhoiwro  of  Chnrity 

DepolH  of  Mi'iulii'ily 

Socieliex  of  lloncnc'encc  for  the  Coloniei.... 
Eilabliahincnui  for  the  Denf  and  Dumb 


Niimtirr  of 

iMlilUtiODI, 


Monis  dn  PiM6. 
SavinRB  llnnkg.. 


Tolali. 


9,189 

3C 

4 

784 

1 

1 

885 

34 

8 


6,888 
184 
90 


IndiviiliuU 
ritliDvtd. 


74.').0.V2 

2a.05f. 

1,448 

41,178 

8,?77 

lAC 

147,890 

r..l(i9 

2.,')98 

8,.'i.'>3 

839 

977,610 

"i8,'03s" 


or  Riii>r. 


9,448,740 
88,484 
13,493 

4,091,1.')7 

iio.ma 

8.'l,290 
817,176 
4(Mi,7(M 
2i9,.''iH7 
353..'i89 

41,991 

11,(M9.036 
4,a(l8,0f>H 
8,771,608 


K~|wnM  for 
lACt)  liMllvldutl. 


rioHni. 

7.31 

3.73 

9.38 

99.37 

48.73 

149.:iO 

l.(>7 
6.').92 

HH.:n 

41.33 
175.70 

Avcmgo  11.30 

Avcmgol93.93 


The  niitional  character  of  tlio  Dutch  has  been  lonjf  moulded  into  the  form  nuturnl  to  (i 
highly  commercial  people ;  solid,  steady,  quiet,  liilioriou.x,  eiigerly  intent  on  tlie  nreiimiiktion  of 
wealth,  which  tliey  .seek  ruther  by  economy,  steadinetiH,  and  perseverance,  than  by  speculation. 
They  curry  the  virtue  of  cleanliness  to  an  extreme.  Outward  decorum  of  manners,  at  least, 
is  better  observed  than  amonsr  the  neighbourin},'  continental  niitioiis.  Yet  tho  Kpiii  houses 
in  the  great  towns,  where  the  most  respectable  citizens  used  to  mingle  with  persons  entirely 
destitute  of  cliiiracter,  presented  in  this  respect  a  strange  anomaly.  Hut  at  jiri'-^ent  those 
can  hardly  be  said  to  exist;  and  are  frc(piented  only  by  the  very  dreirs  of  the  iKipuluce.  A 
traveller  in  Holliitid  will  rarely  meet  with  a  drunken  person;  or  witli  a  iimn,  woman,  or 
child,  ill  nigs.  F.very  class  of  people  seems  comfortable,  the  result  of  their  great  frugality 
and  unwearied  industry.     Were  a  young  sturdy  beggar  discovered  teasing  passengers  for 

*  III  Wt'it  FlanUiira,  fur  the  ilauKhtcm  u(  auldii-rs  iuvuliilvil  or  killed  in  ■vrviru 


Part  HI. 

uctud  fVom 
i-ni  :— 


DWnrrM. 


rr 

13 

1 
sou 

14H 
30 
4« 
13 

37 

a 

A 
S4 

H 
1 
87 
b 
0 
6 

a 


i«,  wliilo  the 
in  tho  ratio 


OmI  BrluLn 
.  .:i.M4 

.  ,.V7H0 

■  the  Nether- 

)lo,  nnd  it  is 
f  tlin  public 
M.  Quotolet, 


K-penw  for 
lach  Individual. 

riorlni. 

7.31 

3.73 

9.32 

99.37 

4fi.73 

149.;)0 

1.07 
f)ft.92 
HH.37 
41.33 
176.70 


AvcrnRO  11.301 
Avpmgcl53^j 

luitiiral  to  » 
eunuiltttion  of 
y  speculation. 

iirrs,  nt  least, 
xpicl  llOllSCH 

sons  entirely 
pri'sinit  these 
jxipuliico.  A 
n,  woninn,  or 
■(>;\t  frii^fiilijy 
iissensTPis  tor 


V 


Boob  I. 


HOLI^NO  AND  nEIXllUM. 


0O7 


Kim*,  hn  Would  inntRntly  liti  iM>nl  lo  tlio  worklmuHe ;  wlirro,  il"  lio  rcfiiKil  to  p<>rfiirni  lil«  allot- 
Ind  tank,  lio  would  b<'  roni|M>lli'd  to  ouve  IiIiumiiII'  iVoni  drowninu  liy  workuii;  nt  tlii'  pump! 
ilolliind  i'l,  atiil  iilwiiyN  hnx  Imm-u,  «  country  of  »hort  credit,  Itnnkruptry  m  rure,  Notwith- 
•tamliiiu:  the  inviiitinn  of  thn  French  in  Him,  anti  llm  c(inM<«|ueut  interruption  to  nil  wirtM  of 
l)U)<ine'«x,  the  iNiiikrupleieN  Wont  not  com|mrntivplv  ho  nutnerouH  a»  in  Kni^lnnil  in  ordinnry 
yeiirs.  The  lleljfic,  provinccN,  lim)f  xuhjected  to  n  forniifn  yoke,  nnd  ni  ronHtnnt  inlerroumo 
with  li>rei)rni'rM,  semn  to  have  hint  in  n  ^roat  nioaiiuro  thii  ori((i>iiil  FIvmlNh  chnrncter,  und  to 
preHPiit  iKi  very  dintinctivn  iVnturen. 

It  in  not  very  ensy,  tVoni  the  dilVerenccM  of  their  judioiol  orqfnnizntion,  to  roin|Kire  the  Htnto 
of  crime  in  diH'erent  countricM.  In  tluM  rcRpnct,  however,  the  NelherlniidM  would  hnve 
nothin);to  fenr  iVom  acompariMm  with  Frnncu  and  England.  In  llollnnd,  thn  |x>lico  i»  ox- 
collent,  und  rul)b<>ripN  very  rnre, 

Tho  prevuilini;  religion  of  llollnnd  in  Culvinimn,  while  that  of  nelKium  in  nlnioht  exclu- 
•ivcly  (.uthnlic;  a  ditrerenco  which  contrilintcd  not  a  little  tii  tluit  rcHited  diHiike  entortuined 
by  tho  inhnhitnntK  of  the  Intler  to  thoiio  of  tho  former.  The  Dutch  hnve  the  honour  of 
\HSinif  the  Hrnt  |)eople  who  eotabliHhed  a  HVHtcm  of  unrcxtmined  tolerntion.  Kven  popery, 
iiotwithHtnndin};  thn  uroundx  vvliieh  the  nation  had  to  dread  and  liiito  it,  wnii  nllownd  to  be 
proloMxed  with  tho  utmodt  fVee<loui.  Thn  (government  allowK  mlurie«,  of  a  ((renter  or  loH 
amount,  to  the  clerjry  of  every  )N3rKunRion,  only  mnkin)/  tluwe  of  thn  I'reMliyterinn  ininiatem 
hijifher  tlinn  thoothen.  The  liitter  retnin,  IxiRiJei),  tho  iild  pnrinh  churchen,  and  the  excluHivo 
privik';.'e  of  mmji  helln.  They  uniount  to  nhout  l(HN),  and  are  all  (mid  nnd  np|Miintml  by 
(fovernnii'Mt,  whieh,  however,  respectM  the  wiHheH  of  tho  lendintr  purixhionerH.  Their  oularica 
are  very  nuMlernte;  .'MNM)  floriuH  m  the  grent  citieu;  800  to  1000,  with  hon.so  nnd  (;lelio,  in 
thn  country.  They  are  dividml  into  nuKlernte  and  liiKh  Cnlvinixtic  jmrtien;  the  foriui^r,  which 
are  wiid  to  he  the  inowt  numerous,  hnviii);  the  command  of  thn  univen<ity  of  Utrecht,  while 
tliat  of  Iit'ydcn  iti  attncheil  to  thn  opjKMito  intercHt.  There  uro  almut  lUNI  or  4(10  Catholic 
con|frpf;uti(mi<,  in  (renenil  very  Nninll.  The  .\rmoniant)  or  RemonxtrnntH,  who  orifrinntcd  in 
Holland,  hnve  only  nliout  torty  or  Hfly  ministers;  but  their  tenetH  nre  preached  in  ninny  of 
tho  presbyterinn  churcheH,  'The  Aniibnptistii,  cnllo<l  here  Mennonist*,  have  alMiut  1(K)  con- 
frreprntiiins,  r(iiii|HiHed  of  miiny  opulent  nnd  res|)cctahle  ineinlmrs.  The  LntheninM  have  lifly 
or  sixty  cimrches;  and  tho  French  I'roteHtanta  nhout  thirty,  [By  the  liudcct  of  18U3, 
1,3H0,0(M)  llerins  were  voted  fiir  the  snpiMirt  of  the  I'rotestunt  worHliip,  and  400,(K)0  tor  tlie 
Catholic, — Am,  K»,] 

In  Belpiiirii,  the  Catholic  rlorjfy  have  shown  a  very  rooted  spirit  of  intolerance,  with  tho 
bishop  of  (ilieiit  nt  their  head,  nnd  vehemently  objected  to  the  indulgent  treatment  of  the 
other  nects,  Tho  binhop  wus  imprisoned  for  two  yonrn  by  Napoleon,  on  nceount  of  his 
obfltinncy  in  tlii-i  particular.  Tho  ^rcnt  possesHions  of  the  ehiireh,  liownver,  have  been  for- 
feited, nnd  tho  clcrjfy  receive  very  mcHlornto  sulnrien  from  povornment.  The  monasteries 
have  iiccn  rooteil  out,  and  genenilly  nlno  tho  nunneries,  though  thut  of  Ghent  still  retains 
all  its  |)omp.  [There  is  nn  archbishop  of  Mechlin  with  a  salary  of  21,(KH)  francs,  nnd  tho 
five  bishops  hnve  ench  14,700  francs  a  yenr.  Those,  with  04  vicnrs  general  nnd  canons, 
246  curates,  and  4,288  inferior  officers,  (brm  the  body  of  tho  Catholic  clerpy.  There  are 
only  about  TrfMH)  Protestunts  in  Belgium,  with  10  ministers,  clerks,  Sic,  who  are  paid  by 
government, — Am.  Ed.] 

Learning  in  the  Netherlands  no  longer  boasts  such  names  as  Erasmus,  Grotius,  and  Boer- 
liaavo ;  but  the  in.stitutians  for  its  diffusion  continuo  to  be  very  ample,  Holland  retoins  its 
two  famous  luiivcrsities  of  Leydon  nnd  Utrecht,  The  former,  which,  undnr  Boorhaave,  had 
once  tho  roputntion  of  the  first  meilicnl  school  in  Europe,  is  still  highly  respcctablo.  The 
professor.',  who  are  twenty-one  in  number,  receive  salaries  of  3000  florins,  mde|)on(lnnt  of 
foes;  and  this  being  a  better  income  than  any  of  the  ecclesiosticnl  livings,  tho  university 
draws  from  the  church  its  most  Icurnod  members.  The  medical  education,  however,  can- 
not he  completed  unless  nt  Amstcrdnm,  which  aflfbrds  tho  advantage  of  hospitals  and  other 
occommndntions  peculiar  to  n  largo  city.  The  university  of  Utrecht  is  not  so  considerable 
as  that  of  Leydon ;  and  that  of  Groningen  is  still  inferior.  In  1833,  the  number  of  students 
was,  in  Leyden  fi8-l ;  in  Utrecht  470 ;  in  Groningen,  284. 

Tho  universities  of  Belgium,  of  which  the  most  celebrated  were  Gliont  and  I/iuvnin,  were 
partially  stripped  of  their  ample  endowmcits,  first  by  Joseph  II.,  nnd  then  by  the  French, 
who  in  tlieir  riwrn  substituted  lyceums,  which  are  now  continued  nearly  on  tho  same  footing, 
under  the  name  of  colleijes.  Only  tho  languages,  and  some  general  liranchos,  nre  taught; 
education  fiir  professional  pur|)oscs  being  received  in  separate  appropriate  seminaries,  Ghent 
and  Brussels  have  tlie  hifrliest  reputation ;  but  thn  salary  of  professors  in  tho  fnrmcr  does  not 
exceed  I.'jOO  francs,  Tho  three  uni'^ersities  of  Louvain,  Liege,  nnd  Ghent  hnve  lately 
been  restored ;  and  in  1827  the  first  was  nttendcd  by  678  students  ;  the  second  by  ."iOO ;  and 
the  third  by  404  students.  Besides  athenn'ums,  which  are  only  colleges  on  a  smaller  scale, 
Holland  has  primary  schools  in  every  village,  by  which  the  benefita  of  education  are  com- 
municatod  to  the  lowest  ranks,    Belgium  ia  at  present  very  deficient  in  institutions  for 


I, 


(■     t! 


m 


.     Mi 


S06 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Paet  in. 


popular  education.*  But  at  an  average  of  the  Netherlands,  the  proportion  of  children  at 
school  to  the  entire  population,  in  1827,  was  as  high  as  1  to  9.5 ;  a  proportion  not  exceeded 
in  any  European  country,  with  the  exception,  perhaps,  of  Prussia. 

The  fine  arts  were  cultivated  with  zeal  and  success  in  both  parts  of  the  Netherlands. 
Wealthy  merchants  liberally  patronised  the  arts  of  design;  and  the  gentry  and  landholders 
being  induced  by  the  constant  wars,  of  which  the  Low  Countries  were  the  theatre,  to  live 
much  in  towns,  acquired  more  refined  tastes  than  could  have  been  formed  in  a  country  resi- 
dence. Antwerp,  during  its  prosperity,  became,  in  some  measure,  a  Belgic  Athens.  Yet 
the  Flemish  and  Dutch  painters  never  attained  that  grandeur  of  design,  and  tiiat  pure  and 
classic  taste,  which  were  formed  in  Italy,  by  the  study  of  the  antique,  and  the  refined  taste 
of  its  nobles.  The  Flemish  school,  under  its  great  masters  Rubens  and  Vandyke,  displayed, 
however,  may  excellences  in  a  degree  not  inferior  to  any  otlier  in  modern  times ;  splendour 
of  colouring,  grandeur  of  composition,  and  force  of  expression.  The  Dutch  school  has  been 
eminently  successful  in  a  lower  sphere.  Under  Rembrandt  and  his  disciples,  subjects  of 
common  life  and  vulgar  humour  were  treated  with  a  native  force,  which,  being  aided  by 
brilliant  effects  of  light  and  shade,  have  rendered  this  school  exceedingly  popular,  though  it 
has  failed  in  all  attempts  at  high  and  heroic  delineation.  The  landscape  painters  have 
seldom  employed  their  pencils  upon  the  grand  scenery  delineated  by  Claude  and  Poussin ; 
but  Berghem,  Cuyp,  Ruysdael,  Hobbiraa,  Vandevelde,  and  others,  have  represented,  in  the 
most  natural  and  pleasing  colours,  the  pastoral  scenery  of  their  country ;  its  meadows,  its 
woods,  and  the  banks  of  its  seas  and  rivers. 

Amusement  is  far  from  being  a  primary  object  with  the  Dutch.  They  have  most  of  the 
diversions  of  the  neighbouring  nations,  Uiough  they  do  not  follow  them  with  much  ardour. 
A  great  portion  of  their  time  is  passed  in  smoking ;  the  Dutchman  having  seldom  the  pipe 
out  of  his  mouth.  The  rivers  and  canals  passing  through  the  streets,  afford  the  opportunity 
of  fishing  fl"om  the  windows.  The  great  Flemish  kermes,  or  feirs,  though  no  longer  sub- 
servient to  commerce,  exist  still  as  festivals,  at  which  there  is  a  great  display  of  humour 
and  character,  such  as  we  find  happily  illustrated  in  the  works  of  the  Flemish  painters. 
There  seems  nothing  peculiar  in  the  Dutch  style  of  cookery.  The  peasantry  both  of  Holland 
and  Flanders  have  their  peculiar  local  costume ;  as  the  huge  breeches  of  the  men,  and  the 
short  jacket  of  the  females;  but  the  higher  classes  dress  in  the  French  or  German  style. 

Sect.  VII. — Local  Geography. 
The  following,  according  to  recent  official  statements,  are  the  extent  and  population  of 
Belgium  and  Holland,  respectively : 


BELGIUM. 

Provinces. 

Rxlf-Dt  in 
Hectans. 

lH>nulati'<n  in 
Dec.  IIS7. 

I 
Principal  TowBi.                                                             ! 

1 

South  Brabant. 

Antwerp 

E.191  Flanders  . 
West  Flanders 

Hainault 

Naniur 

:H8,000        499,728 
38.3,000        3.38,294 
282,000        708,705 
316,000        .17.'inn7 

Brussels 

Antwerp 

Ghent 

Bruges 

Mods 

Namur 

Liepe 

Tongrca 

HOL 
<  Rotterdam . . 
JDort 

Amsterdam . 

Alkmaar  ... 

Middlehurg  . 

Utrecht 

Bois  le  Due  . 

Nimeguen  .. 

Assen 

lA'Uwardcn  . 

Deventor  . . . 

Groningcn .. 

Maestricht . . 
Luxemburg . 

.  72,800 

.  0.'),000  Mechlin 

..  81,941  St.  Nicholas. . 

.  36.000  Ostend 

.  18,400 

.  15,100  Vcrviers 

.  45,30C 
.     4,000 

LAND. 

Louvain  

..  16,000 
..  10,980 

18,580 

15,150 
3,000 

29,049 
10,568 
9,016 

372,000 
347,025 
288,000 
460,000 

567,300 

194,845 
347,625 
328,2.14 

. .   4.'*  144  T,PvHpn 

Limburg 

Holland,  South 

Holland,  North 

Zealand 

Utrecht 

North  Brabant 
Guelderland  . .. 

Drenthe 

Friesland 

Overyssul 

Oroningen  .... 
Limburg, 

part  nf 

Luxemburg. . . . 

2,676,000 

3,560,538 

387,000 

245,000 

158,000 
133.000 
501,000 
509,000 
336,000 
963,000 
328,000 
204,000 

uncer 

650,000 

453,818 

391,586 

133,932 
123,213 
3.33,551 
393,.196 
59,915 
300,333 
165,936 
153,082 

tain. 

308,655 

18  400  Delft 

. .  13  2Wi  Gouda 

an, 000  Haarlem 

8  4:J5  Hoorn 

.  18,453  Zaaiidam 

..    8,155 
. .    6,380 

.    9,.395 

.  13,000  Bcrgen-op-Zoom 

.  10,050 

.    20,800  Flushing 

34,087  Amersfoort  . . 

13.340  Breda 

12,780  Arnheim 

1,100 
.    18,380 
.      0,530 
.    38,851 

31,000 

10,350 

3,854,000 
3,676,000 

3,606,000 
3,560,538 

6,330,000 

6,166,354 

*  [In  1833  there  were  5,329  primary  schools  in  Belgium,  with  370,996  pupils,  beside  1,318  in  the  Alhenmimt,  and 
I  788  in  the  universities.  Annual  expense.  743,300  francs.— An.  Eo.j 


Part  in. 

)f  children  at 
not  exceeded 

1  Netherlanda. 
d  landholders 
leatro,  to  live 
L  country  resi- 
Atiiens.  Yet 
Juit  pure  and 

refined  taste 
ke,  displayed, 
es;  splendour 
;hool  has  been 
IS,  subjects  of 
eing  aided  by 
jlar,  though  it 

painters  nave 
I  and  Pousein ; 
sentcd,  in  the 

meadows,  its 

e  most  of  the 
1  much  ardour. 
Bldom  the  pipe 
he  opportunity 
no  longer  sub- 
ilay  of  humour 
mish  painters. 
Kith  of  Holland 
men,  and  the 
rman  style. 


population  of 


18,580 

15,1S0 
3,000 


29,045 

10,S68 

tim 9,010 


■op-Zoom 


!  AthcnBumt,anil 


Book  I. 


HOLLAND  AND  BELGIUM. 
SuBSECT.  1. — Belgium. 


500 


358 


BriuKiU. 


South  Brabant,  which  nearly  coincides  with  what  was  formerly  the  Austrian  part  of  that 
large  province,  forms  a  rich  plain  in  the  heart  of  Belgium,  and  is  tiie  seat  of  the  finest  manu- 
(kctures  carried  on  in  that  country. 

Brussels  (Jig.  358.)  is  the  capital  of  Belgium.  Considered  as  such,  it  is  small,  yet  it  is 
one  of  tiie  gayest  and  most  elegant  cities  of  Europe.    Its  situation  is  fine,  in  a  valley  watered 

by  the  Sonne  and  the  canal  to 
Antwerp.  The  Alice  Verte,  con- 
sisting of  tliree  rows  of  trees  bor- 
dering the  canal,  makes  a  beauti- 
ful approach.  Tiie  market-place 
and  the  park  are  the  two  great 
ornaments  of  Brussels.  The  former 
is  of  great  extent,  and  surrounded 
by  the  town  hall,  one  of  the  most 
elegant  Gothic  structures  in  Eu- 
rope, adorned  with  a  tower,  348 
feet  high,  and  by  the  old  halls  of 
the  diflferent  corporations.  The  park  forms  an  extensive  range  of  pleasure  ground,  inter- 
spersed with  rows  of  lofty  trees,  and  pleasing  lawns,  ornamented  with  fountains  and  statues ; 
and  it  is  surrounded  by  all  the  most  spacious  and  sumptuous  edifices.  The  church  and  chapel 
of  St  Gudule  are  also  distinguished  for  the  elegance  of  their  ornaments.  Brussels  has  an 
academy  of  painting,  attended  by  400  or  500  students ;  and  in  the  palace  there  is  a  library 
of  12,000  volumes,  and  a  small  but  valuable  collection  of  paintings.  It  was  on  the  plains  of 
Brabant,  near  the  little  villages  of  Quatre  Bras,  St.  Jean,  La  Belle  Alliance,  and  Waterloo 
a  few  leagues  from  Brussels,  that  the  fate  of  Europe  was  decided  in  1815. 

Another  ancient  and  important  city  is  Malines,  or  Mechlin  (now  in  tiie  province  of  Ant- 
werp), still  retaining  traces  of  the  prosperity  derived  from  the  lace  bearing  its  name,  which 
is  considered  the  strongest,  though  not  the  finest,  made  in  the  Netherlands.  Another  branch 
of  industry  consists  in  the  making  of  excellent  brown  beer.  The  houses  are  ancient,  and 
very  spacious,  often  constructed  in  a  curious  and  grotesque  manner,  and  most  nicely  white- 
washed. The  tower  of  the  cathedral  is  highly  finished,  and  rises  to  the  height  of  348  feet. 
The  other  churches  contain  many  of  the  masterpieces  of  Rubens  and  Vandyke.  Lou  vain  is 
equally  fallen  from  the  period  when  its  extensive  cloth  manufacturesand  its  university,  one 
of  the  first  in  Europe,  gave  it  a  population  of  150,000.  It  is  a  large  ill-built  town,  whoso 
bulky  walls,  seven  miles  in  circumference,  are  now  falling  to  decay.  Its  Catholic  university, 
an  attendance  on  which  was  once  required  as  a  qualification  for  holding  any  oflice  under  the 
Austrian  government,  perished  in  the  French  revolution,  and  was  replaced  by  what  could 
only  be  called  a  lyceum ;  but  the  ancient  institution  has  since  been  restored.  The  town  hall, 
enriched  by  numerous  carved  figures,  and  the  collegiate  church,  whose  spire,  before  its  fall, 
at  the  beginning  of  the  seventeentli  century,  rose  to  the  height  of  500  feet,  are  the  chief 
ornaments  of  Louvain, 

Antwerp  (Jig.  359.),  formerly  the  port  of  Brabant,  has  now  a  province,  to  which  it  gives 
its  name.    This  territory  is  situated  along  the  Lower  Sciieldt,  and  is  covered  to  a  great 

extent  with  pleasure-grounds  and 
359  A  houses,  erected  by  the  rich  mer- 

chants during  the  period  when 
Antwerp  was  in  its  glory.  That 
city,  down  to  the  close  of  the  fif- 
teenth century,  was  almost  witli- 
out  a  rival  amon{.r  the  commercial 
states  of  Europe.  In  the  great 
struggle  which  then  arose,  Ant- 
werp embraced  with  ardour  the 
reformed  cause,  in  support  of 
which  it  suffered  the  most  dread- 
ful calamities.  In  1.576  it  was 
Backed  by  the  Spaniards ;  and  being  afterwards  wrested  from  tiicm,  surrendered  on  favour- 
able terms,  after  being  besieged  for  more  than  a  year,  to  the  Prince  of  Parma.  Subjected 
to  the  bigoted  and  tyrannic  sway  of  Spain,  and  oppressed  by  the  active  rivalry  of  Holland,  it 
lost  all  its  commerce,  and  presented  the  mere  shadow  of  its  former  greatness.  Its  renewed 
prosperity  dates  from  its  occupation  by  the  French.  Bonaparte  made  it  one  of  liis  grand 
.aval  arsenals,  and  erected  immense  works,  in  the  vain  hope  of  creating  a  fleet  which  might 
rival  that  of  Great  Britain.  Since  the  peace,  Antwerp,  having  been  placed  on  an  equal 
footing  with  the  ports  of  Hollanrl,  has  availed  itself  of  the  advantages  of  its  situation,  and 
retrained  a  considerable  commerce.    Having  a  ready  navigation  into  tlie  interior,  and  com 

43* 


Antwerp. 


1;!  ; 


:''! 


1." 


n 


"•II 


I  .1 


'Jji' 


^ 


m 


ik  I 


510 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


'  .',■(!■ 


municatinpf  by  canals  with  the  principal  seats  of  manufacture,  it  is  destined  by  nature  to  be 
the  cliicf  emporium  of  Belgium.  In  182S  there  entered  its  port  955  vessels.  Antwerp  is 
still  a  noble  city,  containing  numerous  stately  buildings,  both  private  and  public,  which 
include  some  of  the  finest  specimens  of  Gothic  architecture  existing.  The  cathedral,  which 
occupied  1(H)  years  in  building,  is  celebrated  over  Europe.  It  is  500  feet  long,  230  wide, 
and  ;i00  high.  The  spire  is  466  feet  high,  of  extreme  beauty,  and  from  its  summit  i.s  obtained 
n  mngninccnt  view  of  the  windings  of  the  Scheldt,  with  thedistunt  towers  of  Ghent,  Malines, 
and  Bredii.  The  interior  is  atlorned  with  the  greatest  masterpieces  of  Rubens  and  Vandyke, 
wiiich,  alVcr  licing  carried  olf  to  Paris,  have  been  again  restored.  Numerous  fine  specimens 
of  the  Flemish  school  arc  found  in  the  other  churches,  as  well  as  in  private  mansions.  Ant- 
werp liiis  always  lieon  the  centre  of  Flemish  art;  the  birth-place  of  Rubens,  Vandyke,  Jor- 
daens,  Tenlers,  and  all  its  greatest  masters.  Zealous  patronage  is  still  bestowed  upon  the 
art;  an  aciidoiny  is  supported,  at  which  400  or  500  students  are  almost  gratuitously  taught: 
annual  prizes  are  given,  and  crowns  placed  on  the  heads  of  the  successful  candidates.  This 
encoumgcmont  ha.s  called  forth  some  respectable  talents,  tliough  none,  as  yet,  to  rival  the 
feme  of  the  old  masters. 

East  Flanders  is  chiefly  an  inland  district,  and  is  the  part  of  Belgium  in  which  culture  has 
been  carried  to  the  highest  perfection.  It  displays  an  aspect  of  uniform  luxuriant  fertility, 
resulting  altogether  from  the  application  of  art  and  capital.  Even  in  journeying  along  the 
road,  tlie  traveller  finds  the  wheels  of  his  carriage  sinking  in  tlie  sand,  while  beyond  the 
hedge  on  each  side,  the  soil  consists  of  the  richest  black  mould.  The  most  fertile  district  is 
called  the  Waes,  or  St.  Nicholas. 

Ghent,  even  hi  its  fallen  state,  is  still  one  of  the  noblest  of  the  old  cities  of  Europe.  That 
vast  circuit  of  walls  which,  according  to  the  boast  of  Charles  V.,  could  contain  all  Paris 
within  them,  may  still  be  traced.  It  is  built  on  twenty-seven  islands,  most  of  them  bordered 
by  magnificent  ([uays,  and  connected  by  three  hundred  bridges.  The  streets,  with  a  few 
e.\ccption.s,  are  spacious  and  handsome,  and  there  are  many  fine  old  churches;  but  the  great 
cathedral  does  not  display  the  architectural  grandeur  of  that  of  Antwerp,  though  the  interior 
is  rich  in  the  extreme,  adorned  with  numerous  pillars  of  white  marble.  This  and  the  other 
churches,  as  well  as  the  academy,  contain  numerous  paintings  by  the  old  Flemish  masters. 
Ghent,  though  it  can  no  longer  send  its  40,000  weavers  into  the  field,  is  still  one  of  the  most 
manufacturing  cities  of  Belgium.  Prior  to  the  revolution,  its  staple  was  sorted  lace;  but 
since  the  great  improvements  in  the  cotton  manufacture,  several  large  fabrics  have  been 
established  at  Ghent.  The  society  is  good,  this  being  a  favourite  residence  of  the  old 
Flemish  nobles,  and  now  frequented  by  a  considerable  number  of  English  families. 

The  other  towns  in  East  Flanders  are  Dendermonde,  a  small  but  strong  place,  which  has 
stood  repeated  sieges ;  Alo«t,  on  the  eastern  frontier ;  St.  Nicholas  and  Tokerem,  two  large 
villages,  of  more  than  11,000  inhabitants  each,  in  the  centre  of  the  Waes,  flourishing  by 
means  of  corn-markets  and  of  some  considerable  manufactures.  Sas-van-Ghent  is  the  centre 
of  the  sluices  on  the  canal  to  the  Scheldt,  by  which  the  whole  country  can  be  laid  under 
water.     Hubt  is  a  strongly  fortified  little  town. 

West  Flanders  is  a  continuation  of  the  same  richly  cultivated  plain  which  has  now  been 
described ;  yet,  being  partly  mixed  with  sand  and  marsh,  and  exposed  to  the  blighting  influ- 
ence of  fogs  and  sea  breezes,  it  does  not  di.splay  altogether  the  luxuriant  aspect  of  the  Pays 
de  Waes.  It  has  no  place  comparable  to  Ghent,  yet  it  comprises  an  extraordinary  number 
of  ancient  cities,  which  still  retain  a  portion  of  their  former  prosperity. 

Bruges,  formerly  the  residence  of  the  counts  of  Flanders,  and  one  of  the  factories  of  the 
Hanseatic  league,  was  the  greatest  commercial  city  in  the  Low  Countries,  and  perhaps  in 
the  north  of  Europe,  till  it  was  first  surpassed  by  Antwerp,  and  then,  from  the  same  causes, 
shared  its  fall.  Its  situation  in  the  midst  of  so  fertile  a  country,  and  its  communications  by 
spacious  canals  with  the  sea  and  witli  the  interior,  still  secure  to  it  a  considerable  trade. 
Bruges  has  the  character  of  an  old  town,  the  streets  being  narrow,  ond  the  houses  lofty. 
The  town  hall  is  its  most  conspicuous  edifice,  and  it  is  adorned  also  with  many  noble  churches, 
containing  some  of  the  finest  works  of  tlie  great  Flemish  painters.  The  invention  of  paint- 
ing in  oil  has  been  ascribed  to  this  city. 

Ostond  is  an  ancient  town,  early  celebrated  for  its  fortifications.  The  siege  by  Spinola, 
which  began  in  1601,  and  lasted  two  years,  was  one  of  the  most  memorable  in  modern  his- 
tory ;  and  upon  its  issue  the  destiny  of  the  Low  Countries  was  considered  to  depend.  But 
though  it  ultimately  fell,  the  exhaustion  of  the  Spanish  army,  and  the  time  which  had  been 
afforded  to  Hiilland  for  collecting  her  energies,  prevented  its  capture  from  having  the  ruinous 
effects  anticipated.  Under  Austrian  sway,  Ostend,  which  has  one  of  the  few  good  harbours 
in  Flanders,  became  the  chief  theatre  of  the  limited  trade  of  the  Belgic  provinces.  Napo- 
leon restored  its  fortifications,  which  were  still  further  strengthened  by  the  allies.  It  has 
not  now  above  a  third  of  its  former  population,  but  still  carries  on  a  brisk  intercourse  witls 
England,  and  has  almost  the  apjioarance  of  an  English  town.  In  1828,  574  vessels  entered 
its  port. 

Other  large  fortified  places,  celebrated  in  the  military  annals  of  Europe,  arc  found  in  West 


iinih 


Hi 


Paet  III. 

iture  to  be 
Vntwcrp  is 
)lic,  which 
Iriil,  which 
230  wide, 
is  obtained 
It,  Malincs, 
1  Vandyke, 
!  specimens 
ions.  Ant- 
ndyke,  Jor- 
■d  upon  the 
isly  taught: 
Eites.  This 
,0  rival  the 

I  culture  has 
mt  fertility, 
ir  along  the 
beyond  the 
le  district  is 

urope.  That 
in  all  Paris 
»m  bordered 
,  with  a  few 
ut  the  great 
the  interior 
nd  the  other 
lish  masters. 
B  of  the  most 
id  lace;  but 
3  have  been 
e  of  the  old 

,68. 

;,  which  has 
n,  two  large 
ourishing  by 
is  the  centre 
e  laid  under 

IS  now  been 
rliting  influ- 
of  the  Pays 
lary  number 

lories  of  the 
perhaps  in 
ame  causes, 
Inications  by 
rable  trade, 
ouses  lofty. 
lie  churches, 
lion  of  paint- 

I  by  Hpinola, 
Iniodcrn  his- 
ppend.  But 
jh  had  been 
:  the  ruinous 
harbours 
:es.  Napo- 
lies.  It  has 
Icourse  witi> 
sels  entered 

iind  in  West 


Book  I. 


HOLLAND  AND  BELGIUM. 


511 


Flanders.  Courtray,  Ypres,  and  Menin  have  the  usual  character  of  Flemish  towns.  They 
are  large,  rather  well  built,  with  handsome  churches  and  town  halls;  fiillcn  from  their 
ancient  prosperity,  yet  retaining  considerable  manufactures  of  linen  and  beer;  and  having,  in 
the  long  course  of  the  Low  Country  wars,  been  repeatedly  taken  and  retaken.  Courtray  is 
noted  for  the  very  fine  flax  grown  in  its  neighbourhood.  Oudenarde,  the  scene  of  one  of 
Marlborough's  victories,  Dixmuidc,  and  Furnes,  present  the  same  characters  on  a  smaller 
scale.  Nieuport  is  rather  a  noted  fishing  and  trading  town,  surrounded  by  sluices,  by  means 
of  which  the  country  can  be  inundated. 

Hainault,  to  the  oast  of  Flanders  and  the  south  of  Brabant,  presents  a  long  range  of  miii- 
tarv  ft-ontier  to  the  once  hostile  border  of  France.  It  is  watered  by  the  ujjpor  cournns  of  the 
Scheldt  and  the  Sambre ;  and,  instead  of  presenting  the  same  dead  level  witli  Flanders,  is 
varied  by  gentle  undulations,  still  highly  cultivated,  yet  not  witli  the  same  extreme  care  or 
ample  expenditure.  In  this  province  are  rich  mines  of  coal,  a  mineral  not  tbund  in  any 
other  part  of  the  Low  Countries ;  and  though  Hainault  never  formed  any  of  the  great  seats 
of  manufiicture,  it  is  by  no  means  deficient  in  this  branch  of  industry. 

Mens,  Toumay,  and  Charleroi  are  the  chief  towns  of  Hainault.  The  description  given 
of  the  secondary  cities  of  Flanders  may  apply  to  them.  Mens,  called  once  Honnonia,  is  very 
ancient ;  it  is  well  built,  but  appears  often  almost  buried  under  the  smoke  of  the  steam- 
engines  employed  in  working  the  neighbouring  coalmines.  It  has  a  very  extensive  found- 
ling hospital.  Toumay,  a  fine  large,  dd  city,  with  a  handsome  cathedral,  has  stood  many 
sieges.  Charleroi,  besides  its  military  reputation,  has  that  of  making  very  fine  nulls,  with 
which  it  supplies  all  Belgium.  In  front  of  Mens  is  Gemappe,  and  eight  miles  east  of  Char- 
leroi is  Fleurus,  both  celebrated  for  signal  victories  gained  by  the  Frencli  during  tlie  revolu- 
tionary war.  The  large  and  strong  cities  of  Conde  and  Valenciennes  are  now  annexed  to 
France. 

Namur,  to  the  east  of  Hainault,  presents  a  striking  variety  finm  the  tame  and  flat  surfiice 
which  covers  the  greater  part  of  the  Low  Countries.  Consisting  of  the  valley  of  the  Meuse, 
which  traverses  the  whole  province  from  north  to  south,  it  contains  numerous  rugged  emi- 
nences, which  give  to  it  a  varied  and  picturesque  character.  The  banks  of  the  river,  from 
Namur  to  Li^ge,  overhung  by  wooded  rocks,  and  opening  into  deep  valleys,  abound  in  the 
most  romantic  scenes. 

Among  the  cities,  Namur  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  in  the  Low  Countries,  its  origin  being 
traced  to  the  time  of  the  ancient  Germans.  It  lies  in  a  beautiful  valley  bordered  by  higli 
mountains,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Sambre  and  Meuse.  The  castle,  on  a  high  rock,  was 
formerly  considered  almost  impregnable,  and  stood  many  sieges,  till  Joseph  II.  dismantled, 
and  the  French  afterwards  almost  demolished  it.  The  cathedral  aiid  the  Jesuits'  church 
are  fine  edifices,  and,  unlike  the  other  churches  of  the  Low  Countries,  of  Grecian  architec- 
ture. Namur  has  in  its  neighbourhood  extensive  iron  mines,  which  employ  many  of  the 
inhabitants;  the  manufactures  of  the  city  consist  in  working  up  this  metal  into  firo-arms, 
cutlery,  &c.  Ascending  the  Meuse  towards  the  French  frontier,  we  come  to  tlie  small  forti- 
fied towns  of  Dinant  and  Charlemont. 

The  provinces  of  Li^ge  and  Limburg,  which  are  much  intermingled  with  each  other, 
form  the  eastern  frontier  of  Belgium.  They  run  from  north  to  south  along  the  Mouse,  front- 
ing Germany,  and  are,  indeed,  half  German.  On  the  banks  of  the  Mouse,  and  in  some  par- 
ticular districts,  the  territory  is  broken  and  rocky ;  but  most  of  it  consists  of  an  extonde<l 
and  highly  cultivated  plain.  The  eastern  district  is  distinguished  by  the  peculiar  richness 
of  its  pastures,  which  produce  butter  and  cheese  of  great  value.  Its  manufactures,  also, 
especially  those  of  fine  woollens,  are  very  flourishing. 

Of  the  cities  in  these  two  provinces,  Liege,  once  the  seat  of  a  sovereign  bishop,  is  ancient 
and  large,  but  upon  the  whole  ill  built  and  gloomy ;  and  though  some  of  its  buildings  are 
large,  they  do  not  display  the  taste  conspicuous  in  other  Belgic  cities.  The  church  of  St. 
Paul  is,  however,  admired,  as  was  that  of  St.  Ijimbert,  till  it  was  destroyed  during  the  revo- 
lution. Liege  has  a  manufacture  of  fine  woollen  cloths,  which  sell  at  a  higli  price.  Tlio 
town  of  Limburg,  now  included  in  Li^ge,  has  lost  much  of  its  population  and  industry;  and 
a  great  part  of  its  precincts  is  in  ruins.  Spa,  situated  amid  romantic  rocks,  is  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  watering  places  in  Europe.  The  resort,  though  much  diminished,  is  still 
considerable,  and  composed  of  persons  of  distinguished  rank.  The  inlmbitants  work  the 
beechwood,  which  grows  in  the  neighbourhood,  into  a  variety  of  toys,  for  which  they  find  a 
ready  sale  among  the  visiters.  St.  Tron  and  "Tongres  are  ancient  towns,  the  firmer  having 
a  celebrated  Benedictine  abbey.  Eupen,  like  Vcrviers,  has  flourishing  manufucturos  of  cloth. 
Herve  is  the  chief  market  for  the  Limburg  cheese,  which  goes  by  its  name.  Stavelot  is 
noted  for  its  leatlier. 

SuBSECT.  2. — Holland. 

The  province  of  Holland  is  of  paramount  importance,  including  all  the  great  cities  and 

frincipal  scats  of  commerce;  so  that  its  name  was  most  usually  given  to  the  whole  republic, 
t  forms  a  long  narrow  strip,  almost  everywhere  enclosed  and  penetrated  bv  water ;  on  one 


M'\ 


if 


J  *     . 


-  1 :.' 
I  r.     ■: 


512 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


\i 


f 


•My 


side  it  is  washeJ  by  tlio  Nortii  Sea ;  on  tlie  othci,  by  the  Zuyder  Zee;  in  its  centre  it  haa 
.he  largo  lake  called  llaarlem-Meeri  while  the  Rhine  and  the  Lech  intersect  its  numerous 
channels.  The  whole  country  is  so  low,  that  it  is  habitable  only  by  means  of  enormous 
dikes,  which  exclude  the  sea :  when  these  give  way,  the  waters  rush  in,  and  inundate  the 
whole  territory.  The  country  forms,  in  fact,  one  vast  well-watered  meadow  scarcely  any 
where  subjected  to  the  plough,  though  extensive  gardens  are  cultivated,  both  for  use  and 
ornament.  But  the  chief  products  are  cattle,  butter,  and  cheese,  for  the  supply  of  the  popu- 
lation of  the  cities,  and  for  export. 

Amsterdam  (Jig.  360.),  the  capital  of  the  province  and  kingdom  of  Holland,  is  situated  at 
the  point  of  confluence  of  the  river  Amstel  with  the  Y,  an  arm  of  the  Zuyder  Zee.    It  was 
ggQ  I  a  considerable  town   in  the 

fourteenth  century ;  but  it  was 
not  until  the  sixteenth  cen- 
*ury,  when  the  persecutions 
of  the  Spaniards  in  Belgium 
proved  fatal  to  the  trade  and 
''S^^^gx^l^i-.lE^^^BWaBlWEZ^waMBjrHlllMrai^Ki    navigation  of  Antwerp  and  the 

southern  provinces,  that  Am- 
sterdam attained  to  the  dis- 
tinction which  she  enjoyed 
till  about  the  middle  of  the  last 
AmateidBm.  century,  of  being   the  first 

commercial  city  of  Europe.  It  is  but  justice,  however,  to  state  that  her  extraordinary  pro- 
gress depended  as  much,  or  more,  on  the  liberal  and  enlightened  policy  of  her  rulers,  as  on 
external  events.  Every  individual,  whatever  might  be  his  country  or  his  religion,  was 
received  with  open  arms  at  Amsterdam ;  and  acquired,  by  means  of  a  trifling  payment,  the 
right  of  citizensiiip,  and  the  enjoyment  of  all  the  privileges  of  a  native.  All  the  public  insti- 
tutions wore  calculated  to  promote  commerce ;  and  at  a  time  when  trade  and  industry  in 
other  countries  were  oppressed  by  prohibitions,  in  Holland  they  were  comparatively  free. 
When  innst  ))ros])erous,  Amsterdam  is  supposed  to  have  contained  about  240,000  inhabitants; 
but  at  present  tlio  population  is  not  supposed  to  exceed  200,000.  Being  built  in  a  marsh,  the 
foundations  of  the  city  are  laid  on  piles;  and  it  is  a  common  complaint  that  a  house  costs 
as  much  below  as  above  ground.  The  three  principal  streets  are  parallel  to  each  other,  and 
are  not  easily  to  be  matched  for  length,  breadth,  and  the  magnificence  of  the  houses;  many 
of  which,  though  anti(iue,  are  splendid,  and  are  kept  in  the  best  possible  repair.  The  city 
is  intersected  by  an  immense  number  of  canals,  communicating  by  draw-bridges,  and  having 
sluices  for  the  purpose  of  regulating  the  level  of  the  water :  these  canals  are  for  the  most 
part  bordered  by  fine  trees.  The  expenses  incurred  in  keeping  the  sluices  in  order,  and  in 
clearing  the  canals  and  port  of  mud,  are  very  heavy.  The  matchless  industry  and  perse- 
verance of  this  wonderful  people,  are  in  nothmg  so  signally  displayed  as  in  their  works  and 
contrivances  for  conquering  the  difficulties  incident  to  their  situation,  and  making  the  waters, 

which  threaten  to  overwhelm  them,  con- 
361  tribute  to  their  comfort    The  stadt- 

house  (Jig.  361.),  now  the  royal  palace, 
is  the  finest  building  in  the  city ;  and  is, 
indeed,  one  of  the  noblest  anywhere  to 
be  met  with :  it  is  of  large  dimensions, 
and  is  adorned  with  pillars,  and  with 
sculptures  emblematical  of  commerce 
and  navigation.  Above  13,000  piles 
are  said  to  have  been  employed  in  form- 
ing its  foundation.  The  harbour  is  in- 
convenient, large  ships  being  obliged  to 
lighten  before  they  can  pass  the  Pam- 
pus  or  bar  at  the  mouth  of  the  Y,  and  the  navigation  of  the  Zuyder  Zee  is  also  diflicult.  To 
remedy  these  inconveniences,  the  large  canal  to  the  Holder,  already  alluded  to,  has  been 
constructed.  The  trade  of  Amsterdam  has  increased  considerably  within  the  last  few  ^  oars; 
and  about  2200  ships  now  annually  clear  out  for  foreign  countries.  None  of  the  water  from 
the  canals  is  made  use  of  for  culinary  purposes;  the  town  being  supplied  with  fresh  water, 
convoyed  in  carts  from  the  Vecht,  alxjut  five  or  six  miles  distant ;  but  most  of  the  houses 
Imvo  cisterns,  \\liore  the  rain-water  is  collected.  There  is  o  national  museum  of  pictures, 
which  contains  many  fine  specimens  of  the  Dutch  school.  The  various  prisons  and  houses 
of  rorrcction  and  industry  at  Amsterdam  are  said  to  be  managed  on  more  approved  princi- 
ples tliiin  siimilar  .'nstitutions  in  most  parts  of  Europe.  The  police  is  excellent;  crimes  rare ; 
and  no  beggars  to  be  seen  in  the  streets.  The  inhabitants  seem  vigorous  and  healthy ;  but 
the  mortality,  though  materially  diminished  within  the  last  tliirty  or  forty  years,  is  still  greater 


Stailt-Houao,  Annsterdani. 


t% 


"ART  ni. 

re  it  has 
lumerous 
jnormous 
idttte  the 
rcely  any 
'  use  and 
the  popu- 

ituated  at 
>.  It  was 
n  in  the 
but  it  was 
enth  cen- 
rsecutions 
I  Belgium 
trade  and 
■rp  and  the 
that  Am- 

0  the  dis- 
e  enjoyed 
>  of  the  last 
:   the  first 
iinary  pro 
ilers,  as  on 
ligion,  was 
yinent,  the 
lublic  insti- 
industrv  in 
itively  free, 
inhabitants; 
,  marsh,  the 
house  costs 
h  other,  and 
uses;  many 
,    The  city 

1  and  having 
for  the  iiioet 
rder,  and  in 

and  perse- 
works  and 
the  waters, 
tliem,  con- 
The  stadt;- 
oya)  palace, 
:ity ;  and  is, 
iny  where  to 
dimensions, 
and  with 
commerce 
3,r)00  piles 
yed  in  form- 
rbour  is  in- 
,  obliged  to 
IS  the  Pam- 
ifficult.    To 
to,  has  been 
few  _,  oars ; 
water  from 
fresh  water, 
the  houses 
of  pictures, 
and  houses 
)vcd  princi- 
rimcs  rare ; 
ealthy;  but 
still  greater 


Book  I. 


HOLLAND  AND  BELGIUM. 


fil8 


than  in  most  Eurojjoan  cities ;  a  consequence,  probably,  of  the  humidity  of  the  climate,  and 
of  the  effluvia  arising,  in  summer,  from  the  canals. 

Rotterdam  (Jff.  302.),  the  second  city  in  Holland,  is  more  conveniently  situated  for  com- 
merce than  Amsterdam,  having  a  readier  access  to  the  sea ;  and  the  Maese  on  wiiich  it  is 
situated,  being  so  very  deep  as  to  admit  vessels  of  the  largest  draught  of  water  to  lie  close 


Rolterdani. 


Butua  of  Eraimiu. 


ui  the  quays.  Its  commerce  is  rapidly  increasing.  Its  principal  exports  are  geneva  and 
madder ;  and  it  carries  on  the  busmess  of  sugar-refining  on  a  large  scale.  It  has  all  the 
characteristics  of  a  Dutch  town ;  being  neat,  clean,  uniform ;  the  houses  high,  and  built  of 

very  small  bricks.  The  canals  inter- 
""*  — -  secting  it  are  numerous,  deep,  and, 

unless  in  a  few  of  iHd  most  crowded 
streets,  connected  by  draw-bridges. 
R  jtterdam  boasts  of  being  the  birth- 
place of  Erasmus;  to  perpetuate 
whoso  memory,  she  iius  erected  a 
handsome  statue  {fg.  363.). 

The  Hague  (Jff.  364.),  though 
ranking  only  as  a  village,  is,  in  fact, 
one  of  the  handsomest  cities  in  Eu- 
rope. The  streets  and  squares  are  well  built,  bordered  with  fine  walks  and  avenues  of  trees. 
Neither  the  old  nor  the  new  palace  can  boast  of  any  splendid  architecture ;  but  the  former 
is  large,  and  contains  some  valuable  collections.  An  avenue  of  two  miles  leads  to  the  neat 
fishing  town  of  Scheveling,  whence  the  dealers  are  daily  seen  bringing  their  commodities 


The  Flague. 


365 


Leyden. 


in  little  carts  drawn  by  large  dogs. 
Leyden  {fig.  365.)  is  a  fine  old  city, 
situated  in  the  heart  of  the  Rhine- 
land,  where  this  ancient  bed  of  the 
river  is  cut  into  an  infinity  of  canals, 
which  render  this  the  richest  mea- 
dow land  of  Holland.  The  beer, 
the  butter,  and  the  bread  of  this  dis- 
trict are  hold  in  ttio  highest  estima- 
tion. Leyden,  during  the  war  with 
Spain,  was  the  most  important  city 
in  Holland,  and  on  the  t  vent  of  its 
siege  the  fate  of  that  country  was 
supposed  to  depend.  The  Spaniards, 
by  a  lengthened  and  strict  blockade, 
reduced  it  to  the  last  extremity ;  while  the  Dutch  could  muster  no  force  adequate  to  its 
relief.  It  was  then  that  they  formed  the  magnanimous  resolution  of  breaking  down  their 
(likes,  and  admitting  the  ocean.  It  was  some  time  before  the  fiill  effect  was  produced ;  but 
at  length,  impelled  by  a  violent  wind,  the  sea  rushed  in,  overwhelmed  all  the  works  of  the 
besiegers,  and  forced  them  to  a  precipitate  flight.  The  little  fleet  of  boats  which  had  been 
jireparod  for  the  relief  of  Leyden,  immediately  sailed  over  tlie  newly  formed  expanse,  and 
triunipiiantly  entered  the  city.  The  Prince  of  Orange  offered  to  Leyden  tlic  option  of  two 
l)en('lits, — an  immunity  from  taxes  for  a  certain  period,  or  tiie  foundation  of  a  university  in 
the  city.  The  citizens  crowned  their  former  glory  by  choosing  the  latter  alternative,  and 
a  university  was  accordingly  founded,  which  speedily  became  one  of  the  most  eminent  Hcliools 
in  Europe ;  and,  thoiigli  much  injured  by  the  numerous  rivals  which  have  since  sprung  up,, 
it  continues  to  iniiintnin  a  high  reputation,  particularly  as  a  classical  school.  Leyden  is  still 
a  liaiulsonie  and  flourishing  town ;  carries  on  the  woollen  manufacture  with  success,  though 
on  a  diminished  scale;  and  is  a  great  market  for  butter  and  cheese.  Haarlem  (Jig.  366.)  is 
another  city  of  ancient  importance.  In  the  great  struggle  for  independence,  it  stood  a 
Vol.  I.  3  P 


I 

m 


.  ,  .li:! 


i'i 


'■ 

1  ■  :•■ 

;  '   ■'■•■■ 

•      '•    -JB" 


j 


14 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


'!1 


267 


mcmorablo  sicgo  of  seven  months;  when  it  surrendered  upon  honourable  terms,  wliicli  woie 
basely  violuted  by  the  Duke  of  Alva.  Haarlem  is  still  spacious  mid  flourii-liiMg:,  and  excels 
peculiarly  in  tiic  blcachin(^  of  linen  and  cambric,  which  it  portbrms  for  uU  the  iu-iglil)ourin^r 

provinces.  The  matchless 
and  brilliant  whiteness  of  the 
Haarlem  linos  has  been  im- 
puted to  a  peculiar  quality  in 
the  water,  but  is  more  pro- 
bablj  the  result  of  the  ex- 
treme skill  of  the  inhabitants, 
acquired  by  long  practice. 
Flowers  arc  principally  raised 
for  sale  in  the  vicinity  of  Haar- 
lem. Delfl,  an  ancient  gloomy 
"»"''""'•  town,  was  formerly  celebrated 

for  the  manu&cture  of  the  ware  which  bears  its  name ;  but  this,  as  already  observed,  has 
been  almos:  entirely  supplanted  by  English  earthenware.  Dort  or  Dordrecht,  enclosed  by 
branches  of  '.ho  Maese,  was  the  ancient  capital  of  Holland,  while  the  main  conunorcc  of  that 
country  cor.tiiuud  to  centre  in  this  its  most  natural  quarter.  It  still  rot^iiiis  very  considera- 
ble traces  of  this  early  imiwrtance.  The  town-hall  and  great  church  arc  inagniticent  struc- 
tures. There  is  a  considerable  trade  in  goods  coming  down  the  Rhine,  particularly  floats  of 
timber,  so  largo  that  one  of  them  has  been  valued  at  350,0(K)  florins.  Gouda  is  a  large 
flourishin;;  village,  in  a  rich  country,  and  carries  on  an  extensive  manufactory  of  tobacco- 
pipes.     It  is  celebrated  for  the  excellence  of  its  cheese. 

North  Holland  forms  a  considerable  peninsula,  almost  entirely  encircled  by  the  Zuyder 
Zee  and  the  North  Sea,  and  Ijordercd  by  sand-hills  of  Bome  elevation ;  but  the  interior  is 
covered  with  rich  pastures,  on  which  are  fed  large  herds  of  cattle.  The  ancient  and  not 
ungraceful  costumes  (fff.  207.)  of  the  Dutch  peasantry  arc  preserved  with  greater  exact- 
ness in  this  sequestered  part  of  Holland, 
than  in  any  otlior;  and  the  fishery,  for 
which  their  situation  is  peculiarly  adapted, 
is  carried  on  with  great  activity.  Alk- 
maar  is  an  agreeable  town,  with  a  yreat 
traffic  in  butter  and  chee.se,  and  a  manu- 
facture of  nets.  The  most  important 
places  in  North  Holland  are  the  Hi^ldei- 
and  the  Texel,  two  grand  naval  .sti.tions; 
the  one  a  stron,fj  fort,  commanding  tlic 
entrance  of  the  Zuyder  Z<,'e;  tlic  otiicran 
island  oppf)sito,  in  which  the  Dutch  fleets 
us(!d  to  rendezvous,  from  tlio  facility  it 
afforded  for  their  getting  to  sea.  Along  the  coast  of  the  Zuyder  Zoo  are  tlie  considerable 
towns  of  I  loom  and  Enkhuison,  and  the  smaller  ones  of  Edam  and  I'urmorend. 

Zealand  is  a  region  more  conii)lotely  enclo.sed  by,  and  sunk  below,  the  level  of  the  water, 
timn  any  otlier  part  of  the  United  Provinces.  It  consists  of  nine  islands,  formed  and  envi- 
roned by  branches  of  the  Marse  and  the  Scheldt,  as,  passing  from  the  state  of  rivers  into  fritlis, 
they  unite  with  the  ocean.  Tlie  mariner,  in  approacliing,  sees  only  points  of  the  spires 
peeping  above  the  innnonse  dikes  which  defend  them  from  inundation.  The  soil  is  moist 
and  rich,  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  madder.  Tlie  damp  air,  however,  and  the 
exhalations  from  the  wati-rs,  render  thef^e  islands  imheaithy,  and  even  fatal  to  foreigners,  as 
was  dreadfully  experienced  by  the  British  troops  while  (piartored  at  Walchoren ;  but  the 
natives  do  not  experience  the  .same  pernicious  elll'Cts.  Jliddlehiirg  is  a  eonsiderable  city, 
'.vith  a  to\vn-ha!l  and  several  clinrclies,  which  atllird  fine  specimens  of  Gothic  nrcliitccture. 
Flushing  is  an  eminent  nava!  station,  and  has  a  ciinsiderablo  tradi;  and  fishery.  The  island 
of  Schowen  has  Zlerikzeo,  the  ancient  capital  of  the  counts  of  Zealand;  and  South  Beve- 
land  has  Goes,  or  Terijoes,  with  a  consideralde  trade  in  siilt. 

Utrecht,  a  more  inland  province  thin  Holland,  forms  a  continuation  of  the  same  tract  of 
fiat  meadow  land,  interspersed  uitli  gardens  and  country  residences.  Utrecht,  the  capital, 
is  a  remarkably  ajireeable  city,  and  hcmix  a  little  elevated,  the  view  from  its  ramparts  and  the 
top  of  its  cnthedral  over  the  vast  plains  and  broad  waters  of  Holland  is  extensive  and  de- 
lightful. The  Romans  called  it  Ulpii  Trajectum,  as  conunanding  an  important  passage  over 
the  Rhine;  and  in  the  middle  aijes  it  was  held  by  the  warlike  bishops  of  Utrecht.  In  this 
city  was  concluded  the  treaty  of  conf 'deration,  in  l.")97,  by  which  the  United  Provinces 
were  constituted,  and  also  the  celebrated  treaty  of  171.'),  which  terminated  the  long  war  of 
the  Spanish  succession.  Amersfoort,  pleasantly  situated  on  the  Ems,  and  noted  as  the 
birth-place  of  Barncvoldt,  has  considerable  fabrics  of  dimity  and  bombazeen,  and  cxtensivn 


Ptanantry  in  Mulland. 


Part  III. 

hicli  wciP 
and  excels 
ijrlibonrin^' 

matchlfsH 
ncBS  of  tlU! 
.s  bocii  iin- 
r  (luality  in 

more  pro- 
of the  ex- 
inlmbitauts, 
g    practice, 
ipally  raised 
lity  of  Ilaar- 
icnt  gloomy 
y  celebrated 
bservcd,  lias 
enclosed  by 
ii.Tcc  of  that 
•y  conHidora- 
iticent  struc- 
xrly  floats  of 
a  is  a  large 
^  of  tobaccQ- 

r  the  Zuyder 
ic  interior  is 
ient  and  not 
reater  cxact- 
t  of  Holland, 
!  fishery,  for 
iurly  adapted, 
;tivity,     Alk- 
,  wllii  a  jiroat 
,  and  a  nitmu- 
)st  iniportunt 
[e  the  Holder 
nviil  sli.tions; 
iniandiiiir  the 
the  otlii-ran 
Dutch  fleets 
the  facility  it 
conaidcrablo 


f  the  water, 
nod  and  cnvi- 
ers  into  fritiis, 
of  the  spires 
soil  is  inoir^t 
ever,  and  the 

)rei<,'ners,  as 

en ;  but  the 
iderablc  city, 

rchiteeture. 
Tlio  island 

South  Beve- 


Roou  T. 


HOLLAND  AND  BELGIUM. 


U6 


s;une  tract  of 
it,  the  capital, 
[iparts  and  the 
nsivo  and  de- 

passaije  over 
Rcht.  In  this 
ted  Provinces 
e  lonff  war  of 

noted  as  the 
and  cxtensivfi 


bleaching  grounds.     Naorden,  a  small  town,  forms  the  key  of  all  tlie  water  communications 
of  Holland. 

North  Bralmnt,  comprising  that  which  was  the  Dutch  part  of  the  province,  is  a  flat,  sandy, 
marshy  tract,  not  distinguished  by  either  the  natural  fertility  or  manufacturing  industry  so 
conspicuous  in  the  rest  of  Flolland  and  Belgium.  Forming,  however,  the  barrier  by  which 
the  Dutch  maintained  their  independence,  it  contains  several  of  the  strongest  fortresses  in 
Kiirope,  which  have  indtx^d  the  reputation  of  being  almost  impregnable.  Breda  is  one  of 
t!io  most  conspicuous.  Alter  Prince  Maurice  of  Nassau  took  it  by  surprise,  in  1.090,  ila 
tbrtifications  were  greatly  e.vtrnded,  and  the  surrounding  country,  being  intersected  by 
rivers  and  marshoi?,  can  be  laid  under  water.  It  is  an  agreeable  city,  commanding  from  the 
ramparts  a  fine  view,  and  both  its  church  and  its  town-hall  are  admired  Gothic  edifices, 
IJois  lu  Due,  or  Herzogenbosch,  on  the  Domrael,  so  named  from  an  old  hanting-wood  of  the 
Dukes  of  Brabant,  is  a  large  town,  and  iMiually  strong.  It  is  so  intersected  by  canals,  that 
eighty  bridges  are  required  to  cross  them;  in  winter  the  place  is  entirely  surrounded  by 
water,  and  can  be  approached  only  in  boats.  Bergcn-op-Zoom,  flirther  to  the  west,  is  similar 
as  to  strength,  and  was  esteemed  tlie  masterpiece  of  the  celebrated  Cohom.  The  disastrouM 
attack  made  upon  it  by  the  British  in  the  last  war  is  well  remembered. 

The  outer  provinces  of  Guclderland,  Friesland,  Overyssel,  Drenthe,  and  Groninffcn, 
which  lie  between  the  Zuyder  Zee  and  tlie  Ems,  are  ratlier  appendages  than  integral  portions 
of  Holland,  and  form  by  their  situation  part  of  the  great  level  plain  of  northern  Germany. 
The  country  is  similar  to  Holland,  however,  in  its  aspect  and  the  general  state  of  cultiva- 
tion, though  a  somewhat  greater  proportion  of  the  land  is  employed  in  the  raising  of  grain. 
Friesland,  has  a  ver^  fine  breed  of  horses  and  horned  cattle ;  and  the  linen  manufacture 
flourishes  to  a  considerable  extent.  In  these  provinces,  particularly  in  Guelderland  and 
Overyssel,  there  is  a  large  extent  of  sandy  and  marshy  ground,  which  is  not  forced  into  cul- 
tivation with  the  same  minute  care,  as  in  the  central  provinces.  Much  benefit,  however,  is 
expected  from  the  pauper  colonies  lately  established  there. 

The  towns  of  this  region  are  pretty  numerous  and  considerable,  though  none  are  of  the 
first  class.  Nimcguen,  in  Guelderland,  is  ancient,  strong,  and  handsome,  commanding  a 
noble  view  over  tlie  Rhine.  Zutphen  is  an  old  imperial  city,  dreadfully  pillaged  in  1-572  by 
the  Duke  of  Alva.  It  has  a  magnificent  church ;  and  the  fens  around  it  have  been  so  com- 
pletely drained,  as  to  render  the  air  no  longer  unwholesome.  Arnheim  is  a  large  and  beau- 
tiful town,  at  the  foot  of  the  hills  of  Veluwe,  and  forming  a  great  thoroughfare  into  Ger- 
many. Deventer,  in  Overyssel,  is  an  ancient  member  of  the  Hanseatic  league,  and  has  a 
venerable  catliedral.  Zwoll,  on  the  Ysscl,  is  strong,  large,  and  well  built.  Asson,  though 
capital  of  the  new  province  of  Drenthe,  is  only  a  village.  In  Friesland,  Leuwarden,  on 
the  Ee,  is  a  largo  and  populous  town,  in  a  country  surrounded  and  intersected  with  canals, 
which  enable  it  to  communicate  with  the  sea,  and  to  carry  on  a  considerable  trade.  Cam- 
pen,  an  ancient  Hanse  town,  has  lost  its  importance,  the  harbour  being  now  choked  up. 
Harliiigon,  Franeker,  Dokkum,  Bolswaru,  are  ports  on  the  Zuyder  Zee,  and  manufacturing 
places  of  some  importance.  Groningen,  capital  of  the  provinces  of  th  same  name,  is  the 
most  important  of  all  the  towns  east  of  the  Zuyder  Zee.  It  is  well  b  It,  and  adorned  with 
noble  edifices ;  and  its  university  was  once  distinguished  among  D'  ii  seminaries.  Large 
vessels  can  ascend  the  Iluiise  from  the  Zuyder  Zee. 

Luxemburg,  an  extensive  province,  though  political  revolutions  attached  it  to  the  Nether- 
lands, and  now  to  Holland,  forms  part  of  Germany,  entitling  the  king  to  a  vote  in  tlie  Ger- 
manic diet.  Its  character  is  every  way  in  decided  contrast  to  the  rest  of  Holland  and  Bel- 
gium. Instead  of  a  dead,  rich  flat,  traversed  by  navigable  stream.*  and  canals,  Luxemburg 
presents  almost  throughout  high  mountains  and  woods,  formhig  scenes  of  savage  grandeur, 
similar,  though  on  a  smaller  scale,  to  those  of  Switzerland.  The  country  is  destitute  of 
water  communications,  is  imperfectly  cultivated,  and  does  not  contain  a  population  of  more 
than  sixty-six  to  the  square  mile.  Its  breeds  of  cattle  and  sheep  are  of  smal.  size;  but,  as 
usual  in  mountain  pa.stures,  of  delicate  Pv/our.  The  horses  arc  active  and  hardy  ;  and  the 
tract  which  borders  on  the  Moselle  pi!->duces  valuable  wine. 

The  cities  and  towns  are  by  no  means  on  the  same  scale  as  those  in  the  rest  of  tlio  king- 
dom. Luxemburg,  the  capital,  situated  on  two  rocks,  whose  steep  .sides  form  a  glacis,  while 
the  river  Else,  at  their  feet,  serves  as  a  wet  ditch,  is  one  of  the  strongest  fortresses  in 
Europe.  The  horse  and  cattle  markets  are  considerable.  Theux  has  in  its  neighbourhooil 
mines  of  a  beautiful  black  marble.  Macstricht,  the  principal  town  of  Limburg,  has,  along 
with  all  the  part  of  that  province  east  of  the  Meuse,  been  assigned  to  Holland  It  is  large, 
handsome,  and  well  fortified.  Ruremonde  and  Venlo,  also  neat  towns  of  some  strength,  arc 
included  in  the  same  district. 


m. 


I  ::,'■ 


;   ';  I; 


il 


■  .  !■■  Hi 


k     ■  ;•     ' 
)i  ■    .  ■  ,  ■ 

■I  ■.'■■■  ■ 


!     (, 


mih 


MAP  OF  FRANCE— WBVT  past. 


Fio.  St». 


1!^ 


,  ii.  ,  I 


1    \ 

It 


ri  :■'!!!  i 


*':^ 


,!>:! 


-I' 

'if' 


EofltabMil' 


S  I<on(itudc  W«st  4  from  Oratawleh 


i  longitude  East 


Fia.  200. 


iT 


*    \. 


'.8 


N         E 


111/.  '5'Vv       < 


I  Lonfiluile  IHitX 


Fitt.  269. 


MAP  OF  FRANCE— EAwr  paet. 


517 


Vol.  I. 


'  E<it     f  fiom  Greeiiwlcli  I 

44 


■    i 


I 


1 

1  ; 
i  , 

1    '  .!! 

1 1 

'  'I VI..'  .    . 


■.'<"t>'  ;■  fll 


'H  ^  n4 


.(J 

I 


41S 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


pAiTin, 


PH^ii 


CHAPTER  VllL 


FRANCE. 

Francr  ia  1  ffreat  and  powcrfbl  kingdom,  placi><l,  oh  it  worn,  in  the  centre  of  the  civi- 
-lized  world,  and  for  several  conturiea  di>itin(;iii8hcd  by  the  conspicuouB  part  which  it  hao 
acted  on  the  theatre  of  Europe.  Its  i)opiiliition,  military  power,  reiitral  situation,  vast  re- 
sources, and  active  industry,  render  it  peculiarly  duserving  of  an  attentive  survey. 


Referencet  to  the  Map  of  France — IVVrt  Pari. 


NOllTII  PART.   m. 


Pif 


Pnivincp  nf 

ABTDIfl. 

IltpartmtKt  of 

I.  Hirait  ijrCalail. 

(t'udaOulau.) 

I.  r'alair 

3.  Iliiuliiiiiic 
J.  Hanu*r 

4.  Muntruuil 

'rovincp  of 

'icARDY. 

Jiepartment  of 

II.  Hiininie. 

.1.  Cictir 

li.  Ru» 

7.  HI.  Vallery 

K  .\bhevillu 

U.  Airainei 

Province  ofthfl 

I.  OP  KBANCE. 

Departnentt. 

III.  Cue 

IV.  Sviiie  anil  One. 
1U.  Gianilvillera 
ll.tii.rinir 

Jj.  Meulon 

13.  jtainhuuillct 

14.  Ilouilan 

15.  Mantua 

Prnvincf.  of 
NOKMANny. 
/)rpartments. 
V.  tiiiwer  Heine 
VI.  Euro 
VI!.  Orne 
VIII.  C«,va(loa 
IX.  The  Channel. 
(La  .Munchc.) 

16.  Vemon 

17.  Ancleloya 
IH.  (Journay 
19.  Neufchtttel 
-iO.  Hlnngii 
■i\.  Eu 

'.ti.  Dieitpfl 

■a.  Si.  Valery 

41.  Fecamp 

^£>.  Havre  do  Grace 

■m.  R.ilb«c 

tVveioi 
Rouen 
W.  Elbiruf 
'M.  I.iiuviera 
'M.  Kriitnne 
'.H,  Punt  Aiidcmer 
;n.  Punt  r  Eveque 
:M.  Liiieiix 
ai.  Caen 
'3C.,  Sayeux 

37.  Iiiiny 

38.  8U  Ln 

39.  (Tarentiin 

40.  Valniinei 

41.  niirllHUt 
43.  Chi'rliDUrg 
4:i.  I  .t!8  Pioiix 
41.  Diirnevillo 
4."».  I  'reaiice 
411.  Cdiitaiicei 
47.  (iruiiville 
4H.  Villodieu 
4!l.  Viro 

M.  Thi.riany 
."il.  Si.fttirmnin 
ii.  Piint  d'Ouilly 
.'>'1.  Fuluue 
M.  Areentan 
M.  Giico 
5«.  Orliec 
57.  Ilernay 
.18.  RukIi  ■ 
50.  Kvreux 


,    Ij  Aiilo 
fl:i,  MiiriBRne 
04.  Ilek'iniu 
m.  Alonrun 
lit).  Dunil'iiinl 
117.  Tinnhi  lirny 
AH.  Miiituin 
lU).  Avraiichci 
70.  Ponlurion 

Provincfl  of 

brei'agne. 

Vtpvrlmtnts. 
X.  Ill*  and  Vi- 

laino 
XI.  North  Cnait 
XII.  Finiiii'iri) 

XIII.  Moth.lwn 

XIV.  Luwor  Loire 

71.  Anirain 
74.  St.  Mulo 

73.  Dinan 

74.  Su  Urieux 

75.  Ouingamp 
7A.  Painipoi 

77.  I.annion 

78.  Bella  lie 
7^1.  Morlaix 

80.  Lannilii 

81.  Breal 

82.  Landemeau 
Kl.  Chnleaulln 
84.  Andjeniu 
KV  Qiiiinper 
8H.  Unimperle 

87.  Gourin 

88.  Cnrhnix 

89.  Roalruui^n 
110.  Uzcl 

01.  Loudeuc 

113.  Bruona 
03.  Montfort 
U4. Iledo 
95.  Roimon 
911.  St.  Auliin 

97.  Foufi-refi 

98.  Vilre 

99.  La  Guerche 
100.  Chateaubriant 
iOI.  Oervin 

|IK2.  f  ^arentuiro 
10:1.  Rrtlon 

104.  Mulotroit 

105.  Plocrmcl 
100.  Band 

107.  Poiilivy 

108.  Hi'nni'iKin 
lUil.  L'Oricnl 

1 10.  Vannes 

111.  Roche-Bernard 

112.  Niizay 

1 1:1.  Ancenit 

114.  Nantei 
il5.  Siivenay 

1 10.  Guerrande 

117.  Paimbffluf 

118.  BourKneur 

119.  Clinon 

Province  of 
AN,IOU. 

Department  of 


Pepartment:!. 
XVI.  Mayenne 
XVII.  SaiUiii. 

139.  Craon 

130.  Chateau  Gun- 

tier 

131.  Sable 
i:«.  La  Fleche 
133.  Chateau  do 

Loir 
1.14.  Si.Calnii 
135.  Id  Nana 

i:w.  Viiiiui 

1:17.  Laval 
Kt8.  Joviino 
130.  Mayenno 

140.  Ebriin 

141.  Pret  en  Pail 
143.  Frenay 

143.  MaiiD-ii 

144.  La  Ferie  Ber- 

nard 

145.  MoDtmirail 


XXV.  Vendeo. 

184.  Ln  Riu'he 

Poaay 

185.  Chniollcraull 
I8n.  Louilun 

187.  MuMConlour 

188.  Thuuam 
1K1.  Breiaure 
100.  Chaiillon  lur 

Sevre 

191.  Pouiange 

103.  Muiituimi 

IWI.  Beaiivoir 

IM.  Bi.  (}illei  lur 
Vie 

rnVSableid'Olonne 

I9A.  Tiilmonl 

197.  Bourbon-Ven- 
dee 

Ite.  Lucon 

199  Fonlcnny 

300.  rMiaiaiKiiernyo 

301.  Piirlheimy 
303.  Vivoiine 
301.  Poiliiira 
301.  St.  Savin 
30.'i.  Mttiitmorillon 


33.  ITierche 

34.  i'reiinac 
;|5.  Tulle 
30.  Turenne 
37.  Doniunac 


Province  of 
UIJIRNNE. 


Depa 
/[.  Li 
II.  Ti 


artmnli, 

lOt 


Pmvinro  of 

ORLEANA1S. 

Dcparttntntt, 

XVIII.  Euro  at.d 
Loir 

XIX.  Loiret 

XX.  Loir  and  Cher.  jj„  M„„.,,„ 
148.  Rrou  311.  Sauie 

147.  Nugent  lo  Ro- 

trou 


3lM.  L'Ulu  Juiitdain  40;  M„|*c 


am  and  Ga 
roniui 
VIII.  Lot  and  Ga- 
ronne 
IX.  Donlovno 
X.  Bordeaux 
;iH.  Thivlere 
:i9.  Noniron 

40.  Ilrantoine 

41.  Peiiiueux 
43.  Maruuil 

43.  Hibernc 

44.  Muridan 

45.  Libuurnn 

46.  Couliui 

47.  Blaye 

48.  Bourg 


IOI.  Air* 

103  Mont  de  Marmn 

111:1.  HI.  Sever 

104.  Monfurl 

IILV  Dux 

1011.  St.  Vincent 

107.  reyrehorade 

\t*<.  St.  F.>pru 

109.  Itnyoiiim 

110.  81.  Jean  Pled  dn 

Purl 

111.  Mauloun 
113  nierun 

113.  Navnrreini 

114.  OMhii 

115.  <iarlin 

116.  Pau 

117.  Arudl 
liaNoi 

Province  of 

BEARN  AND 

FOIX. 


307. 1'ivray 
308.  Melle 
3U).  Nioit 


XIV.  Upper  Pyre 

nee* 
XV.  Article 
llO.TarliM 
130.  Arielln* 
181.  Lux 
.52.  La.Teludu  Buch  133.  Bngnorc* 
.VI.  Le'Barp  13.').  Sairunculin 


•50.  Lei|)urro 
51.  Caiitelnau 


I4R.  Allien 
140.  Dteiix 
l.V>.  Maintcnon 
15l.rharlrea 
153.  Boniioval 
LW  Toury 

1.54.  Arlenay 

1.55.  I^bnleaudiin 
156.  Monilnubleau 
1.57.  Vondoieo 
158.  nioia 

1.59.  Melun 
lliO.  Orlcani 
161.  CoSHon 
i&l.  Chamliord 
Ityl.  Roinoranlin 

164.  Sl.Aiiinan 

165.  Chauinunt 

Province  of 

TOURAINE. 

DeparttneHt  of 

XXI.  Imlre  aiiu 

Loire. 

106.  Chateau  Rng- 

nault 

167.  Tovra 

168.  Stivigne 
160.  Langeaia 
170.  Chinnn 
m.Lallaye 
173.  Monibaxon 

173.  I.Achea 

174.  Reauliuu 

Province  of 

BRKRI. 

Drvnrtment  of 

XXII.  Iiidre. 


XV.  Mayoniw  and   1''5.  Chaiillon  »ur 


fiO.  ivry 
Bl.  Verr 


erneuil 


Loire. 

130.  Beaupreau 

131.  i;hollel 
133.  Chalonne 
12:1.  Vihim 
124.  S.'inniur 
125  Bauirc 
1-26.  AiiKcni 
137.  Intfrande 
128.  Sugrc 

Province  of 

MAINE  AND 

PERCH  E. 


Indre 

176.  l.evroux 

177.  Valencoy 

178.  Valan 

179.  Chaleauronx 

180.  L*  Chatro 

181.  Affrcnton 

182.  St.  Benoit 

183.  Le  Ulanc 

Province  of 

POITOU. 

Departments. 

XXIir  Vienna 

XXIV.  Two  Sevrei 


SOUTH  PAll'l. 

Province  of 
BAINTONGK 
AND    AUNI8. 
Department  of 

I.  LowerCharunto. 
1.  Marana 

3.  La  Rochelle 
3.  Itochefort 
I.  St.  Jean  d'An- 
»ely 

5.  Sninlea 

6.  Marennea 

7.  Royan 

8.  Poni 

9.  Jonzuc 

10.  Mirtiiiibeau 

II.  Munlieu 

Province  of 

ANGOUMOIS. 

Department  of 

II.  Charento 

13.  Aiibeterre 

13.  Borbezieux 

14.  (.-ognuc 
1.5.  Angouteme 

16.  La  Rochefou- 

cauld 

17.  Manilo 

18.  Ruflec 

19  Uunfulcn* 

Province*  of 

MARCHE  AND 

LIMOUSIN. 

Departments. 

III.  Upper  Vienno 

IV.  Coriuxo 
V.  Creuao. 

20.  li'illnc 
SI.  Ln  Dnrnt 

32.  SdUlerraino 
3:1.  (ioi'ri;t 

34.  Boiirganeilf 

35.  Kyiiionliara 

36.  St.  Leonard 
27.  LiinogcH 
38.  St.  Jdiiicn 
3<l.  Rnciiecliouart 
30.  C'linlua 
ai.St.Yrieix 

33.  Pierre  BulBero 


.54.  Cailrea 
.55.  Bordeaux 
511.  Creon 
.57.  Lilteolln 
.58.  Mnrmarido 
.59.  (Taitilloncz 

60.  Beraerao 

61.  La  Lindp 
63.  Miremont 

63.  Surlnl 

64.  Oomme 
6.5.  Catui 

66.  (iourdnn 

67.  Marlel 

68.  St.  Cere 

69.  Figeac 

70.  Concula 
7I.St.  Antonin 

72.  Cahori 

73.  Cttuuado 

74.  Moniauban 
7.5,  Verdun 

76.  ('aitelaarasin 

77.  MoImic 

78.  5Ioncuq 

79.  Fiiniel 

80.  Villuneuve- 

d'Agcn 

81.  A gen 

82.  Nerao 
Kt.  I'aiit'l-Gcloux 

84.  Bazni 

85,  Caplieux 

Province  of 
GAHCONY. 
1>epartmtntt. 
XI,  Landea 
XII,  Luwei  Py- 

renecB 
XIII.  Rcri. 

86.  Sore 

87.  Murat 

88.  Miioizfin 

89.  La  Boiiliere 
00.  Rmiucfort 
91.  Eiiuze 
93.  Ivuiidom 

93.  Irfjcuinro 

94.  Fleiiranco 
{)5.  Igle  en  Ji  urdain 
116.  Luinbvx 
97.  Auch 

08.  Miranda 

09,  Vic  Ferenzac 
100,  Nugaio 


134.  Baunerea  du 

Luc  bun 
12,5,  St.Giroiii 

136,  Taraacun 

137,  Ax 

138,  Puix 
130.  Paniiets 

Province  of 
LANGUEDOC 
Departmentt. 
XVI.  Upper  Ga- 
ronne 
XVII,  Tarn, 

130.  Caitelnaudaty 

131.  Villefranche 
1.13.  Lavaur 
1:0.  St.  Bulpicc 
134.  Grenaile 
1:1.5.  Tuuluube 
i:i6.  St,  Lya 

137.  Murot 

138.  Rieuz 

139.  Cazerei 

140.  St.Gaudcna 

141.  St.  Beat 

Rivers. 
a  Seine 
b  Dive* 
c  Oure 
d  Vira 
e  OuRt 
f  Vilnino 
f  Lfiire 
h  Mayenne 
i  Sartbe 

i  Loire 
Beaiivron 
I    Le  Clier 
mlndro 
n  Creuso 

0  Vienne 

p  Cbareote 
q  Dfoniie 
r  lalo 

a  Dordogne 
t  Veiore 
u  Lot 
V  Garonne 
w  Aveyrop 
X  Tarn 
jr  Adour 

1  GsvedaPau 


\ 


Paitih. 


•e  of  the  civi- 
which  it  han 
ition,  vost  re- 
vey. 


m.  Aire       „ 
(K  MimlcleMitranii 
IKt.  Hi.  Snvi't 
(M.  Monfurl 

m.  I  lux 

ml.  Si.  Vinrfnt 
U7.  riyiiihiiiaJe 
tie.  Hi.  tUpnl 
UtI.  lUymmii      ,  , 
lU.  Bl.  Jcnn  Piml  dn 

Pcirl 
II.  Mnuloun 
ll-j  Olurun 
III).  Nnvnrreini 

114.  Oriliii 

115.  (inilin 
IIH.  Pau 
117.  Aiuill 
liaNu 

Prnvinro  of 
IIEARN  AND 

FOIX. 
nnartmentl. 
XIV.  Upper  Pyta 

IIHM 

XV.  Ariicoe 
lig.TmliM 
1!».  Ar|i!il<« 
I'il.  I.iit 
I'M.  BngmirM . 
l!2.'l.  BAirunculin 
Vii.  Ilauni'rin  du 

Lui'hiin 
I'i.'i.  Bl.Ciroim 
l*i.  'I'uiucun 
vn.  An 
VW.  Foiii 
131).  Paniieis 


Province  of 

LANOUK.nOC 
pepnrlmmti. 

XVI.  Upp«r  Ga- 
ronne 
XVII.  Tarn, 
ino.  Caitelnaudn; 
131.  Villul'rancho 

K.  Iiavaur 

:i3.  8i.  Suluinc 

34.  (ircnaile 

m.  Touluiike 
.:«).  St.  Lya 

T7.  Murot 
inx.  Riiiuz 

139.  Cal^rra 

140.  Si.  Gnudcns 
Ul.  St.  Beat 


Rivers. 
n  f*Rino 
b  Ili<ea 
r,  Oure 
d  Vire 
e  Ouat 
r  Vilnine 

Klioire 
Mayiinne 
Baiihe 

iLuiro 
Heaiivron 
1    l«  Cliet 
mlndro 
n  CrouBO 

0  Vienne 

p  (.'harenlo 
q  n^uiiiie 
7  klo 
a  Pordoitne 

1  Veiore 

U  liUt 

V  (laronne 
w  Aveyron 
X  Tarn 
y  Adout    _ 
aOBvedaPau 


Boor  I. 


PRANCE. 


SIO 


Sbot.  J.—Oeneral  Outline  and  Atpcrt. 
Franco  w  bounJod  m  Iho  North  liy  tiin  Cimnnul,  wliicli  »cparate»  it  fVom  EiiBland,  onU 


Nnitrii  PART. 

IViivinctt  (if 
ri.ANDKItri. 

1.  Vhii  North. 
1.  Muiili<]iii{o 
3.  Avt-ani*4 

3.  Ijiirxirrcy 

4.  IjiiCulttnu 

5.  (.'nmbriii 

0.  Viilonviuiinci 
7.  Dduiiy 
H  Hi.  Ainand 
'.I.  I.llle 
lU.  Httznbroiick 

II.ClllHll 

\i.  Dunkirk 

13.  Gravulinci. 

Prnvinro  of 

AnttiiH. 

Ihnarlineni.  nj  the 
It.  Blrnil  ofCillali. 

14.  Ardrfii 
1,1.  St.  Unior 
lA.  Aire 

17.  Pauauemborg 

19.'  9lM 
ao.  Boltiiino 
91.  Arriia 
.M.  Uapuumo. 

Provinco  iif 

PICAIIUV. 

Deptirlmrnt  of 

III.  Bummo. 

n.  Douleni 

34.  Ainleni 

35.  Pi>roniio 

36.  kiiye 

37.  Mnnldidior 
88.  Puix. 

Prnvinro  of 

TIIR  ISI.K  OP 

FRA.NCi;. 

Oepiiritiients. 

IV.  Oino 

V.  Hiiino 

VI,  Hi'lnoiindOi«u 
VII.  Si'liio  uiid 

Miirne 
V^lll.  Aiiiio. 
80.  Hrptoi  ■' 
l¥}.  lien'    .tia 
31.  CIp  .nont 
'13.  Noynn 
3^1.  Cntnpicgntt 
34.  IVciuy 
:».  Hnnlfa 

36.  Muru 

37.  Pontnifo 
:».  Bt.  Uoiiii 
3tf.  liOZiirchiia 

40.  llitntniiirtin 

41.  Meiiiix 

43.  I'nnltiinfniur 
4't.  MarniltiH 

44.  1*0 1  ii 

45.  Sceaux 
4fi.  Voraailica 
47.  (^)rbl■il 
4H.  P.lfliiipoB 

49.  Mi'liin 

50.  PonliiinebI(!iiu 
.11.  Ncinoiira 

53.  MMnleriinu  Fault 

Vonna 
.1't.  Rosny 

54.  Prtivina 

la.  ChotiMiu  Tliicry 
.16  I.n  Fi'riii  Miloii 

.'•".  VililTH  CollTCH 

.'irt.  Boirtuniii 
.W.  Lnon 

m.  1,11  PiTo 

til.  Bt.  (luuntin 
m.  (iui<« 
fill.  Bij.4nniio 
64.  Vt^rvina. 

Prnvinro  of 
CIIAMPACNE. 

DcpnrtiufnU. 
IX.  AriiolinL'8 
X.  .Mlirno 
XI.  Anlie 
Xll.  U[)pcr  Miirne 

m.  Ilnrrny 
fiS.  Clinrlriilli' 

67.  Mt'zicrtja 

68.  SliIiio 

•sa.  lirand  Pri.- 


70.  Viiuniota 

71.  Altitny 
7'^  Ratliul 
7;i.  Ail'eld 
74.  RlieiinB 

7.5.  <  ourtaiunn 

76.  Vnlmy 

77.  Hi.  Mnnohuuil 


Kfferrnifi  lo  Ihe  Map  nf  Franrr tjM  ParU 


XX.  Iloub. 
AAI.  Jurii. 
tVI.  Liirn 

IM.   I.IIAt'lltl 

ItVt.  Juiwy 
ir.l(.Vowml 
IM.  rimmiititio 
IM.  Dttinpiurrn 
l.Vi.  (J my 

in),  ii) 

KM.  Hniinin 
tfW.  M.iniboliard 
Ita  Hi.  hypiilktu 


7H.  ('Iialiiii« 
1\K  r.pernay 
HO.  Oiirrdntii 
HI.  MnMimirnil 
PJ.  Huxnnno 

H4.V.try.u,Marno|a?:j.:J.«'i'J^J' 

go.  Raiuiiru    .    .      |,i7.  n„„„a)n 
IIH.  (tuiniii.'y 
lilil.  Ilnie 

170.  Pidinny 

171.  Hnlin« 

173.  Rocli'-Jcan 
1711.  Nmiivo 

174.  IJJuirevaux 


H7.  Aruiitur  Atilio 
W.  Miirailly 
8U.  Nofintaur 

Memo 
no.  Troy,,i 
01.  f-haourctt 
03.  liar  Bur  Buino 
IVI.  riairvaux 
t.'4.  Har  .ur  A 
115.  Mnnii, 

06.  yuaiy 

07.  Jninvdlu 

IH.  ('hriiiinont 

110.  Aubeiiva 


3:13.  Hnncorto 
3:1-].  Viornin 
3:1.5  Hour«(« 
'm.  l^haiiKiunriif 
3.17.  C'haluau  Mail- 
Irinl 

3:19.  II  lot 

340.  BaiiCttrf  uaa. 

Prnvinro  nf 

MVKR.NAIH. 

Itfnnrttiifiit  of 

XXVIII.  Niuvit'. 

311.  Nevora 

343.  I.a  Chutilo 
34:1.  I.'oana 

344.  Clamery 

345.  riiainplemi 
3111.  t'oiliiaiiv 

347. 1'haiiiauChlnnn 

348.  Muulina  on  Gil- 

bert 

349.  Dorir.0 


43.  Rinm 
4J.  'I'lllara. 


vinne  nf 
NNAIH. 


175.  LnnaieBaulnlt'r  '"00.  81.  Pierre  lo 


.,undu 


.'76.  Durtali 
ri;.Ht.  Claude. 


Mualicr. 


IJIQ.  linntfreB 
!  j.  fliyln  " 
103.  Ilourbnnne  lea 


101.  fiiy  III  Hillot 


Uiiin* 

103.  Bourmnnt. 

Provinpn  ni' 
I.ORRAIXK. 
i>eparltnfnt.i. 
XMI.  VoiKos 
XIV.  Mrurlhe 
XV.  Mi'UM 
XVI.   Muaeilc. 

104.  Biiincvllli, 

105.  IMoinbiiroB 

106.  KpinnI 

107.  Runiirumont 
lOH.  (ierardiiiiir 

I '19.  Bt.  nil! 
no.  Rinilioivillor 
111.  MiriTnuri 
113.  Ni!iifrhnli"Ul 

113.  tiondrornurt 

114.  Itiir  lo  Dim 
11.5.  VaiiriMileuiii 

116.  Cnniincrcy 

117.  Toulon 

118.  Nancy 

119.  Lunovillo 

130.  H'inn 

131.  S'lrnbnum 


Proviiire  of 

IIOKRIIONNAIH. 

Itrimrtmntl  of 

XXIX.  AlliiT 

331.  Boiirbnn-l'Ar- 

ehamliault 
3.53.  Moulina 
*i^hi.  Dnnjon 
'354.  Varonnea 
'3.55.  I,a  PuIIbw) 


Provincu  of 
BlJRtJUNDV. 

DepartiiirntM. 

XXII.  Aln 
XXIIl.  Baonoaiiil 

Loire 
XXIV.l'oied'Or 

XXV.  Yonne. 

178.  Nanlun  .    . 

1711.  Fiiriiloi'Ei^luBc'v]'!-  I'liinot 
180.  Heywel  3.57.  Gnnnat 

IMI.  Mi.|li,y  .-  -     - 

IH3.  Poiifin 
I8:i.  Mouni  l,uel 
184,  Trfvoux 
IK5.  t'liiilunioiit 

186.  Ilnum 

187.  Macon 

188.  Port  du  Vuux 
I8'.(.  riuny 
190.  Boniur  en  Bri- 

nlinoiit 
lOI.ChlirnlifB 

193.  Iloiirbun  Lniiiy   4.  Auziinco 
193.  5I.Bt.  X'lncenl    5.  AnhiuHon 


3.58.  Bt.  Pourcain 
'J.59.  lli'Tiiiaon 
'3tiO.  Muiit  Lucoo. 

SOUTH  PART. 

Prnvioi f 

MARCH  1;. 
heparlnii'nt  uf 
I.  Cruiliu. 
I.  llouBiinc 
'3.  .InrlifiL'e 
3.  Clianiho 


l94.  rournuB 
l!t5.  Rnmonny 

196.  i^nnhnoR 

197.  t'huloniiu 

198.  ChHlnns 
190  Niilay 
300.  Monii'ciilB 
31)1.  Aiitun 
A)3.  Siiuliuu 


I'W.  nialcaii  H:ilin«  30:1,  Ariniy  lo  Puc 


133.  Nomony  '.ill.  Monuiio 
Ii!4.  Oiirzo  gtrt.  Ni-.ii. 

135.  FroooB  'jotl,  Dijnn 

136.  at.  Miiiii'l  '307.  I.  am  Td 

137.  ViiubiTnun  '2i|H.  Si'innr 

138.  Verilun  'Ml.  Aviilon 

139.  Varonnca  sJIO.  «'onl mgo  lea 
l.jO.  K,«lain     ,  Viocea 
Ul.  Moolniiidy  ml.  Auxorro 
t»i.  Loiinny  iji'i.  ViTiniinton 
VXl  llricy  313.  RnviuruB 

134.  Moll  314.  Mnnlbard 
35'  I ''"1"",".°  '■"■''•  I'»i»n>'ux 

136.  Si.  AvoM  .  ijifl.  t'Imlillmi  nur 
1.17.  Harri-xuunnneB  Boino 

138.  Bilchu.  317.  Tonnerrc 

Province  of  2'fi'  St.  Flnrcoiin 

AI^SM'P,  319.  Jnijny  _ 

Dcmrtmenli.  220'  VillcncuvolMr-  34.  Villo  t'onlul, 
XVII.  Lower  Hbino,,,     chovequu 

™"vv"  ':r^!^'  »i-  '■'™  «"'  Vunne 
!•!■•■  yyi'H»ernl)ure     o.j;).  Si.Julicn. 

I'rnvinro  of 
ORLEANAIS 


6  Pellolin 

7.  Cuurline. 

Provincp  nf 

LIMOU.si.V. 

Department  uj 

II.  Corrozo. 

8.  irBBel 

9.  Burl 

10.  Kgleton.. 

Province  of 

GIJIEWE. 

iiepartuiftit  nf 

III.  Aveyron. 

11.  Fiffeac 
13.  Livikinnc 

13.  Villolrnniho 

14.  Bt.  Sernin 
1.5.  Bt.  Aliiimo 

16.  HI.  Rnnie 

17.  Milhiiu 

18.  Rndct 

19.  Bt'verac 
30.  Br.  Ceniez 
SI.Guiollo 
33.  Knirnicnoa 
33.  F.fipalinn 


LVt')' 

lUuartmiinlM. 
Vj.  Loire 
Vli.  Rhone. 

44.  L'llopiml 

45.  Piicudii'rii 

46.  Roiinne 

47.  Aiitiicpeniu 

48.  'I'hizy 

49.  yillelruncho 
,50.  f.yon. 
51.  Uerori 
53.  Muntbriion 
.5).  Hl.R„inl.i,rt 
.54.  Hi.  KlipiiiM, 
.55.  Bt.t'linmnnd 

50.  Uiiijnaw. 

Province  of 
DAIIPIIINY 
Dtpnriments  uf 
VIII.  Iw're 
IX,  I'.PPir  AlpB 
X.  Drume. 
,57.  Vienno 
.58,  Peilge 
,50.  f 'ote  81.  Aitdre 
Oil.  Honrfrniii 
61.  ('reniii-n 
IN.  La  Tour  ilu  Pin 
63.  Voiron 
(M  Si.Barrnux 
6.5.  tirennble 
611.  Miirrellin 

67.  Ln  Mure 

68.  Hour)- irOyLina 

69.  Briani-nii 

70.  Monldtiiiiihiti 

71.  St.  Iloniiol 
TJ.  Die 

73.  Beaufort 

74.  St.. loan  do  Roi 

75.  Uero 

76.  Hi.  Vnllicr 

77.  Vnirnco 

78.  ( 'rent 

79.  Monlelimiirl 

80.  NiopB 

81.  Lnrxu 
83.  Ariiencon 

83,  Gap 

84.  Knihrun. 


Priiviitceor 
LA.NGI'EIKlO. 
hnmrlm.nti. 
\y  Giiril 

Avi  ■  n',V'i-°rXoir« 

XX,  Tarn 
XXI.  Aude. 
r.K.  AigueB-mortea 
l'j:i.  Biiinmierea 


134.  Niaioea 
-,1,5  trie. 


140.  Iliii!urn.tu 

141.  Boiiuuinen 
143.  BaveriiL' 

143.  BirHKlnirg 

144.  Mnlthi'ini 

145.  Bchi'iRtiit 
1411.  Si.  Marie  nux 

Mini',1 
147.  Cdniiir 
U".  Ncuf  liriawh 
I49.  NlnDiiiinit'n 
l.M).  Al'iiirih 
15l.l'h'itin 
1.53.  tJiroiniipny. 
Prnvinri-  nf 
FRANCIir,- 

("DVTK. 

l>epnrttHfvtt. 

XIX,  rjipft  Huuni' 


iiejf'irtmmt  of 

XXVI.  Loirel. 
334-  C''ourlpnny 
'J-.'5,  Chiilillon 
S-Jfl.  Monlnrsia 
337.  llnvne 

ti*.  I'llliivi.'ra 
O-ilt.  t'onilireux 
230.  Bully 
?ll.(iien. 

Province  of 

BKRRI, 

Jtn'orlntrnt  nf 

XXVII.  Cher. 
333.  Aul/igny 


Provinco  nf 
AUVERGNK. 
/tenortmnit.t. 
IV.  (^antiil 
V.  Dome. 
25.  MonnI  Saivy 
36.  Maura 
27.  Anrillnc 


Province  of 

PROVENCE. 

Itfpiirtmnits, 

XI.  VnuctiiHe 

Xll.  Irfiwer  AlpB 

XIII.  Vnr 

XIV.  MonibBufthc 
Rhone. 

K5.  Barcelonnctto 
HI.  (^ohniira 

87.  Digno 

88.  Biileron 

89.  Farcal(|iiict 

90.  Bnult 

91.  Vaiaon 
93.  Ornnge 
93.  t'nrpentraa 
91.  Avignon 

95.  Orgon 

96.  Cavnillon 

97.  Lan.ueDe 

98.  Am 
!I9.  Manosiiuo 

100.  Lea  Mees 
11)1   Ricx 
103,  Cnalellnno 

103.  Entreviiui 

104.  St.  Aiilmn 
III.5.  Venre 
IIMi.  Antibea 
107.  nraaae 


3?^.  Chinidea  Aifjiiw   lOH.  Dracuiitniin 


3il.  Hi.  Flour 
:itl.  Maaainc 
31    Mural 

33.  Mniiri.tc 
■X.\.  Hcisnca 

34.  R.,ii,:e 
.35.  Iwnire 
'.^\.  Ainbert 

37.  Billom 

38.  Clirmont 
;!!l.  Rnchefnit 

411.  I'ont  Gibaud 
41   MiMitaigit 


IIKI.  Frcjns 
no.  fit.Tiopez 

111.  Le  Luc 

112.  Mierc* 

113.  llriL'nnlln 

114.  Si.Maximi 
11.5.  Tnuinn 

I  Hi.  I.u  Ciolut 

117.  Miirseilloa 

118.  A IX 

ll!i.  Mnrtiguca 
130.  Salon 
1'3I.  Arli'S 


136.  I'oiil  81.  Eapril 
VII.  Ilarjnc 
138  Alala 
1'39.  Gpiiiiilhac 
1:10,  Vdlefiirt 
1:11.  L'ArgeiiUoiv 
i;l3.  Vivie™ 
133.  Auhenu 
1:M.  Privaa 
1!I5.  Tnurnnn 
i:t6.  Annonay 
I;i7,  Hr.  Agrpv* 

138.  Ywingeaul 

139.  Si.  lulien  do 

«V  ip 

140.  Le  .  u» 

141.  Riioud 
143.  Luiiueae 

143.  (•hofvd'^Ap 

144.  .loviila 
14,5,  Laitgo)in« 

146.  Miirvpjula 

147.  Munile 

148.  Canourgue 

149.  Floiae 
1.50.  Muyriieia 
15l.t.eVi«an 
1.53.  Anduie 

1.53.  Gangca 

1.54.  Monlpoliei 

1.55.  Rnhiruo 

1.56.  Ppzcnaa 

1.57.  Lodeve 
I.V^.  Itedarrieui 

159.  La  Cauno 

160.  Alby 

161.  Caalrea 

163.  Piiia  LaurunB 
lliil.  Mazainot 
1IV4.  St.  Puna 
16.5.  Hi'ziurt 

166.  Narbunna 

167.  tJimnoB 
16H.  (^urcawonne 
1H9,  Pi.  Pupoul 

170.  Fanjeaux 

171.  Alpt 
173.  Hoiinme 

173.  Uuillan 

174.  LaGraiaw 

Province  of 

ROII8BILLON 

Jtepartmenl  of 

XXlf.  EnnlcrnPy- 

reneea. 

175.  nivesaltea 

176.  Prades 

177.  Mt.  Louia 

178.  Praia  de  Molo 

179.  Cerct 

180.  Pcrpignan. 

Rivers. 
a  Rhine 
b  Moaello 
c  Meu«e 
d  Aiflne 

0  F.iicaul  or  Schcldi 
1'  Bnmmo 

KOirn 
Marno 
i   Seine 
j    Aubo 
k  Serain 

1  Yonne 
m  Itnire 
n  Allier 

n  Le  Cher 
p  Loi 
q  Tarn 
r  .Audo 
H  Rhone 
t   Duiancc 
u  1^  re 
v  A  in 
w  S'lone 
X  vlittnon 
y  Douba 
7.  Loue. 


»         «t 


ill; 


i-     !    ! 


I 


;  A.4 


!m 


DKSC'RIl'TIVK  (ilK  Hill  AIM  IV. 


I'Aur  III. 


by  piirt  of  flic  front iiT  of  tlio  NctlicrlaiulM,  On  thu  i",\*\  it  m  Ixnindi-i!  liy  Orriniiny,  Irom 
which  it  JH  iliviilpti  liy  th<i  Ithiiic,  iiml  by  Hwitzurleiml  iiiiil  Italy,  whii'ii  lir  on  the  other  xiilii 
ofthu  inlKlity  iNirrii.T  of  tlio  .\I|ih.  Hh  southern  liinitu  iiro  llm  .MriiitiTnini'iin  iiml  the  linniil 
ifthinuH  lllU'd  by  thi-  I'yronfos,  on  tlio  othor  riiilu  uf  which  oxtoniln  iIk.'  S|>iiriihh  |ii'iiiiiFulu. 
On  Iho  wi'r-t  iM  tlip  Alliintlv,  iiiiii  nmro  CHjHH-iiilly  thiit  \ist  ;riilt'  calli'il  tin'  liny  of  IliM-ay. 
Thp  NoiithiTii  I'xtroniify,  on  thn  lino  of  tlm  I'yri'iii'i')-,  fallH  in  I'J  '  IIO'  N.  hit.  tho  northfrn 
bcyonil  Dunkirk  in  51°  1(1',  iiiakiii}r  in  li'iiu'tli  oiirlit  anil  ii  halt'  ili'mrrooH  of  latitiiih-.  'I'ho 
breadth  may  ho  from  H'^  'JO'  I).  Ion;;.,  to  ■{"  -W  VV.  lonif.  niukiii!,''  Ihirtoon  ili'jrrocH  of  lonjfi- 
tlldo.  'I'IiIh  will  )(ivo  iliinonHioiiH  nearly  Hi|iiiire  of  T)!)*)  iniltN  from  north  to  xoiith,  anil  •W) 
IVoin  oast  to  we!(t.  The  NiijH;rllcial  extent  iHulH>iif.205,(KH)Eii({liiili  iJi|uuro  iiiihM,  oriomowhut 
above  i:i(MNM),INIl)  ucreN. 

Tho  Hurfiico  of  tliiij  very  oxteiiHivo  territory  in  in  ;,'eneral  level,  altlioU''h  il  iMirderi',  anil 
ia  (Microiichoil  iijion  hy  tho  greuiest  inoiintain  riuiKi'H  of  Kuropo.  The  .\(|m  rover  tho  full 
half  of  itHoimtern  tVontier,  and  tlii'ir  hninchcH  extending  into  Paiiphiny  and  I'roveiiee,  render 
them  very  rufrijod  iind  romantic  i  ^j(iollH.  Tho  Pyrenees,  which  rank  wcoiid  anions  the 
chains  of'^tho  (.'ontinent,  niiit'o  nlonjj  tlni  uoiilliprn  lH>rder,  and  cover  with  their  branclie« 
Rousfiillon  and  Ouncony.  On  the  eadt,  whoro  Franco  reaeheH  to  tho  Itliine,  an;  the  Viw^th 
and  other  elmin.s  of  nuxlernte  hoi^ht,  parallel  to  that  river.  The  only  rantfo  excliinively  French, 
18  that  of  Auverjjno,  in  tho  centre  of  tho  kir.jjdom,  wliioh  not  only  iiicliide.t  all  that  province 
whoro  it  riscH  to  tho  heij;ht  of  r)<K)()  or  tMHK)  fei.'t,  but  BtrctcliiM  by  a  winding'  line  iilon^  the 
loft  bank  of  the  Allier  to  I.an;riiedoc,  imrallel  to  the  coast  of  the  Meiliterrunean,  where  it  Ih 
called  tho  Cevonnos.  But  hy  tiir  tho  greater  part  of  Fmnci>,  including  the  whole  north  and 
tho  whole  west,  iaono  widely  extended  plain,  which  yields  in  very  hij^h  perfection  all  the 
fruits  and  pnxlucta  of  the  temperate  zone. 

Tho  rivers  of  Franco,  thoiiirh  not  of  tho  tirat  maj^nitnde,  arc  noble  ond  comtnndioiifi. 
Traversing  almost  every  part  of  tho  kiiifriloin,  they  afllinl  ample  means  of  internal  navipition ; 
and  tho  broad  plains  which  bonier  on  them  yield  tho  most  luxuriant  harvests,  Tho  Ixiiro, 
which  is  tho  princiiiol,  rises  in  the  south,  on  thelwrdersof  I'rovonce,  and  (lows  for  some  time 
nearly  north,  parallel  to  tho  conrso  of  the  Rhone  and  the  SnAne,  thoniLrh  in  an  op(xisito  direc- 
tion. Near  Nevers  it  receives  the  Allier,  which  in  n  parallel  and  nearly  equal  stream  has 
hitherto  accompanied  it;  it  now  praduolly  bends  round  into  a  westerly  course,  which  it  fol- 
lows llirouKh  the  plain <  of  Orleanais  nnil  Toiiraine,  the  {fonleii  of  Franco,  till  after  a  course 
of  T(K)  miles,  it  falls  invo  the  sea  a  little  below  the  great  coininercial  city  of  Nantes.  Tho 
Rhone  is  not  at  first  a  I'lench  river  :  it  rises  in  the  heart  of  .Switzerlanil,  amid  the  eternal 
snows  and  glaciers  of  the  Grimsel  and  the  Shreckhorn,  and  ndls  its  earliest  course  beneath 
tho  mighty  mountain  walls  of  St.  Gotlmrd,  Monte  Rosa,  and  the  Simulon.  It  now  expands 
into  the  Lenian  lake,  from  whence  it  emerg(>s  near  Geneva,  where  it  soon  enters  France, 
and  rolls  direct  towanls  Lyons.  At  that  great  city,  it  receives  the  Saiine,  bringing  down  an 
ainplo  stream  from  tho  Vosgo.s,  swelled  by  that  ot  the  Doubs  from  tho  Jurn.  The  Rhone, 
now  following  the  direction  of  its  tributary,  turns  directly  south,  and,  after  a  rapid  course 
through  Dauphiny  and  Provence,  i-nters  the  Meditorraneun  by  several  mouths.  In  this  course, 
tho  Alps  f  rnnsmit  it  to  tho  Isere,  and  tho  classical  Btreain  of  the  Durance :  its  entire  length 
may  bo  5(H)  miles.  Tho  Seine,  though  of  iiilerior  magnitude,  claims  distinction  as  flowing 
by  tho  metropolis:  it  rises  on  the  frontier  of  Burgundy,  and  runs  almost  due  north  till  it 
receives  the  parallel  and  nearly  equal  Aube,  when  their  united  waters  flow  west  ond  north- 
west. Before  reaching  Paris,  it  receives  from  the  south  the  Yonne,  and  from  tho  north, 
almost  under  the  walls  of  the  capital,  its  greatest  tributary,  the  Marne.  At  Paris  it  is  navi- 
gable for  vessels  of  consideruhlo  burden.  Beyond  Paris,  the  Seine  makes  some  e.xtensivo 
windings,  and  is  augmented  from  the  north  by  the  waters  of  the  Oise  bringing  those  of  the 
Aisne.  It  then  poRscs  the  fine  an.  flourishing  city  of  Rouen,  and,  spreading  into  an  estuary, 
joins  the  English  Channel  at  the  ancient  [lort  of  Havre.  The  Garonno  has  a  course  of  still 
less  extent,  though  its  broad  navigable  stream,  flowing  through  a  magnificent  plain,  the  most 
productive  in  valuable  wino  of  any  in  France,  gives  it  a  high  commercial  hiiportanco.  It 
rises  near  the  eastern  Pyrenees,  and  flows  northward  to  Toulouse,  where  it  assumes  a  steady 
north-west  course,  during  which,  swelled  from  the  nort.''  by  »be  Aveyron,  tho  Lot,  and  tho 
Dordogne,  and  passing  the  great  haven  of  Bordeaux,  it  becomes  an  e^fuary,  capable  of  re- 
ceiving tho  largest  vessels.  Tho  Rhino  is  to  France  only  a  limitary  rivor  for  somewhat 
above  100  miles ;  but  its  great  tributaries,  tho  Moselle  and  the  Mouse,  rise  and  have  most 
of  their  early  course  within  its  territory.  The  important  Belgic  river,  the  Scheldt,  also  rises 
within  the  French  territory. 

France  has  no  lakes,  which,  in  a  general  view,  seem  worthy  of  mention. 

Sect.  II.— Natural  Gro/rraphy. 

SUBSECT.  \. Geolo/ry. 

Primitive  ami  transition  dhlrirts.     In  France  there  are  six  districts  where  the  older 
ocks,  or  those  of  the  primitive  and  transition  classes,  prevail ;  viz.  Western  Normandy,  with 


mv 


I'Aur  III. 

nimiiy,  fruiii 
(•  oitiiT  Hulo 
III  till'  lirmiil 

I  |M'lllll.-lllll. 
I    u(    IlirCliy. 

h<i  iiurtlii'rii 

illlllf.       'I'lll! 

'I'M  lit'  l)iii|;i- 
nil,  1111(1  %*)() 
iirxoiniiwhut 

Ixinlorn,  iiiul 
IVIT  lilt)  full 
■(•iicp,  roiuler 
I  luiiiiiiK  the 
fir  l>riiiicliufi 
)  the  Vo<<){c» 
Vfly  French, 
lliiit  province 
iiii'  iilon({  the 
1,  where  it !« 
iile  north  iind 
!Ctiun  uU  the 

coimnodimis. 
il  niivijfiition; 
The  Loire, 
for  Home  time 
ip(xisite  (lirec- 
nl  stroHtii  has 
,  which  it  tbl- 
iitlor  a  course 
Vatites.     Tlio 
il  the  elerniil 
ourso  benenth 
now  expomls 
ntorrt  Frniicc, 
ping  down  an 
Tlie  Rhone, 
rapid  course 
In  this  course, 
entire  length 
ion  as  flowinp; 
le  north  till  it 
Dst  and  north- 
om  the  north, 
iris  it  is  navi- 
iiiio  extensive 
nr  those  of  the 
to  an  estuary, 
lurso  of  still 
ilain,  the  most 
iportancc.     It 
uines  a  steady 
Lot,  and  tho 
:npable  of  re- 
for  somewhat 
id  have  nioet 
Idt,  also  rises 


Sooil. 


FRANCE. 


flSI 


ere  the  older 
rmandy,  witl. 


Britnny  and  .Anjou ;  tho  northern  Hid«t  of  tho  Pyrcnepn;  tlie  deportin»<nti'  ofthn  Tinwer  Alpg, 
lIpiK'r  Aliw,  ami  |>art  of  tho  Im'^rn  ;  Contral  rraiici',  or  tin-  talilr-land  of  France  ;  central 
part  of  till'  VoH^i'i ;  mid  the  Ardcnm^N. 

(1.)  Wififrn  Nnrmamly,  llritiiny,  and  Anjoti.  In  tluN  ri'ifion  tho  rockn  arc  [wrlly  N«<jh 
tiiniiiii,  iMirtly  IMiiloiiian :  thn  Neptunian  ntnita  am  ((<><'>>''*i  uiira  iihite,  rliiy  Niati',  un-y* 
wai'ki',  ipiiirtz  rix:k,  and  linieMtone;  tho  Plutonian  rockit  are  /xrariite,  Nyenite,  K>'<'''UMt<inOt 
and  |Hirpliyry. 

(','.)  Sorllirrn  niilr  nf  Ihr  I'l/rrnrei.  On  tho  French  iido  of  tho  I'yrenoo*  tho  centml 
riK'kH  are  uf  primitive  tiiriiiutinn,  and  cnnniHt  of  mica  nliite,  clay  nliite,  liuicHtniie,  or  marble; 
ri'jioNiii;;  ii|Nin  thcne,  and  tiiiiiiiii);  the  ((feat  body  of  tb>'  raii^^e,  uro  rockH  of  the  trunsilioii 
cla/'i;  vi'/.,  clay  tilate,  (frey wacko,  and 'traimitioii  liniUMton.'. 

(;j.)  DfparlmrntK  <  if  I  hi:  Imwit  and  Upper  Alpi,  and  part  of  hirr.  In  thiHinouiitainouii 
roKion  there  are  mat;iiiMceiit  illiiplayR  of  many  of  thu  inoi'o  intorcgtinf;  tbriiiationM  of  tho 
primitive  and  tran^itinn  classeo. 

(4.)  Central  laldr-lund  or  pliiliaii  of  h\ance,  'I'lio  centre  of  France  is  ocrupietl  by  a 
vai<t  table-land  or  |>lati>au  of  old  rucks,  in  (;oneral  Granite,  which  form.-i  tlie  inouiitairM  of 
RurKundy,  tho  LimoUHJn,  Aveyron,  Anleche,  and  tlio  Covcnncii.  It  is  iiKire  than  ei^rhty 
leoffueH  in  breadth  from  tho  lii'i(r|iin  of  Limo);pa;  but  in  proccodiiiif  towardn  the  moiiiIi,  it(;rn- 
dually  lliins  off,  and  ti'rminnti'H  in  a  (wint  which  connecta  it  with  the  Mi)nta;,Mie  Noiro. 
This  latter  ^niup  of  old  rocks  fornia  a  kind  of  iH'niiisula,  which  is  scpimited  from  the 
Pyrenees,  by  a  liiii((itii(iiiial  basin  of  secondary  unil  tertiary  furniations.  I'lie  acclivities  of 
this  central  granitic  table-land,  and  sonio  of  itn  hollows,  are  covered  more  or  less  densely 
with  newer  rocks  of  various  descriptions.  Resides  these,  there  occurs  on  its  eastern  part  a 
splendid  display  of  vidcanic  rocks.  Thn  primitive  and  transition  rocks  of  this  table-land  aro 
tlio  following;  viz.  j;ranite,  (lorphyry,  talc  slate,  serjientine,  (rnoiss,  clay  slute,  (freywacke, 
and  limestone.  ' 

(5.)  Central  part  of  the  Votffm.  Tho  oldest  rocks  in  this  ranjfe  of  mountains,  and  which 
nro  said  to  belonjf  to  the  transition  class,  are  the  followinjf :  jrranite,  syenite,  hornblende 
rocks,  greenstone,  red  (|uartziforous  porphyry,  aii!,'itic  porphyry,  dolomite,  diallajje  rock, 
Dcrpentine,  talc  slate,  clay  slate,  ({reywacke,  with  anthracite,  granular  and  compact  marble 
or  limestone. 

(6.)  Ardennes.  That  part  of  this  range  of  mountainaincludwl  within  the  limitsofl'Vance, 
which  lielongs  to  the  older  part  of  tho  geopnostical  series,  is  composed  of  various  clay  slates, 
with  greywacke,  all  of  which  seem  to  behmff  to  thn  transition  class. 

Secondary  districts.  The  lower  and  flatter  parts  of  Fnincn  which  extend  from  thn  primi- 
tivo  and  transition  districts,  ore  composed  of  secondary  and  tertiary  de|Misits,  more  or  les.^ 
covered  with  alluvial  matters;  and  in  some  quarters  interminfrled  with  volciinic  rocks.  Tlio 
secondary  formations  arc  arranged  in  the  same  order,  and  exhibit  s'lmibir  relations  with 
tliose  already  dcscrilied  in  our  account  of  Hritain.  The  mountain  limestone  and  coal  fonna- 
tions  form,  when  contrasted  with  their  abundance  in  Rritain,  but  a  small  portion  of  tho  siir- 
fece  of  Franco;  while  the  new  red  sandstones,  with  the  series  of  the  .Iiira  limestone,  in- 
eluding  tho  oolites,  form  great  tracts  of  country.  Chalk,  or  uppermost  rock  of  the  secondary 
series,  occurs  in  vast  abundance,  forming  two  basins,  the  one  the  northern,  extending  in 
length  from  the  northern  oxtreinitv  of  Artois  to  tho  southern  limit  of  Touraine,  and  in  breadth 
from  Havre  de  Grace  to  near  Rar  lo  Due.  Tho  northern  side  of  tho  southern  Imsin  extends 
from  Rochefort  to  Cahors,  and  tho  southern  side  ranges  along  tho  northern  face  of  the 
Pyrenees. 

Tertiary  districts.  Franco  is  remarkable  on  account  of  tho  great  extent  of  its  tertiary 
deposits ;  of  these  the  following  may  be  considered  as  the  principal  ones : — 1.  That  of  which 
Paris  forms  tho  central  point;  which  extends  towards  the  north  as  high  as  I.aon,  and  south- 
ward to  Rlois;  while  it  stretches  across  from  Pontoiso  on  the  west  to  Epornny  on  the  east. 
2.  The  great  southern  deposit,  which  extends  from  tho  south  side  of  the  river  Girnnde  to  the 
south  bank  of  tho  river  Adour.  3.  The  south-eastern  de|K)sit,  which  covers  part  of  the  De- 
partments of  Ileraiilf,  Gard,  Mouths  of  the  Rhone,  Var,  and  Vaucliise.  4.  The  deposit  in 
the  valley  of  the  river  Allicr,  and  that  in  tho  upper  part  of  tho  course  of  the  I/iire.  5.  The 
great  deposit  in  the  course  of  the  Rhine  and  Sa6ne,  extending  from  about  Valence  to  Dijon. 
0.  7'he  tract  along  the  Rhine,  extending  from  Basle  to  tho  neiglibourhoal  of  Carlsrhue. 

Volcanic  districts.  True  volcanic  rocks  occur  in  France  only  in  the  great  central  table- 
land or  plateau ;  in  the  Departments  of  Loire,  Upper  Loire,  Cantal,  and  I'uy  de  D6nie.  Tho 
volcanic  rocks  aro  basalt  ond  basalt  tufla;  trachyte  with  its  tiifl'a;  and  lava,  with  its  tiiffas, 
scoria",  &c.  The  newest  of  these  rocks  are  tho  lavas;  while  tlie  basalt  and  trachytes  appear 
of  more  ancient  date,  although  still  not  very  old,  as  wo  find  them  breaking  tlirough  rocks 
of  the  tertiary  class. 

Alluvial  districts.  Alluvia  of  every  description  occur  in  France.  Diluvium  or  the  old 
alluvium  fiirms  extensive  tracts  in  many  quarters  of  the  kingdom,  where  it  contains  remains 
of  extant  species  of  animals,  of  which  tho  most  characteristic  are  those  belonging  to  the 
order  pachyderma,  as  the  elephant,  rliinoceros,  &c.     Diluvium  is  also  found  in  caves  along 

Vol.  I.  44*  ao 


wv 


.1:      .■■         \ 


<U3 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY, 


Part  III. 


Ml  I 


^\vf. 


with  bones  of  extinct  animals,  particularly  of  the  carnivorous  frenera;  and  rents  and  Assures 
in  strata  ore  soinotiincs  filled  up  with  a  diluvium  also  containing  remains  of  extinct  animals, 
of  which  the  most  characteristic  are  the  small  herbivora.  Bone  caves  and  bone  breccia 
occur  at  St.  Aiitonin  and  St.  Julien  near  Montpelier;  at  Billargues,  Vcndargues,  and  Peze- 
naB-Henuilt ;  at  Aiiduze  and  St.  liippolytc,  in  Gard ;  at  Aix,  in  the  department  of  the 
Moutiis  of  the  Rhone ;  at  Villefranche  and  Laurajruais,  in  the  Upper  Garonne ;  and  at  Per- 
pignun,  in  the  Eastern  Pyrenees.  This  diluvium  is  covered,  to  a  greater  or  less  depth,  with 
the  various  well-known  kinds  of  modern  alluvium  and  of  vegetable  soils. 

Mines  and  Quarries. 

Coal  mines.  Coal  of  various  descriptions,  as  gliAicc,  bituminous,  and  brown  coal,  are 
mined  in  the  following  departments  in  Prance,  affording  annually  but  a  small  return  for  so 
vast  u  country : — Allier,  Aveyron,  Moutiis  of  the  Rhone,  Calvados,  Gard,  Herault,  Isere, 
Uppor  Ijoiro,  Lower  Loire,  Mayenne  and  Loire,  Moselle,  Nievre,  North,  Pas  do  Calais,  Puy 
de  Dome,  Upper  Rhine,  liower  Rhine,  Lower  Sadne,  and  Tarn. 

Iron  mines.  Iron  mines,  some  of  tiiem  of  considerable  importance,  occur  in  tiie  following 
departments: — Ardennes,  Charente,  Cher,  C6te  d'Or,  Dordogne,  Doubs,  Eure,  Eure  and 
Loir,  Forets,  Indre,  Indre  and  Loire  Isere,  Jura,  liOwer  Loire,  Upper  Marne,  Moselle, 
Nievre,  North,  Orne,  Upper  Rhine,  Lower  Rhine,  Upper  Sa6ne,  Sadne  and  Loire,  and  Vosges 

Minej  of  silver  and  lead.    The  principal  lead  mines  and  silver  mines  are  tlic  following  :— 

Minfw  of  QiiinUIi  or  Ixad  Marcs  ot  Silver 

FinistiTro Poii  llaucn alxmt   8,(100 law 

Dilto IIiiHlgoRt 3,000 II 00 

Lo/.Sre Villefort 18.000 laX) 

IsOru Vifiine 1,300 — 

Copper  wines.  These  are  situated  in  the  following  departments : — Upper  Alps,  Rhone, 
Rhine  and  Moselle. 

Mines  of  matiffunese.  This  metal  is  mined  at  Romanechc  and  St,  Micaud,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Siirine  and  Loire ;  at  Suquet  in  Dordogne ;  in  the  mountain  of  Tholey  in  Mo- 
selle; at  La»r'ine,  near  Saint  Dier,  in  the  Vosges;  and  at  Saint  Jean  de  Gardonenque  in 
the  Cevcnnes. 

Mines  of  untim-^ny.  Antimony  occurs  in  the  provinces  of  Charente,  Upper  Loire,  La 
Vendee,  Cantiil,  Alli(?r,  Gard,  and  Puy  de  Ddme. 

Mines  of  vitriol  and  alum.  The  principal  mines  of  sulphate  of  iron  or  vitriol  are  those 
of  Saint  Julien  de  Vujgargue,  near  Alais,  which  furnishes  annually  ;i(),0(H)  quintals;  and 
that  of  BecquGt  und  of  Goincourt,  near  Beauvais,  whicii  in  some  years  affords  ir),()00  quin- 
■  tals ;  that  of  Ural,  in  the  department  of  Aisne,  and  of  Gersdorf,  in  tlie  department  of  Jjower 
Rhine.  There  are  celebrated  manufactories  of  alum  at  Montpelier,  and  at  Javelle  near 
Paris.  Some  considerable  beds  of  rock-salt  have  been  discovered  at  Vic,  in  tiie  department 
of  Meurtlie.  One  of  these  is  upwards  of  fourteen  yards  thick,  and  another  has  not  as  yet 
been  cut  tiirough.  Although  cobalt,  arsenic,  nickel,  and  tin  also  occur  in  France,  no  consi- 
derable mines  of  those  minerals  have  been  established. 

Quarries.  The  most  extensive  quarries  are  those  of  marble,  building-stone,  slate,  gyp- 
sum, millstone,  and  flint.  Different  kinds  of  marble  are  raised  at  Givet,  BralMincon,  Mens, 
Namur,  Boulogne  sur  Mer,  Caen,  Troyes,  Montbar,  Cosne,  Tournus,  Narbonne,  Aix.  Mar- 
seilles, Tarb,  and  in  many  valleys  in  the  Pyrenees.  There  are  quarries  of  excellent  building- 
stone  in  tlie  departments  of  La  Manche,  Calvados,  Moselle,  Cote  d'Or,  Yonne,  Oisc,  Seine, 
Jioire,  Dordogne,  ind  in  many  departments  in  the  snntii.  Vast  slate  quarries  are  worked  in 
the  departments  of  La  Manche,  Mouse,  Ardennes,  Maine  and  Loire,  and  at  the  fcxit  of  the 
Pyrenees.  In  many  other  places,  and  particularly  in  Champagne,  &c.,  tiiere  are  quarries 
and  pits  of  clay  for  brick  and  tile-making.  The  gypsum  of  the  neighbourliooil  of  Paris,  the 
chalk  of  tlie  departments  of  Marne  and  Seine,  the  talc  named  chalk  of  Uriani;nn,  the  mill- 
stone or  bHhr-.sto)ie  of  Ferte  sous  Jouarre,  are  objects  of  considerable  commercial  importance. 
The  departments  of  Yonne,  Cher,  and  Lower  Charente,  supply  all  France  and  different 
foreign  nations  with  gun-flints.  Among  tlie  clays  mot  with  in  France,  tiiat  of  Forges  les 
Eaux,  was  formerly  in  great  repute  in  Holland  for  the  manufacture  of  pipes;  the  clay  or 
earth  of  Belbujuf,  near  Rouen,  is  considered  an  excellent  material  in  the  purifying  of  sugar; 
and  the  potters'  clay  of  the  vicinity  of  Beauvais  and  Montereau,  and  tiie  jxircelaiii  earth  or 
kao-lin  of  Saint  Yrieix,  near  Limoges,  are  higiily  esteemed. 

SuBSE<rr.  2. — Botany. 
Having  devoted  already  so  great  a  portion  of  our  space  to  preliminary  remarks  upon  vege- 
table geography  on  its  more  extended  scale,  and  to  tiiiit  of  Great  Brilain  in  particular,  we 
must  content  ourselves  with  a  more  limited  account  of  the  plants  of  other  cniintricH,  other- 
wise we  should  greatly  overstep  the  Iwunds  proscribed  to  us  by  the  nature  of  the  present 
work.  Following  the  plan  here  adopted  for  the  arrangement  of  tiie  ditrorent  countries, 
France  comes  next  under  our  notice ;  and  a  more  interesting  field  for  the  irengrnphical  bota- 
nist does  not  exist  in  Europe ;  not  only  because  of  its  extent  and  vast  variety  of  surface,  the 


Part  III. 

i  and  fissures 
inct  animala, 
bone  breccia 
!8,  and  Peze- 
Lment  of  the 
;  and  at  Per- 
s  depth,  with 

pwn  coal,  are 
return  for  so 
ierault,  Isere, 
e  Calais,  Puy 

tlie  following 
re,  Eure  and 
rne.  Moselle, 
,  and  Voages 
following: — 

ilarcB  of  Silver 

..1200 

..IIUO 

.law 

Alps,  Rhone, 

in  the  depart- 
fholcy  in  Mo- 
irdonenque  in 

ipcr  Loire,  La 

triol  arc  those 
quintals ;  and 
s  ir»,()00  quin- 
iipiit  of  Ijower 
[  Javelle  near 
le  department 
has  not  as  yet 
ncc,  no  const- 

lie,  slate,  gyp- 
Ixincon,  Mons, 
no,  Aix,  Mar- 
llent  building- 
,  Oise,  Seine, 
nre  worked  in 
ho  f(X)t  of  the 
i  are  quarries 
I  of  Paris,  the 
ifoii,  the  mill- 
il  importance, 
and  different 
of  Forges  les 
;  tlm  clay  or 
ing  of  sugar; 
elain  earth  or 


ks  upon  \ogc- 
particular,  we 
intrios',  othor- 
)f  the  present 
-nt  countries, 
rnpliica!  bota- 
f  Kurface,  the 


BooxL 


PRANCE. 


529 


preat  height  of  its  mountains,  and  its  geological  structure ;  but  because,  by  the  labours  of 
ito  naturalist!),  especially  Lamarck  and  De  CandoUe,  the  vcgi-tiiblo  productions  of  Franco 
have  been  better  e.xplored  tliun  those  of  almost  any  other  country  in  liio  world.  All  that  we 
can  do  here,  however,  is  to  notice  in  general  those  that  are  the  most  interesting,  from  their 
utility,  their  beauty,  or  some  circumstances  connected  with  their  history;  or  as  showing  how 
vegetable  forms  or  groups  are  situated,  in  regard  to  their  distribution,  upon  the  surface  of 
the  eartii. 

France,  extending,  aa  it  does,  from  lat.  42°  30'  to  51°  N.,  or  nearly  to  the  latitude  of 
London,  and  from  9°  east  longitude,  to  5°  west,  is  bou.ided  liy  the  Mediterranean,  and  tiie 
great  chain  of  the  Pyrenees  on  the  soutii ;  by  the  Atlantic  on  the  west ;  by  the  British 
Channel  and  the  Netherlands  on  tiie  north ;  and  on  the  east  by  Suvoy,  Switzerland,  and  Ger- 
many, which  form,  for  its  entire  length,  a  vast  mountain  barrier.  Such  an  alpine  region 
cannot  fail  to  exert  a  manifest  influence  on  the  vegetation  of  a  country ;  not  only  because 
of  its  own  peculiar  productions,  depending  in  part  on  their  elevation,  and  in  port  on  their 
soil  and  geological  structure,  but  by  tlieir  exposure  even  at  the  same  elevation,  on  two  oppo- 
site sides ;  tliat  of  the  south  will  bo  found  to  exhibit  very  different  vegetable  forms  from  that 
of  the  north ;  and  sucli  mountains  often  exercise  a  more  powerful  influence  in  limiting  the 
surrounding  vegetation,  than  even  seas  and  rivers. 

Lanmrck  and  De  Candolle,  in  a  very  interesting  Botanical  Map  which  accompanies  their 
Flore  FranqaiHe,  3d  edit,  have  divided  France  into  five  regions : — 

(L)  The  region  of  maritime  plants,  which  of  course  extends  everywhere  along  the  coast, 
from  C^tond  to  Bayonne  on  tlio  north  and  west,  and  from  Perpignan  to  Oueillo  on  the  Sledi- 
terranean ;  together  with  the  Salines  of  Dieuze  and  Chateau  Salins  near  Nancy,  and  those 
of  Durkheim  and  Frankensthal  near  Mayence  in  the  interior.  Thus  we  find  that  a  vegeta/- 
tion  similar  to  that  of  the  sea-shore  exists  in  the  interior,  whenever  that  interior  yields 
a  sufficient  quantity  of  marine  salt.  All  the  maritime  plants  of  the  north  of  France,  accord- 
ing to  M.  de  Candolle  (and  they  have  the  greatest  affinity  with  those  of  England),  ore 
equally  found  in  the  south;  but  the  reverse  does  not  hold  good;  for  a  very  large  proportion 
of  the  French  Mediterranean  plants  of  tiie  sea-shore  grow  very  sparingly,  if  at  all,  u|)on  the 
shores  of  the  Ocean,  principally  indeed  on  the  coast  of  Gascony,  and  reach  no  higher  than 
the  mouth  of  the  Loire,  or  at  most  to  the  middle  of  Britany. 

(2.)  The  refrion  of  motmtain  and  alpine  plants.  When  the  French,  by  their  conquests, 
included  the  I'yrenees,  the  Alps,  and  Savoy  within  the  range  of  the  floras  of  their  own 
country,  this  region  constituted  the  very  richest  of  any  flora  in  Europe;  for  it  included  a 
country,  not  only  of  considerable  extent,  but  mountains,  and  in  very  southern  latitudes,  many 
of  whoso  crests  rise  greatly  beyond  the  line  of  perpetual  snow.  As  France  is  now  limited, 
the  mountains  of  the  Vosges  near  Strasburg,  and  of  the  Cevennes,  and  those  of  Auvergne, 
whose  origin  is  volcanic,  exhibit  its  most  alpine  scenery :  omong  the  latter,  the  Puy  de  Sasi, 
one  of  the  Monts  d'Or,  rises  to  an  elevation  of  6300  feet  obove  the  level  of  the  sea.  The 
Plonib  du  Cantal  is  estimated  at  62(X),  and  the  Puy  de  D6me  at  5000  foet.  If  the  summits 
of  the  Pyrenees  and  of  the  Jura  be  considered  as  forming  the  natural  barrier  of  Prance,  as 
constituting  her  line  of  separation  from  the  adjacent  territories,  she  will  still  jiossess  on 
(!xceedingly  rich  alpine  flora  in  the  northern  side  of  the  former  and  the  western  side  of  the 
latter  mountains.  But  the  line  of  demarcation  of  this  region  is  nevertheless  not  so  distinctly 
marked  as  in  the  preceding  region.  The  valleys  exposed  to  the  sun  often  participate  in  the 
vegetation  of  the  southern  provinces,  while  the  cooler  valleys  exhibit  a  growth  wliJch  has 
more  in  common  with  the  vast  plain  in  the  north  and  centre  of  France.  However,  it  is 
undeniable  that  these  some  districts  do  contain  a  very  considerable  number  of  plants  which 
are  peculiar  to  them,  and  found  on  almost  all  the  more  elevated  mountains  of  Franco;  for 
whatever  differences  the  chain  of  the  Vosges  and  the  Jura  may  present  from  those  of  Au- 
vergne, the  Cevennes,  ond  the  Pyrenees  in  the  south,  it  is  allowed  that  the  at-pect  of  their 
vegetation  oflers  considerable  traits  of  similarity,  and  tiiat  the  greater  part  of  the  mountain 
plants  are  alike  found  on  the  different  chains. 

(3.)  A  third  region,  and  a  very  important  and  interesting  one,  is  that  of  the  Mediterranean 
pZa/if.s.'tliis,  of  course,  is  bounded  on  the  south  by  the  Mediterranean  Sen,  and  stretches 
inland  (ill  you  come  to  the  foot  of  the  mountains,  or  following  the  course  of  the  Rhone, 
extending  north  aa  far  as  Montelimart  on  that  river ;  or  it  may  be  said  to  occupy  or  constitute 
the  grei  t  basin  of  the  mouth  of  the  Rhone. 

(4.)  A  vast  region  is  occupied  by  the  plains,  whase  vegetation  is  very  uniform.  This 
comprises  more  than  one-half  of  France,  and  especially  all  tiie  plain  country  situated  to  the 
north  of  tin;  chains  of  mountains.  Many  of  thesi;  plants  are  found  in  other  regions  already 
indiouted ;  but  it  wants  the  species  which  are  peculiar  to  e;ich  of  those  respectively. 

(5.)  and  lastly — MM.  Lamarck  and  Do  Candolle  indicate  an  intermediate  region,  which 
includes  plants  partaking  of  the  nature  of  the  plains  of  tlm  north  ond  the  provinces  of  the 
south.  Tliis  occupies  a  large  portion  of  the  south-west  of  France,  and  some  districts  up  the 
valley  of  the  Rhone  between  Montelimart  and  Lyons. 

The  map  just  alluded  to  has  these  different  regions  represented  in  different  colours,  and 


n 


■  r 
( 

I      t 

!.    ^ 

*  il 

r  \ 


DM 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOC.RAPllY. 


Part  III. 


'  Ji 


ia  attended  wiUi  this  advanto^^o,  that,  by  the  Blifrhtnst  iiinpoction,  a  prcnnral  idea  i»  conveyed 
of  the  prcvailin^f  nature  of  vegetation  in  any  given  diHtrict.  We  Hee  that  the  plants  of  the 
■outliern  provinces  reticmblo  more  those  of  Uie  north  as  you  advance  by  the  west  side  of 
Franco  tliiin  by  the  ea.st;  that  the  floras  of  Mans  on  tlio  Imrder  of  Normandy,  und  of  Nantca 
upon  the  Loire,  in  lut  47"  and  48°,  scarcely  ditTer  from  tiiui^e  of  Dax  and  Agon,  between  lat, 
43°  und  44° ;  whilst  on  the  cast  side  of  France,  the  pnKluctions  of  Dijon  and  Strani)nrg  vary 
considerably  from  tiiose  of  Montpelicr  and  Aix,  Hiliiated  at  nearly  similar  relative  distances 
from  each  other.  All  this  is  accounted  for  on  the  principle:^  we  iiave  alr(!ady  laid  down, 
namely,  that  the  stations  of  plants  are  mainly  influenced  by  temperature;  and  tiiat  the  mean 
temperature  of  a  place  is  greatly  <letermined  by  distance  from  the  e(|uat(>r,  and  elevation 
above  the  level  of  the  bob.  According  to  M.  de  Candolle,  an  altitude  of  4(H)  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea  affectn  the  temperature  nearly  to  the  same  extent  as  a  degree  of  latitude 
nearer  to  the  north  in  the  eastern  hemisphere. 

By  comparing  the  wcHtern  provinces  of  France  with  the  eastern,  we  see  that  the  surface 
of  the  former  is  but  little  raised  above  the  level  of  the  sea ;  for,  even  ut  a  considerable 
distance  from  the  coast,  the  hills  scarcely  exceed  !)(K)  feet;  whilst,  on  the  other  hand,  upon 
the  western  side,  in  the  midst  of  a  mountainous  region,  the  plain  has  generally  an  elevation 
of  from  liMKI  to  1000  feet.  This  height  diminishes,  it  is  true,  on  the  Belgian  frontier;  but 
there  the  temperature  is  sensibly  affected  by  the  second  cause  adduced,  namely,  the  distance 
from  the  equator.  Thus,  there  is  notliing  but  what  is  conformable  to  physical  laws,  in  the 
southern  plants  having  a  greater  resemblance  to  those  of  the  north  uiwn  the  west,  than  on 
the  east  side  of  France. 

But  even  where  the  mean  temperature  is  the  same,  the  distribution  of  plants  between 
these  two  parts  of  France  may  yet  bo  very  different,  on  account  of  the  different  degrees  of 
temperature  at  particular  seasons  of  the  year.  We  have  already  stated  that,  tlie  latitudes 
being  the  same,  maritime  countries  enjoy  a  more  equal  temperature  than  districts  removed 
from  the  sea ;  in  other  words,  that  tlio  summers  are  less  warm,  the  winters  less  cold :  thus, 
the  provinces  of  the  west  of  France,  which  are  all  maritime,  experience  this  degree  of  uni- 
formity ;  which  cannot  take  place  in  tlie  east,  being  fur  from  the  sea,  and  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  mountains. 

Plants  now,  in  what  concerns  climate,  may  be  divided  into  two  classes:  those  which 
suffer  from  a  severe  winter  cold,  but  which,  during  summer,  do  not  require  an  excess  "' 
heat ;  and  those  which  can  endure  great  severity  of  cold  in  winter,  but,  during  sumn  ' 
require  a  great  proportion  of  heat.  In  the  first  class,  M.  de  Candolle  places  all  tiiose  tree: 
which,  without  being  resinous,  preserve  their  leaves,  and  consequently  their  sup,  through  the 
winter;  in  fact,  the  greater  proportion  of  the  trees  of  the  south  being  found,  whether 
indigenous  or  naturalised,  towards  the  north  in  the  maritime  provinces ;  such  as  the  Live 
Oak,  the  Cork  Tr»5e,  the  Kcrmes  Oak,  the  Strawberry  Tree  (,Arbutus),  the  Bay,  the  Fig, 


TheOliTe. 


The  Vine. 


the  Phillyrea,  &.c.     On  the  other  hand,  in  the  second  class,  that  is  to  say,  among  such  as 
can  brave  a  great  degree  of  cold,  and  do  so  because  the  movement  of  the  sap  is  interrupted 


Part  HI. 

Ih  convpye«l 
lanta  of  the 
vcBt  side  of 
J  of  NantcB 
jiawucn  lat. 
nAnirg  vary 
vv  dJHtanccs 
f  luid  down, 
lit  tlio  mean 
lid  elevation 
et  ubovo  the 
2  of  latitude 

t  the  surface 
considerable 
r  hand,  upon 
an  elevation 
frontier;  but 
tiie  distance 
laws,  in  the 
rest,  than  on 

ints  between 
it  degroeB  of 
the  latitudes 
riots  removed 
»8  cold :  thus, 
legrce  of  uni- 
hc  vicinity  of 

those  wV.icli 
an  excess.  "♦ 
ring  sumiT^ 
all  tliose  treei 
),  through  the 
iind,  wliether 
;h  as  the  Live 

Bay,  the  Fig, 


Book  I. 


FRANCE. 


525 


nong  such  as 
lis  interrupted 


272 


by  the  ikll  of  the  folia{^,  in  the  Vine,  &c.,  and  those  that  avoid  cold  because  the  planto,  or 
\l  leaat  their  stems,  are  annual,  such  os  Maize.  It  may  be  readily  supposed  tliat  the  indi- 
viduals belonging  to  the  second  class  will  flourish  better,  and  become  more  easily  naturalised 
on  the  cast  than  on  the  west  coast  of  France. 

Ijot  UH  applv  this  law  to  a  peculiarity  in  regard  to  the  cultivation  of  those  moxt  precious 
Vfc/^clable  productions  of  Franco,  naniciv,  llie  Olive  (Jiff.  270.),  the  Maize,  and  the  Vine 
(jEjf.  271.).  Mr.  Arthur  Youn|r,  during  his  travels  in  France,  paid  great  attention  to  agri- 
culture and  tlie  mode  of  cultivation  adopted  there,  and  published  a  map  of  the  countrv,  in 
which  he  ropro.sontcd,  by  three  nearly  parallel  linos,  the  northern  limits  of  the  three  plants 
just  alluded  to,  the  Olive,  the  Maize,  and  tiie  Vine.  It  excited  the  surprise  of  miiny,  that 
the  lines  should  ascend  most  to  the  north  on  the  east  side  of  the  country,  or,  in  other  words, 
that  the  plants  in  (|Ucgtion  should  grow  farther  north  in  the  eastern  than  in  the  western 
districts;  directly  the  reverse  of  what  takes  place  in  regard  tc  the  aboriginal  native  pro<luc- 
tions  of  the  soil.  This  apparent  contradiction  is  reconcile*!  by  the  twofold  cotnpariNon  of  the 
physical  nature  of  the  east  and  west  of  Fnince,  and  of  the  character  of  the  plants  cultivated, 
oa  conipanid  with  the  wild  species. 

The  nature  of  the  cultivated  productions  in  question  forms  a  striking  feature,  which  can- 
not fail  to  arrest  the  attention  of  a  traveller  while  journeying  through  the  districts  thus 
appropriated,  and  forcibly  to  exhibit  their  agricultural  riches.  In  the  extreme  south  of 
Prance,  between  a  line  drawn  from  Narbonne,  in  lat.  43°  N.  and  in  the  meridian  of  I'aris, 
to  a  little  below  Grenoble,  he  will  find  the  plains,  parched  and  dry  as  they  naturally  arc, 
rendered  still  more  mi-liinclioly  by  the  lurid  green  or  the  olivc-grovea.  Between  that  line 
and  another  drawn  from  the  mouth  of  the  Garonne  rather  below  46°,  to  nour  Strasbiirg,  in 
the  north-west,  he  will  observe,  together  with  the  vino,  which  is  by  no  means  wanting  in 
all  the  southern  provinces,  fields  whiirn  the  gigantic  maize  (Jiff.  272.)  takes  the  place  of 

what  wo  Msuully  term  bread-corn;  again,  between  it  and  a 
line  extending  from  the  mouth  of  the  Loire  to  the  Riiine, 
imssing  at  about  an  e(|uni  diistiincc  between  the  Mcnso  and 
the  Moselle,  he  will  find,  interniingb-d  with  vineyards, 
fertile  fields  of  corn,  wheat  (^jjr.  27.'3.),  oats,  nnd  barley; 
whilst,  nortli  of  tiiat  line,  there  exists  a  most  perfect  simi- 
larity in  agriculture  witli  that  which  prevails  throughout 
the  greater  part  of  England.  Fruit  trees  of  all  the  kinds 
that  arc  grown  in  Britain,  here  attain  a  much  greater  degree 
of  perfection  than  in  that  country,  because  of  the  increased 
heat  of  the  summers. 

Thus,  in  what  concerns  a  great  portion  of  the  territory 
of  France,  its  vegetable  productions  'much  resemble  those 
of  the  southern  (larts  of  Great  Britain. 

It  is  not,  perhaps,  generally  known  that  that  most  uscfiil 
root,  the  Potato,  was  cultivated  in  almost  every  part  of 
Europe  before  its  value  was  appreciated,  and  its  culture 
became  general,  near  the  capital  of  Franco.  To  England 
is  due  the  credit  of  first  growing  it  upon  a  large;  scale. 
Upon  the  Continent  it  was  introduced  between  the  years 
1714  and  1724  into  Swabia,  Alsace,  and  the  Palatinate ; 
and  in  1730  to  the  vicinity  of  Berne.  In  1774,  potatoes 
were  known  on  the  mountains  of  the  Cevennes,  where  they 
now  constitute  a  main  portion  of  the  food  of  the  people :  but 
it  is  principally  to  the  famous  M.  Parmentier  that  France 
owes  the  general  use  of  potatoes.  The  following  anecdote 
may  give  some  idea  of  the  n.ssiduity  with  which  this  philanthropic  individual  laliourcd  to 
generalise  their  culture;  it  is  well  attested  that  ho  farmed  some  spots  of  ground  in  the 
vicinity  of  Paris  for  this  sole  purpose,  though  the  prejudice  against  potatoes  was  then  so 
strong,  that  few  of  the  poor  persons  to  whom  he  offered 'the  rtHDts  would  accept  of  tliem. 
However,  M.  Parmentier  soon  suspected  that  people  occasionally  stole  his  [x)tatoes  to  eat 
them :  he  was  well  pleased  at  this,  and  continued  to  plant  what  he  hoped  would  Ik;  purloined, 
rightly  concluding  that  the  experience  of  the  thieves  would  contribute  to  diminish  the 
established  preju<lice.  A*ler  much  trouble  ond  many  years,  he  had  succeeded  in  proiiagatinjr 
potatoes  in  several  situations,  when  the  dreadful  scarcity,  the  consequence  and  effwt  of  the 
revolutionary  disturbances,  suddenly  rendered  their  cultivation  universal ;  and  now  they 
form  so  constant  an  article  of  food,  that  the  common  people  generally  believe  them  to  be 
aboriginal  natives  of  the  country. 

The  mountains  of  France  exhibit  the  British  alpine  plants,  with  many  others  that  are 
iicculiar  to  themselves,  and  which  they  possess  in  common  with  the  higher  Alps  of  S witzer- 
rind.  Savoy,  Germany,  and  the  Pyrenees. 
Of  the  mtermediatc  region,  as  De  Candolle  terms  it,  a  great  portion  lying  in  the  aouth- 


The  Maira. 


5      I 


HI 


Ill 


1:1 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pabt  III. 


west  of  France,  embracoa  a  country  called  the  Landes,  where  the  shepherd-peasantry 
whether  walking,  or  at  rest  during  the  day,  live  upon  stilte  {xcangues,  in  the  langua||;e  o! 


Whcit,  Onti,  and  Bailer. 

the  country):  this  custom  gives  them  the  opportunity  of  viewing  the  land  around  in  search 
cif  their  sheep,  for  a  great  extent,  of  wading  through  the  numerous  shallow  lakes  of  water ; 

and  by  these  means  it  is  said  they  can  tra- 
verse triple  the  space  of  ground  they  could 
do  by  the  ordinary  mode  of  walking;  when 
they  stop,  they  support  themselves  by  a  long 
stick  behind.  In  this  same  district  a  vast 
extent  of  flat  Innd  near  the  ocean,  and  ex- 
tending from  Bayonne  in  the  south  to  the 
Tf'tc  do  Buch  in  the  norfli,  and  for  a  dis- 
tance of  from  four  to  twelve  leagues  inland, 
is  occupied  by  forests  of  Pine  {I'invs  mart- 
lima)  {fir.  274.) :  tiicse  are  called  Pigna- 
dus,  and  tiicy  give  a  remarkable  feature  to 
the  Iflndes,  in  conjunction  with  the  habits 
cif  the  people  ami  their  dress,  the  latter 
consisting  entirely  of  sheep-skins  with  the 
hair  outwards,  little  different  in  outward 
appearance  from  the  flocks  which  it  is  the 
great  object  of  their  lives  to  tend.  The 
ropinoiis  substances  of  the  pine  are  extract- 
eii  in  immense  quantities;  in  doing  whicli, 
one  man  takes  care  of  liOOO  trees.  The 
Country  being  so  dry,  these  pignadas  are 
liable  to  alarming  conflagrations;  one  of 
them  that  took  place  in  1803,  continued 
burning  for  two  months.  The  mo<le  adopt- 
ed for  extinguishing  tliem  is  ren)arkuble : 
when  one  part  of  the  forest  is  in  flames,  it 
is  customary  to  set  fire  to  another  spot,  at 
a  greater  or  less  distance,  according  to  the 
magnitude  of  the  evil ;  a  current  of  air 
soon  takes  place  between  the  burning 
masses,  which  drives  the  conflagration 
from  'oth  sides  on  the  intermediate  trees ; 
these  are  shortly  consumed,  the  fire  dies 
out  for  want  of  fuel,  and  the  rest  of  the  forest  is  preserved. 

But  tlie  Mediterranean  region,  wiiich  we  have  already  mentioned,  and  whose  vegetation 
partakes  of  what  is  found  to  characteiize  tiie  whole  shores  of  that  vast  inland  sea,  has  many 
plants  so  diflt.'rcnt  from  those  of  tlie  rest  of  France,  tiiat  it  would  be  unpardonable  did  we  not 
particularise  some  of  tliem. 

Almost  everywhere  in  tliis  region,  the  soil  is  described  as  consisting  of  the  secondary 
iimestone  of  the  Jura,  extending  to  the  very  brmk  of  the  sea,  forming  arid  coasts,  often 
utterly  destitute  of  vegetation,  or  clothed  with  Wild  Olives  and  the  Aleppo  Pine  iPinus 


Tire  Pine. 


Paht  III. 

peasantry 
nguage  o! 


0 


GuOK  I. 


PRANCE. 


097 


.  .1 
I 


J 


nd  in  search 
[es  of  water ; 
they  can  tra- 
11(1  they  could 
Hiking ;  when 
lives  by  a  long 
listrict  a  vast 
cean,  and  ex- 
south  to  the 
and  for  a  dis- 
eaftues  inland, 
(_Pin%is  mari- 
cnlled  Pigna- 
d)lc  feature  to 
ith  the  habits 
^ss,  the  latter 
[skins  with  the 
]it  in  outward 
-liich  it  is  the 
:o  tend.    Tlie 
[le  arc  extract- 
doing  which. 
I  trees.     The 
pifinadas  arc 
itions;  one  of 
J03,  continued 
[le  mode  adopt- 
]s  reniiirkable : 
is  in  flames,  it 
iiiotlier  spot,  at 
;cording  to  the 
urrent  of  air 
the  burning 
conflagration 
^nediate  trees; 
the  fire  dies 

lose  vegetation 
I  sea,  has  many 
kble  did  we  not 

I the  secondary 
coasts,  often 
Pine  (Ptnus 


"^f' 


halepentis),  with  Evergreen  Oak,  Pistachio-Nut,  Myrtles,  and  numerous  species  of  Cistus. 
Here,  too,  is  found  one  species  of  Palm,  the  Chamairops  humilis  {Palmetto  or  Dwarf  Palm) ; 
but  it  grows  principally  in  the  environs  of  Nice.  At  the  opposite  extremity  of  the  Medi- 
terranean region,  namely,  about  Roussillon  and  Provence,  and  there  only  in  the  hotter  parts, 
are  seen  the  Indian  Fig  {Cactus  Tuna),  and  the  American  Aloe  {Agave  amcrirana) :  the  intro- 
duction of  those  is  duo  to  the  Spaniards,  who  brouglit  them  to  Europe  fi-oui  the  Now  World, 
Schouw  regards  the  Mediterranean  shores  in  general  as  tlic  kingdom  of  tli((  Curyophyllon; 
and  linbiata;;  tliis  latter  family  especially  abounds  in  the  south  of  Fruuci',  and  particuliirly 
the  genera  I'hiomis,  Teucrium,  Thymus,  Lavandula,  and  others,  remarkable  flir  th(iir  ari>- 
matic  qualities.  Li  the  same  places,  and  always  on  very  stony  ground,  the  elegant  Coris 
monspelicnsis  excels  the  heaths  of  Britain  in  beauty.  The  mnlbcrry  is  cullivatcd  through- 
out this  territory ;  and  among  other  useful  fruits,  the  Fig,  the  Jujube,  the  I'onie^'ranate,  tiio 
Date,  and  the  Pistachio,  all  arrive  at  great  perfection.  The  Orange  can  i-carccly  be  stiid  to 
be  cultivated  without  shelter  in  any  part  of  France.  It  is  grown,  however,  and  somewhat 
extensively,  at  tlie  Isles  d'Hieres,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  Nice,  that  happy  climate  which  is 
probably  unequalled  by  any  part  of  Europe.  Corn,  which  is  but  a  secondary  article  of  cul- 
ture, ripens  at  a  very  early  period ;  so  much  so  that  it  is  not  unfrequent  to  carry  barley  which 
lias  been  reaped  on  the  coast  into  the  mountains,  where  the  seed  is  sown,  and  a  second  crop 
is  produced  the  same  year.  Many  plants  may  be  here  enumerated  which  this  country  pos- 
sesses in  common  with  Greece  and  Italy,  and  even  the  Spanish  peninsula,  and  which  seem 
to  accompany  the  Olive.  Mirbel  has  drawn  up  the  following  list  of  woody  kinds,  which 
inhabit  these  province.^ : — Pinus  Pinaster,  and  Pinea,  Junipcrus  phoenicea  and  Oxyccdrus, 
Quercus  Ilex,  Suber  and  coccifera,  Celtis  australis,  Ficus  Carica,  Osyris  allia,  Laurus  nobilis, 
Fraxinus  Ornus,  Phillyrca  latitblia  and  angustifolia,  Jasniinum  fructicans,  Vitex  Agnus- 
castus,  Nerium  Oleander,  Diosnyros  Ijotos,  Styrax  officinale.  Arbutus  Uncdo,  Viburnum 
Tinus,  Tamarix  gallica  and  africana,  Myrtus  communis,  Punica  Granatum,  Philadelphus 
coronarius,  Crata3gus  Azarolus,  Mespilus  pyracantha,  Ceratonia  siliqua,  Cercis  Sili(iuastrum, 
Rhus  Cotinus  and  Coriaria;  Pi..5tacia  Lentiscus,  Tcrebinthus,  and  vera;  Rhamnus  Alatcr- 
nus,  oleoides,  and  infectoria;  Zizyphus  vulgaris,  Paiiunis  australis,  Capparis  spinosa,  Melia 
Azedarach,  Acer  monspessulanum,  &c. 

Hitherto  the  attention  of  naturalists  in  the  study  of  vegetable  geography  has  been  direct- 
ed to  those  plants  that  grow  upon  the  surface  of  the  earth :  Humboldt  alone,  in  Iiis  Carte 
Oeographique  des  Plantes,  has  indicated  the  station  of  some  subterranean  Funjii,  and  in  a 
275  general  way  has  marked  tlie  ocean  a* 

the  habitat  of  Ulva;  and  Fiici  {Jig. 
275.).  It  remained  for  M.  d'(  )rl)igny 
tc  describe  to  a  certain  extent  at  least, 
the  Zones  ami  Bands  inhahilod  !)y  thi.- 
marine  Alga;  (Sea-Wnod.s).  This  he 
accomplished  upon  the  coasts  in  the 
Gulf  of  Gascony,  and  particularly  on 
the  shores  of  La  Voiidi'C  and  the  Lower 
Charente,  partly  by  diving  to  consider- 
able depths  in  the  sea,  an<l  partly  by 
means  of  drag-nets  fixed  to  graduated 
cords;  and  the  results  of  his  observa- 
tions are  given  in  tlin  Mi'moirrs  ilu 
Mufium  iPIIistnire  Nalitrdle,  vol.  vi. 
With  extracts  from  this,  as  wo  shall 
scarcely  have  again  the  opportunity  tif 
touching  on  this  beautiful  and  interest- 
ing tribe  of  plants,  we  slialt  conclude 
tliis  sketch,  already  too  much  extended,  of  the  vegetable  geography  of  France.  Muritini'; 
plants,  says  M.  d'Orbigny,  grow  in  the  most  opposite  temperatures:  every  country,  every 
latitude,  and  every  situation  possessing  some  which  are  peculiar  to  itself.  Still,  cliinat" 
and  temperature  appear  almost  alike  to  many  of  these  producfions,  which  are  found  by 
voyagers  in  every  diflcrent  ocean,  while  othcTs  require  particular  spots  and  climes :  soiiio 
few  preferring  the  fnonths  of  rivers,  and  the  brackish  waters  of  salt  inarslies,  where  tin' 
bitterness  of  the  sea  is  modified  by  the  admixture  of  fresh  water,  and  in  such  situations 
attaining  to  an  enormous  size,  as  Ulva  lactuca  var.  altissima,  while  to  the  greater  numbrr 
iif  these  plants,  fresh  water  proves  absolutely  destructive. 

As  for  those  kinds  which  grow  indiflferently  everywhere  in  the  sea,  they  seem  to  be 
increased  without  any  attachment  to  solid  bodies,  as  Fucus  natans,  &c.  Banks  of  great 
t.'xtent  formed  by  this  plant,  are  often  found  within  the  tropics  of  such  dimensions  as  to 
retard  the  progress  of  navigation.  Some  individuals  among  these  groups  may  freipiontly  be 
seen  which  bear  the  appearance  of  having  been  originally  fixed  to  rockVthoir  flattened, 
disc-like  stem  yet  retaining  a  portion  of  such  substance.  There  seiMns  to  be  ground  for  the 
eupposition  that,  though  these  sea-weeds  are  capable  of  living  and  growing  in  the  water, 


Ulvffi  and  Fuci. 


if-  i 


<        I. 


V 


^ 


528 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY 


Part  III. 


unattoclici]  to  any  boH,  yet  that  they  must  primarily  spring  from  some  solid  body,  as  no  young 
plants  of  tiiis  kind  are  ever  found  between  the  tropics. 

Sonic  of  the  Algo!  prefer  the  southern  sides  of  rocks,  others  affect  an  eastern,  western,  or 
northern  exposure ;  but  they  chaniro  their  position  according  to  tlie  difference  of  latitude : 
those  which  arc  foimd  on  the  southern  side  in  cold  climates,  being  generally  seen  on  the 
northern  in  the  warm  or  temperate  regions.  Certain  species  live  near  the  surface,  and  close 
to  the  sea-beach :  others,  at  various  deffrees  of  depths :  the  first  would  seem  to  enjoy  the 
regular  exposure  to  light  and  heat  which  they  experience  during  the  turnings  of  the  tide ; 
the  secon<l,  on  the  contrary,  shun  the  influences  of  the  atmosphere ;  and,  growing  and  fructi- 
fying in  depths  where  the  light  can  scarcely  ever  penetrate,  they  bear,  without  receiving 
any  injury,  both  the  enormous  column  of  water  which  constantly  presses  upon  them,  and  the 
severe  cold  which  exists  in  those  regions.  There  are  even  parasitical  Alga,  which  grow 
indifferently  upon  all  the  others,  and  some  which  only  affect  peculiar  species. 

Many  sea-weeds  prefer  such  spots  as  are  exposed  to  the  fury  of  the  waves  and  the  action 
of  the  currents,  where  they  are  perpetually  floating  in  an  agitated  medium:  others  dwell 
in  the  hollows  of  rocks,  or  in  marine  gulfs,  where  the  water  is  generally  calm.  The  lapse 
of  a  few  days  put.s  a  period  to  the  existence  of  some  kinds,  whilst  the  tempests  of  successive 
winters  full  to  destroy  others.  The  general  as)  ect  is  apt  to  change  in  several  individuals, 
so  that,  were  it  not  for  more  stable  characters,  derivable  from  their  fructification,  texture,  &.c. 
they  might  be  mistaken  for  novel  species. 

A  number  of  the  more  delicate  marine  plants  are  quickly  destroyed  by  a  removal  from 
tJieir  native  place  of  growth ;  but  the  greater  proportion,  being  coriaceous,  and  insoluble  in 
salt  water,  live  for  a  length  of  time  in  different  situations ;  and  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find, 
upon  our  own  shores,  the  Algte  of  the  most  distant  regions,  which  have  troversed  the  ocean, 
and  yet  remain  unchanged  in  their  general  appearance.  We  must  thence  necessarily  infer  that 
it  is  not  all  the  Alg<B  that  are  found  in  any  country  that  may  be  said  to  belong  to  that  country. 

The  proportions  of  marine  plants  are  as  variable  as  those  of  terrestrial  ones.  Some  are 
barely  discoverable  with  the  highest  magnifiers;  while  others  rise  from  the  various  depths 
of  the  miglity  ocean,  and,  tbrming  at  its  surface  an  angle  of  greater  or  less  acutcness  accord- 
ing to  the  force  and  velocity  of  the  cunents  and  the  tides,  then  suflbr  their  long  summits  to 
float  on  the  waves,  and  receive  the  benign  influences  of  atmospheric  light  and  heat.  During 
the  great  equinoctial  floods,  the  sea  oflen  forsakes,  periodically,  certain  rocks,  which  ore 
only  uncovered  at  such  times.  If,  during  that  interval,  the  sun  shines  forth,  or  the  north 
wind  blows,  many  of  the  minute  and  delicate  Alga,  thus  exposed,  dry  up  and  die;  while 
others,  though  equally  circumstanced,  revive  immediately  upon  the  return  of  the  genial  fluid. 

A  certain  proportion  of  marine  plants  are  natives  of  the  French  seas,  while  we  must  refer 
the  accession  of  many  species  to  the  force  of  the  winds,  waves,  and  currents,  especially  to 
that  which  generally  goes  under  the  name  of  Chtlf  Strenm,  and  is  called  by  the  French  the 
Mexican  Current.  Almost  all  the  northern  Alga  grow  in  the  Gulf  of  Gascony.  It  is  not 
so  with  those  from  the  Mediterranean  and  Southern  Ocean ;  a  very  small  number  of  them 
are  there  soon  in  a  living  state,  and  their  almost  northern  limit  never  exceeds  the  mouth  of 
the  Loire,  or  at  farthest  the  rock  of  Morbihan.  Independently  of  the  influence  of  tem- 
perature, this  circumstance  may  be  attributed  in  a  measure  to  the  current,  which,  generally 
setting  in  on  these  shores  from  north  to  south,  brings  the  seeds  and  plants  themselves  of 
northern  seas  to  these  rocks,  while  those  of  southern  growth  are  wafled  by  the  same  current 
to  Africa  and  the  Atlantic. 

But  few  are  the  kinds  of  sea-weed  which  prefer  any  peculiar  spot,  or  show  a  predilection 
for  one  substance  above  another  whereon  to  fix.  Deriving  no  nutriment  from  their  roots  or 
points  of  attachment,  they  need  nothing  farther  than  a  temporary  support;  thus,  they  cling 
indiscriminately  to  any  solid  marine  body,  equally  to  granitic  and  calcareous  rocks,  to  floating 
or  sunken  pieces  of  wood,  to  the  bones  of  terrestrial  or  marine  animals,  to  shells,  polypi,  &c. 

jVotwithstnnding  that  many  highly  respectable  naturalists  have  averred  that  tiie  growth 
of  these  plants  proceeds  with  most  vigour  on  such  and  such  substances,  on  some  or  other 
peculiar  rock,  in  the  vicinity  of  rivers,  or  in  the  opon  sea ;  it  has  been  fully  ascertained,  by 
a  great  number  of  observations,  that  marine  weeds  do  grow  witli  equal  vigour,  though 
planted  upon  rocks  or  substances  of  very  different  natures ;  and  that,  if  we  except  some  few 
llvw,  which  affect  brackish  water,  those  which  vegetate  in  situations  where  fresh  water 
mingles  with  the  salt,  are  generally  bleached,  produce  little  or  no  fructification,  have  a  thin 
and  weak  texture,  and  contain  but  little  soda.  The  qualities  requisite  for  the  different  uses 
of  which  I  shall  treat  hereafter,  are  only  found  united  in  such  sea-weeds  as  grow  in  pure 
sea-water,  where  they  have  found  a  spot  which  is  sufliciontly  tenacious  to  fix  them  in  that 
zone  of  habitation  which  they  prefer. 

Some  kinds  certainly  prefer  sand  or  mud ;  but  then  their  roots  become  elongated,  and 
strike  deep,  till  they  meet  with  some  stone  or  shell  or  other  body  which  may  serve  them  as 
a  point  of  attachment,  and  offer  the  requisite  degree  of  resistance. 

If  the  nature  of  the  bottom  appears  indifferent,  in  a  great  measure  to  maritime  plants ;  it 
is  not  so  with  the  level  which  they  select  in  the  ocean,  or  with  the  distance  of  their  birth- 
place from  the  surface.    Every  species  of  maritime  vegetable  appears  to  affect,  to  as  great 


iRT  III. 

0  young 

stem,  or 
atitude : 
n  on  tho 
ind  close 
njoy  the 
Ihe  tide ; 
id  fructi- 
■eceiving 
,  and  the 
lich  grow 

he  action 
lers  dwell 
rhe  lapse 
mccessive 
idividuals, 
xture,  &c. 

loval  from 

[Soluble  in 

ion  to  find, 

the  ocean, 

y  infer  that 

at  country. 
Some  are 

ious  depths 

less  accord- 
summits  to 

3at.  During 

I,  which  are 

or  the  north 
(lie ;  while 

genial  fluid. 

3  must  refer 
wcialiy  to 
i'rench  the 
It  is  not 
ber  of  them 
le  mouth  of 
nee  of  tern- 
I,  generally 
emselves  of 
iimo  current 

predilection 
heir  roots  or 
,  they  cling 
I,  to  floating 
polypi,  &c. 
tlie  growth 
)me  or  other 
lertaincd,  by 
'our,  though 
pt  some  few 
freBh  water 
have  a  thin 
iffprent  uses 
;row  in  pure 
[them  in  that 

bn^ated,  and 
frve  tlicm  as 

|e  plants;  it 
their  birth- 
,  to  as  great 


Rook  I. 


FRANCE. 


.WO 


«n  pxtont  us  Ihu  terrestrial  kinds,  certain  zonos  or  regions  of  diflbrcnt  depths  in  tlio  sea: 
pluci.'s  wlicri!  llio  siiporincunibcnt  wciglit  of  wntcr,  and  tho  relative  proportion  of  lijrht  and 
caloric  iiro  iidaiitivl  to  its  peculiar  organs.  Tiicse  individuals  wliich  are  found  towards  the 
cenii'c  of  tlif'ir  prnpor  zone  contain  all  the  elements  requisite  f()r  tiioir  iicrfcctdcvolopoment, 
and  genornlly  hIioW  an  active  state  of  vegetation;  tiiuy  are  vigorous,  tlicy  fructify  at  the 
season  suitiible  to  tiicir  degree  of  immersion,  while  those  which  grow  at  tlie  extreme  limit, 
or  out  of  llio  jjounds,  of  this  same  zone,  prove  languisiiing,  fructify  imperfectly,  are  always 
covered  with  marine  animals  wiiicli  destroy  them,  and  live  but  a  sliort  time  in  comparison 
with  tlieir  well-situated  congeners.  The  seeds  which  escape  from  those  plants  woulJ  appear, 
by  their  various  specific  weights,  to  gain  an  equilibrium  equivalent  to  the  colunm  of  water 
which  they  displace,  or,  in  oilier  words,  to  float  in  that  peculiar  zone  which  tlie  future  Alga 
would  prefer  to  inhabit.  Those  wliich  become  developed  either  above  or  below  it,  arc  ine- 
vitably driven  from  tlieir  spot  of  nature  or  of  election,  by  the  agitation  in  the  waves  at  the 
vicinity  of  tlit;  counts. 

Ijower  down  tlinn  a  hunrlred  feet  from  the  surface  of  the  sea,  (taking  a  medium  between 
the  liiirli  iiiiil  low  tides,)  it  is  rare  to  find  living  sea-weeds  in  tho  Gulf  of  Gascony,  and  even 
these  uro  iittiKMii'd  to  portions  of  rock  severed  from  more  elevated  rocks,  and  before  long 
they  inevitably  pi-'rish. 

It  may  lie  observed  that  the  lower  we  investigate  the  sea,  the  fewer  will  the  number  of 
plants  appoiir,  and  the  more  numerous  tho  polypi.  For  instance,  below  forty  feet  from  the 
surface  of  tin;  uiitur,  liut  very  few  UlvtB  are  found;  beyond  sixty  feet,  no  living  Ceramium ; 
and  after  having  descended  to  the  depth  of  a  hundred  feet,  not  a  Fucus  is  to  be  seen,  and 
tlie  vec-'fable  kingdom  wholly  ends. 

1st  jne,  extending  from  one  foot  above  the  medium  height  of  the  sea  to  twenty  feet 
below,  is  inhabited  by  Ulva  compressa  van  ji;  U.  intostinalis,  ventricosa,  Lactuca  var.  a; 
Fucus  pygmiEUs,ampliibius,  &c. 

2d  Zone,  from  five  feet  below  the  medium  height  to  thirty  feet : — Ulva  articulata,  Nostoc, 
bullaia,  fistulosa,  Lactuca  var.  3,  imibilicalia,  lancoolata,  purpurea,  Linza,  contortii,  serrata, 
dichotoma,  crispa,  pavonia,  atoinaria  (!);  Fucus  vcsiculosus,  spiralis,  ceranoidcs,  serratus, 
cuniiliculatus,  coespitosus,  laceratus,  hybridus,  longissimus,  pinnatifidus,  viridis,  arbuscula, 
fiistigiatus,  tenuissimus  (Oi  confcrvoidcs ;  Ceramium  spongiosum,  rupcstre,  Mertensii,  poni- 
cillatum,  fucoides,  nodulosum,  gracile,  linuni;  Zostera  marina  and  mediterranea  ;  Diatoma 
rigiduni,  flocculosum,  &c. 

.'{(1  Zone,  from  fifteen  to  thirty-five  feet  below  the  medium  surface. .  Ulva  ocellata,  pal- 
niatn,lingulata,polypodioides,caulescens;  Fucus  longifructu3,lumbricalis,bifurcatus,ericoides, 
barbatus,  abrotunitolius,  vermicularis,  norvogiciis,  oMusus,  asparagoides,  Wiggiiii,  verrucosus, 
helmintliocortos ;  Ceramium  simplicifolium,  cnsuarina,  cancellatum,  coccineum,  incurvum, 
elongatum,  polymorphum,  forcipatuji,  filum,  capillare,  glomeratum,  elegans,  &c. 

4th  Zone,  from  twenty  to  forty  feet  below  the  medium  surfiice : — Ulva  Phyllitis,  saccha- 
rina,  digituta,  bulbosa,  ciliata,  edulis;  Fucus  nodosus,  uvarius,  furcatus,  ciliatus,  alatus, 
plocamium,  plumosus,  comeus,  gigartinus,  acnleatus,  plicatiis ;  Ceramium  verticillatum, 
equisctifolium,  sericeum,  scoparium,  &c. 

5th  Zone,  from  thirty  to  sixty  tect : — Fucus  siliquosus  var.  a,  purpurascens,  ligulatus, 
pistillutns;  Ceramium  coccineum,  ajgagropilum,  ttc. 

Cth  Zonp,  from  tiirty  to  u  hundred  feet : — The  flattened  Fuci ;  F.  siliquosus  var.  (3,  loreus, 
sanguineus,  iibrosus,  coronopifolius,  &c.,  and  Ulva  tomentosa,  which  is,  in  fact,  a  polypus. 

SunsECT.  3. — Zoology. 

The  zoolocry  of  France  assimilates  less  to  that  of  central  than  of  southern  Europe.  Not- 
.  withstanding  the  narrowness  of  its  separation  from  Great  Britain,  it  possesses  many  animals 
unknown  as  natives,  or  even  as  visiters,  of  that  island.  With  regard  to  quadrupeds,  this 
circumstance  is  not  surprising ;  for  any  channel  of  the  sea,  however  narrow,  forms  an  insur- 
mountable obstacle  to  the  wanderings  or  migration  of  purely  terrestrial  species:  while 
others,  of  a  semiaquatic  nature  are  too  small  and  feehle  to  eflect  the  passage.  These  con- 
siderations, however,  are  insufficient  to  explain  the  limilc<l 
range  of  the  smaller  birds,  hitherto  found  only  upon  the 
Continent.  The  distribution  of  insects  is  dependent,  in  a 
great  degree,  upon  that  of  plants;  and  the  numbers  of  both 
common  in  France,  but  unknown  in  Britain,  arc  nearly 
proportionate ;  on  the  calculation  tliat  has  been  made  of 
six  species  of  insects  to  one  of  plants. 

Among  the  wild  (piadriipeds  of  France  is  the  wolf  (^i^r. 
276.),  which  is  still  not  uncommon  in  the  womled  and 
mountainous  districts:  when  pressed  by  liungor,  it  de- 
scends to  the  farms,  and  even  attacks  the  inhabitants. 
The  beaver  is  said  still  to  exist  in  the  southern  parts, 
and  probably  tho  wild  boar  may  not  be  wholly  extirpated 
Vol.  I.  4.5  3  a 


ir 


I 


■  m 


The  Wolf 


5:30 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGIIAPIIY. 


Part  III. 


I  i 


iv. ; 


from  tlio  oxistinjf  forcstH.     Ui'iirs  wcro  onco  common,  wliilo  three  or  finir  of  the  smaller  quad- 
riipcilB  iippoar  peculiiir  to  France. 

Si;vonil  intcrestiiif,'  ami  buaiitirul  birdsi,  unknown  or  bnt  mrely  met  with  in  Britain,  an- 
here;  not  uncommon ;  such  as  the  wood-chat  (^Jiff.  277.),  shrike  {Luniu»  rufus  T.)  the  gross- 
beak  or  iiinvfincii,  the  bliio-throated  warbler,  and  several  others  of  the  same  family.  In 
short,  from  tiio  connection  of  this  country  with  the  centnil  and  sontiiern  kingdoms  of  Europe, 
the  ornithologist  might  probably  disrovor  in  France  more  than  tlirec-tburths  of  all  the  conti- 
iicntul  birds. 

The  marine  praluctions  of  thopc  provinces  bordering 
on  the  Channel,  as  may  be  pxpcctcd,  do  not  offer  any 
marked  diflbrence  from  those  of  the  ilritish  coasts ;  but 
on  the  warm  shores  of  Nice  and  Marseilles  the  natu- 
ralist meets  with  numerous  productions,  indicative  of 
the  rich  stores  of  the  Moditorranoan  Sea.  The  ento- 
mology of  these  southern  provinces,  in  like  manner, 
presents  us  with  many  of  those  more  striking  inssocts, 
which  properly  belong  to  the  fauna  of  Italy.  The  beau- 
tiful Papilio  Poilalirim  (Jiff.  278.)  so  rare  in  England 
that  its  existence  there  is  still  doubted,  is  here  a  common 
insect.  France  has  long  stood  foremost  in  promoting  and  illustrating  the  study  of  nature ; 
nnd  a  society  comprising  some  of  her  most  able  zoologists  is  at  this  moment  engaged  in 
publishing  a  Fauna  Oallica.  An  able  and  indefatigable  naturalist,  M.  Risso,  has  particu- 
uularly  illustrated  the  fishes  and  Crustacea  of  Nice.  It  was  near  this  place  that  one  of  the 
278     -.  .    . 

279  i 


The  Wood-fhiit. 


Mitta  ZoMla. 


Papilio  PodaliriuB, 


rarest  and  most  beautiful  shells  of  Europe,  the  Mitra  zotiata  (Jiff.  279.)  was  fished  up  by 
the  anchor  of  a  vessel ;  only  one  specimen  is  known  to  exist  in  collections. 

Among  the  domestic  animals,  tlic  French  horsps  are  not  very  excellent;  yet  those  used 
in  the  public  stages  are  t^trong,  active,  and  compactly  made;  nor  have  their  masters  copied 
the  ridiculous  and  biirbarous  custom  of  disfiguring  these  animals,  by  cutting  oft'  their  tails 
or  ears.  The  stjillions  of  England  are  much  prized,  and  have  been  judiciously  used  to  im- 
prove the  native  breeds. 

The  oxen  are  of  two  races;  the  one  called  hnvfo  dr  haul  cru  are  of  a  middle  or  small 
size,  with  a  fierce  lixjk,  thick  hide,  nnd  coarse  hair;  they  are  principally  bred  in  the  moun- 
tainous provinces  of  Gascony,  Auvcrgnc,  &c.  The  others  are  called  hcevfs  de  nature,  and 
arc  larger,  with  a  mild  aspect,  thin  hide,  nnd  soft  hair:  they  fatten  ea.«ily,  and  belong  to  the 
plains. 

The  native  breeds  of  sheep,  not  in  themsolvcs  good,  have  been  of  Into  sedulously  and 
successfully  improved.  The  Flemish  breed,  common  both  to  Fmnco  nnd  the  Netherlands, 
is  generally  hornless,  with  long  legs,  nnd  is  derived  from  an  intorinixturo  with  those  of 
Barbary.  The  Snloffnot  are  mastly  without  horns,  and  the  wool  is  curled  only  at  the  ends. 
The  Ihrichnnnc  are  likewise  iiornless,  but  are  known  by  their  long  neck :  the  face  is  covered 
with  \V(K)I ;  that  on  the  iKxIy  being  tine,  white,  close,  short,  and  curled.  The  Rovusillonne 
IS  derived  from  the  merino  race;  nnd  has  very  fine  wool,  the  filaments  of  the  piles  being 
twisted  spirally.  Lastly,  the  Ardrnnnise.  is  horned,  and  bears  a  very  tine  fleece:  this  breed 
liki'wiso  extends  over  part  of  the  Netlinrlands.     (Ham.  Smith.) 

A  large  nnd  elegant  variety  of  the  Domestic  Cat  is  very  common  in  some  parts  of  France  ; 
it  is  nearly  double  the  size  of  the  common  cat,  nnd  is  bearded  much  in  the  same  manner  aa 
the  lynx. 

Sect.  III. — Ilisloricnl  Geoffraphy. 
The  Gauls,  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  France,  and  the  chief  among  the  Celtic  nations, 
vvcre  an  active,  powerful,  and  ambitious  people.  Their  emigrant  hordes  repeatedly  crossed 
.he  Aljw,  possessed  the  wholf  north  of  Italy,  once  sacked  the  imperial  city,  and  even  pene- 
trated into  Greece  and  Asia  Minor.  Both  .Switzerland  and  Belgium  were  then  included  na 
,iart  of  Gaul.     The  people,  though  .still  barbarous,  had  made  some  steps  toward  civilisation. 


Part  III. 

allcrquad- 

Jritain,  aro 
I  tlic  grosH- 
iiniily.  I" 
of  Eiiropn, 
i  the  conti- 

9  bordering 
it  offer  any 
coasts;  but 
3  the  natii- 
itlioativc  of 

The  ento- 

,ke  manner, 

;ing  inspcts, 

The  beau- 

in  England 
•0  a  common 
f  of  nature ; 

engaged  in 
has  particu- 
it  one  of  the 


fished  up  by 


those  used 

lasters  copied 

their  tails 

used  to  im- 


off  1 


(lie  or  small 
in  the  rnoun- 

nnture,  and 
belong  to  the 

■Klulously  and 
Netherlands, 
ith  those  of 
at  the  ends, 
iicc  is  covered 
Roiixsillonne 
10  piles  being 
ce :  this  breed 

rts  of  France ; 
me  manner  as 


!;;cUic  nations, 
atedly  crossed 
id  oven  pene- 
pn  included  aa 
rd  civilisation. 


Book  I. 


PRANCE. 


m 


The  nobles  and  Druids  enjoyed  high  power  and  influence,  and  had  reduced  the  body  of  tho 
nation  almost  to  a  Htate  of  vaHsalagc.  They  combated  with  obstinacy,  and  made  a  long 
resistance  to  tiie  progress  uf  the  Roman  arms;  but  being  opposed  to  (/tcsar,  the  greatest 
iif  the  Roman  captains,  after  a  war  of  twenty  years,  they  were  entirely  and  permanently 
wibjrcted. 

The  conversion  of  Gaul  into  a  Roman  province,  though  it  humbled  the  chiefs  and  quelled 
the  MHirtiul  spirit  of  tho  people,  was  attended  with  many  beneficial  changes.  Peace  was 
I'stablishcd;  cultivation  and  industry  promoted;  Roman  and  oven  Greek  literature  intro- 
liuced ;  and  tlie  people  finally  converted  to  the  Christian  faith. 

The  irruption  of  the  Teutonic  tribes,  on  the  declino  of  tiie  Roman  empire,  was  early  felt 
in  Gaul,  where  the  Goths,  the  Ilcruli,  the  Burgnndians,  and  tlio  confederacy  called  tho 
Franks,  overwhelmed  and  ravaged  the  whole  kingdom,  and  drove  the  Celtic  population  and 
language  into  its  remote  and  moiuitainuus  corners.  From  amid  a  chaos  of  convulsions,  the 
vigorous  hand  of  Clovis  established  the  undisputed  supremacy  of  tho  Franks,  and  founded  tho 
monarchy  of  France. 

The  reign  of  Cimrlemagne,  son  and  successor  to  Pepin,  who  from  mayor  of  the  palace  had 
occupied  the  throne,  formed  the  most  brilliant  period  m  French  history.  That  eminent  and 
powerful  prince  not  only  placed  on  his  head  tho  iron  crown  of  Lombardy,  but  reduced  to  his 
dominion,  after  a  long  and  obstinate  resistance,  the  intractable  tribes  of  Germa.iy,  who  had 
defied  the  utmost  efforts  of  the  Roman  eagle.  Ho  penetrated  also  into  Spain;  but  the  fierce 
encounter  of  the  Saracens,  and  the  disastrous  adv^ture  of  Roncesvalles  on  his  return,  com- 
pletely stopped  l;is  career  in  that  direction.  Charlemagne,  though  himself  illiterate,  made 
some  efToris  to  rekindle  the  dec''.iing  light  of  tcience  and  letters  in  Euri/pe. 

The  contests  among  the  successors  of  Charlomogne  were  attended  with  the  most  violent 
and  bloody  convulsions,  and  with  cont'iual  changes  in  the  position  of  the  three  great  king- 
doms which  composed  liis  empire.  At  ic.:'''h  it  fell  entirely  to  pieces.  Germany  rctaine<l 
the  title  of  empire,  and  the  claim  to  the  domii..'''n  cf  Italy ;  and  in  France  the  Carlovingian 
dynasty,  or  that  of  Charlemagne,  having  become  e«;:i''t  un<''"'  I^iuis  Outremer,  the  throne 
was  seized  by  the  Capets,  the  most  powrtiil  among  the  noble  French  families. 

Hugh  Capet,  having  in  987  assumed  the  title  of  king,  the  real  power  attached  to  which 
had  already  been  exercised  by  his  fiitliei ,  Hugh  the  Great,  founded  the  present  dynasty.  Tho 
administration,  however,  was  long  marked  by  a  strong  feudal  character,  and  a  high  spirit  of 
independence  among  the  great  iiobleg,  of  whum  the  counts  of  Provence  and  Britany,  and  the 
dukes  of  Burgimdy,  ranked  altogether  as  separate  and  often  hostile  princes.  Tho  feudal  nge 
of  France  was  also  marked  by  chivalric  ard  eventful  wars  with  England,  which  long  held 
several  of  the  finest  provinces,  end  wlioso  king,  Henry  V.,  was  crowned  at  Paris;  but  from 
that  seemingly  approaching  downfall,  the  monaroiij-,  through  the  romantic  exploits  of  the 
Maid  of  Orleans,  suddenly  revived,  and  became  moi  o  mighty  thon  before. 

The  establishment  of  monarchical  power  in  its  plenitude  was  chiefly  efTected  by  the  pro- 
found and  insidious  policy  of  Louis  XI.,  favoured  by  the  circumstances  of  the  upo.  All 
France  was  united  under  the  sway  of  tho  kings,  who  were  thus  enabled  to  form  grt.'nt  armies, 
which,  under  Charles  VIII.  and  Ixjuis  XII.,  overran  nearly  the  whole  of  Italy.  But  it  was 
under  the  gay  and  enterprising  reign  of  Francis  I.  that  its  energies  were  fully  developed. 
It  thon,  however,  came  into  collision  with  tho  house  of  Austria,  whoso  extensive  possessions 
in  Germany,  Spain,  the  Netherlands,  and  Italy,  wielded  by  a  powerful  hand,  secured  to  it 
during  this  period  a  decided,  though  not  overwhelming,  ascendant. 

The  civil  wars  arising  out  of  the  persecution  of  the  Protestants  agitated  Franco  for  a  very 
long  time,  and  produced  scenes  of  the  most  bloody  and  calamitous  description.  They  lasted 
tor  a.  hundred  years ;  for  the  popular  reign  of  Henry  IV.  could  scarcely  be  considered  as  more 
than  a  truce.  At  length  Richelieu,  by  the  reduction  of  Roclielle,  terminated  the  long  strug- 
gle of  the  Protestants  for  religious  libertv,  which  in  France  alone,  of  all  the  countries  where 
it  was  maintained  upon  a  great  scale,  had  this  fatal  issue.  At  tho  same  time,  this  daring 
and  despotic  minister  finally  crushed  the  pow^r  and  pretensions  of  the  nobles,  and  formecl 
France  into  a  simple  monarchy. 

The  reign  of  Ijouis  XIV.,  during  which  a  single  hand  wielded  all  the  energies  called 
forth  during  the  prior  struggles,  exhibited  France  more  powerful  tlian  she  had  been  since 
Ciiarlemagne.  The  house  of  Austria,  now  divided  into  the  German  and  Spanish  branches, 
of  which  the  latter  luul  l)Pcome  weak  and  inert,  was  humbled  by  repeated  blows,  which  at 
length  almost  thrcatciR'd  li"r  existence.  France  seemed  advancing  in  the  career  of  iniiver- 
sal  monarchy,  when  tiie  interposition  of  England  and  the  victories  of  Marlborouffh  turned 
the  tide  of  success,  and  rendered  the  last  days  of  Louis  humiliating  and  disastrous.  The 
final  issue,  howevc^r,  by  which  a  Bourb(m  was  placed  on  the  throne  of  Spain,  and  tho  consc 
(juent  family  alliance,  gave  to  France  an  increased  weight,  especially  in  tho  maritime  con- 
cerns of  Europe. 

The  French  revolution  was  an  event  attended  with  awfiil  and  mighty  vicissitudes,  so  fresh 
'.n  the  memory  of  the  world,  that  it  would  be  quite  superfluous  to  attempt  to  enumerate  them. 
.\;ior  tearing  up  France  by  the  roots,  and  holding  all  Europe  in  chains;  after  exhibiting 


'■I 


■'  V  ■ 


L 


R33 


Dn.SCaiPTIVR  GKOr.FlAI'lIV. 


Part  III 


durin((  twenty  ynars  tlic  viciHsitudiJii  of  rnpublicaiiii-iii,  total  nimrrliy,  and  pure  desipotiem  ;  nt 
lonfftli,  by  a  nii(;lity  rc-actioi.,  it  tcrminatud  ncnrly  iit  the  point  from  wliicli  it  comitinncnd. 
France,  liowovor,  obtiiinod  chcckn  on  lliu  iirbilrnry  (Kiwcr  o(  lior  nionarcliH,  wliicli,  notwitli- 
■tandih);  their  opiKwition,  she  rendered  more  iinii  more  etTectivc!.  At  Icn^'th  Chiirh'.s  X., 
Imviii^r  rashly  attempted  to  break  tiimii^'h  all  the  liinitH  |)la(;ed  on  his  authority,  watt  driven 
from  hiH  throne,  which  was  tilled  by  lA.uiH-l'liili|)pe,  head  of  the  collateral  line  of  Orleans, 
under  the  tit'o  of  Kinj;  of  the  French. 

Swrr.  IV, — Political  OfO/rraphy. 
The  political  constitution  of  France,  prior  to  the  Revolution,  woh  almost  purely  despotic. 
The  privileges  of  the  nobles  consisted  ne'irly  altogether  in  unjust  exemntions  from  taxation, 
and  in  corvees,  or  inicjuitous  and  oppressive  claims  u|x)n  the  labour  of  the  peasantry.  The 
only  very  salutary  limit  to  the  royal  autliority  consisted  in  the  parliaments,  hereditary  bodies, 
by  whom  the  laws  were  very  fairly  an<l  linnourably  adminiHtered ;  and  the  parliament  of 
Paris  had  even  the  im|)ortaiit  privilege  of  registering  every  new  tax  before  it  could  become 
legal.  The  exorbitant  iH)Wcrs  vested  in  the  si/Vereign  being  however  inconsistent  with  the 
growth  of  national  intelligt>nco  and  the  augmented  force  of  the  tiern  Hat,  a  collision  took 
place,  the  iiio'tt  terrible  on  record,  wliicli  ended  in  the  tem|X)rary  subversion  of  the  throne. 
VVhen  the  Bourbons  were  restored  by  foreign  victories,  they  felt,  and  were  warned,  that 
Prance  could  no  longer  bo  governed  by  the  former  absolute  system ;  a!id  they  bestowed  by 
charter  n  representative  government  formed  on  the  admired  model  of  England.  The  nobles 
and  parliaments,  however,  bad  been  entirely  «wnpt  away  in  the  late  convulsions,  and  left  no 
hereditary  aristocracy  out  of  which  an  upper  house  could  be  composed.  A  Chamber  of  Peers 
was  tbrmed,  by  the  royal  appointment,  of  a  boily  of  individuals,  many  distinguished  rather 
by  talents  and  influence  than  by  birth ;  and  in  the  number  were  included  some  of  the  most 
distinguished  of  Napoleon's  g(!neral8.  Pensions  were  assigned  to  support  the  dignity  of  the 
Peers,  which  was  at  first  hereditary,  but  by  a  recent  enactment  is  to  continue  only  for  life 
The  Chamber  of  Deputies,  corresjKindin'g  to  the  House  of  Con)mons,  is  chosen  by  electors 
united  in  cortiim  bodies  called  electoral  colleges.  These  include  all  persons  poying  a  certain 
amount  of  direct  taxes;  whicli  limits  the  right  of  voting  to  the  iniddlingclass,  and  to  an  entire 
number  throughout  France  scarcely  exceeding  13(),0(K).  'l'h'.>  number  of  Deputies  is  430. 
The  functions  of  the  French  chambers  are  high.  Their  annual  vote  grants  uU  the  supplies  of 
the  year,  and  the  expenditure  of  the  jireceding  one  is  submitted  to  their  rigorous  examina- 
tion. No  toxes  can  be  imposcil,  or  loans  contracted  for,  without  their  concurrence.  Their 
debates  are  regularly  made  public,  and  an  arrangement  is  enacted  by  law  for  the  convenience 
of  the  reporters,  ^'et  the  chambers  want  some  of  the  ftiiictions  of  a  British  parlioment. 
They  cannot  fix  the  amount  of  the  army,  unless  by  limiting  the  funds  to  be  employed  in  its 
maintenance;  nor  can  Micy  call  in  question  the  engageinentis  held  by  government  with 
foreign  powers,  unh^ss  by  witliholr'ing  the  funds  necessary  to  fulfil  them.  The  liberty  of 
the  press  was  prnfes.«edly  granted  by  the  charter  •  but  there  has  been  much  fluctuation  in  its 
exercise;  it  was  even  repeatedly  made  subject  to  a  censorship:  even  since  the  last  great 
change,  its  freedom  has  not  been  established  on  as  ample  a  basis  as  in  Britain. 

The  administration  of  justice  in  France,  which,  before  the  Revolution,  was  still  more  com- 
plicated than  in  England,  has  been  simplified  in  a  very  remarkable  degree.     The  National 
Assembly  early  opplied  themselves  to  form  o  now  scries  of  codes,  which  might  supersede 
those  vast  and  voluminous  records  in  which  the  law  was  formerly  contained.     They  pro- 
jected five  codes,  respectively  referring  to  civil  law,  civil  procedure,  commerce,  criminal 
law,  and  penal  infliction.     These  were  conip!(!ted  under  Bonaparte,  who  gave  to  the  whole 
the  name  of  Code  Napolion :  it  is  comprised  in  a  moderate  volume,  sold  for  a  few  francs 
All  the  ancient  parliaments  and  seigniorial  authorities  lieing  .swept  away,  a  new  system  of 
jurii«liciinn  has  been  formed.    Of  the  judicial  authorities,  the  lowest  cla.ss  are  the  juffcs  tie 
paix,  w  jio  iiinount  to  nearly  :J()00.    They  have  salaries  of  8(K)  to  100()  francs,  and  decide 
finally  on  all  cases  where  the  (|nestioii  at  is.sue  <loes  not  exceed  fifty  francs.     Immediately 
nt)ov(!  them  are  the  tribunals  tie  prciniirf  insliinct;  before  wliom  all  (juestions  and  charges 
come  in  the  first  instance,  and  who  judge  finally  respecting  any  property  not  exceeding  l(MK) 
francs.     There  are  360  of  these  courts,  and  the  judges  are  supposc(l  little  short  of  3(HM). 
To  tiiem  are  attached  the  tribunal  of  correctional  police,  which  has  cognizance  of  all  minor 
ofTonco-s.     Above  these  rank  the  cows  rtiyulm,  sometimes  called  ct)urs  irttppd,  because  an 
appeal  lies  to  them  from  the  inferior  courts.     They  are  twenty-seven  in  number,  attached 
to  the  chief  cities  in  the  kingduin.     They  consist,  in  ixjpulniis  towns,  of  twenty,  tlii't}',  and 
in  Paris  of  fitly  members;  who,  in  that  case,  are  divideil  into  several  chambers.     Attached 
to  them  are  the  coiirs  d'tissisr,  or,  as  we  would  call  them,  jury  courts,  to  wliicli  all  criminal 
cases  of  importance  are  referred  by  the  coiirs  royalrs.     A  French  jury  consists  of  twr've, 
and  a  simple  majority  decides.    From  the  decisions  of  the  cours  royales  an  appeal  lies  totne 
co:irt  of  cassation,  the  highest  tribunal,  which  also  exercises  a  general  jurisdiction  over  the 
other  judicial  bodies.    All  the  judges  are  appt  mted  by  the  crown,  but  hold  their  offices  for 
Iii\ 


'ART  III 

KitiHin ;  nt 
iiiiirnced. 
,  notwith- 
hiirli's  X., 

k'UHlllivUIl 

if  Orluaiw, 


y  despotic, 
m  toxiitioii, 
ntxy.  The 
tary  bodies, 
•1  lament  of 
uUl  become 
nt  with  the 
oUision  took 

the  throne, 
iinrneil,  that 
bestowed  by 

The  nobles 
1,  and  left  no 
iber  of  Peers 
ishcd  rather 
!  of  the  most 
lignity  of  the 

only  for  life 
>n  by  electors 
rinj;  a  certain 
id  to  an  entire 
ipnticrt  if  430. 
Iiu  supplioi^  of 
rous  cxoniina- 
rence.    Their 
le  convenience 
|h  parlioment. 
mployed  in  its 
eminent  with 
The  liberty  of 
ictnation  in  its 

the  last  great 

itill  more  com- 
Thc  National 
ight  supersede 
id.    They  pro- 
ercc,  criminal 
J  to  the  whole 
•  a  few  frnnc?. 
new  svsteni  of 
3  the  jiigen  tff 
cs,  nnd  decide 
Immediately 
s  ami  charges 
ixcccding  10(H) 
short  of  3(HM). 
pe  of  nil  minor 
ifl,  because  an 
Inher,  attached 

lity,  th'-ty. «"'! 

trs.  -Mtnched 
Icli  all  criminal 
lists  of  twr've, 
Ipeal  lies  to  tnc 
liction  over  the 
[their  offices  for 


Book  I. 


FRAXCR. 


ma 


[The  foUowinpf  tables  from  official  dnciimeiit!*  fnntain  important  data  illustrotivo  not  low 

of  the  moral  liihtury  of  timnkiiid,  than  of  the  Htiito  <i\'  society  in  Prance. 

I.  HlHlL'iiieiil  iif  llii<  \iiiiib«r  of  PertDiii  rhat|t>»l  wiili  (.'riiiiiiinl  (Xli'iuTH  Iniorv  lliii  Cciiirl*  of  AmIiw,  In  parli  yvdf, 

fViini  l&in  III  IKM. 


Crimeit  nffainnt  the  Pfrion. 
AiiniiiKl  lliit  Hlaii'  himI  ruhiir  lllllci'rii . 

Miinli'i'  nnci  MiiMnluiiuhli'r 

I'nrrlrlilu 

Inrniitieiilo 

('iitliiiv  niiri  W'Miiiilliig 

A»iniilta  iipoii  VVniiiiiii . ... 

"      riiilMrrri 

PiTjiiry  mill  Siihiiriialiiin  iif  Porjury  . 

Hiiiiimy 

Olliur  Crliiici 


le*. 


ItW). 


Toult . 


Crimea  againtl  Property^ 

OnlliliiK 

FiiriiiTv  nf  ('iiiiiniiiiinl  Piiperi  . . 

OlliiT  F(ir(iiT|i'« 

Kiililvry  iiMil  Tli(.n  in  rhnrrho  . . 

"  nn  lliifliwnya. 

"  "  tiy  ni)ini'8tic« . 

Oilier  kinilii  nf  Rnlilii'ry 

Frnilulcnt  llnnkrii|ilcy 

Incenilinrinin 

Oilier  Crinii'8 


Tulali . 


General  Tiitnlt 7.:t»l 


ftm 

IS 

(HI 

a:ii 

1«7 
147 
tt 

n 

!ri 
l,M4 


17H 

.ViH 

II 

III 

4.^) 

1H4 

i:iii 
11 


if<:io. 

4IIII 
4 

imi 

\M\ 
1117 
71 

,vi 


IKII. 

WW 

I'ilM 

1.1 

S<l 

:i4(i 
lis 
iii:i 
n 

3 
54 


IKW. 
LOHK 

mi 
!i:l 

wn 
i:il 
III 

IIM 

II 

83 


1.7(1 1        LIMUI    I   11.0411       3,ii44 


:t:i-j 
IJ 
IM 
1.31.1 
3,34.5 
(i3 
CH 
175 


4S 
|i|| 

47 
|:IA 

l.niii 

3,3C0 
P4 
I3H 
177 


.1,,V<3        .1,3tKI 


7.373     I   ti.lNiS       7,(KHi        H,3:i' 


103 
73 

:xii 
',1.1 
13:1 

tl3!> 

3.4HI 

(.7 

Vti 

314 

5.5U0 


HI 

337 

3,1 

IIM 

II.W 

3,:W3 

"<• 

Hill 

343 

S,5U3 


II.  autemcnt  showing  Iho  Degree 

of  Inslrnclinn  of  Pcrxmn  rhnneil  with  Crimen  liefc 
cncli  year,  flrom  IMW  to  1K13. 

rn  the  Coiirts  nf  A^Ar.c,  in 

Ycu. 

Unable  10  read  or  wrile. 

AtU  In  rmil  or  wrilt<  imperreelly.                                 1 

Crlnin  a(.iiml 
I'enona. 

Criniei  .inainkt 
I^roiicrly. 

TtM 

ACCUK^I, 

4,liill 
4.. 133 
4,3I!I 

4,iino 

4,740 

Afquillwl, 
I.litlll 

1.(1,14 
I,I14'< 
l,l^f3 

Convicted. 
3.(i27 

3,1-37 
3,(ili5 
3,tM3 
3,Hl(i 

Criniriruniniil 
I'ertoim. 

Crimes  affiinit 
l'n»i«r'y. 

T.ilal 
Arnmn). 

l,H3ll 
3,047 
3.450 

Aniulllud. 

7IS 

71-7 

71  111 

I.(IIM) 

l.lli3 

Convicted, 

1.H3 
l.liO 

Ml'  II 

i.m: 

1, 3114 
5,-04 

d  writing, 

41 

H 
47 
58 
115 

1838 

ireit 

1H30 
1H31 
1H3S 

i.onn 

I,flil3 

nnn 

1,144 

1,333 

3,l.'i7 

3,4(;n 
3,:«^i 
3,4,'.ll 
3,4  Ifi 

,103 
4!HI 

4(i5 
StiC 
(^50 

l.,t,13 
1.451 

i.:iiii 

1.470     . 
MiOll 

■     Tolal  in 
Five  yean. 

ipas 
irai 

!      l.KIl 
lf33 

3,539 

313 
1H3 
174 

a:M 

3il3 

10,818 
Able  10  rev 

,VI5 

544 

514 

533 

5(<3 

23,:i57 
and  write  \ 
7N) 
73!1 

liW 
7ii7 
775 

H,730 

rell. 

Mi 
335 
330 
4'2(i 
373 

"i,r.i(r 

13,0;)7 

438 
4(14 

;i5i' 

341 
403 

1,043 

8,884 
Rcceiveil  a  dq 
30 
4(i 
37 
!W 
100 

7,950 

Tee  rf  Inilructio 
1-3 
131 
ti3 
ii3 
88 

10,134 

n  Incnd  nie 
118 
170 
I3!l 
l',IO 
257 

4,430 

re  rcadinif  n 

•7 

80 
83 
1.13 
11.3 

,     Tiitai  in 
■  rive  yean. 

1,100 

s,ia« 

3,730 

38U 

478      '        804 

543 

:K3 

.  J»     A» 

A 

.M.  Kl>.{ 

Financial  xt/Klem.  Durinpr  the  period  of  the  Revolution,  France  sh(Kik  off  the  heavy 
burden  of  debt  which  had  been  a  innin  iustrmnont  in  brin;jin;r  on  that  catastrophe.  Yet  the 
amount  of  taxes  had  not  e.xfcedod  ")50,(KK),000  livre.s,  and  the  nation  was  crushed  rather  by 
the  arbitrary  and  injndicinus  mixlcs  of  levying:  the  inipo,st.«,  than  by  their  actual  amount. 
Napoleon,  to  support  his  continual  wars,  laid  on  larije  additional  tn.vos,  chiefly  in  the  fiinn  of 
land  assessment,  and  contrncted,a  debt  of  3,000,000,000  francs.  This  was  aupmentod  by  the 
events  of  1H1.5,  and  the  occupation  of  the  French  territory  by  the  allied  armies  at  the  expense 
of  France.  The  debt  is  now  expressed  in  the  form  of  rentes  or  nnnnities,  which  in  the 
bndpet  of  1830  amounted  to  249,41)0,000  livrcs :  this,  with  other  funds  tor  which  govern- 
ment were  responsible,  was  considered  as  representing  a  capital  of  4,988,738,000  francs. 

The  statement  of  receipt  and  expenditure  for  the  year  1830  is  as  follows: — 


HECEII'T.  Fnnm. 

Direct  T.ixcfi, .  .licfly  nn  l.nnil 3!l0.3f.5,Hl!l 

Regi.4trnlinii  Stump:),  iiiiil  D<ininins 187.335,03^ 

r'lialninliiiiiBi'.i  mill  Snlt 151.331,103 

Liiliior^.  Siiiiilrv  Diitien.  Tnlpucro  mtil  Citin- 

■iMH  il,.r  . . .  ■. 1!13.0.-'1„183 

Post  Ollin-       33.  IW1,03() 

Fnlls  nf  Tiinlier 24,0(10.0(17 

Hall-works I.iOO.OOO 

Gnniinij-h'ttisei^ 4,33H,f^H.H 

Roviil  Lottery 10,043,7!10 

roiniiee 141,3-<l 

Siiiiilry  proci'i.ilK ]I.,1S5.4lrt 

E.ttrnonlinnrv  rifoiirrea 48.403.341 

Deiluclions  oh  IlecelpH 35.I100.000 

"<if3.n44,00(i 


45'' 


EXrENniTrRE.  Fnnc«. 

Civil  List 37.li(i(i,(i(ii'i 

CliiiniliiT  of  Peers 711!l,(i!i'.t 

nuinilier  of  Deputies liOO.OOO 

I.nition  of  llonotir 3 iLViSOO 

Sinking  Fnnil 4l,lil'5,0.-i0 

Dellt 3^il.3,)i;,r.(lH 

.liisiice l(i..'iiiil.(i-«> 

Fnreit'n  AITnirs 8,77f'.(llHI 

l(i'li..'init  mill  Piililic  Instruction 38.'.ili|..'ilM) 

Inlirinr 13li,133.»ll'i 

Wiir 333,3C.3.M7 

Marine 38.,W7,474 

Fiimiice 33.877.1(17 

.Ailnii'iistrntion  i.' Revenue 13fl.073,;i5l 

Repiiyineiita ^  40.300,808 

l,fll'>47288.445 


I  i 


I'        '      I' 


fe4| 


■A    ■  f' . 


■M 


NM 


nnscnii'TivK  (jnociiApiiY. 


Part  III 


i-4 


si 


Jin 


m' 


TliP  iirmy  of  Fr.iiicn  is  no  l(m<;fr  tlmt  v«»t  uiid  icrrililn  iim^t!*,  wliicli  for  ho  many  ycari" 

hi'lil  the  wlinli-  (if tiiii'iitiil  MiiruiH-  111  ihriill.     'I'ln-  i.-vciitH  nf  l"^!'*  Imvinjf  jinivril  loo 

cliMirly  lln^  ull!ii'liiiM'iit.  nf  tin:  iilil  triiii|M  tii  tlirir  liiriin'r  iii:i>tiT,  tlicy  wcriMifiirly  nil  <li«- 
liiiiiili'il,  mill  tlii'lr  |il:ii'i>  NU|i|)Iii'(l  liy  I'n.'xii  I'liii.si.'riptinii.  'I'lin  irdvi'miiii'iil  Iiiin  thr  |Ki\vi'r  ut' 
li'vyiii^t  (l(MKHI  iiirii  ill  thi!  yciir.  Ily  ii  ri'ijiiliitloii,  liroiiiliiiii;  ntill  tliti  ri'|Hil)lii:iiii  spirit,  ono- 
thin!  Ill'  llic  iiHiciTH  iiiiixt  lie  riiisDil  Irmii  tlii!  rtuikt.  '('lie  army  in  tin:  ytiir  Ki'i  wuh  on  n 
vury  liiriiiiiliilili'  liNiiin^;.  It  iiinoiintod  in  nil,  iiii'liKlniK  l<»,();il(  olKcnr^,  luul  :i7Ht  rliililmn  of 
wolilicrH,  to  Ill.HUI  men.  Ot'tlitiHO,  tlio  iiilimtry  i-oiwihIhiJ  ot"l».')(»ri  olliccrs  iiiiil  'J(l^t,l  tl  iiimi; 
tli(>  raviilry  of'^-MO  otliuur!!  and  51,335  mun;  the  urtillury  ol'  lllN)  otHcnrri  mid  :)'J,5U1  inon, 
bcfiidcN  (fi'iidiiriiu'ric,  ()ii)(iiio«rH,  &.c. 

Tim  Fn-ncli  riiivv,  wliicli,  in  17W1,  iiiiioiintnd  to  Mcvfinty-t'onr  nail  nl'  tlit>  line  and  sixty-two 
trijfiitei',  l(wt  Imir  mirin;^  tliu  wiir ;  and  those  wliicli  reninined,  jiaviinj  never  ventnn.'d  for 
iiiuiiy  yeiirrt  to  Htir  out  of  port,  lost  uU  tlieir  ox|)erieii(;ii  and  elHcieiu'y.  At  present,  it  coimiHtH 
of  r»5  Nlii|iH  of  the  line,  (Mi  frigates,  iU)  corvettes,  KKI  niniilier  vohmoIh,  17  ulenm-veHMelH, 
niiiiifronf*  iirnied  traiispurti*.  Sic,  Tho  French  navy  in  now  in  a  hijfli  Dtato  of  etticiuncy,  and 
in  riipidly  increiiHin;^. 

Sect.  V. — Proiliiclivv  Imliiatry, 

Franco,  with  repard  to  iiileriiul  ocoiioniy,  ia  ono  of  tlio  richest  and  most  flourishing  coun- 
tries in  tho  world.  In  point  of  iiiduHlry  she  ruiikit  third  atler  Ilritain  and  tint  Netherlanils , 
while  tilie  jiossesseH  n  greater  extent  and  more  natural  advantages  than  either  of  those  grvul 
seats  of  commerce  iiiKlmamilitctiire. 

Agriculture  is  the  most  lloiirisliing  hriiiich,  yet  is  not  in  so  advanced  a  state  as  in  (treat 
rtritain.  It  has  gained  greatly  liy  tho  French  revolution,  in  consetpienee  of  the  abolition  of 
feudal  rights,  coraffn,  unil  fillies.  Tlio  groat  jios.sessioiis  of  the  nohility  were  their  broken 
up,  and  iliiring  the  grand  emigration,  tho  farmers,  or  neigliboiiring  little  proprietors  and 
capitalists-,  were  able  to  piirchiiso  at  u  very  cheap  rate  (xirtions  cjf  the  forfeited  domains.  It 
hits  becoiiii'  a  rage  in  France  for  every  one  to  possess  a  little  spot  of  hind;  and  the  division 
of  a  man's  property  among  his  children,  which  the  law  enforces,  tends  to  split  it  periH'tually 
more  and  more  into  minute  portions.  Travellers  have  o\en  observed  three  or  tour  pro- 
prietors obliged  to  join  in  keeping  a  common  plough.  In  vineyards  and  other  garden  cul- 
tures, wiiere  nice  care  and  ililigenee  are  cliielly  recpiisite,  this  minute  partition  sueniH 
advantageous.  Chaptiil  even  calculates,  that  a  small  vineyard  cultiviited  by  the  proprii-tor's 
own  hand  will  yield  double  the  (luaiitity  of  that  which  is  leii.-ed  out  by  a  largo  proprietor. 
But  in  corn  lands,  where  a  considerable  capital,  good  machinery,  strong  and  well-fed  cattle 
are  nece.-sary,  the  cultivation  is  thus  kept  down  to  a  much  lower  standard  than  it  would 
otherwise  reach.  Tho  little  o<rcupants,  also,  are  by  no  means  prompt  in  discovering  any 
improved  processes,  or  in  adopting  tbo.so  discovered  elsewhere.  Artificial  grasses,  and  the 
rototion  of  crops  which  they  fiicilitate,  are  by  no  menus  nn'iierally  diffiisod;  and  an  old 
vicious  circle,  of  wheat,  oats,  and  fiillow,  is  still  very  irei'eraliy  adhered  to.  In  sliort,  all 
operations  on  a  groat  scale,  and  requiring  a  ceiisidoraliie  outlay,  are  deticient  in  Franco. 
M.  Dupin,  in  a  discourse  on  the  ell'ccts  of  public  instruction,  in  the  introduction  to  hi.i  normal 
course  of  lectures  on  geometry,  has  drawn  n  striking  contrast  between  northern  and  southern 
Franco.  Although  the  former  |)roiliiccs  ni.'ither  tiie  olive,  the  vine,  nor  any  of  the  finer 
fruits,  yot  it  pays  of  taxes  r27,fl30,(HK)  francs  on  a  surfiicc  of  18,fl9(),0(H)  hectares;  while  the 
south  pays  only  12"),41(M'*'<^  francs  ii|)on  ;i4,*^(),()0()  hectare.s.  Even  in  the  south,  the  dis- 
tricts least  fiivoured  by  nature  are  lx)th  the  most  enlightened  and  the  most  industrious;  the 
high  Alp.-',  tho  liiffh  Pyrenees,  and  the  deportments  immediately  adjoining  to  them. 

Grain,  notwithstanding  tho  imperfection  in  its  cultivation,  is  produced  with  such  diligence 
as  to  yield  enough  in  ordinary  years  to  supply  tho  extensive  population  of  Franco  with  food. 
The  only  exception  is  in  |)art  of  its  southern  coast,  which,  when  permitted,  draws  a  supply 
from  Odessa.  Franco  is  not  distinguishod  for  any  very  superior  quality  of  grain,  nor  is  it  an 
exporting  country.  It  seems  to  have  attended  les."  than  most  other  countries  of  Bnropo  to 
tho  culture  of  potatoes,  which  are  still  planted  only  in  ganlens,  along  borders,  or  in  tracts 
unlit  for  grain.  Maize  is  mixed  with  wheat  in  the  southern  departments.  Chaptal  has 
given  the  following  statement,  i:alculated  on  an  average  of  twelve  years,  from  1800  to  1812, 
of  the  entire  products  of  this  branch  of  French  agriculture: — 


ll'*''tolilr«. 
\Vlii!at 31,.VKI.2l)n 

nvi.' ao.i'Ki.Kii 

Mnizp «.:i(h',:)lil 

IliickHhriit 8,40'.),473 


IWtDlitrcf. 

Bnrliv !•.•  .Wi.ma 

PiiIiiIoi'< l'.i.HK).741 

yiicii :i'.>,iK',ii..5S7 

llUI.'.l'lli.U'il 


A  more  recent  estimato,  in  a  memoir  read  to  the  Siwiety  of  Statistics  in  1880,  makes  tho 
aveniiro  pnMJiico  of  the  vears  182.')  to  IH28  amount  to  flOj-VjIMMK)  hectolitres  of  wheat; 
114.7:W,(KM»  of  other  grains;  40,2;H"<'<'  "f  potatoes  and  chestnuts. 

Wine  ranks  next  in  iin|K>rtaiii;e  to  ;iriiiu,  aiirl  forms  a  most  valuable  part  of  French 
industry.     The  wines  of  France,  though  not  so  strong  as  those  of  more  southern  climates. 


\W 


Part  III 

miliy  yniirK 
jinivrd  tixi 
irly  nil  ill*- 
!•  imwcr  <>r 
sl)iril,  oil'"- 

\'>  WIIH  oil  II 
rlilldriMl  of 

»,IU  iiii'ii, 

1(1  Bixty-two 
f(!ntiirt!il  lor 

t,  it  COllw'lHtll 

(•am-vi!rtHt'l«, 
licit'iicy,  ami 


rishiiigr  CO""- 
\rlliorliiml!< . 
f  tliOHO  yitval 

,e  as  in  llreat 
it!  atolition  of 
thou- broken 
oorinlors  anil 
,  (lomuinH.     It 
1  the  (liviHion 
it  iH)r|)i'tuiilly 
e  or  tour  pro- 
■r  ynnliMi  cul- 
iirtit'ioii  sL'tmiH 
lu!  prtii'rinlor's 
rgo  propritUor. 
ivfll-l'ctl  cuttle 
than  it  woulil 
iscovorinj;  any 
rassos,  and  tlic 
d;  and  an  old 
In  short,  all 
(•nt  in  Franco. 
u  to  iii-i  normal 
•n  and  Houthe rn 
.ny  of  tiio  finer 
ires ;  while  the 
south,  the  dis- 
Khistrioua;  the 
Iheni. 

such  diligence 
unce  with  food, 
draws  a  supply 
ain,  nor  is  it  an 
s  of  Enropo  to 
or.-i,  or  in  tracts 
:  Chaptal  has 
n  180(»  to  1812. 


S7(i,r.os 

HIO,741 
(Hili,W7 

18:^0,  makes  the 
itres  of  wheat; 

part  of  French 
utiicrn  climatef. 


Rook  I. 


FRANCE. 


&3A 


f  «A 


are  grnorally  arrountod  tlirt  mont  deiiciitii  in  ihn  world.  Thnne  of  DiirKundy  and  rhampA)fno 
am  without  a  rival,  if  we  exci^pt  a  f.nv  rare  H|Hieiiii(inH  of  Tokay.  The  winenof  the  (iaronne 
do  not  riiiiti  quite  m  high ;  liiit,  from  their  light,  Hafe,  and  agreeahle  (|iiiiliti<>H,  are  drunk  more 
friK.ly,  and  exported  on  a  larger  Heah-.  The  tlnest  and  MtrongeNt  of  thcae  wines  nre  eultivatod 
chiefly  to  supply  the  consumption  of  Britain  and  the  other  northern  niitions.  The  intiTior 
consutnptioii  of  Franco  eonHi.-<tH  ehielly  of  the  light  wines,  dnmk  at  talile,  nearly  as  our  heor. 

Two  eliilN)rate  nMenipts  have  t 'i  miide  to  estimate  llui  produce  of  the  Frerieh  vineyards; 

one  hy  (Ihiiptal,  in  his  "Oeiieral  Treatise  on  French  Industry,"  and  the  other  in  the  ri'|H)rt 
of  a  counnlttee  of  the  (JhamlsT  of  I'eers,  pp'ser.ted  in  Ih'>.\  |)y  tlii<  |)uc  de  l)od(<aiiville. 
They  diHi>r  pretty  coiisiilerahly.  Chaptul  sup|Hises  that  l,(i:)l,(NN)  hectiirvs  are  employed  in 
producing  wine  to  the  average  annual  amount  of  :<.'),.')<NMHNI  hectolitres.  The  tahle,  how- 
ever, giviMi  hv  the  duke,  of  the  produce  of  (.'ach  department  dtsm  not  exceed  :n,().'MI,(IO() 
hectolitres.  The  ditlerenct;  as  to  value  is  still  more  remarkable.  ("Iiaptal,  alter  leaving  out 
a  sixth,  as  made  into  brandy,  estimates  the  remainder  at  078,(HN),iKNMrancs:  he  Hupjioseri 
that  there  are  HIMMMNI  worth  each  v2(K)tVaMcs;  l,<HNMNM)  worth  TKI;  gradually  descendmfr 
till  he  Comes  to  1II,.'>(MMMH)  worth  only  TJ  francs.  iKsleauvillo  dis-s  nut  bring  thn  amount 
to  more  than  4H(I,(MMMKN>.  The  higiiest  average  value  he  a  igns  to  Iho  wines  of  any 
department  is  to  those  of  the  Oise  (clia.  pagno),  !W)  fVancs;  those  of  the  Marne,  Yoime,  and 
(.Vtte  d'Or  (burgundy),  'iO  to  a4 ;  of  tin  (Jiroiide,  and  Lot,  am'  iaronnn  (claret),  11)  to  21 ; 
the  rest  (him  17  to  U.  His  estimnte,  lit  ■  iver,  si  i>ms  too  low;  hince  M.  Dupin  (I'Vircc*  I'ro- 
ductiven,  i\i\  ilf  lit  Fraiin)  calculates  th  •  value,  .•iccorili'.^'  to  the  tax  paid  to  government, 
at  .'Vt;!.l.'».''i,07H  tVancs.  The  brandy  into  which  one-sixi:h  cif  the  above  produce  iH  made,  is, 
like  the  wine,  the  finest  in  tiie  world,  and  a  gram,  tuple  .'French  trade,  ('hajilal  estimates 
thn  value  distilled  at  40,(NM),U()()  francs.  M.  Miipin  states  the  quantity  at4<iU  17  hectolitres; 
that  of  other  spirits  at  IKMKM).  He  Cillculate^  also  8,S6H,'  •  'j  hoctolitr  '  ♦"  cider,  ind  2  IW.'),022 
hectolitres  of  strong  l)«?cr. 

Live  stock  does  not  form  the  most  approved  part  of  French  husbt  ■,:  y.  Chaptal  eon^•i(lor.^ 
tlittt  the  animals  are  tix)  few,  whether  tiir  culture,  for  use,  or  f'li  '.n  production  of  manure; 
and  also  that  the  measures  taken  to  improve  tlio  hreed  have  been  very  partial  id  defective. 
The  niimlMJr  of  horses,  includii.g  mules,  in  1827,  WB'  ■..'"  i,(HMt.  Itt  tliese  1  ;.,  reckoned 
that  !)(M>,(M)0  were  employed  in  riding,  posting,  the  (tilu  .  v,  &c.  The  sto^k  lequires  to  be 
kept  up  by  an  imiKirtation,  wliich  in  1800  to  1812  w  is  vul,  d  at  ;i,.5'll.(MK)  francs  annuii:'v, 
but  according  to  M.  Scnac  had  risen,  in  1822  to  H2i<,  to  7,.'')'M),(MK1.  In  return,  there  is  - 
extensive  breeding  of  mules  on  tlw!  I'vrenean  frontier,  and  tliev  are  exported  to  Spain  to  ilir 
value  of  1,40(MHH>  francs.  France  had  in  1812,  2M.(MMt  hu'lls.  l,7(»l,(MHt  oxen,  :i,001),0(l() 
cows,  8.5(),000  heifers.  The  imjiortution  at  that  time  iiin'unted  lo  only  2,!lti(MMH»  tVaiics,  but 
in  182.'>  it  was  7,680,()0().  The  exiKirtation  is,  however,  ■•oiisiilenible.  Sheep  arc  a  species 
of  stm-k  very  considerable  in  amount,  |)articiilarly  in  the  ilepartnients  bordering  on  the  Alps 
and  Pyrenees,  in  those  which  cnmpo.so  iho  rnnimtain  d's'rict  of  Auvergno,  and  on  the  pastoral 
banks  of  the  Eiire  and  the  Cher.  The  nninbor  of  .itieep  in  1812  was  7(l(l,;ilO  mcrinoe, 
H,.')78,00()  mixed,  and  ;10,843,(KK)  native  or  unimproved.  The  first  introduction  of  merinos 
was  in  consequence  of  the  treaty  of  Haslo,  wliich  stipuluteil  that  40(M)  of  these  highly  prized 
animals  should  pass  into  France.  An  experience  of  thirty  years  has  shown  that  the  breed 
might  bo  preserved  and  oxtendiid  in  full  perfection;  but  the  above  statement  will  show  that 
the  diffusion  of  it  is,  as  yet,  very  partial.  Pure  merinos  are  valued  at  thirty  francs,  mixed 
at  twelve  francs,  and  native  sheep  at  only  five  francs.  The  number  of  swine  in  Franco  is 
estimated  by  Baibi,  in  182(1,  at  4,(IOO,Ofl().  The  ass  is  considered  by  M.  Senuc  to  he,  from 
the  poverty  of  his  owners,  in  an  ''most  hopeless  state  of  degradation;  and  the  fowls,  the 
bees,  and  the  pigeons  to  demand  u  t'.i'  )ugnly  improved  system  of  rearing.  Chaptal  has 
pot  attempted  to  estimate  the  wi.;:-'  .  ••pocics,  but  has  guessed  their  entire  value  at  about 
."Jl.WHMKlO  francs. 

Among  the  materials  of  manufacture,  tlie  most  important  is  silk,  which  was  at  first  intro- 
duced near  Tours,  but  was  soon  Pund  to  be  well  suited  only  to  the  most  southern  districis. 
The  amount,  according  to  C'l  .;>';al,  is  alwut  11,400,000 lbs.,  and  the  value  l."),44(),00()  francs; 
but  this  is  only  about  two-f '■  hs  of  the  quantity  consumed  in  the  manufactures,  so  that  a  large 
importation  is  necesrary  ii '.ni  Ijombardy.  Hemp  and  flax  are  cultivated  universally,  but 
always  on  a  small  seme,  every  fiirmer  having  hi.i  little  patch  for  domestic  use.  It  is  diffi- 
cult to  estimate  these ;  but  Choptal  guesses  the  volue  of  hemp  at  30,000,(K)0  francs,  and  flax 
at  20,000,000  frrnics.  Vegetable  oils  are  proiluceil  to  the  supposed  extent  of  1,300,000  quin- 
tals, wortii  about  75,000,000  francs ;  yet  so  great  is  the  quantity  consumed  in  domestic 
use,  and  in  the  different,  manufactures,  that  they  are  imported  to  the  value  of  nearly  twenty- 
five  millions. 

There  are  certain  tropical  and  colonial  productions  which  it  was  the  eager  wish  of  Napo- 
leon that  France  should  cultivate,  in  order  that  she  might  be  independent  of  commerce. 
One  of  his  favourite  projects  was  the  culture  of  the  beet-root,  for  the  extraction  of  sugar, 
an  article  of  consumption  with  which  Europeans  can  least  dispense.  The  admission  of  colo- 
nial and  foreign  eiigar?,  under  reasonable  duties,  after  the  overthrow  of  the  continental  sys- 


r  ■    I 


^ 


b36 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


tern,  gave  a  severe  clieck  to  this  spurious  branch  of  industry.  To  prevent  its  decline,  hcnvy 
additional  duties  were  laid  on  colonial  and  foreign  supirs  in  1810  and  li^22;  and,  in  conse- 
quence of  this  encouragement,  the  production  ot  beet-root  suijar  lias  been  rapidly  incroasintr 
during  the  last  five  years,  and  is  now  supposed  to  amount  to  alnjut  80(K)  tons,  or  w,0(iO,(K)0  Uis. 
The  art  has  boon  a  good  deal  improved ;  and  it  is  supiwsed  by  many  thnt  it  will,  nt  no  dis- 
tant period,  be  so  much  ainelionited  tlmt  tlic  beet-growers  will  be  able  to  withstand  the 
competition  of  the  West  India  planters  under  the  same  duties:  but  any  such  expectation 
aeeins  to  us  to  be  quite  visionary.  The  entire  consumption  of  sugar  in  Franc(!  amounts,  at 
present,  inclusive  of  that  from  the  beet-root,  to  about  7'2,()0O  tons  a  year ;  being  not  much 
more  than  a  third  part  of  the  consumption  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  which  amounts  to 
about  100,000  tons.  Tobacco,  after  the  removal  of  the  rdfrie  or  royal  monopoly,  rose  to 
!50,000,0001bs. ;  but  since  the  restoration  of  the  regie  in  1812,  it  has  fallen  to  .'J,0(K>,000. 

Woo<l  is  an  important  article,  especially  in  a  country  which  is  nearly  destitute  of  any 
other  fiiel.  Chaptal  estimated  the  woodlands  at  7,072,000  hectares  (about  17,.'i00,000  acres); 
but  according  to  a  more  recent  memorial  in  1824,  by  M.  Ilerbin  de  Halle,  sub-administrator 
of  the  fbresU,  it  is  only  0,.'i21,000  hectares  (about  1/1,000,{KM)  acres).  Of  this,  1,122,000 
hectares  belong  to  the  sUite,  1,896,0(K)  to  the  communes,  6.5,969  to  the  crown,  192,000  to 
princes  of  the  royal  fiimily,  and  .%243,(KK)  to  private  individuals.  Woods  thus  occupy  a  little 
more  than  an  eighth  part  of  the  soil.  The  greatest  proportion  exists  in  the  departments 
bordering  on  the  Alps  and  the  Pyrenees,  and  along  the  Rhine,  the  Moselle,  the  Sadne,  the 
Marne,  and  other  eastern  rivers.  Chaptal  estimates  the  value  of  the  annual  cuttings  at 
about  141,000,000  francs ;  but  if  this  bo  reduced  according  to  M.  de  Halle's  estimate,  it  will 
give  only  130,000,000.  Fruit  trees  are  also  of  importance,  especially  chestnuts,  cultivated 
on  a  large  scale  in  several  provinces,  and  valued  by  Chaptal  at  aliout  10,000,000  francs. 
He  estimates  the  fruit  growing  open  in  orchards  at  22,500,000  francs,  and  that  on  walls,  or 
in  rows  as  single  trees,  at  68,7iJ0,()00.  lie  is  afraid  tliat  tliis  last  will  be  thouglit  too  low; 
we  should  rather  apprehend  an  opixjsitc  error  in  this  instance,  as  well  as  in  thnt  of  reckoning 
the  herbs  which  grow  in  328,000  hectares  of  garden  ground,  at  200,000,(KK)  francs. 

On  the  whole,  Chaptal  calculates  that  in  the  .')2,()0(),000  hectares  of  which  France  con- 
sists, twenty-three  arc  arable;  ten  woods,  vines,  fruit-trees;  seven  pasturage;  the  rest 
waters,  roads,  buildings,  waste.  Ho  makes  the  annual  average  produce  of  an  aero  28  francs. 
By  this  and  other  estimates,  the  annual  territorial  produce  comes  to  about  l,o(K),000,000 
francs.  The  entire  agricultural  capital  ho  cstiniatos  at  37,.500,000,000  francs.  M.  Dupin, 
in  1827,  reckons  the  territorial  revenue  at  1,626,000,000  francs. 

The  manufactures  of  France,  though  they  do  not  present  the  immense  results  of  those  of 
England,  are  considerably  more  productive  than  those  of  almost  any  other  nation.  Colbert, 
the  celebrated  minister  of  I/)uis  XIV.,  finding  this  branch  in  a  very  depressed  state,  com- 
pared with  its  prosperous  condition  in  some  neighlxiuring  countries,  bestowed  on  it  almost 
an  exclusive  attention.  Chaptal  calculates,  that  during  the  Revolution  it  made  still  greater 
progress  than  agriculture.  He  regards  a.s  almost  miraculous  the  advance  mnde  in  the  cotton 
and  other  fabrics.  The  miracle,  however,  wa."!  wrought  solely  by  the  rigid  exclusion  of 
British  goods;  and  amid  all  the  boasted  proofs  of  French  ingenuity,  he  is  obliged  to  confess, 
that  when,  as  minister  of  the  interior,  he  sought  eagerly  the  means  of  introducing  new 
manufactures,  he  could  find  no  effectual  expedient,  except  that  of  alluring  F.nirlish  manu- 
facturers into  France,  and  of  copying  their  processes.  However,  these  prohibitions,  which 
have  been  continued  to  a  great  extent  under  the  royal  system,  have  in  fact  forced  a  number 
of  manufactures  which  could  not  otherwise  have  withstood  British  com])etition. 

Silk  has  been  long  one  of  the  most  prominent  objects  of  French  mnnutiicfnro.  Even  the 
revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes,  though  it  drove  many  of  the  most  industrious  citizens  out 
of  the  kingdom,  lofl  that  branch  of  industry  still  very  flourishing.  It  sufl'ered  more  from  the 
dre.adfiil  calamities  which  MhW  Lyons,  its  chief  seat,  during  the  height  of  the  revolutionary 
mania.  The  lij.fKK)  establishments  that  existed  in  1788  for  the  matmfacture  of  silk,  were 
reduced  in  18(K)  to  ,3.500;  but  amounted,  in  1831,  to  alxiut  1.5,000,  employing  above  21,000 
workmen.  It  is  chiefly  in  cloths  that  this  city  excels  all  others,  both  as  to  the  brilliancy  of 
the  dyes,  and  the  richness  and  beauty  of  the  stuffs.  Nismes  excels  in  taffetas,  mixed  silk 
and  cotton  stufls,  piuzes,  and  crapes;  Tours  in  fiirniture  stuffs;  Avignon  in  siitins,  levan- 
tines,  &c.  The  Cevennes  are  famous  for  bonnets,  while  almost  all  the  silk  ribands  are  fiibri- 
cated  in  the  department  of  the  I/iire.  The  entire  value  of  the  manufiicture  is  estimated  at 
125,000,000  franas,  of  which  30,000,000  is  exported. 

The  woollen  manufiicture  is  still  more  extensive  and  valuable  than  thnt  of  silk.  The 
woollens  of  France  are  either  very  coarse  or  very  fine ;  the  former  are  established  chiefly  in 
the  hilly  trncts  of  the  >outlieru  iKmler,  where  the  sheep  yield  nbuudanco  of  coarse  wool,  anil 
the  shepherils  spend  the  leisure  of  winter  in  workiiur  it  up  info  serges,  friezes,  nnd  similar 
stuffs.  On  the  oflier  hand,  at  Sedan,  Lonviers,  Abbeville,  are  mniiutiu'tiired  liner  cloths 
thanany  of  those  of  Britain,  though  the  latter  produces  a  tnuch  larger  quantity  of  grnid  and  sub- 
Btantial  cloth.  AlthmiL'h  France  pnnluces  84,(KKt.(K)01bs.  of  wool,  she  yet  iiniturts  to  the 
value  of  12,000,(KK)  or  ll,(M)0,(KK)  of  francs :  Chaptal  estimates  the  wliole  uiunanufactured 


liOOK  I. 


PRANCE. 


ar 


:fatc,  corn- 
it  almost 

grenter 
10  cotton 
usion  of 

confess, 

mjr  new 

mar.u- 

is,  which 

number 

Even  the 
izpns  out 
'  from  the 
Intionary 
silk,  wore 

21,000 
liancy  of 
ixml  silk 

l(?viin- 
nre  fiibri- 
imated  at 

ilk.  Tho 
I'tiiofly  in 
W(X)1,  ami 
1(1  similar 
or  cloths 
I  and  sub- 
ts  to  thn 
iifactured 


wool  at  »3,000,(K)0  francs,  and  tlio  finished  work  at  238,000,000,  of  which  tlie  exports 
nmount  V>  alxwt  25,000,000. 

The  iiiakin<r  of  linen  is  as  widely  scattered  ns  the  culture  of  hemp  and  flax.  The  coarse 
cloths  aii>  chiefly  fabricated  by  the  pcasuntry,  each  out  of  the  produce  of  liis  own  little  patch 
of  land.  There  arc,  however,  large  manufactures  of  plain  useful  cloth  in  Normandy  ann 
Dauphint',  tlie  latter  from  heinp ;  and  groat  <iuantities  of  sailcloth  are  made  in  the  maritime 
countries.  In  the  departments  along  tho  Belgic  border  there  are  extensive  fabrics  of  lawns, 
cambrics,  and  lace ;  which  la.st,  though  not  of  equal  reputation  with  that  of  Urussels  and 
Mechlin,  forms  yet  an  important  object  of  trade.  We  may  reckon  tho  raw  material  of  hemp 
at  37,0(K),000  francs ;  the  finished  manufacture  at  nearly  110,500,000 ;  flax,  raw  material, 
20,0(M),(HH),  tlie  finished  fabric,  75,000,000.  The  exportation  is  about  37,500,000,  olmost 
wholly  of  the  finest  kinds  of  the  manufiicture. 

The  cotton  manufacture  was  established  in  France  during  the  continental  system ;  and 
has  been  prop[)od  up  since  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons  by  the  prohibition  of  im|X)rtation 
from  abroad.  In  1810  the  imports  of  raw  cotton  amounted  to  above  25,000,000  lbs.,  and 
during  the  next  ten  years  they  wi^re  more  than  doubled.  But  the  high  price  of  machinery 
in  France,  tlie  ncarcity  of  coal,  and  the  want  of  skill  on  the  part  of  the  workmen,  seem  to 
oppose  almost  ii  suporable  obstacles  to  the  further  progress  of  the  manufacture.  It  is  at  pre 
Bent  in  a  very  depressed  state,  and  the  following  account  shows  that  it  has  been  nearly  sta- 
tionary during  the  last  ten  years : — 


Imports  of  Cotton  Wool  into  France. 

Iba. 

1888 (il,75H,300 

18Sa .'iO,!l.53,.'SOO 

m» T.wjs.aoo 

I8M fil.aTlfiOO 

ias» :  ....  96,052,200 


1827 87,185,100 

1828. 01 ,839,000 

1H29 72 ,««!» ,000 

18:K) H4„s2S.000 

1831 05,517,000 


[In  1834,  it  again  rose  to  279,674  Imlcs,  or  about  73,250,000  lbs. ;  and  in  183.5,  to  314,350 
bales,  or  about  94,000,000 lbs.— Am.  Eu.] 

Of  the  secondary  objects  of  manufacture,  that  of  leatlier  is  perhaps  the  most  extensive, 
though  not  peculiarly  French.  It  is  supposed  that  in  France  the  annual  product  amounts  to 
857,000  cow-hides;  110,000  horse-hidos,  and  2,032,000  calf-skins.  There  are  31,000  shoe- 
makers in  Paris,  who  make  upwards  of  eight  millions  of  pairs  of  shoes  yearly,  not  only  for 
the  city  itself,  but  the  provinces,  and  even  foreign  countries.  Chaptal  reckons  the  whole 
produce  of  tanning,  currying,  shoemaking,  and  all  processes  connected  with  leather,  at 
]43,000,()00  francs.  Hard  soap  was  formerly  supplied  by  Morseilles  to  ail  France  and  the 
colonies,  but  its  produce  of  22.5,000  quintals  is  now  reduced  by  a  third;  owing  piirtly  to  the 
reduction  of  the  colonial  demand,  and  partly  to  the  more  general  difTusion  of  tiio  manufacture. 
It  is  thought  still  to  amount  to  30,000,000  francs.  Starch,  including  hair-powder,  may  amount 
to  18,000,000  pounds.  There  are  sundry  little  matters  of  jewellery,  trinkets,  furniture,  per- 
fumery, scented  waters,  volatile  salts,  which  elsewhere  are  only  petty  trades,  but  which  taste 
and  fashion  in  France  raise  to  the  dignity  of  manufactures,  tlie  whole  produce  of  which  is 
reckoned  at  upwards  of  100,000.000  francs.  Crystal,  glass,  and  pottery  arc  branches  in 
which  the  French  have  recently  made  great  progress;  and,  from  being  dependent  on 
foreigners  for  these  articles,  are  now  able  to  export  them.  The  first  two  branches  are  esti- 
mated at  21,000,000 ;  porcelain  made  at  Sevres  and  other  places,  at  5,000,000 ;  iwttery  in 
imitation  of  English,  a  little  more;  coarse  pottery  for  the  lower  ranks,  l."),000,(MM). 

Mineral  kingdom.  France  yields  in  abundance  the  most  solid  and  useful  of  all  metals, 
iron.  There  are  alwut  400  forges  in  tho  king<loni,  chiefly  in  the  Pyroncan  and  .\lpine  de- 
partments, and  along  the  heads  of  the  Marnc,  the  Moselle,  and  the  Sa6ne. 

The  produce  which  M.  Chaptal  reckoned  only  81,000,000  kilogrammes,  had,  according  to 
M.  Dupin,  risen  in  1825  to  101,0(K»,000  (alxiut  161,000  tons),  the  value  of  which  would  be 
about  7.5,000,000  francs.  Chaptil  supposed  the  workmanship  bestowed  even  on  the  smaller 
quantity  prmlucod  in  iii.s  time  siifTiriont  to  raise  the  value  to  200,000,000  francs.  Nearly  all 
the  copper  and  lead  employed  in  IVaiice  is  imiiorted  from  abroad.  Salt  is  extracted  on  the 
southern  coast  from  sea- water  ova|)oratod  by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  and  in  the  north  from 
brine-springs  artificially  ovoixirafml.  During  the  period  when  salt,  relieved  from  the  old 
oppressive  mi)nn]K)ly,  \vas  lofl  eiitiroly  free,  its  production  and  use  rose  to  the  extraordinary 
height  of  upwards  of  20  millions  of  quintals.  Since  the  re-establishinont  of  tiio  t'lx,  it  has 
fallen  to  not  luite  two  millions;  upon  which  there  is  paid  a  duty  of  45,0(X),(K10  francs.  This 
astonishing  diminution  seems  chiefly  owing  to  the  disuse  of  it  in  anrictiltnro;  a  circiiinstance 
liowevcr  very  injurious  to  that  hrniich  of  industry.  Other  mineral  iirodncts,  witli  their  sup- 
posed value,  are,  alum,  2,5(KI,000;  saltpetre,  3,000,0(K);  nitric  acid,  6,0()0,()0(> ;  muriatic 
acid,  2.50,0{M). 

The  total  value  of  the  products  of  tho  mines  and  manufiicturos  of  France  is  ostiniated  at 
2,00t^ 000,000  francs.  The  particulars  are  about  4.50  millions  of  home  raw  materials;  225 
millions  of  foreign  raw  materials;  900  millions  of  workmanship ;  225  millions  of  general  ox- 

Vol.  I.  3  S 


fin'': 


?..il 


t' 


;>;h, 


>  ;:■' 


Ii." . 

if  I 


538 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


PabtIII 


pense,  as  implements,  repairs,  lijfhting,  interest  of  fixed  capital ;  200  millions  for  the  profit 
of  the  munufaeturcr. 

The  commerce  of  France,  while  all  the  other  branches  of  industry  were  thus  advancing, 
has  perceptibly  declined.  It  was  reduced,  indeed,  to  a  state  of  temporary  annihilation  by 
the  violent  [xilicy  of  Napoleon,  who  absolutely  lined  the  coast  with  troops,  timt  not  a  single 
vessel  might  enter.  Thus  all  the  commercial  ties  of  France  were  broken,  every  channel 
closed  by  which  slie  was  accustomed  to  exchange  her  commodities  with  those  of  foreign 
countries.  Indeed,  the  anti-commercial  spirit  stems  to  have  become  rooted  in  the  mind  of 
the  nation ;  and  when  we  find  even  the  enlightened  mind  of  Chaptal  extolling  the  prohibi- 
tory system,  and  considering  every  thing  as  a  source  of  loss  to  France  wiiich  she  imports 
from  abroad,  there  can  appear  little  prospect  of  any  amendment  That  writer  considers  the 
year  1789  as  the  most  flourishing  period  of  French  commerce;  when  the  exports  amounted 
JO  18,a(Kt,()(KW.  sterling,  and  the  imporU  to  26,500,000/.  This  extraordinary  excess  of 
imports,  tt  result,  according  to  old  ideas,  considered  so  disastrous,  he  explains  by  observing, 
that  the  imixirts  include  ten  millions  firom  the  colonies,  while  the  exports  thither  were  only 
four,  and  also  two  millions  and  a  half  in  gold  and  silver.  Whether  this  explanation  be  sound 
or  otherwise,  we  have  no  idea  that  there  could  be  any  permanent  or  extensive  difference  be- 
tween the  two  branches.  Chaptal  has,  with  grief,  declined  to  give  any  record  of  the  feeble 
efibrts  at  revival  ujade  by  the  French  commerce.  Since  the  appearance  of  Chaptal's  work, 
however,  it  has  cDnsiderably  improved.  In  1827,  the  import  trade  was  carried  out  by  3350 
vessels,  under  the  French  flag,  tonnage  353,000,  value  of  cargoes  230,140,000  fi-ancs;  and 
by  4439  foreign  vessels,  tonnage  474,0(K),  value  of  cargoes  136,041,000  francs.  There  were, 
besides,  imported  by  land,  goods  to  the  value  of  199,621,000  francs;  making  the  imjwrta  in 
all,  56.5,802,()(H)  frnncs. 

In  the  same  year  the  export  trade  was  carried  on  by  3522  French  vessels,  tonnage 
346,000,  value  of  cargoes  23.5,120,000  irancs;  and  4141  foreign  vessels,  tonnage  also 
346,000,  value  of  cargoes  167,728,000  francs.  The  exports  by  land  amounted  to  156,767,000 
francs ;  making  in  all,  559,615,()(K)  francs. 

The  following  was  the  value  of  the  leading  articles  of  import  and  export : — 


IMFORTS. 

Francs. 

Haw  hiilcs 8,700,000 

Wools 11,140,000 

Feathers l,.W0.00O 

Silks 32,270,000 

Tallow 2.500,0(10 

FfHitB  to  plant 1,220,000 

Tobacco 7,650,000 

VcKotahle  juices 2,270,000 

Oils,  noi  for  fooil 31,430,000 

Medic 2,130,000 

Wooil 17,0110,000 

,  ornamental 2.000,000 

Hemp 4,210,000 

Flax 56,000 

Cotton 51 ,010.000 

Gems 8,200,000 

Sulphur 1,200,000 

Coal 8,080,000 

Cnsl-iron 1,170,00() 

Copper 0,110,000 

Tin 2,130,000 

P.itash 3,420,000 

Indigo 14.880,000 

Horses 3,3<iO,000 

Sheep 6,400  000 

Horned  cattle 9,520.000 

Butter l,!HiO,0flO 

Ejus 3,830,000 

Grain 7,150.000 

Cheese 3,140.000 

Fruits 1(1,200.000 

8u|jar 3(1,000,000 

Coffee 10,000,000    j 

Strawhnts 4.,'>.5O.O0fl    i 

Mnen,  orhenipi<liitr«, 1,5.880.000 

Mercery 2,170,000    i 

Mercantile  navy.    In  1827,  the  mercantile  navy  of  France  consisted  of  14,530  vessels, 
of  tlie  burden  of  700,000  tons.     Of  these  there  belonged  to— 


E.\F0RT8. 

Dvestuffi 8,300,000 

Gt-ni.t 3,120,006 

Horses 1,200,000 

Mnles 4,840,000 

Sheep 1,420,000 

Horned  cattle 2,530,000 

Reflnedsuijar 4,550,000 

Wine,  ordinary 41,510,0(H) 

,  liqueurs 5,730,000 

Brandies 32,970.000 

Straw-hats 2,0(10,000 

Porcelain 3,(180,000 

Glass 2,(500,000 

French  books .3,140,000 

Paper 3,000,000 

Perfumery 5,300,000 

Cloths,  wool 20,920.000 

,  silk OO.HtJO.OOO 

,  ribands 24,380,000 

,  crtton 4(1,020,000 

.  linen 17,370,000 

Cambric  and  lawn 10,580,000 

PlaqutS 3,170,000 

Clock  and  watch-work 4,240,000 

Tnhletterio 3,700,000 

Mercery • 0,880,000 

Mode,. 2.300,000 

Made  clothes 0,480,000 

Parisian  articles 5,600,000 


Stiipi.  Tom. 

Bordeaux 431 77,000 

Marseilles 711 (15,000 

Havre 359 62,000 


Ship,. 

Nantes 537  . 

Rnuen 2.'>4 . 

Dunkirk 230. 


Tnni. 

.,5n,iH)n 

.28,00(1 
.17,500 


Tlie  interior  commerce  must  lie  very  extcnsivi^.  tliiiiigli  it  is  diflicult  to  psti  ite  its  amount, 
as,  notwithstanding  ronsidrrnblo  n/lvantacres  for  iiiiviirntiDn,  the  bulk  of  it  •urriod  on  by 
land.  The  old  inodinm  of/«n-.v  ha.-;  been  not  only  prc-'crved,  but  greatly  c-  'i'"d.  .M.  nottin, 
uix)n  documents  fdininlKMl  by  the  minister  of  tlio  interior.  calciilatcH  tliiit  ''    ic  are  26,31''i 


8,300,000 
3,130,006 
1,290,000 
4,840.000 

i,4ao,uou 
2,sa«,ouo 

4,550.000 
41,S10,0II<I 
5,720,000 
22,970,000 
2,0(10,000 
3,(i80,000 
2,000,000 
3,140,000 

:i,Dr)U,ooo 

5,300,000 

..  20,920,000 

!IO,HtJO,0(X) 

. .  24,380,000 

..   4I>,020,000 

..  17,370,000 

..   10,580,000 

3,170,000 

4,240,000 

3,7i)0.(X)0 

0,880,000 

2,300,000 

0,480,000 

5,600,00)) 


Tom. 
.W.dOfl 
28,00(1 
17,500 


Book  I.  PRANCE.  63U 

fairs  in  Franco  Some  of  these  arc  Iield  on  the  frontier  of  a  province  or  kingdom,  others 
round  a  {.'f'-  ciiti.jdral  or  noted  place  of  pilgrimage;  some  at  the  foot  of  high  mountains  on 
the  meltiii;-  of  Uw  snows,  whicii  imve  kept  tiie  inhabitants  imprisoned  for  several  months. 
Sometimes  thoy  open  vvilli  burlosiiue  representations,  as  processions  of  giants,  of  flyin<' 
dragons,  or  monstrous  fishes.  Tiie  fair  of  Longchamp.",  held  in  spring  at  Paris,  those  ot 
Benucaire  in  Languedoc,  and  of  Guibray  in  Normandy,  are  the  most  extensive. 

'J'he  canals  of  France  were  long  entirely  undertaken  by  the  government,  wliich  carried 
on  those  »vorks  with  some  spirit.  The  earliest  was  the  Canal  of  Briaro,  to  unite  the  Seine 
and  the  Loire.  It  is  about  38  miles  long,  4  feet  deep,  has  40  locks,  and  cost  1,0(»0,0()0 
francs.  Tiie  canal  of  Languedoc  is  on  a  much  greater  scale,  and  was  considered  in  its  day 
a  stupendous  undertaking.  It  was  intended  to  unite  the  Mediterranean  with  the  Atlantic, 
and  is  170  miles  long,  0^  feet  deep,  with  100  locks.  The  cost  was  32,000,000  francs,  which 
would  have  been,  at  least,  doubled  Iiad  the  work  been  executed  in  the  present  day.  It  wan 
considered  the  largest  canal  in  Europe,  till  it  was  eclipsed  by  the  Caledonian,  which  is  three 
times  as  deep,  and  admits  ships  of  war ;  whereas  the  canal  of  Ijanguedoc  has  afforded  a 
mere  inland  navigation,  along  which  pass  1900  vessels  of  100  to  120  tons ;  but  it  has  not, 
for  the  most  common  merchant-vessels,  superseded  the  necessity  of  going  round  by  the 
Straits  of  Gibraltar.  The  Canal  of  the  Centre,  joining  the  Saone  and  the  Loire  by  a  line 
of  70  miles,  was  completed  in  1793,  at  an  expense  of  10,000,000  francs;  but  only  5  feet 
deep.  The  Canal  of  Picardy,  from  the  Oise  towards  Lille,  remarkable  for  its  long  tunnel 
near  St.  Quintin,  was  completed  in  1810,  at  an  expense  of  10,600,000  francs.  Still,  France, 
in  this  grand  national  improvement,  remained  far  behind  England,  which,  by  M.  Dupin's  es- 
timate,  made  a  few  years  ago,  had  more  than  four  and  a  half  times  as  much  canalization  in 
proportion  to  its  surface.  Very  recently,  however,  France  has  displayed  an  extraordinary 
activity  in  planning,  and  a  considerable  diligence  in  executing,  designs  of  this  nature.  This 
too  has  been  displayed  not  by  government  only,  but  by  private  associations,  asking  only  aid 
and  advances  from  the-state.  Independent  of  the  finished  works  above  stated,  twelve  great 
new  canals  are  in  progress.  These  are, — 1.  The  Canal  Monsieur,  joining  the  Rhine  and 
the  Rhone  by  the  Sa6ne  and  the  Doubs ;  length  180  miles.  2.  Of  Burgundy,  joining  the 
Sadne  to  the  Loire  by  the  Yonnc,  14.5  miles.  3.  Of  Angouleme,  making  the  Somme  navi« 
gable  to  Amiens.  4.  A  lateral  canal  along  the  Loire,  to  avoid  the  difficulties  of  its  naviga- 
tion, from  Dijon  to  Briaro,  120  miles.  5.  From  Nantes  to  Brest,  with  a  view  of  provisioning 
the  ports  of  Britany,  220  miles.  6.  Of  Ille  et  Ranee,  joining  Nantes  to  Brest  and  St.  Malo. 
7.  Of  Nivernais,  joining  the  Yonne  to  the  LSlre.  8.  Of  the  Duke  of  Berri,  joining  the  Cher 
to  the  Upper  I«ire.  9.  Ardennes.  10.  Blanet.  11.  Aries.  12.  Oise.  Several  canals,  on 
a  still  more  magnificent  scale,  have  been  recently  contemplated,  an'd  what  tlic  Froncli  call 
the  studies  of  them  are  even  far  advanced ;  but  no  part  of  the  works  has  yet  been  com- 
menced. Doubts  are  even  entertained  if  they  will  repay  the  immense  expense  required  for 
their  completion.  The  principal  of  these  nro, — 1.  A  maritime  canal  from  Paris  to  the  sea, 
avoiding  the  circuitous  navigation  of  the  Seine,  and  admitting  ships  of  large  burden  to  that 
capital.  Tiio  estimate  is  150,000,000  francs,  and  1,500,000  francs  for  a  harlrour  at  Paris. 
2.  A  canal  from  Paris  to  Strasburg ;  which  would  become,  as  it  were,  the  French  Grand 
Trunk,  and  migiit  easily  be  extended  to  the  Danube.  The  length  would  exceed  300  miles. 
1.  The  Pyrenonn  Canal,  from  Toulouse  to  Bayonne,  forming  a  more  direct  communication 
from  sea  to  sea  than  at  present.    Length,  210  miles. 

The  roads  of  France,  at  least  the  high  roads,  have  been  chiefly  supported  by  government. 
They  are  broader,  more  spacious,  more  direct,  and  on  the  whole  of  grander  aspect,  than  the 
Englisli  roads ;  but  the^  have  not  been  kept  in  such  good  condition  for  travelling.  Roads 
have  been  mode  and  repaired  rather  for  political  and  military  purposes,  from  solicitation  and 
favour,  than  for  objects  of  real  utility.  The  system  seems  to  have  been,  to  neglect  them  as 
long  as  possible,  till  the  clamour  of  the  district  became  irresistible,  and  then  to  give  them  a 
thorough  repair ;  to  which  Dupin  justly  prefers  the  system  of  keeping  roads  constantly  in  a 
good  state  by  small  repairs  as  the  necessity  arises.  The  French  roads,  however,  have  been 
greatly  improved  since  1810,  and  the  maintenance  of  a  great  proportion  of  them  ha.s  been 
undertaken  by  the  departments ;  so  that  they  are  now  divided  into  royal  and  departmental. 
The  royal  roads,  in  1828,  extended  8631  leagues,  and  there  was  expended  on  them 
199,000,000  francs;  but  this  was  chiefly  on  repairing  and  extending  different  parts  of  them. 
It  was  thus  divided : — 

Fnnct. 

To  innintain  4205  leagues,  cost "•^''•59!! 

Ti)  rciHiir        31li«    ditto 01,051,000 

To  rompleto     814    ilitto 43,403.tH)0 

Tooiion  440    ilitto 34,9(14,000 

Works  of  art 50,0%,lifl0 

l«9,4fi3,(K)0 

The  departmental  roads,  in  1828,  extended  7704  leagues,  of  which  6040  had  been 
opened,  and  to  complete  the  remaining  1604  would  require  an  expenditure  of  112,000,0il0 
francs. 


MJ 


■?i. 


'  .1; 


540 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


Tliere  are  several  rail-roads  in  France,  but  of  no  great  extent ;  the  principal  arc  that  of 
Andrezicux  and  Roanne,  50  niilea  in  length;  that  of  St.  Eticnne  and  the  Loire,  15  miles; 
and  that  of  St.  Etienne  and  Lyons,  45  miles. 

Of  the  bridges  of  Franco  several  are  handsome,  as  tiiose  over  the  Loire  at  Orleans, 
Tours,  and  Nantes ;  over  tiie  Seine  at  Paris,  Neuilly,  and  Rouen  ;  over  the  Rhone  and 
Sa6nc  at  Lyons;  and  over  the  Garonne  at  Bordeaux.  Bridges  of  su.4pension  have  been  con- 
.-tructed  at  Paris  in  front  of  the  Hotel  des  Invalides,  and  over  the  Rhone,  between  Tain  and 
Tournon.    These  operations  have  been  entirely  in  the  hands  of  government. 

Sect.  VI. — CtDi7  and  Social  State. 

The  population  of  France,  wiiich  in  1790,  by  tiie  enquiries  of  Necker,  appeared  to  be 
24,800,000,  was  found  by  the  census  of  1791  to  amount  to  26,363,000 ;  by  that  of  1817,  U) 
upwards  of  29,000,0(K);  and  by  that  of  1820-21,  to  30,616,000,  including  Corsica  and  the 
army.  According  to  the  royal  ordonnance  of  March  15th,  1827,  it  amounted  to  31,851,546. 
There  were  in  that  year  965,634  births ;  of  which  898,329  were  legitimate,  and  67,;)05  ille- 
gitimate. The  births  consisted  of  498,187  boys,  and  467,447  girls.  The  marriages  were 
229,613,  the  deaths  772,428.  At  an  average  the  proportion  of  nmle  births  in  France  to  female 
births  is  as  16  to  15;  the  marriages  are  to  (he  population  as  1  to  1133;  the  births  are  to  the 
marriages  nearly  as  4  to  1 ;  and  to  the  population  as  1  to  31.53 ;  the  deaths  are  to  the  popu- 
lation as  1  to  39.4.  The  extraordinary  improvement  since  1780  in  the  condition  of  the  people 
is  obvious  from  the  fact  that  at  the  last-mentioned  period  the  deaths  were  to  the  whole  popu- 
lation as  1  to  30.2 :  so  that  while,  in  1780,  one  individual  died  annually  out  of  every  30 
individuals,  in  1832  one  only  died  out  of  about  SO.* 

The  French  national  character  has  very  marked  features,  and  has  been  the  object  of 
mingled  admiration  and  contempt  to  the  neighbouring  nations.  In  the  eyes  of  Frenchmen, 
especially  of  the  old  school,  la  bdli;  France  is  the  centre  of  all  that  is  refined  and  polished 
in  human  existence,  and  whatever  lies  beyond  its  sphere  is  marked  with  a  deep  taint  of  bar- 
barism ;  while  their  rougher  neighbours  brand  them  as  artificial,  effeminate,  and  fantastic. 
The  art  of  living  in  society  seems  certainly  carried  to  greater  perfection  than  in  any  other 
country ;  and  the  manners  are  characterised  by  a  peculiar  gaiety,  amenity,  and  courtesy. 
The  polish  of  the  higher  ranks  seems  to  have  descended  even  to  the  lowest  circles.  "The 
man  who  breaks  stones  upon  the  road  takes  off  his  hut  to  the  woman  that  leads  her  cow  in  a 
string ;  the  tinker  and  the  shoeblack  whip  off  their  hats  to  each  other."  A  certain  openness 
and  kindness  of  disposition  is  certainly  evinc^  in  the  custom  of  whole  families,  wiih  married 
sons  and  daughters,  continuing  to  dwell  under  the  paternal  roof  The  Frenchman  lives  as 
it  were  in  public :  his  house,  for  a  part  of  the  day,  is  open  to  a  largo  circle  of  acquaintance. 
He  enjoys  society  without  expense  and  ceremony.  He  resorts  habitually  to  the  tlieatre, 
spectacles,  and  scenes  of  public  amusement.  In  more  serious  points  of  view,  the  French 
possess  estimable  qualities.  Intoxication  is  a  vice  confined  to  the  lowest  ranks ;  and  swear- 
ing is  repelled  at  least  as  a  mark  of  barbarism.  The  Frencli  are  ingenious,  acute,  active,  and 
intelligent.  If  they  have  not  what  can  strictly  be  called  patriotism,  they  have  at  least  ii 
very  strong  national  feeling.  To  exalt  the  glory  and  promote  the  influence  of  France,  is  the 
prevailing  impulse  which  actuates  the  mind  of  almost  every  Frenchman.  It  is,  however, 
alleged,  tliat  there  is  a  want  of  that  sterling  principle,  that  openness  and  integrity,  which 
forms  the  boast  of  the  Engliish  character.  Dis-simulation  and  insincerity  pccm  widely  dif- 
fused through  the  intercourse  of  the  higher  circles.  Tiic  honesty  of  the  lower  classes  is, 
however,  remarkable;  and  the  system  of  higgling  inshojw,  is  a  consequence  of  the  contracted 
state  of  commerce.  The  deportment  of  the  female  sex,  liowever  embellished  by  tournure, 
and  the  graces,  does  not  accord  with  our  ideas  of  social  anil  domestic  proi)riely.  The  young 
ladies  are  strictly  watched,  and  held  in  almost  monastic  seclusion;  but  the  era  of  marriage 
is  the  sigpiil,  if  not  of  positive  irregularity,  at  least  of  a  syetem  of  regular  flirtation,  which 
we  cannot  reconcile  to  the  conjugal  and  matronly  ciiaractor.  It  is  probable,  however,  that 
the  impression  of  the  general  dissoluteness  of  French  manners  has  been  chiefly  derived 
from  the  opulent  circles  of  the  capital;  while,  as  a  late  writer  has  observed,  Paris  and  the 
piC'inces  form  entirely  separate  worlds.  Among  tlie  peasantry,  and  even  among  the  trading 
class  in  the  cities,  there  appears  to  be  much  that  is  respectable  and  amiable.  The  great 
activity  and  prominent  station  of  the  female  sex  are  everywhere  conspicuous:  they  are  seen 
manofring  the  shops,  carrying  on  great  manufactories,  and  joining  in  the  hardest  toils  of  the 
loom  and  the  field.  It  is  not  at  all  uncommon  upon  a  farm  to  see  the  master  sowing,  liis< 
wife  guiding  the  plougli,  and  a  fine  girl  filling  the  dung-cart.  Such  avocations  divest  the 
fair  sex  in  the  provinces  of  any  great  portion  of  Iicauty.  Indee<l,  the  gay  hilarity  of  the 
French  character  does  not  seem  quite  so  universal  as  is  generally  supposed.  Travellers  in 
the  south,  from  Arthur  Young  to  those  of  later  date,  complain  rather  of  a  singular  gravity 
and  taciturnity.     Mr.  Matthews  remarks  in  his  "  Diary  of  an  Invalid,"  that  a  very  con- 

[*  The  population  in  1833  was  33,500,UOO.— Am.  Go.;] 


* 


BdOK  I. 


FRANCE. 


&11 


sidetablc  clmnge  of  manners  has  taken  place  since  tlie  Revolution.  All  the  distinctions  ot 
rank  have  been  cut  down  like  the  old  trees  of  the  forest,  and  the  new  generation,  like  tin.' 
coppice,  are  uU  on  a  lovel.  "  You  will  seek  in  vain,"  lie  says,  "for  that  hijrli-bred  polish  of 
manners,  which  has  been  so  much  boasted  as  peculiar  to  Uie  huul-lon  of  France.  A  re- 
publican spirit  prevail.-',  and  shows  itself  in  an  independent  roughness  of  manner,  savouring 
of  sans-culottisiu." 

The  Uoiiian  Catholic  lias  been  the  ruling  religion  in  France,  ever  since  the  fatal  issue  of 
the  long  struggle  for  religioiis  liberty.  Previously  to  the  Revolution,  however,  a  general 
Bcepticism  pervaded  all  the  well-informed  classes,  lH)th  as  to  the  Catholic  tenets,  and  as  to 
religion  in  general.  This  was  doubtless  one  great  cause  both  of  the  Revolution  and  of  many 
of  the  fatal  and  disastrous  aspects  which  it  assumed.  A  furious  anti-religious  fanaticism 
reigned  ;  all  fonn  of  public  worship  was  suspended,  and  even  prohibited;  the  churches  were 
rifled  and  defaced  in  a  barbarous  manner.  At  this  time  the  vast  domains  of  the  church,  by 
which  so  many  dignitaries  and  so  many  convents  were  supported  in  splendour,  were  voted 
tlie  property  of  the  nation,  and  sold  at  a  low  price  to  supply  its  necessities.  Napoleon  had 
the  merit  of  re-establishing  religious  worship,  and  on  a  very  liberal  footing;  an  allowance 
being  miule  for  the  support  of  the  Protestant  clergy,  proportioned  to  the  number  who  still 
hold  that  faith,  and  who  amount  to  about  1,5(K),(KHI.  As  all  the  former  funds  however  had 
disappeared,  the  establishment  is  sup|)ortcd  out  of  the  public  revenue,  and  is  frugal,  and  even 
scanty,  both  as  to  numbers  and  salary.  In  1H31,  there  were  four  cardinals,  ten  archbishops, 
and  sixty-six  bishops.  After  the  intermediate  classes  of  vicars  and  canons  come  the  cures, 
or  parish  priests,  amounting  to  3000,  with  incomes  of  1000  or  1500  francs ;  but  the  chief 
labour  devolves  upon  23,(X)0  desserviins,  or  acting  curates,  who  starve  upon  400  or  (500 
francs  a  year  with  the  addition  f  "only  some  small  fees.  The  whole  church  expenditure,  in 
ISiia,  amounted  to  1,575,000  liv  's,  but  in  1832  was  reduced  by  a  third  ;  and  the  church 
has  been  in  a  somewhat  unsettlec.  state.  The  Bourbons  were  supposed  to  aim  at  restoring 
it  to  all  its  former  power,  splendour,  and  privilege;  a  course  viewed  with  extreme  jealousy 
by  the  republican  party.  The  high  church  party  endeavoured  to  remedy  the  deficiency  of 
the  establisb.ment  by  sending  sound  missionaries  who  were  listened  to  by  the  people  with 
enthusiastic  delight.  The  author  of  "  Four  Years  in  France"  mentions  one  who  in  depart- 
ing from  a  city  had  his  cassock  torn  oft"  his  back,  and  cut  into  pieces  to  be  distributed  as 
relics.  The  liberals  deride  them  as  ignorant  fanatics ;  but  some  travellers  who  cannot  bo 
charged  with  superstition,  report  them  as  displaying  a  good  deal  of  natural  elotpience,  and 
that  their  doctrmes  appeared  really  very  edifying,  since  many  persons  who  had  been  guilty 
of  thefls,  even  at  remote  periods,  were  induced  by  them  to  come  forward  and  make  confession 
and  restitution. 

The  intellectual  character  of  the  French  has  been  brilliant,  and  since  the  age  of  Louis 
XIV.  has  had  a  powerful  influence,  in  matters  of  taste,  on  the  general  literature  of  Europe : 
that  prince,  ambitious  of  glory  in  every  form,  extended  a  munificent  patronage  to  letters  and 
arts.  The  French  Academy,  though  its  endowments  were  not  very  splendid,  and  though 
intrigue  often  influenced  its  admissions,  gave  a  fixed  and  high  place  in  society  to  men  of 
letters ;  who,  amid  all  the  frivolity  of  French  character,  were  received  even  among  the  highest 
ranks  with  a  distinction  not  accorded  to  them  in  any  other  modern  country.  The  aim  of 
Ijouis  to  make  the  French  a  sort  of  universal  language  was  in  a  great  measure  successful ; 
it  became  the  established  dialect  at  all  the  courts,  and  the  chief  medium  by  which  the  different 
nations  communicated  with  each  other.  The  departments  in  which  the  writers  of  that  age 
excelled,  were  chiefly  pulpit  eloquence,  poetry  of  a  light  and  satirical  character,  and  the 
drama  in  a  somewhat  fettered  and  artificial  form.  The  writers  of  the  following  age  took  a 
Iwlder  and  more  varied  flight,  and  sought  to  turn  the  opinion  of  mankind  into  new  channels 
upon  all  subjects.  Thewitand  variedtalentof  Voltaire,  tlie  eloquence  of  Buftbn  and  Rousseau, 
the  comprehensive  views  of  Montesquieu,  and  the  science  of  D'Alenibort,  gave  a  new  turn 
to  the  ideas  of  the  thinking  world  throughout  Europe.  These  writers,  with  their  successors 
of  the  same  school,  had  a  powerful  influence  in  bringing  on  this  revolution,  in  tlin  ruins  of 
which  several  of  them  were  buried.  Learning  was  for  some  time  almost  extinguished  in 
France;  but  as  soon  as  the  revolutionary  frenzy  abated,  the  National  Assembly  constituted 
a  new  body  called  the  National  Institute,  round  which,  under  the  changed  appellations  of 
Imperial  and  Royal,  all  the  highest  names  in  science  have  since  continued  to  rally.  The 
French  during  this  period  did  not  .shine  in  poetry  or  general  literature;  but  in  iivitiioinatici-, 
physics,  and  chemistry,  the  labours  of  Ijavoisier,  Laplace,  Lalunde,  Chaptal,  and  a  niinilicr 
of  others,  have,  notwithstanding  the  ]K)werful  rivalry  on  the  other  side  of  the  Channel,  raised 
them  (icrlmps  to  the  very  first  place.  Recently  Franco  has  produced  some  very  eminent 
historians,  and  popular  ixiets  of  a  peculiar  character ;  there  has  been  also  a  remarkable  exten- 
sion of  the  habits  of  reading.  The  periodical  sheets  printed  were  in  1814  only  45,000 ;  in 
1826,  they  were  144,000.  The  most  solid  and  useful  branches  also  arc  those  which  have 
most  increased,  as  appears  from  the  following  table,  fonned  by  M.  Dupin : — 
Vol.  I.  46 


i. 


I, 


h 


.'42 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pari  ftl. 


No,  »r  ShMti  [Tinted.         ' 

No.  of  sliMts  printed. 

1H14.              lt<<JU. 

*U,(m       1,44.1,(100 
77a,(XHI        l.WI'.MHH) 

i;i,;«-j,n(io    •j7,7«4,(KHt 

1I1,>.'-.'C.,(I()0     4li,.>-M,l)(lfl 
;l,l.(HI,()(HI  1     7,li!IU.(IU() 

1  '• 

mt. 

IC'JIp.       1 

1.:174,(KKI 

a.^i^iKN) 

7.W,(HKI 
l.lItU.MIt) 

an.aiH.cHK) 
iH,r,«,'i.o(i«i  1 

I'illilMHKI   1 

;),(i:«,(i(H) 

•.MKI7,tKKI 

S»0|.MIC.>^< 

rililiimiphv 

llclli'K  Li'Urei) 

IliKliiry,  Trnviln,  Su; 

VnricticH,  Ahnniiriry,  fee 

'   I'oliUiiil  Krniinliiv 

L. : 

Tlio  litoriiry  nnd  i^cientific  collections  of  Paris  ure  the  most  splondid  in  Europe :  tlie  royiil 
libniry  cDiilaiiis  S(MMMK)  pi  .ited  volumes,  KHMHHt  inaniiecripts,  r)(MH)  voiiinies  ofciijfravings, 
iinil  1,1)(H1,()0(>  liistorieal  (locuiiioiits.  There  iiro  sixteen  other  libraries  in  Paris,  contiiiniiig 
8(K),0()0  viiliimcs.  The  Museum  of  Natural  Ili.'itory  and  the  Jardin  des  Plantes  are  equally 
copious  in  tlieir  re.-ipective  departments.  All  these  are  opened  to  the  public  in  the  most 
liber.il  niiiimcr.  The  provincial  collections  are  also  respectable,  though  they  do  not  equal 
those  of  the  minor  princes  of  Germany ;  and  Fmnce  is,  on  the  whole,  less  rich  in  this  speciea 
of  treasure. 

Amonjr  the  establishments  for  public  educ^ition  in  France,  the  universities,  whicli  are 
twenty-si.\  in  number,  hold  the  first  rank.  That  of  Paris  is  perhaps  the  most  celebrated  in 
Europe,  and  \v;is,  even  in  the  dark  ages,  the  grand  theatre  of  those  dialectic  combats,  which 
then  usurped  the  lionours  of  science.  Thougii  destroyed  during  the  fury  of  the  Revolution, 
it  has  been  re-established  on  a  great  scale,  and  with  a  larger  appointment  of  professors  than 
ony  other  in  Europe;  it  attracts  students  from  every  part  of  the  kingdom,  as  none  of  tho 
rest  enjoy  equal  repute,  and  indeed  bear  at  present  only  the  name  of  academics.  The  Lycees, 
now  called  royal  colleges,  are  an  institution  of  Napoleon ;  the  expense  of  board  and  educa- 
tion is  from  350  to  750  francs  a  year ;  but  they  enjoy  a  very  unwarrantable  monopoly  of  the 
right  to  teach  Latin;  they  were  attended,  in  1825,  by  10,000  pupils.  Primary  schools 
intended  for  tlio  general  instruction  of  the  people  amounted  in  1825  to  22,900,  and  were 
attended  by  110,000  scholars.  Lancosterian  schools  have  since  been  introtluced,  and 
amounted  in  1820  to  8(K),  attended  by  80,000  scholars.  M.  Dupin  remarks  striking  local 
difTcrcnces  in  this  respect.  In  the  north,  13,0tXt,0(K)  of  inhabitants  send  to  school  740,000 
children ;  while  in  the  south,  18,0(K),000  send  only  375,000 :  even  in  the  south,  the  propor- 
tion is  largest  in  the  districts  least  favoured  by  nature,  the  Upper  Alps  and  the  Upper 
Pyrenees;  while  in  Touraine,  emphatically  called  the  garden  of  France,  it  is  only  one  in 
220.  All  these  establishments  are  under  the  patrtmage  and  control  of  the  government,  which 
grants  annually  alwut  .'S.OO' ^(KIO  francs  for  tticir  support.* 

The  fine  arts  were  zealously  promoted  by  tho  regent  duke  of  Orleans,  and  by  I^ouis  XIV. ; 
and  though  they  never  reached  the  splendour  of  the  Italian  or  even  of  the  Flemish  schools, 
yet  they  could  boa.st  several  masters  of  the  first  class;  the  Poussins  and  Claude  I-orraine, 
having  fixed  their  residence  and  even  found  their  scenery  in  Italy,  became  half  Italian.  Le 
Brun  and  Le  Sueur  were  the  chief  artists  decidedly  French :  of  whom  the  former  enjoyed 
the  favour  of  tho  king,  and  the  chief  direction  of  the  great  works ;  but  the  latter  has  been 
pronounced  by  posterity  to  be  his  superior.  After  this  the  French  school  sunk  greatly,  and 
was  employed  in  delineating  only  the  artificial  forms  of  court  society ;  but  within  the  last 
thirty  years  a  new  school  has  sprung  up,  in  which  David,  Gerard,  Guerin,  Girodet,  and  their 
followers  have  sought,  not  witliout  success,  to  imitate  the  highest  classical  models.  The 
French  school  has  produced  a  series  of  very  eminent  engravers ;  and  the  names  of  Desnoyers, 
Bervic,  and  Massard  still  support  its  reputation,  though  it  no  longer  surpasses,  or  perhaps 
equals,  those  of  England  and  Italy.  Tho  French  galleries  of  art  have  passed  through 
many  vicissitudes:  before  the  revolution  they  were  certainly  the  first  out  of  Italy.  During 
that  convulsion,  all  the  collections  of  the  princes  and  nobles  were  put  up  to  sale;  the  entire 
Orleans  collection  was  carried  to  England ;  tho  Crozat  went  to  Russia ;  various  minor  col- 
lections shared  the  same  f  itc.  When  the  French,  however,  over-ran  Italy  and  the  Nether- 
lands, they  were  seized  with  the  desire  of  enriching  Paris  with  treasures  of  art,  and  carried 
off  whatever  could  be  removed  from  among  the  masterpieces  of  the  Flemi.'^li  and  Italian 
mas'ters,  and  of  ancient  sculpture.  Thus  was  assembled  in  the  Iiouvre  a  display  of  all  that 
is  most  brilliant  in  art,  such  as  nothing  before  existing  in  the  world  could  have  rivalled.  But 


*[Il  iipppiirs  from  nfflrini  (loci.in(!nls,  tlint  in  18X1  lhi>  iitiiiil.nr  of  rhililrtin  Iwtweoii  Ihi!  ni!t?s  of  two  nnil  six 
ycurji,  WHS  2,744..'ii4,  of  w  Iumii  ahoiit  SUO.(HH)  iiltiniiliii  iitfaiil  frlmols ;  of  tiiosc  liclwieii  six  anil  fifteen  yi'tirn,  tliorc 
wort!  4.(IH7,2til,  of  wliit^li  2,44!),T2.5  iiltniiilfil  tlir  primary  uliooln ;  anil  of  pfrenns  iihovo  fiflni'ii,  tliiire  were  2a,IHifi,170, 
of  wfiiini  H.MS.H.W  coulil  nnillier  rciiil  nor  write  ;— so  tliat  lliore  were  niiirly  1(1.4(10,000  persons  ahove  the  ate  of 
two  years,  who  roceiveil  no  instruction  at  all.  The  same  papers  Rivo  the  following  slatcinonts  of  tho  iKhaolil 
^.visting,  on.!  of  the  nuinher  rei|iiircil  to  educate  the  whole  population : — 

Infant  Schools 1,000  actual  nnnibcr.        40,000  rei|iiircil  number. 

Priniaryilo TO,4C>7  "  .M.'JtH 

PeiualB  WorkinRcIo ],000  "  20,000  " 

Adiiltilo 2,31)1  "  54,840 


Totals 34,S 


160,124 


Ah.  Ed.] 


ttl. 


ItS'M. 


An.  Ed.] 


Book  I. 


PRANCE. 


54H 


a  dire  reverse  awaited  the  nation.  The  allied  armieH  who  conquered  nt  Wntorlno,  and  thence 
advanced  to  f)ccupy  Paris,  determined  to  exact  full  restitution  of  all  this  brilliant  lM«)ty.  The 
Venus,  Apollo,  and  Transfijruration  were  sent  off  for  Rome ;  the  Descent  t'rorn  the  CroHs  for 
Antwerp;  and  nnmborlo;<8  other  masterpieces  were  restored  to  their  ancient  posHossora.  The 
unseemly  gnpn  thus  left  were  filled  up  by  native  productions  and  otiiers  taken  from  the 
palaces ;  and  the  gallery  presents  a  coup  dail  almost  as  brilliant  as  ever ;  the  intrinsic  value, 
however,  is  vastly  diminished ;  though  since  the  purchase  of  the  Borghosc  collection  it  still 
comprises  some  of  the  finest  specimens  of  ancient  sculpture. 

The  houses  in  France  under  the  former  regime  presented  a  "Treat  variety ;  for  wliile  the 
mansions  of  the  nobles  displayed  a  profuse  splendour  and  luxury,  and  might  be  characteri.soil 
as  palaces,  those  of  the  body  of  the  people,  compared  with  the  English,  were  very  deficient 
in  neatness  and  comfort;  the  rooms  being  dark,  the  passages  stragglinjr,  tlie  floors  of  stone, 
the  doors  and  windows  by  no  means  well  finished.  The  palaces,  however,  can  no  longer 
be  maintained  as  such  by  their  impoverished  owners;  and  all  the  fine  old  cliatcaus  throughout 
France  are  converte<l  into  barracks,  prisons,  or  manufactories.  On  the  other  hand,  tlie  habita- 
tions of  the  peasantry,  as  well  as  their  general  condition,  appear  to  be  sensibly  improved. 

Amusement  used  to  form  as  it  were  the  life  of  a  Frenchman,  and  was  sought  for  in  every 
various  and  possible  shape ;  but  since  the  Revolution  a  very  great  change  has  taken  place  in 
tliis  respect.  Paris  still  claims  to  be,  as  it  were,  the  centre  of  gaiety  to  the  civilized  world. 
The  Parisians  go  from  home  in  search  of  amusement  much  more  than  their  neighbours ;  almost 
all  their  leisure  is  spent  in  places  of  public  resort,  which  are  open  on  terms  tliat  render  them 
accessible  to  all  classes.  DM>icing  is  an  exercise  peculiarly  French,  in  which,  as  to  agility, 
and  perhaps  grace,  they  excel  most  nations.  Much  of  their  time  is  also  spent  in  the  open 
air ;  and  the  extensive  ranges  of  gardens  in  Paris  are  provided  with  every  recreation  suited 
to  the  tastes  of  its  citizens.  Although  many  improprieties  doubtless  mingle  with  these  enter- 
tainments, especially  in  Paris,  there  is  less  of  intoxication,  turbulence,  or  quarrelling,  than 
in  the  amusements  of  the  lower  orders  in  England :  so  far,  even  as  concerns  the  public  places, 
there  are  fewer  open  violations  of  decorum. 

Dress  is  a  particular  in  which  the  French  long  claimed,  and  were  allowed  to  give  the  law 
to  the  rest  of  Europe.  Paris  has  been  for  ages  the  grand  tuafrasin  des  modes.  In  that 
capital  seems  to  have  originated  the  system  which  is  termed  fashion,  and  which  consists  in 
the  continual  change,  according  to  a  prescribed  model,  of  the  form  and  construction  of  every 
part  of  the  human  attire.  Such  light  and  constant  changes,  however,  while  they  indicate 
an  inordinate  attention  to  the  object,  seem  as  inconsistent  with  the  formation  of  a  pure  and 
elegant  taste,  as  the  immutable  costumes  of  our  ancestors  and  of  the  East.  The  empire  of 
Paris  seems  considerably  shaken  by  the  extinction  of  its  brilliant  societies,  and  its  long  separa- 
tion by  war  from  the  other  countries ;  but  its  influence  remains  still  very  considerable  in  this 
department. 

In  the  preparation  of  food,  the  French  equally  boast  of  a  refinement  and  recherche  supe- 
rior to  that  of  the  other  European  nations.  Instead  of  plain  joints  presented  in  their  natural 
form,  French  cookery  delights  in  what  arc  called  made  dishes,  stews,  fi-icassccs,  and  ragofits, 
which  retain  few  traces  of  the  original  material.  On  the  merits  of  this  system  various  opin- 
ions have  been  entertained ;  but  at  present  the  fashion  of  this  cookery  out  of  France  is  on 
the  decline,  and  the  time  seems  past  when  it  was  considered  a  matter  of  state  that  the  tables 
of  the  great  should  be  covered  with  French  dishes. 

Sect.  VII. — Local  Geography. 

The  local  divisions  of  France,  prior  to  the  Revolution,  were  provinces,  thirty-two  in  num- 
ber, most  of  which  had  formed  independent  states,  and  even  little  kingdoms,  when  they  were 
merged  into  the  mass  of  the  French  monarchy.  The  National  Assembly,  however,  super- 
eeded  this  division  by  one  much  more  minute,  into  departments ;  which  has  been  retained  by 
the  Bourbons,  and  is  the  basis  of  all  administrative  operations.  It  is  indeed  very  convenient, 
being  founded  upon  natural  divisions  of  rivers  and  mountains:  all  the  departments  are  toler- 
ably equal  as  to  magnitude,  ond  each  has  its  seat  of  administration  nearly  in  the  centre.  All 
the  exclusive  privileges  and  restraints  upon  internal  communication,  wliich  were  attached 
to  the  arrangement  into  provinces,  have  been  happily  removed.  Yet  these  divisions  must 
still  be  kept  in  view,  not  only  because  they  are  necessary  for  the  imderstandiiig  of  history, 
but  because  they  remain  rooted  in  the  mind  of  the  nation,  and  often  mark  strikin^r  difl'crences 
of  race,  of  manners,  and  even  of  language.  It  would  not  consist  witli  our  limits,  or  be 
interesting  to  readers  out  of  France,  to  enter  into  a  detailed  description  of  each  department; 
hut  the  following  tables  will  exhibit  a  very  comprehensive  view  of  their  respective  statis- 
tical details.  The  first  exhibits  the  departments  in  their  relation  to  the  ancient  provinces, 
their  extent  according  to  the  report  of  the  commission  of  the  Cadastre,  their  population 
according  to  the  census  of  1827,  and  their  chief  cities  and  towns.  The  square  French  league 
may  be  reduced  to  the  square  English  mile  by  multiplying  by  P,  or  more  closely,  7.84. 

The  following  table  exhibits  both  the  provinces  and  the  departments  as  nearly  as  possible  in 
their  relation  to  each  other,  with  their  extent  in  square  leagues,  and  the  population  of  the  capi- 
tal and  principal  towns  according  to  the  estimate  formed  by  the  French  government  in  1827  • 


t     ! 


i|i^ 


H     [' 


j^  % 


544 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


I 

I  ITuliiicciaiHl  l)f|>inuttlili. 

iPlnnilcrn.. .     Nnrd 


Artiiii.... 
PIcartly... 

N'liriiiaiiily 


U\i>  nr 
FraiicB  . . . 


Clininpngiic 

laorrninc  . . 
Aliiacu 


I'n*  (l(!  Ciiliilii . 

HnllllllO 

I.iiwtr  Bi^liii).. 

Cnlvaclni 

Mniicho 

Drue 

Ktirt;  

'  8('IM0 

Si-iiiu  uikI  C>i«n 

OiKI! 

8<'liic'  mill  MariiH 
.  iWtiw 

Mnriio 

ArliMiiiva.... 

Aiilitt 

L'ppnr  IMariie 

MriHn 


Mnni'llo I:i;)il 


Britany — 


Mnlnn  ninl   \ 
PiTdiu...  ( 

Anjim 

Touraino. . 


Orliiunn 


,.„! 


IVrri . 

Nivcrnaid  . 


Oiirfunily 


PrancI 
ciimtu 


■I 

IP.    s 

Itu  ...1 


Mciirlliii. 
Vn^ifl'fl 

t'lipiT  Rhllll!.... 

LiiniT  Ithiiii^  , .. 
lllf  anil  Viliiiiii.'. 
CVitpii  ilii  Niinl. .. 

riiiiHlcrrn 

Morhilinii 

hiiwiT  Ijiiiri,'. .. . 

jMnviMwid 

Sarilii! 

MaiiiunnilLiiiru 
Iiiiln*  anil  I.t>lru. 

I.iiiri'l 

Klin*  anil  Loire  . 
Lniriinil  f|ii;r... 

Iiiilni 

ChlT 

\ir>vri! 

Ymtiiii. 

rnic  il'Or 


Ain 


•  595 


Hpprr  Saiinn SJIIU 

Itiiibs ,27(1 

Jura '254 


MarrliP.I.i-  S 
mouHiii . .  i 

AiiniH.Saiii'  > 
toiiKi.'.  An-  \ 
irniiinuis  . .  > 

Aiivorgne  . 
Lynnnaix. . 

Dauphiiiy.' 

Ouienne  ..■■!, 
BonrhnnnaiH 


Viinili'n 341 

Two  Suvriw o<Kj 

Vinnni) iut) 

f'roii7.o 

Upper  Vii.'iino 
Cnrrfzc 


WIS 

f'harnnto 'apo 

I.nwrr  Cliarcntc  J3(I7 


Piiy  ilo  Drum.' 
Canial 

I  Rhnnu 


[.oiro 

htirc  

Upjicr  Alps  .. 

Driiinn 

l>()rili)iiiie .... 

Oiriinilo 

I.iU  ani*Garonn<;!'24'i 


l^>)>uUliuo. 


,:n!i 
i,;i7;i 


40!l 
274 
141 

a:t4 
4'.>n 

27.'i 

47li 
.'il 


Oancnny 
anilllvain 


Foil  

Riiunajllo'i . 


I.angui'ili)c.' 

ProvRncc  .  •  ■ 
Coreica .... 


Lot 

.Aviyron 

Tarn  and  Oa- 

ronno 

Alliir 

l.aniln» 4.V1 

fJi'rs 312 

L'ppnr  PyriMiPi'S .  ^Xi 

I/)«tr  PyrcnecB.  3Hi 

.Arric'sr '287 

KastiTii  Pyri'ni'Pii  aa? 
FppiT  Ganinno  .3311 


.Ktli 
200 
:il,? 
3(13 

1.W 


Anil. 

Tnrn 

Hi'nmit 

Onril  

Lnzi^re 

Upper  TiOirc 
Ariliif  he  .... 

IjiwiT  Aliw 27.5 

MiiiitliK  nf  Ihn  ' 

Rlinni' 

Var  |:ifiP 

V'aiicluse 187 

tJnraica ! 


IHJ2.II4H 

04H,IIUU 

M\, 

(iHH, 

smi, 
(ill 
4:14 

421 
1,1113, 
4411, 
3K'), 
3IH, 
4H1I, 
IK.-! 
2X1 
341 
244 

:«w, 

41)11, 
4U3, 

3711, 
4UH 

5:u, 

5.'>3, 
iV'l 
MH 
427, 
4.'i7 
a.M 
4411,, 

4.'lM. 

'.fKI, 
104, 
277, 
'J30, 

•j;i7,i 

24H,^ 
'J7l,i 

:m2 

37(1,! 


Cllln  uul  Tnn  ni,  wllh  Ihclr  h>|mlalliin  ia  11117. 


Mllii (Nt.H'iU 

Arra> 3'j,17:i 


,2M2  Anilcna 42 

,'JtiA'ltiMinn  IHI 

,(l,1«;('n«n 3H 

,'J(HISt.I.i H 


Al«n(im 14 

Kvrnix II 

Pnria RPU 

,H71  Vi'mnilliia...,  311 

I'i4.lli'nnvaiii 12 

'JUUl.Mi'liin 7, 

..'MiUll.aiin 7, 

.IM.'ill'liiiliini) 12 

,l)'24  AliiziCrnii 4, 


.  iWjTriiyp"  • 
.w!3t'liBnniiint. 
,33n;iliir  la  Due  . 


,();w 
.Kltl 
741 
,4117 
,453 
.IW 

,M.11 

,454 
,(l!lfl 

;iM 

5111 

,1174 


M«U... 


Nitiiiy 
Kpinal . ., 
I'lilinar... 

HtrHKlniru 

Konni*]* 2!). 

Ht.  Brii'iix  ....  0 

Uniiiipiir 10 

VaimfB II, 

NanlnK 71, 

Laval l.y 

Li' Mann II) 

Amji'm 2)), 

,lii().Tiiiir» 2n 

.'.►JH  Oleaim 40, 

,7H2('liarlri.' 13, 

Bli.iB 11, 

(,'hiilnaiiruiix  .  10, 

HoiirKiia Ill, 

Nuvors 13 

,.. .  Aiixprro 1'.' 

,!l4:i'Dijim 23, 

,77(1  Marnn 10, 

IlnnrK-eii-    (  „ 
BreaBC 


I  Diiiiny 

^Dunkirk  ... 

j  Ihinlniina.. . 

)  Ht.  Oiiiur  . . . 
Ahlwvlllu  .... 

Havro 

Hayi'ti  X 

I'licrltunrs .... 
Ariti'nlaii  .   . . 

I,i>iivicrH 

Hri'aitx 

tlnin|H.>H 

Coinpi^Kiif! . . . 
Foiilahii'lilcau 
Ht.Quontin  ■ . 

Hhriina 

Beilan 


III.HHI 

'24,517 

111,314 

lt),01ll 

11),.V.'0 

2I.(«4I) 

III.INH) 

17,(HUI 

IM)44 

11,242 

1,521) 

7.Wi7 

7,3(;a 
7400 

17,(1(11 
12,«0H 


Vajuiiciiiuni'i. 
Cam  bra  I  . .  . 
Calata 


fll.Quenthi  , 

I)lpp|)« 

Fulalaii  

C'dUtancva. . 


11(,H4I 
17,031 

tl,l<54 

13,351 
17,077 
10,303 
0,032 


Bl.  Dunia 3,731 


McaiK. . 
BniManiiB 
Kpornay 
Itucrny . . , 


Langrea. 


Thionvilln 
LuMi'ville  . 
HI.  Dill  .... 

Iti'fiirl 

Havcrne. .. 
St.  Main... 
Diiianl.... 

llri'Hl 

L'Orient . . , 


7,1«1 

Vcrilun 

5,H21 
U„m  Toul 

7,339 

4,803 

4,W3  Weiaaeinburg. 
.    !),H38 

7,175 

2tl,nSS  MorlBix 

15.310 


7,8.1(1 
7,4KI 

a,OHO 

3,300 


0,f>« 
7,507 

6,140 

0,761 


Mayonno 0,700 


Haumur . .. 
CliL-rann  . . . 
Miintargia. 

Dri'iix 

V'ljniliiini!  . 
iHHiiudnii.. 


Si'na  . . , 
B<  mur  . 
Aiitua  . 


341,023  J  ■•■;iV«-;.  I      H,..24 

327.041  VpmiiiI 3.252 

'iVI,312lll<'i'anroii  ....    2H,7!i5 
310,2821  Liins  \v  Sanlnier  7,H(i4 


Rray 

Pdhtarlitr. 


:H2,KJ(1  BfiiirlH)r..Vcnil6c  3,129 


1  Fnntnnay 
k'  Cniiiti.' 


2PS,2fin|Niort l.'5,7!)0 

2i>7,(170  Piiitiera 2I..V12  t'hdtcllcrault . 


2.'i2,!l.32 
27fi.351 

284,882 

3.53.(i,'>3 
4'24,147 


Ruiirpt 3,44H 

LiningcB 3.'i,l>12 

Tulle 8,479 


.VUI, 
'J(i2, 

4  Hi, 

3iin, 
fl'i'i 

I'.'S. 
285, 
4(!4, 

5:t8, 
xm, 

2H), 
350, 


Anemilpino. 
Kni'liille  ... 


15,300  CoRnac. . . 
11,073  Saintoa  .. 


10,314 
4,406 

n,«s3 

0,247 
0,80.1 
11,2-23 


8,085 
4,'220 
11,1130  Chfiloiii 


V,203 
4,549 

7,493 

0,241 


3,017 
10,:iao  Rnchcfort 


nieriiinnl 30.010  Rinm 12,730  Thicra  . 

Anrilluc Il,.'i7«  St.  Flour 0,040 

■™!H':Ki"'|™.*'-«'''..v™x 2,452 

'      Monthrisnn  ..  S.hW  St.  Eliennc. ..  30,015 

Orenohlc    ..   .    '22,149  Vionno 13,780 

(lap 7,013  Einhriin 2,300 

Vnlenro 10,283  Monti'limnr  . .  7,.'>8!l 

Pi'rieiiHMx....      8,.'■>8,^  Bergeriic 8,413 

IWirdeanx  ....  m,M» 

Alien  11,!I71  Villenenvc  ...  9,405 

Cahora 12,413 

Rlioilez 7,747  VillolVanche. .  9,521 

I 

580  Miintnulian 


13,909 
11,613 


2n.4(iO  Moissar 10,115 


215, 
'2113, 
3(17, 


,30111 
,(10  ll 
,()5!l 

412.4lin 


247 
Ml 
4(17, 

2113, 
327, 
ll'm. 

ai7, 

138, 
285, 
328, 
1.33, 


Monlina M,.3'25 

M.mt  lie  M.ir.inn  3,(188 

Aiich 10,814 

Tarhes 8,712 

Pan 11,701 

Foix 

IVrpisnan. . 

TlHlloilSI'.  .  . 

Carra^sonne 

Alhy 

Montpi'linr , 

\ismis 

Mende 

I.<>PnvcnVolay  14,998 

Privns 4.109 

Diane 3,n,'i3 


Dax. 


Bnunrroc  . . 

)  llavonnp  . 

Oletiin  . . . 


4,9.W 
13,3.17 
.53.319 

17,773 
in,!t93 
33,842 
39,0118 
.5,44. 


Xartinnne . 
(^iisitrrs  . .. 
IJi'zirra. .. . 
Ainis 


5,045 

7.037 

13,498  Orlhoa  . 
(i,423 


10,097 

15,(103 

10,315  Soiinn  . 

10,252 


Arce'iliSre 
Pii-liron. .. 


.■?2fi,302|Marseilli'8....  11.5,943  Aix. 

311,fln.5|To»lnli.. 
233,048  Avignnn  . 
183,079' A jarrio  . 


2  797 
23,132  Aries. 


30.171  Driii;Mii.'nan 

31,180  Oraiii;c 

7,0,58  Ilastin 


8,010  nrniise 

8,804  Cariientraa . 
9,527 


0,834 


9,843 


19,808 

12,7iri 
9,7S»I 


^ 


^  -tA 


UOOIL   1. 


FRANCE 


MT) 


-\ 


1U,H41 

H,M4 

13,331 

17,(177 

lu.aoa 

0,034 


3,731 


7,KW 
7,4Kt 
S.OHO 
3,300 


O.PM 
7,307 


w 


13,000 
11,613 


0,834 


..   .  19.868 
12.71f 


.......  '  <'xliibiU  a  conipiirative  view  of  the  state  of  culture  and  pro- 

duction Ml  tlio  (litferonl  dopurtmontH  of  Franco.  Tlio  amounts  of  ymin.  cattle  and  woolare 
turnisluMl  by  (.lmi)tal.  TJio  wine  \^  drawn  from  tlu?  report  proHi-nled  to  tiio  pcorM  by  tlio  Due 
w  ^/*'''^'';;JV'•^*^  ^^^  ^^»«  '"rcHtri  from  the  memorial  of  the  Bub-odministrator,  M.  llerbin  do 
llalle.  Iho  entire  annual  amount  of  land  revenue  is  derived  from  an  estimate  of  the  aver- 
a(jo  produce  of  the  arpent  in  each  deportment,  (bunded  upon  the  Cadastre  or  ireneral  survey 
ot  the  kingdom.     It  is  furnished  by  Chaptui : —  o  / 


DeptftnitnU. 


Ain 
Avam 

Altiar 

Alja,  I  |'|«r 

——   Ijjwi'r 

Anlecbt 

Arileiiim 

Arrirn 

Aulio 

AuUu 

Aveymn 

Bobchn  Ju  Rliouu  ■ 

CilvidfH 

CAnul 

Cbiraiiti! 

— Lower 

Cher • 

Oirme  .  •     >  • 

Cole.|*Or 
Col.-i  du  Nt>ra 
Crruie 
UorJitiriia  • 

ItouU 

Uroaia 

Eur« 

Eura  and  Loir  • 

Flnliterre 

GiH 

Uinuine,  Uj'iier 

Oen-  - 

OirtHKie 

lleniilt 

lleUHl  Vilaiiie 

Indre 

Imlre  uhl  l.r>ira 

here 

Jun 

l^ihlei 

Lnir  nnil  Cher 

Loire 

Loire,  I'pp. 

—  \jtwvr 

Ijiirct 

Lfit 

L/it  <od  QATonne 

Lonre 

IVUinn  .wtA  Ixire 

Manche 

Mama 

——Upper 

Mayenne 

Meunhe 

MauM 

Morliihnn 

Mnwllo 

NIevni 

Nonl 

Obe 

Ome- 

Paj«  de  CiUI: 

Piiy  dr  D-i 

PyreiittrB,  I/iw 
I'piwr 
Kutern 


Rhine,  U 

Rhone 

Sacne,  I'pper 

Stone  aiul  Loire 

Surilie 

Mvine 

— —  J^wer  '  • 

Seine  iml  Mame 

Seine  anil  Ulie 

Sevrw,  TvTO 

Sonune 

Tarn 

Tnrn  and  Garonne 

Var 

Vaticlnse 

VemJtte 

Vieniir 

V.\>\w 

\nagii 
Yonne 


The  Isle  of  France,  now  divided  into  several  departments,  claims  priority  of  notice  as  con- 
taining^ the  capital.  It  is  not,  strictly  speaking,  an  island ;  but  being  situated  near  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Oise,  the  Mame,  the  Aisne,  and  the  Seine,  is  intersected  by  very  numerous  rivei 
channels.  It  is  in  general  level,  fertile,  and  highly  cultivated ;  and  beneath  the  surface  are 
quarries  of  gypsum  so  copious,  that  the  substance  is  commonly  designated  "  plaster  of  Paris."' 

Vol.  I.  46*  3  T 


"U 


*'' 


m-A 


i>IU 


DKSCniPTIVi:  GKOr.UAl'IIV 


Part  III. 


I'liri*,  fho  mpitril  (if  Fnirico,  Ims  mIsi>  nindp  prctonxifmH  to  ho  conHulorPil  nn  tim  (jenrrnl 
capitiil  lit' till?  rivili.'.i'il  world.  liOiiilon  rini,  in  liirt,  iilcmn  dii-puti-  itw  rlaiiii,  Immiij  morn 
I'XIiMisivc,  iMiirc  wenltliy,  iitnl  the  Hi-nt  iif  ii  iniiili  inori'  oxtcndrd  roinincrrc ;  ycf  llir  ri'iitrnl 
Rittmticiii  nt'  l'nri(<,  tho  [H'ciiliiir  n(triictii)ns  rondrriiiK  it  the  crowded  rottort  of  nlriin^"'r><,  niid 
iti(  lirillimit  iind  |Milislii'd  wii'icty,  (<.->|H'ciiiily  under  tlin  old  monnrcliy,  (,mv('  to  this  city  ii  (fnyer 
nepoet,  mid  rendered  it  a  more  ronnpiLMioiis  object  in  the  eyon  of  Kiirope.  I'lirin  id  not  only 
|e.i-i  {K>|iul(iii.s  lliiiii  LoiKJiin,  lint  in  propoilion  to  itH  (xipnlation  if  coverH  leHH  ^jroiind.  It  (iirins 
nil  linlli  liinliM  III"  tlie  Seine  an  rlli|we  of  aliont  tour  rnileN  in  length  and  three  in  lireiidtli. 
'I'hi'  |iriiieipiil  streets  are  lonir,  narrow,  bordered  by  hi^'h  holl-lr•^<,  whi(di,  like  those  of  Kilin- 
liiir'rh,  lire  enrli  iieen|iied  by  Hovcnil  families.  The  streeiN  of  dliopM  are  rintiier  eiiciiiiihereil 
l>y  till'  exhibition  of  the  nierchatidinn  in  front  of  the  doorn,  ii  pnietiee  only  tnh'riiled  in  tho 
iiin>l  (ih.M'ure  (li-'trietH  of  Uritish  ritieH.  Paris  thilM  prewenlH  j;er)eriilly  a  more  irloeniy  and 
confuted  anpect  than  I/indon  ;  nor  lioa  it  any  itrnctnro  whieh  can  nmfeh  the  ^Tiiidi'iir  of  Ht. 
I'»ur.<,  or  perhapH  the  bonuty  of  VVestminntor  Abbey  ;  yot  some  of  itn  (jnarterrt  emitain  lonjj 
ranjje.s  of  snpcrb  and  xtately  cdificofl,  whicli  Ijondon  cnnnot  rival.  The  |Niluees  nf  Paris,  in 
porticnlar,  far  excel  tlioso  of  tho  rival  metropolis.  Tho  mo.^t  distirii,MiiMhed  is  tin-  l.onvre, 
fmishod  with  tho  utmoHt  splendour  in  tho  stylo  that  distinfjuished  the  111,'eof  hinis  XIV.  Its 
front,  5*25  ti'ot  lonp,  \h  a  model  of  Hymmotry,  tho  oflbct  of  which  is  only  injiireil  by  the  want 
rf  s|)nro  boforo  it.  The  liOuvro  is  not  now  occnpied  ns  a  palace,  lint  as  a  ^frinid  de[H)t  of  tho 
objects  of  taste  ond  ort.  The  gallery,  whica  is  more  than  a  iiiiarlor  of  a  mile  line.',  and  the 
walls  of  which  are  entirely  crowded  with  paintinps  that  are  still  line,  tiirms  a  nia^/niticent 
coup  (/'n-j/.    The  hall  of  gtatucs  is  still  adorned  with  sonie  of  the  fmest  specimens  of  uiicient 

sculpture.  The  Tuileries,  which  IB 
the  present  royal  residence,  was  be- 
pun  at  nn  earlier  period  than  tho 
l/iuvre,  and  carried  on  at  successive 
times;  whence  it  exhibits  varied  and 
sometimes  (liscoriliiiit  featiireiJ,  but  is 
on  the  whole  a  noble  and  venorublc 
edifice,  surrounded  with  fino  pir- 
dens  and  avenms.  The  palace  of  tho 
Lu.\pnd)ourjr  (./iV.  2''(l.),  on  the  south 
of  Paris,  and  the  Palais  lliurbon  on 
the  west,  are  edifices  of  preiit  tiuste 
and  beauty.  The  tiirmer,  now  strip- 
ped of  the  famous  series  of  pnintinps 


'I'ho  I-.iiK('tiibourK. 


Paliiit  Koynl. 


ncavy  and  massive,  but  the  interior  is  richly 


by  Rub«'n»,  which  hns  bonn  trnnsferro<i  to  the  J/oiivre  pallery,  afliinls  in  one  [iiirt  a  place  of 
assembly  for  the  Chamber  of  Peers,  ond  in  another  a|)artment"s  fiir  the  exhibition  of  paintinga 
by  living  artists ;  while  the  Palais  Bourbon  is  in  part  occupied  by  the  rhamber  of  Deputies. 

The  Palais  Royal  (,AV-  2^1.)  is  no  longer 
exclusivoly  n  palace,  but  is  in  part  leased 
out  to  sundry  persons,  fiir  [mr|>iiseM  partly 
of  biisinesjs,  but  much  rnon  of  pleasure; 
it  is  tilled  with  shops,  cnn'ec-houses,  tav- 
erns, gaming-tables,  and  every  form  of 
gaiety  and  di.ssi|mtion  which  can  find  flC- 
ceptaiice  in  such  a  city,  .\otrc  Panio,  the 
ancient  cathedral  of  Paris,  is  somewlint 
.  lecorated.  The  modern  church  of  St.  (lonc- 
vievc,  called  during  the  Revolution  tlio  Pantheon,  was  highlv  extolled  during  its  erection 
as  destined  to  eel ipHo  botli  St.  Peter's  and  St.  Paul's;  and  sm'h  was  the  expectation  enter 
taincd  in  France,  till,  tho  scalfolding  being  remnved  and  the  front  thrown  open,  its  inferi- 
28*2  orily  beciiine  iippnreiit :   however,  it  is 

still  an  edifice  ofa  high  class  (^ijf.  282.) 
St.  Sutpice  is  also  a  modern  structure. 
Poris  has  no  fine  streets,  nor  am  of  those 
ample  sqllal•(^s  which  are  so  great  an  or- 
nament of  London.  It  lioa.-;ts,  however, 
of  itn  pU'rrs,  which,  without  hnving  the 
regular  form  or  dimensions  nf  11  scpiarc, 
command  iidmir.ilion  by  tlie  ranges  of 
noble  buildings  tlint  siirrouml  flieni.  In 
partictilnr,  the  Plurr  Louis  Qiiinzc, 
standing  in  a  central  situation  among  tho 
'^'""•'''  »'  Si.  Genoviovo.  palttccs,  presents  one  of  the  most  bril- 

liant pomta  of  view  to  be  found  in  any  city.    This  capital  possesses  also  great  advantages  in 


Ik] 


I'AIIT  III. 

Iin  i,'mi<'rnl 
MMii:r  innrp 
llic  ociitrnl 
inji'Tx,  mill 
:ity  II  (?ny<'f 
in  tml  only 
(1.    It  liiriiiH 
in  liriNidtli. 
ISC  of  Kiliri- 
i-n<iiiiili<'rt'<l 
•iitcil  in  tlio 
irliiuiiiy  mill 
iidiMir  ot'Ht. 
[•iii\tiiiii  lon^; 
i,f  I'lirin,  ill 
till'  l.ciuvrp, 
li.-  XIV.    Its 
liy  till"  wmit 

(ll|HH<lf  llio 

iiiii.s  "'"1  ^ho 
niii^rniticent 
MS  lit' line  iont 
iort,  svliii'h  is 
iicc,  wax  1)0- 
iixl  tlimi  tho 
lit  siifcnHsivo 
itsviiricd  iinjl 
"itiirciJ,  but,  is 
inil  vfiicruble 
itli    full)    gM- 
■  piilni'cnt'thc 
),(m  tli(!Houth 
is  HimrlHiii  on 
of  pn'ut  tutile 
(T,  iinw  strip- 
's of  imintinjrs 
urt  11  plarc  of 
1  (if  piiintinga 
of  Drputics. 
)  is  nn  longer 
in  part  leased 
rixiHt'H  partly 
of  (ilciisure : 
lousrs,  tav- 
pry  form  of 
Clin  find  Be- 
lt rn  Diinio,  the 
is  Fomewlmt 
of  St.  (^n'-ne- 
its  erection 
ctulion  etiter 
icn,  its  inferi- 
.  Aviver,  it  is 
nss  (;?,«••  282.) 
rn  structure, 
ir  iiii\  of  those 
I)  (jrciit  an  or- 
[i.<1s,  however, 
it  hnviuc  the 
iif  11  s(iuiire, 
u'  rmifres  of 
mil  tlii'iii.     In 
,oi(/.<i    Qiiinzc, 
ion  iimonp  tho 
the  iiio^^t  bril- 
udvantages  in 


BookT. 


PRANCE. 


Ml 


the  wide  (irnniiinnteil  open  Hpacca  which  lie  in  thi;  very  heart  of  the  city.  The  noiilevanlH, 
the  ancient  rinipart  <il  {•iiri.-i,  when  it  wim  cireiiMiMcrihed  within  ii  inuch  n.irrower  cuinpamt, 
are  now  runverteil  into  ii  walk  adorned  with  rows  of  trees,  and  filled  with  lllinieroiu  exhi- 
bitors and  vi'iiders  of  every  thing  tliiit  can  conduce  to  public  iiinusenient.  The  gardens  of 
the  Tiiileries,  iind  tiu!  enibelliMhed  \\\mt  called  iho  Chumpn  IUij*fei,  are  also  open  to  the 
public. 

The  stiitistics  of  I'aris  havi;  been  cnrofully  illuslnled  in  a  HorioH  of  interesting  wurkfl  by 
tlie  ('ouut  de  (Muibnil.  The  population,  in  IHTil,  ninoiinted  to  7l.'),(Ktfl,  but  has  now  risen  to 
H!MU:»1.  The  blrtlis,  in  the  three  yivirs  ended  IM-JI,  iiveraged  U-J,7(H);  the  deallwlW.WHO; 
leaving  thus  U(MK)  us  the  annual  excess  of  hirtlis.  A  third  of  all  the  births  were  illegiti- 
male,  and  of  th'-He  only  a  thir.l  were  acknowledged  by  the  mreiita.  'I'lio  still-born  children 
were  iiveniged  IMd.'i.  The  average  of  iiiarriageH  in  the  three  years  was  about  (MKH).  In 
the  three  years  T-\'i  died  of  sinali-|)iix,  and  only  one  child  out  of  twenty-five  was  vaccinated. 
The  violent  deaths  averiiged ■:{.">(»,  half  of  whom  wero  married  persons,  and  tho  most  com- 
mon cause  was  domestic  chagrin,  Drowning  wiw  tho  most  frequent  miMie:  170  personn 
were  drowned  aiiniially  by  accident.  The  consumption  of  I'nris  consisted,  in  1H2U,  of 
70,«W0  oxen;  Hll'j  cows;  7t,7.-)!)  calves;  nOl.lMH  sheep.  The  taxes  paiil  in  I'aris  amount 
to  llO.fHMMMM)  francs.  House-rent  amountH  to  H(),(K)0,(K)0  fVnncs.  Tho  niimbor  of  houses, 
in  H'jl,  was  ti7,(MH>,  with  an  average  of  thirty-four  doorH  and  windows  in  each.  'J'he  loans 
maile  on  pledges  by  the  eharitabin  establishment  called  the  Mnnt  tie  I'iiti  nmniuit  to 
10,r»()(MHMt  traiics.  upon  l.CKMMKM)  articles,  of  which  14,5(K),0(K)  arc  redeemed.  There  nro 
fourteen  hospitals  for  the  sick,  and  eight  hmpiris  for  tho  infirm.  Tho  former  received 
annually  42,.')(Kt,  of  whom  almut  4(»,(KX)  went  out  cured;  tho  latter  \H,H^.  Tho  annual 
ex|)ense  is  alxmt  7,(MM),(MK)  francs.  There  is  besides  nn  olllce  of  charity  in  each  of  tho 
twelve  tirrnnilisfi:mrnf,  tho  aids  of  which  aro  adniinister(!d  by  "sisters  of  charity,"  who 
divide  the  |)oor  among  themselves,  make  regular  lists  of  them,  and  pay  tVequent  visits. 
They  make  an  annual  collecliim  in  their  district,  tho  produce  of  which  is  transmitted  to  tho 
office.  Tho  annual  distributions  made  by  tho  offices  of  charity  amount  to  l.^WMKIO  tVanca 
in  monoy;  747,0(M»  quartern  loaves;  270,0(10 lbs.  meat;  10,(KK)  ells  of  cloth,  &c.  Tho 
manufactures  of  Paris  are  considerable.  Tho  principal  are  of  works  in  polil  and  silver, 
which  employ  7000  or  H(HMt  workmen,  and  yield  a  value,  according  to  .M.  Dupiu,  above 
12r»,(K)0,(KtO  francs.  There  are  manutiietured  also,  by  i>0(H)  workmen,  80,000  gold  and  40,(KK» 
silver  watches,  v  ith  ir),(MK)  clocks,  which  may  bo  worth  10,000,(KM1  francs.  Hngar  refinery 
is  also  supposed  'o  produce  •J0,(KM),(KKHb8.,  worth  .'12,000,000  francs.  Eighty  jirinting-officos 
employ  6()0  presses  and  IMMM)  workmen,  and  use  annually  2H0,(KK)  reams  of  paper;  supposed 
value  S,7.")0,000  francs,  Of  the  various  articles  above  enumerated,  there  are  e.xported  to  the 
value  of  nearly  .'jO.OOO.OlH)  fnincs,  Paris  is  visited  by  12,(MM)  or  1:),0(H)  Imts,  of  which  KKH) 
are  from  the  lower  Heine,  and  the  rest  from  the  upper.  Twenty  are  steam-boats,  Tho  city 
has  10(K)  boats  of  its  own. 

Tho  environs  of  Paris  are  not  covered  with  those  numerous  villas  and  country  residences 
which  have  been  constructed  to  gratify  tho  rural  taste  of  the  citizens  of  I/indon.  Immedi- 
ately beyond  the  gates  they  present  a  flat  open  corn  country.  They  aro  chiefly  marked  by 
the  royal  palaces;  superb  fabrics,  tho  works  of  successive  kings,  and  on  which  millions  have 
been  expended.     The  most  elak>rato  and  most  splendid  is  Versailles  (Jig.  283,),     It  was 


283 


Ctiatoati  Bl  Vertaillei, 

begun  by  Louis  XIII.  who  found  it  little  more  than  a  village ;  but  its  chief  ornaments  are 
due  to  1/iuis  XIV,,  who,  during  twelve  years,  expended  immense  sums  in  surrounding  it 
with  every  kind  of  mognificcnce.  The  front  is  highly  elegant,  built  of  polished  stone,  and 
approached  by  throe  great  avenues.  The  inferior  consists  of  spacious  apartments  embel- 
lished in  til"  most  costly  manner,  and  many  parts  of  them,  and  of  tbn  staircases,  aro  covered 
with  frescoes  executed  by  eminent  French  painters.  The  interior  and  the  gardens  are  filled 
with  crowds  of  statues,  partly  antique  and  partly  the  work  of  Prencli  sculptors.  Water 
was  nf  first  deficient ;  but  it  has  been  conveyed  in  such  abundance  as  to  be  Lavished  in  fiin- 
cifiil  and  fantastic  fiiritis, — fountains,  jets  d'eaii,  cascades,  with  which  Versailles  is  more  pro- 
fusely embellished  than  any  other  roynl  residence.  The  two  palaces,  called  tiie  Great  and 
Little  Trianon,  aro  in  the  vicinity,  and  are  celebrated,  particularly  tho  last,  for  gardens  laid 
out  in  the  English  style,  Tho  long  residence  of  the  court  at  Versailles  assembled  round  it 
a  splendid  city  formed  by  the  courtiers  and  great  nobles,  who  considered  it  necessary  to  have 


™*' 


548 


DKS(  FUl'TIVK  OIK )( iUAlM I V. 


Paiit  III 


kt  leiut  II  iiiiinitidti  tlii'ri).  Hiiinu  the  tru^ir  McriivN  of  (>rtolM>r,  1*^0,  tlio  [uilncn  Iiiin  novel 
been  iiiliiil)iU><l  i  th(iii){li  tin*  UtxirUmH,  nl)i>r  tli<Mr  ri'turri,  ulut'i'il  it  in  ropiiir.  Ili'iiro  IIip 
lily  lioM  ili'dimnl  in  |K>|mliiti()n,  uiiil  tlii'  latu  iimnHiiiii^  ol'  llii*  nnlilrh  iirt'  in  ii  i;rriit  iiii'UHiin' 
ocrupii'd  by  F'.i»(rli"li  roMidontH,  St.  Cliniil,  limr  or  llvi'  iiiili'n  iIibIhiiI  I'loni  I'lirin,  Ih  iNirtiuii- 
'arly  mlniirvd  lor  it><  i^ardiMiH  and  t'xtitnxivp  vviiixIh,  iin  i>x('iir"ion  to  wliirli  tiirniH  n  |Ni|iulur 
JkinuHonKMit,  (iM|N!ciiiliy  on  t'cNliv  al  duyH,  It  whh  tlii>  tiiVDiirito  rfHidoncr  of  Nii|H)lt>on,  wIkmo 
.'ourt  wuH  tliuncii  cuIIimI  iIik  cuhmi't  of  Ht.  Cloud.  Foiitiiint'liliHti  iH  tho  huntiti^-iwut  of  tlio 
uiunurcliy,  Ihmhu  mirroundoil  liy  a  forvHt  of  nitnrty  IMMHN)  ni;r)'>«.  Tlio  imliic)',  iMiilt  liy  miiu> 
coMivti  nioiiarcnii,  from  Friincio  I.  to  I<i)uiii  XV.,  w  rliiffly  noted  for  itH  lonf;  and  nuincrouH 
ffallnriuH.  Aniun^  tliu  fow  townii  in  thin  country,  Mouux  Ih  diiitin(riiiHlH>d  not  only  liy  the 
bcantifiil  choir  ut*  itM  catliudral,  but  by  huvinff  bnen  tlip  m>t>  of  Ihi;  cidpbriitvil  UiwHuct,  wliouc 
tomb  it  contuinn.     Mnliin  w  a  coPMidcmblo,  but  ill-built  and  (flooniy,  old  town. 

Tho  northurii  deiwrtinonlH,  conipritiin)f  tin;  provincoH  of  French  Flandem,  I'icnrilv,  and 
Normandy,  comjinMo  to({other  an  uxtonHive  plain,  thu  richont,  niotit  HoiiriMhintTi  anil  niont 
highly  ntiltivatod  in  the  kint;dom.  Thu  tiirmii,  though  of  vnriuUM  ni-ic,  am  generally  larger 
♦.ban  in  Ihn  rest  of  France;  tho  improved  Kngliiih  pnxrcHHeH  aro  gaining  ground,  and  tlio 
introduction  of  urtificial  graHM«?i)  hiw  in  a  great  measure  supplanted  the  routine  of  wheat, 
otttM,  and  fallow.  TIiIh  region  is  alHo  tlio  chief  seat  of  nianufiictureH.  Those  nrovitices  have 
pHxIiiued  niiinv  men  of  dixtinguiHlied  talent,  and  knowliMlgti  in  very  generally  dillhHod  in 
them.  Tho  FlcMiiingg  retain  their  national  ehamcter,  diittinct  from  that  of  the  French ; 
heavy,  phlegmatic,  iiiduHtrioui,  addicted  to  pretty  cIoho  drinking  an<l  long  riiHtiu  foHtivalti. 
Tho  Normaii  Htill  pnrlakc*  the  adventurous  spirit  of  his  toreHitliorN ;  ho  Iovch  expeditions 
and  journeyH,  readily  cngagua  in  any  enterpriiie,  and  eagerly  piimueM  it. 

The  cities  throughout  allthiH  part  of  France  are  largo  and  flourishing.  Tho«o  of  French 
Flanders,  or  the  Nord,  rank  among  tho  strongest  fortresses  in  Kiiropo,  and  aro  tho  bulwarks 
of  the  monarchy.  Lille  [lorhaps  holds  among  these  the  very  first  place,  being  considereil 
tho  master-piece  of  Vauban.  It  was  reducjHlby  Marlborough  only  after  a  long  bliM-kade, 
and  is  considered  in  any  other  way  almost  irnpregna))ll^  It  is  also  well  and  regularly  built, 
and  the  Km;  Royalr  is  a  very  splendid  street.  Lille  has  also  a  very  considerublo  variety 
both  of  manufacturing  and  commercial  industry,  with  institutions  both  for  literature  and  the 
arts.  Douay  is  an  ancient  and  strong  town  on  the  Hcar|M',  and  enjoys  some  celebrity  as  a 
seat  of  rather  anti(|uatc<l  and  scholastic  learning.  Its  university  consists  of  three  colleges, 
now  united,  one  of  which  is  called  tho  English  college,  and  is  resorted  to  from  all  the  tlirei,' 
kingdoms  on  a  place  of  ('atholic  education.  ('!iiid)mi  is  a  very  ancient  and  celebrated  city, 
the  copital  of  the  Nervii  in  ('n'sur's  time,  and  afterwards  of  tho  kingdom  of  the  Franks. 
Hero  was  concluded,  in  ir)i)7,  the  league  of  Cainbrai,  which  caiiseil  tho  downfall  of  Venice ; 
and  it  was  tho  scene  of  other  imimrtant  diplomatic  transactions;  but  pcrha|>8  the  name  is 
best  known  from  i\a  having  formed  the  archieiiiHCo|>al  sec  of  Fenelon.     It  ranks  still  us  a 

fortress  ot  the  first  class,  and  was  one  of  those  held 
by  tho  army  of  (x;cupution,  after  the  peace  of  Paris, 
in  1815.  Valenciennes  is  another  ancient  bulwark 
of  tho  kingdom,  which  yielded  to  the  allies  in  1703, 
after  a  long  siege ;  but  they  did  not  derive  any  advan- 
tage from  their  success.  It  has  sonio  fine  mnnutlic- 
tures  of  lace,  gauze,  and  cambric. 

In  Picardy  and  the  part  of  the  Isle  of  Franco  lior- 
dering  on  it,  there  arc  several  large  and  flourishing 
cities.  Amiens  has  long  been  celebrated  for  its  manu- 
facture of  coarse  woollens,  as  serges,  plush,  velvets 
for  furniture,  and  corpets;  also  coarse  linens.  Here 
was  concluded  the  peace  of  1801,  between  Britain 
and  France.  Its  cathedral  {ftff.  284.)  is  one  of  the 
most  spacious  and  most  highly  ornamented  in  France 
or  in  FiUrope.  Abbeville  i.s  celebrated  as  one  of  the 
few  seats  of  tho  manufacture  of  very  fine  woollen 
cloth,  which  Bur|)asses  even  the  English ;  it  deals  most 
extensively  in  sailcloth,  sheeting,  and  other  coarse 
fabrics  from  hemp  and  flax.  St.  Quentin,  the  scono 
of  tho  great  victory  of  Philip  II.,  enjoys  a  more  hum- 
ble and  useful  distinction  as  one  of  the  most  Ihrivin" 
manufacturing  places  of  France.  Its  manufacture's 
consist  in  lawns,  cambrics  and  still  more  of  late  in  the  spinning  and  weaving  of  cotton ;  all 
which  employ  in  the  town  and  neighbourhood  upwards  of  50,(K)0  persons.  The  citizens  ot 
St.  Quentm  display  an  enterprise  and  an  activity  in  pushing  every  new  and  promising  branch 
of  industry,  which  are  not  usual  in  France.  A  canal  is  here  cut  from  tho  Oise  to  that  of 
Douay,  remarkable  for  its  extensive  tunnels.  Laon  is  an  ancient  town,  with  a  stately  cathe- 
dral.   Soissons  ia  distinguished  in  French  history,  and  its  bishop  had,  second  to  that  of 


284 


.■.'.■Ht<T 


Amieni  Cntheilral. 


PAH!  Ill 

liim  n<!vet 
Ifiici!  Ilie 
t  iiii'UHurt' 
Ih  jMirlicu- 
II  )N)pular 
oil,  wlitmo 

*Mlt  lit"  tho 

ill  liy  N«o> 

niiiiii'rou* 

iiily  by  llie 

not,  wliwH* 

ciirily,  iiikI 
,  una  moKt 
iilly  liiriier 
11(1,  iiiul  tlio 

D  l)f  Wlll'ftt, 

viiid"*  liiivo 

(litlbKOli    ill 

Ik-  Frriicli; 

tie  fcBtivals. 

cxpoilitions 

<o  of  Pre ncli 

ho  l)ulwarl<» 

ft  conMitlcTPd 

\g  W(K'kii(lc, 

(iiliirly  built, 

ruble  viiriety 

ituro  imd  the 

r.olcbrity  as  a 

iree  colleges, 
ttll  tho  throi; 

lobriitnd  city, 

:'  the  Franks. 

.11  of  Venice; 

the  naiiio  is 

nkH  Htill  nti  a 

of  those  held 
BBce  of  Paris, 
lent  bulwark 
lUicB  in  1793, 
vo  any  advan- 
fine  manufac- 

,r  Franco  kir- 
iid  floiiriHliin;; 
1  for  its  miinu- 
plush,  vfUotiJ 
linenH.     Here 
,ween  Britain 
ia  one  of  the 
ited  in  Franco 
as  one  of  the 
fine   woollen 
it  deals  most 
other  coarsf 
[itin,  the  sccun 
.  a  more  huni- 
iiiost  thriviiii.' 
manufactures 
of  colton ;  all 
'he  citizens  ot 
imisinp  branch 
lisc  to  that  of 
stately  cathe- 
tnd  to  that  of 


Dock  I. 


rilANCE. 


MO 


i*iiliiiii  llarliiiur. 


Rlii'iinH,  till'  riiflit  of  rrowninir  llie  V'lw^  nf  Friiiirc.  Ii  doc»  not  now  prcHOiil  any  Htrikintf 
feutiiriM.     II<'iiiiviiIh  ix  tlirivinif  and  iinliiMlriouK. 

'Phi'  |KirlH  of  I'lciirdy  iiiiil  Fri'iich  Flniuli'r^^    if  iilwi  vory  ili'Horvinj;  nf  notiro.     Dunkirk, 
biMn^f  Ihi'  only  chh'  whu-h  ii|iiinn  into  tin-  Nortli  Sou,  wiir<  iiuviiyH  cnn^iiiorocl  uf  (front  iin]i.irf- 

anoo.     IaiiiIh  \IV,  liuviiii;  dolliiitivoly  olitiunoii   this  pliico  m  ItMl'.',  iniido  it   >)'  llio 

iitriiiii.'o>l  liarli<iiir-<  iii  Kiirnpi'.  It  tiomi  iMTuino  mi  iiMniiyiiijr  In  llriti^h  tnido,  thiit  mU  iiitii;;(^ 
wnH  liikon  iif  till'  triiiiii|iliH  nf  tho  wnr  ol'  siiooosnioii,  In  riM|iiiro,  nt  tho  troiily  nf  Dtn  rlit,  itM 
ctitiro  iloiiKililioii.  Ily  I'liiiii-i  mid  nihor  iiioiiiis,  tho  Fronoh  rmilrivoil  nKviiy  tn  roplm  ■■  it  in 
an  oll'oriivo  htiilo;  liiit  h)  HiiciT^Mivo  troiitioH,  tho  dotiinhtliin  of  tho  tliriilioatinii.'t  mi  tho  nIiIo 
of  tho  hoii  will*  ii>;iiiii  mill  mriiiii  stipiiiatod,  till  tlio  oiromiiHtiiiicoH  of  llii'  poiioo  nf  17*^:1  nlilinoil 
FiiiKJiiiiil  til  oouHo  tVoiii  I'X.iotiiiir  It,  From  that  tinio  Dunkirk  booiinio  tho  main  ooiitro  nf  Uio 
priviilooriii;;  nyi-loiii.  It  ban  iiUo  a  ciiiiHiilorublo  share  nf  tisbory  iiiiil  nf  tho  llaltio  trado.  A 
moiiiDrablu  ora  in  itn  hi-tory  was  iln  sioj^e  by  the  Uritisli  in  \^\)'^.  Thoy  wore  oninpi'llod 
abruptly  to  riiiHO  it,  and  tlii"  tliriiiod  tlio  cnminoncomont  of  a  Inii;^  hitIoh  nf  rovornos  niist  iine<l 
by  Hio  alliod  iirmH.  Dunkirk  liiis  a  kikhI  liarNiur  in  llio  coiitro  n(  tlio  city,  otiioroil  by  a 
canal  of  a  mile  and  a  liiilf;  it  in  ratlior  well  built,  but  tiir  want  nf  Hpriiit;^  'Ix'  inliiibltaniM  iiro 
nbli)(od  to  iiso  rain-wator.  The  noi^rjihourini;  torritnry  is  low  and  iiiarrliy,  mily  proi.orved 
from  the  inimdatinn  of  tho  soa  by  a  rid^'o  nf  dowiH,  and  niily  riilliviitod  by  moaiiH  nf  iiuiiiiT- 
OUH  drainin;^  canals.  Calais  is  woll  known  us  tho  imiiit  of  oommiiiilcatliai  with  Kn^'bind, 
which  no  lonif  held  it  as  the  key  of  Franco,  oven  atlor  hor  aims  at  the  out  in-  miKpioMt  of 

that  mmiarohy  had  consod.    At  prosonf, 

it  is  uhiotly  siipimrtod   by   tlio   packet 

interconrso,  its  inditVoroiit  barlmiir  (,li,if. 

2Hr».)  iiiilUtinjf  it.  for  any  cnminorro  on 

a  (Treat  scale.     Calais  is  in  a  vory  flat 

country,  intorsootod  by  canals,  by  u  liich 

it  mi(;ht  be  even  innndatod.     nniilnj;no 

has  more  maritime  iniimrtanco;  tliiaiiih 

its  port,  cliokod  with  sand,  will  no  Iniiiror 

receive  vessels  of  any  size,  uiili'.''s  at 

high  tide.     It  has  In.-t  altnirotlur  the 

forced  cnnserpioiiro  (rjvoii  In  it  liy  I  ho 

construction  nf  tlio  (.'rniid  llnlilla,  di's- 

lined  to  siiIkIiio  the  llritisii  oiiipiro,  but 

now  alMindoned  to  rot.     Its  proximity,  however,  to  the  roast  lias  rondoroil  it  a  i;roat  ri.urt 

of  Fii','litfh  familio.-;,  who  inhabit  it  to  tho  amount  of  several  thousands.     The  fi.-.iioi-y  uf 

herriii;,',  niackorel,  &c,  varies  in  value  from  i,(MK),()0(>  to  'i,(KK),(KK>  francs. 

The  cities  of  Normandy  are  larjjer  and  iimro  im|mrtant  than  those  already  described, 

Koiion  is  one  of  tho  noblest  in  France,  Its  iiianu- 
factnres  are,  perhaps,  the  most  oiiforprisinfr  and  iiidiis- 
Irioiis  in  tlio  kingdom,  and  fmm  tbeir  viriiiity  to  F.iij;. 
land  have  had  peculiar  lacilities  in  l)orrowin(j  her  pro- 
oosses.  The  main  staple  is  cotton-spinnin(r  and  weav- 
mg,  which  are  supposed  to  occupy  two-thirds  of  tho 
.V),(K)()  workmen,  and  so  to  eonstituto  tho  same  pro- 
portion of  the  two  millions  sterlinj;  of  manutiictured 
giKxls  annually  produced.  The  catiiednil  (.^y.  "2H0.), 
commenced  by  William  tho  Coiupioror,  v/as  cniisidered 
one  of  the  finest  specimens  of  ecclesiastical  nrchitoc- 
ture  in  Franco,  till  the  late  disaster,  which  overthrow 
a  preat  part  of  it.  The  streets  are  excessively  narrow 
and  dirty,  thou(jh  tlinse  ndjoininsr  to  the  Heine  aro 
a{rreeable.  That  river  was  Iniij;  crossed  only  by  a 
pont(K)n,  composed  of  nineteen  larfjo  barges,  sfron;.^ly 
moored  to(;ether  by  iron  chains;  but  as  this  had  many 
inconveniences,  a  handsome  slonc  bridge  has  been 
lately  substituted.  At  Elbumf,  near  Rouen,  is  a  manu- 
factory of  fine  cloth,  almost  equal  to  that  of  Ixmviers. 
Caen  is  a  very  ancient  city,  of  jjreat  historical  name 
the  favourite  residence  of  VVilliam  the  Conciueror,  aiw". 
the  frequent  head-quarters  of  the  En^rlish  armies.  It 
is  still  a  considerable  place,  rather  unusually  woll  built  for  a  French  town,  onntaininir  a 
handsome  castle,  tho  onlv  romaininfT  part  of  its  fortificiiliniis,  and  some  fine  njd  olmrches. 
Its  maniifatturos  are  numerous,  but  none  of  them  vory  eminent,  except,  that  of  lace,  which 
fjivos  employment  to  about  20,000  females  in  this  place  ami  the  iieiLrhbourhnHl.  It  is  of 
tome  oiiiinoiieo  as  a  sent  nf  literature,  jravc  birth  tn  Malhorbe  and  lluot,  and  has  a  university 
of  coiLsiiloralde  ropntalioii,  which,  tliouKh  suppressed  durinff  the  Revolution,  has  been  restored 


Itouon  Catholral. 


M 


,=,, 


4^0 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


PiuiT  ni 


in  ftill  lustre.  Havre,  at  the  nioiitli  of  the  Seine,  is  tiie  port  of  Paris,  and  one  of  the  most 
active  seats  of  French  coniinotce.  Tiie  custom  duties,  in  1824,  amounted  to  somewhat  above 
a  million  sterling,  and  its  trade  lias  since  been  greatly  augmented.  The  chief  fabric  of  the 
town  and  noightourhood  is  that  of  printed  cottons.  It  is  a  gloomy  town,  the  streets  narrow, 
and  the  houses  often  built  of  a  framework  of  wood  filled  up  with  mortar.  Dieppe,  St.  Valery, 
Fecamp,  and  Ilonfleur  are  very  active  stations  for  fishing ;  which  is  not,  however,  carried  on 
with  the  same  energy  and  adventure  as  before  the  Revolution.  The  immense  efibrts  made 
to  render  Cherbourg  a  naval  station  of  the  first  rank,  have  proved  nearly  abortive.  The 
French  government,  after  the  peace  of  1783,  began  to  erect  a  scries  of  cones,  with  the  view 
of  breaking  ti.e  force  of  tiie  waves;  but  these  were  overwhelmed,  and  retain  no  vestige  of 
their  original  form :  tliey  lie  under  water,  a  shapeless  ruin,  which  Bonaparte  in  vain  attempted 
to  make  the  foundation  of  u  regular  breakwater.  After  two  millions  had  been  spent  in  this 
undertaking,  he  employed  other  five  millions  in  forming  an  interior  basin  and  a  wet  dock; 
but  all  these  mighty  works  remain  unfinished. 

Britany  forms  a  peninsula  distinguished  by  many  marked  features  from  the  rest  of  France : 
its  rude  surface,  composed  in  a  great  measure  of  forests,  marshes,  and  heaths,  enabled  it  not 
only  to  preserve  a  large  portion  of  its  original  Celtic  population,  but  to  give  shelter  to  fugi- 
tives from  Britain,  whence  it  received  its  name.  After  being  long  a  separate  duchy,  it  was 
united  to  France  by  the  marriage  of  its  heiress  with  Louis  XII.  It  retained,  however,  down 
to  tiie  era  of  the  Revolution,  its  feudal  states,  which  assembled  every  two  years.  The  Bag 
Breton  is  a  Celtic  dialect.  The  people  are  very  numerous  and  very  poor.  The  country  is 
divided  into  small  properties  or  farms,  seldom  exceeding  twelve  acres,  cultivated  by  the 
manual  labour  of  the  occupants,  according  to  anticjuated  and  unskilful  processes,  to  which 
they  adiiere  with  tlie  most  fixed  determination.  The  peasantry  reside  in  small  huts,  gloomy, 
dark,  and  damp;  they  are  strongly  attached  to  their  homes;  ignorant  and  superstitious,  but 
at  the  same  time  frank,  brave,  hospitable,  constant  in  their  friendships,  and  faithful  to  their 
word.    They  are  stubborn  and  hardy,  and  those  on  the  coast  make  bold  sailors. 

Of  the  cities  of  Britany,  Rennes,  the  ancient  capital  of  tiie  Rhedones,  is  the  first  in  dignity, 
and  was  the  place  of  meeting  for  the  states,  the  discontinuance  of  which  has  diminished  its 
importajjee.  It  is  still  rather  a  fine  and  handsome  city,  having  been  regularly  rebuilt  since 
a  great  fire  in  1720  ;  and  its  cathedral  of  St.  Peter  is  adorned  with  lofty  towers.  Tliere  is 
a  library  of  30,000  volumes,  a  fine  botanic  garden,  a  museum  of  natural  history,  and  extensive 
collections  in  Uie  fine  arts.  It  carries  on  some  trade  by  the  river  Vilaine,  which  admits 
barges  of  considerable  size.  Vannes,  the  ancient  capital  of  the  Veneti,  is  a  mucli  smaller 
and  poorer  town,  though  its  vicinity  to  the  sea  gives  it  some  commorco  and  fishery.  Morlaix 
and  Quimpcr  are  rather  good  towns  in  ttie  western  departments :  but  the  finest  city  in 
Britany  is  undoubtedly  Nantes,  which  seems  almost  to  belong  to  the  rich  provinces  on  the 
Loire ;  it  is  situiited  on  a  hill  above  that  river,  twenty-seven  miles  from  its  mouth,  and  has 
the  advantage  of  delightful  walks  an<l  environs.  Its  situation,  at  the  mouth  of  the  greatest 
river  in  France,  is  very  favourable  to  commerce,  which  was  carried  on  to  a  vast  extent,  till 
ruined  by  the  disastrous  influence  of  Napoleon's  continental  system ;  but  Nantes  is  begin- 
ning again  to  rear  its  head.  The  West  India  trade  and  the  cod  fishery  were  the  most 
extensive  branches.  Much  ship-building  is  carried  on  for  the  merchant  service,  and  vessels 
of  1000  tons  are  occasionally  built.  Its  manufactures  are  various,  and  were  fbnnerly  exten- 
sive, especially  sugar  refinery,  cotton,  woollen,  and  linen  cloths,  and  earthenware.  It  is 
connected  with  the  opposite  side  of  the  river  by  a  noble  bridge,  wliicli,  uniting  five  different 
islands,  extends  in  its  entire  length  more  than  two  miles.  In  its  construction  Nantes  exhibits 
the  usual  faults  of  old  cities ;  the  most  agreeable  parts  are  the  suburbs,  and  the  islands  are 
thickly  planted  with  trees  and  houses. 

Brest,  on  the  western  coast  of  Britany,  is  the  chief  naval  station  of  France  on  the  ocean, 
as  Tonlon  is  on  the  Mediterranean.  It  was  srlected  for  this  purpose  in  1031  by  Cardinal 
Richelieu,  in  consideration  of  its  harbour,  which  is  secure  from  every  wind,  and  of  a  spacious 
roadstead,  affording  anchorage  to  .500  ships  of  wtir.  From  Brest  issued  the  fleet  wiiich  was 
totally  defeated,  in  1798,  by  Lord  Hows ;  and  during  the  wliole  of  the  subsecpicnt  war 
between  England  and  France,  this  port,  with  the  navy  which  it  contained,  was  held  in 
almost  constant  blockade.  The  works  of  Brest  are  very  strong,  and  the  attempt  made  in 
1694  to  carry  tlieiu  by  storm,  was  repulsed  witli  considerable  di-saster.  Tlie  town,  though 
modern,  having  been  built  in  haste,  and  with  a  sole  view  to  utility,  is  crowded  and  dirty  ;  but 
within  the  last  lialf-century  there  has  been  built  a  handsr:nn  suburb,  called  La  Recouvrance. 
Brest,  hesiflos  its  naval  importance,  carries  on  a  considerable  fishery. 

Tliere  are  otiier  maritime  stations  of  considerable  magnitude  in  Britany.  L'O:  lent  has 
been  made  a  depot  for  naval  stores,  and  strongly  fortified  ;  it  derived  much" importance  fi-om 
being  the  almost  exclusive  seat  of  the  commerce  of  the  East  Iiiilia  Cnnifjaiiy;  but  since  that 
trade  iias  been  nearly  annihilated,  this  (wrt  has  greatly  declined.  St.  Malo  contains  r.  race 
of  bold  and  hardy  mariners,  actively  employed  in  the  Newfoundland  iind  other  fisheries  ;  and 
who,  in  time  of  war,  exercised  briskly  the  trade  of  privateering.     Morlaix  carries  on  a  con- 


I1^ 


■r 


'abtIII 

he  most 
iat  above 
ic  of  the 
)  narrow, 
t.  Valery, 
arricd  on 
irts  made 
vc.    The 
the  view 
,'estige  of 
ittempted 
int  in  this 
,vet  dock; 

if  France : 
Died  it  not 
er  to  fugi- 
hy,  it  waa 
;ver,  down 
TiieBaa 
country  is 
ted  by  the 
3,  to  which 
ts,  gloomy, 
titious,  but 
ill  to  their 

in  dignity, 
ninislied  its 
ebuilt  since 
.     Tiiere  is 
id  extensive 
iiich  admits 
uch  smaller 
ry.  Morlaix 
lest  city  in 
ices  on  the 
ith,  and  has 
the  greatest 
extent,  till 
les  is  bcgin- 
•0  the  most 
and  vessels 
[lorly  exten- 
Aarc.     It  is 
,vc  difterent 
itos  exhibits 
islands  are 

|i  the  ocean, 
[by  Cardinal 
y  a  spacious 
which  was 
|e(iucnt  war 
Ivas  held  in 
ipt  made  in 
Uvn,  though 
Id  dirty ;  but 
Ipcouvrance. 

L'Oricnt  has 
Irtaiico  from 
lit  since  that 
Itains  r.  race 
Ihories ;  and 
les  on  a  con- 


■«, 


BookL 


FRANCE. 


861 


eiderabic  trade  with  the  north  of  Europe.     Quimper,  though  ranking  above  Brest,  as  capital 
of  tlie  department  of  Finisterre,  is  now  only  an  old  town  of  little  importance. 

The  provinces  on  the  Loire,  in  its  courcio  trom  cast  to  west,  comprehending  Orleanais, 
Touraino,  Anjou,  to  which  may  be  added  those  of  Maine  and  Perche,  adjoining  on  the 
north,  are  the  most  central  and  perhaps  tiie  richest  in  tiie  kingdom.  A  great  part,  indeed, 
especially  of  Anjou  and  Maine,  is  covered  with  those  wide  wastes,  overgrown  with  brush- 
wood and  heath,  which  occupy  so  much  of  the  French  soil.  But  the  banks  of  the  Loire 
around  Orleans  arc  generally  considered  the  garden  of  France  ;  tlicy  consist  of  unbounded 
plains,  tlirougii  which  the  niognilicent  Loire  winds  its  stately  course,  and  which  are 
variegated  with  rich  meadows,  vineyards,  gardens,  and  forests.  On  this  theatre  were  acted 
many  of  tlie  greatest  events  in  the  liistory  of  the  monarchy,  particularly  its  rise  from 
the  apparent  peril  of  total  subjection,  through  the  inspiruig  iiiHucnce  of  Joan  the  Maid  of 
Orleans. 

The  cities  of  this  region  are  celebrated  and  magnificent.      Orleans,  in  former  times, 
ranked  almost  as  a  second  capital:  though  it  exhibits  tlie  usual  characters  of  antiquity,  it  is 
a  superb  and  beautiful  city.   A  very  fine  stone  bridge  of  nine  arches  opens  to  the  rue  royale, 
spacious  and  handsome,  which  extends  to  the  fine  square  in  the  centre ;  here  is  plui„-Kl  a 
statue  of  Joan,  the  sculpture  of  which  is  not  altogether  so  elegant  as  might  be  desired.    The 
cathedral  is  a  very  fine  edifice,  the  choir  of  which  was  raised  by  Henry  IV.   From  its  steeple 
is  an  almost  unbounded  view  over  the  magnificent  i)lain  of  the  Ixiire.     Situated  in  the  centre 
of  France,  and  dividing  as  it  were  the  Ixjwcr  fi:om  the  Upper  Loire,  Orleans  enjoys  a  great 
transit  trade.     Blois  is  almost  equal  to  Orleans  in  historical  celebrity ;  its  ancient  edifices, 
placed  on  a  hill  above  the  Loire,  have  a  most  commanding  appearance.    The  castle,  on  a 
rock  overhanging  the  river,  is  an  immense  and  lofty  pile,  full  of  windows  of  aW  shapes  and 
sizes,  balconies,  galleries,  buttresses,  and  "a  strange  incongruous  assemblage  of  buildings 
destined  for  ornament  in  peace  and  defence  in  war."    All  the  parts  are  little ;  but  the  whole 
is  so  vast  as  to  be  almost  sublime.     In  this  edifice  the  states-general  once  assembled.    The 
glory  of  Blois  has  now  entirely  passed  away :  ita  streets  are  narrow,  gloomy,  and  dismally 
dirty.    Tours,  equally  ancient,  is  now  much  more  flourishing;  its  plain  is  pre-eminent,  even 
among  the  other  districts  on  the  banks  of  the  Loire.    The  i^iik  manufacture,  first  introduced 
here,  lias  been  in  a  great  measure  transferred  to  Lyons,  but  it  still  employs  7000  or  800O 
persons.     Happily  for  the  beauty  of  the  city,  a  great  part  of  it  was  consiinu'd  .5((  years  ago, 
and  occasion  was  taken  to  build  a  new  street,  running  its  wiiolc  length,  of  fine  hewn  stone, 
broad,  and  on  an  elegant  design ;    it  is,  perhaps,  the  finest  in  Franco.     It  is  connected 
with  a  bridj|:e  of  14  archer,  which  till  of  laic  was  considered  eipmlly  unrivalled ;  and  also 
with  a  fine  promenade  bordered  with  trees.     The  nictroixjiitan  church  was  almost  entirely 
demolished  during  the  revolutionary  excesses ;  only  two  of  its  lofty  spires  remain.    The 
beauty  and  abundance  of  the  country  around  Tours  have  attracted  such  numbers  of  English 
residents,  that  Mrs.  Carey  was  asked  on  tlio  road  what  great  convulsion  was  agitating  Eng- 
land, that  her  people  were  flying  from  it  in  such  crowds.     Saumur,  onc:e  highly  flourishing 
and  industrious,  lost  two-thirds  of  its  population  by  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes. 
Angers  is  a  large,  old,  steep,  ill-built  town,  but  has  a  considerable  trade ;  its  monuments 
have  been  dreadfully  shattered  during  the  llevolution.     Lc  Mans,  capital  of  Maine,  on  the 
Sarthe,  is  very  old,  but  large  and  clean,  with  a  spacious  market-place  and  some  considerable 
manufactures. 

The  provinces  between  the  Loire  and  the  Garonne,  Poitou,  Borri,  Limousin,  and  the 
Marclie,  are  of  diversified  and  somewhat  peculiar  aspect:  they  present  none  of  those  bound- 
less plains  which  characterise  France  north  of  the  lioire ;  they  are  everywhere  traversed  by 
valleys  and  ridges  of  hills,  never  rising  into  mountains,  but  giving  to  the  country  a  broken  and 
variegated  aspect.  This,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  is  sometimes  rude  and  dreary, 
Bometimos  gay  and  smiling.  Mr.  Young  ranks  the  Limousin  as  the  most  beautifiil  district 
in  all  France,  such  is  the  ,ariety  of  hills,  dales,  streams  and  'voods  which  compfjse  its 
landscape.  Airs.  Carey  describes  Marclie,  beyond  Argenton,  as  singularly  pastoral ;  the 
hills  covered  with  sheep,  goats,  kids,  and  lambs,  the  last  of  which  at  evening  come  down 
bleating,  and  are  received  iiitu  the  houses.  I'oitou,  a  jiart  of  which  is  so  tatnlly  celebrated 
under  its  new  name  of  La  Venilee,  is  a  rough  country,  a  great  part  of  which  is  covered 
with  a  forest  called  the  Bocage.  ."Vll  these  districts  are  more  productive  of  cattle  than  of 
grain,  though  tliey  arc  ciiltivuted  by  a  simple  peasantry  with  hanliliood  and  vigour,  hut  quite 
in  the  antuiue  style,  and  with  a  strong  ttntijiathy  to  all  modern  improvements.  In  I'oitou, 
the  projirietors,  btjiiig  small,  anil  residing  much  on  their  estates,  excited  tinidal  feelings  and 
attachments,  that  were  extinct  in  the  rest  of  France ;  hence  the  formidable  war  wliich  they 
waged  single-handed  in  delence  of  the  ancient  regime. 

The  cities  in  this  range  of  provinces,  tlioiiirli  ancient,  are  neither  large,  nor  distinguished 
by  much  industry.  Poitiers  is  of  hijjii  antiquity,  and  presents  some  interesting  P.oman  re- 
mains;  in  modern  limes  it  is  distiiiL'iiished  by  the  signal  victury  gained  here  by  the  Black 
Prince.  The  cilv  is  of  great  extent,  Imlcenipri.-es  many  empty  spaces  and  gardens.  Limoges 
iK  an  ill-built  town,  with  many  houses  of  tiiiili'i-,  roofed  •■villi  tiles,  and  prujccting  caves,  but 


111 


I- 


I! 
fiil 


ir^ 


T^ 


888 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


there  nre  several  handsome  squares  and  fountains,  and  tlie  pnblic  walks  command  a  beautiful 
view  of  the  Vienno  flowing  down  a  charminif  valley.  Its  cathedral,  said  to  have  been  built 
by  the  English  during  their  temiwrary  pon.scssion  of  this  part  of  Frante,  f^Mlfcri'd  much  (hiring 
the  revolution,  and  has  only  one  tower  lell  .standing.  Bourges,  the  uneiont  Biturgiu',  is  very 
ill-bnilt,  but  adorned  with  a  flue  calhcilral,  and  distinguished  for  its  univernity,  and  as  tlie 
birtii-place  of  IJourdaloue,  and  of  the  Jesuit,  Fatlier  d'Orleans.  Chfttcanrou.x  is  gloomy,  but 
has  a  largo  woollen  manutiicture. 

Tiie  two  departments  of  tlie  Charente,  watered  by  the  fine  river  of  that  name,  form  ii 
region  diflereiit  in  ciitiraeter  from  tiioso  now  de.>-cril)ed ;  level,  and  e.'ctremely  ti-rtile,  though 
in  some  [mrts  marshy  and  uniu^allhfiil.  A  great  part  of  the  produce  of  its  rieii  vineyards  is 
at  Cogniie  converted  into  brandy,  which  bears  an  unrivalled  reputation,  tiiough,  pn  balily, 
the  name  is  applied  with  a  fraudulent  hititude  to  inferior  liquors.  The  yellow  tinge  so 
generally  given  to  brandy  is  the  conseipience  of  a  local  cu.-.tom  at  Cognac.  Saintes  is 
ancient  oven  as  a  French  city.  An  ample  theatre,  an  aqueduct,  and  a  triumphal  arch  of 
white  marble,  attest  its  ancient  importance  as  a  Roman  city  ;  and  the  cathedral  i.-i  said  to 
belong  to  the  age  of  Charlemagne.  But  the  most  conspicuous  features  of  the  ("hareiite  are 
Rochelle  and  Ilochefort.  The  t!)rmer  is  renowned  as  the  grand  and  last  bulwark  of  the 
Protestant  cause;  and  its  reduction,  (}llected  by  the  almost  incredible  ellbrts  of  (Cardinal 
Richelieu,  tLxod  the  downtall  of  v  '  and  religious  liberty  in  France.  Though  no  longer  a 
haven  of  the  first  magnitude,  its  colonial  trade,  prior  at  least  to  the  late  war,  was  very  con- 
siderable. The  town  is  handsome,  with  broad  .streets,  many  of  the  lious((s  built  on  arcades', 
with  shops  beneath  as  in  Chest(;r.  Rochefort  has  little  trade,  but  is  one  of  the  principal 
French  naval  stations.  It  has  a  secure  harbour,  with  very  siife  an<l  extensive  docks. 
Being  one  of  the  few  towns  in  France  that  are  not  nmch  more  than  a  century  and  a  half 
old,  it  is  built  on  a  regular  plan,  with  broad  open  streets.  Angoulfime,  in  the  interior, 
stands  on  a  r(x;k  in  the  centr(;  of  a  charming  valley,  through  which  winds  the  .«ilver 
stream  of  the  Charente.  It  is  a  clean  well-built  town,  liaving  a  cathedral  with  fivt!  cupolas, 
and  displaying  other  marks  of  liistorical  importance.  There  is  a  large  iiiaimfacturo  of 
jjaper. 

Guicnne  is  a  most  important  province,  which  lor  several  ages  formed  an  appanage  of  the 
English  crown.  It  consists  of  a  magnificiMit  and  highly  cultivated  plain,  watered  by  the 
Garonne,  whose  broail  stream  here  resend)les  an  iirm  of  the  sea,  and  by  its  ample  tributaries, 
the  Tarn,  the  I,ot,  and  the  Dordogr.e.  It  is  distinguished  by  various  rich  productions,  but 
more  especially  liy  the  wines  bearing  the  name  of  claret,  whirh,  though  not(piite  so  rich  and 
highly  flavoured  as  some,  are  so  light  and  agreeable  that  a  greater  cpiantity  is  drunk  at  the 
tables  of  the  opulent,  than  of  any  other.  M.  Fra.ik,  in  a  late  work  pid)lished  at  Bordeaux, 
estimates  *he  entire  produce  of  claret  at  12r)0,()00  tuns.  The  wines  of  the  tiinns  Ijaffitte  and 
Chftteau-Margaux  are  the  most  esteemed ;  but  nuich  is  sold  under  these  names  which  has 
no  title  to  them. 
Bordeaux  (^ff.  287.),  near  the  mouth  of  the  Garonne,  is  one  of  the  grandest  emporia  in 

France,  and,  indeed,  in  Europe, 
287  Situat(;d   at   the  mouth  of  the 

(iaromie,  which  here  allows  the 
largest  vessels  !,o  ascend  to  its 
port,  it  exiKirta  all  the  viiluablo 
produce  of  this  great  southern 
idaiii,  of  which  the  wines  are 
said  to  anieimt  to  KXMHKt,  and 
brandy  to"J(),()(l()  pipes  ;imuially. 
It  is  engaged  also  in  colonial 
trade-,  and  in  the  cod  and  whale 
fisheries.  Recent  travellers  re- 
mark a  irreBterdis|hiiy  of  wealth 
and  pros|)erity  in  this  tlrui  in 
any  other  of  the  French  com- 
mensal cities.  Every  thing  is 
on  a  grand  scale,  and  buildings  are  in  progres-'s  which,  when  finished,  w  ill  leave  it  without  a 
rival  in  France.  The  theatre,  designed  atler  that  of  Milan,  is  considered  ;■  nioilel  of  archi- 
tectural beauty.  Many  of  the  ecclesia.stieal  striictuios  wen?  ti)unded  by  the  English.  A 
very  republican  spirit  is  said  to  prevail  at  Bonleau.v. 

The  other  towns  of  Guieiiue  are  not  of  the  first  niiignitnde.  Montnidian  emhniced  with 
anloiir  the  l'n)lestant  cause,  and  had  a  distiriixuished  university,  which  was  snp|iressei|,  when 
the  pliice  wiis  taken  in  KiVJO,  by  I,ouis  XIII.,  luid  the  forlilicatious  nzed.  This  seminiirv, 
however,  was  restdn'cl  by  .Xapdleon  in  I'll!'.  Moaliulian  is  well-built,  of  painted  brick, 
with  wide  and  cleim  ,-treets;  anil  an  elevated  walk,  which  cninmandsa  most  extensive  view, 
reaching  to  the  I'yrenees,  Agen  is  a  very  dirly  ill-lmilt  town,  but  liimous  tiir  tin.'  phuns 
raised  in  its  viciiiity.     ('aliors  has  soini-  thriving  niaun!"ictiu-e.--,  and  its  vicinity  produces  the 


llorilraiix. 


Ill 


Book  I. 


PRANCE, 


■o'.diiial 
mill  whale 
ivi'lli-r.s  rc- 
y  (if  wealth 
118  tliMii  in 
Mich  rom- 
■ry  Ihiiijj;  is 
without  ii 
■1  (if  iirchi- 
1-1  ish.     A 

iin'il    willl 

:;-('li,  Whrll 

sciniimry, 
itcil  lirick, 
sivi'  view, 
till'  iilmiw 
rtxluo.'s  the 


vtn  de  Gravp,  which  is  held  in  high  estimation.    Rhodez,  on  the  Avcyron,  ia  a  gloomy  old 
town,  but  the  scut  of  a  distinguished  bishopric, 

GasciHiy  is  a  largo  province,  extending  to  the  Pyrenees,  and  consisting  chiefly  of  a  wido 
level  surfiice,  of  penuliur  character,  called  the  lande.s.  These  are  plains  of  sand,  in  some 
places  loose  and  blowing,  but  mostly  covered  with  pine  trees,  sometimes  affording  pasturage 
for  sheep,  and  more  rarely  detached  tracts  fit  for  cultivation.  The  Gascons,  long  an  inde- 
pendent people  under  their  dukes,  are  a  peculiar  race,  fiery,  ardent,  impctuouti,  and  prover- 
bially addicted  to  Imasting;  hence  the  term  gasconade.  Bayonne,  though  not  vnry  largo,  ia 
one  of  tde  strongest  and  i)rcttiest  towns  in  France,  Situated  at  the  broad  mouth  of  the 
\dour,  it  has  a  considerable  traffic  in  exporting  the  timber  of  the  Pyrenees  and  the  Lundes, 
and  sends  also  vessels  to  the  cod  and  whale  fisheries,  Mont  de  Mursan,  the  capital  of  the 
liandcs,  is  hut  a  small  and  poor  place. 

The  I'yronean  departments  comprehend  some  interesting  features;  Beam,  the  little  ori- 
ginal principality  of  Henry  IV,,  which  he  governed  with  ptemal  kindness;  and  Roussillon, 
which  uti(l(!rwont  several  revolutions,  alternately  belonging  to  Prance  and  to  Spain,  botbrc 
it  was  tinally  annexed  to  the  former.  Young  gives  a  delightful  view  of  the  stJitc  of  tliis 
mountain  district.  It  is  divided  into  a  number  of  small  properties,  which  are  well  enclosml, 
well  cultivated,  each  cointbrtable  cottage  being  surrounded  by  its  garden  well  stocked  with 
fruit  trees ;  the  inhabitants  snugly  dressed,  like  Highlanders,  in  red  caps.  The  siilKlivision 
of  property,  though  great,  seems  not  to  have  gone  so  far  as  to  lead  to  nii-sery.  I'au  is  a  con- 
siderable town,  in  a  romantic  situation,  and  celebrated  as  the  birth-place  of  Henry  IV., 
whoso  cradle  is  still  shown  in  the  ancient  palace,  now  converted  into  a  prison.  It  makes  a 
good  deal  of  linen,  and  is  noted  for  its  excellent  hams,  which  are  exported  from  Bayonne, 
Tarbos,  capital  of  the  upper  Pyrenees,  and  Biigncres,  with  its  mineral  hot  springs,  a  place 
of  crowded  and  fashionable  resort,  are  delightfully  situated,  affording  an  approach  to  the  fine 
valleys  of  the  highest  Pyrenees.  The  slopes  of  the  neighbouring  mountains  are  richly  cul- 
tivated, and  often  well  enclosed.  Roussillon  is  Spanish  as  to  language  and  customs ;  but  the 
magnificent  roads  effected  in  defiance  of  natural  obstacles,  and  the  thriving  indiistrj  of  the 
peoido,  mark  the  influence  of  a  more  active  and  enlightened  government,.  The  extensive 
tiirtifications  of  Perpignan  render  it  a  harrier  of  the  kingdom.  It  is  gloomy  and  ill-built, 
but  has  some  manufactures. 

Langueiloc,  the  ancient  (iallia  Xarhoncnsis,  aiul  a(\erwards  the  domain  of  the  counts  ot 
Toulouse,  is  the  pride  of  France  in  r(!gard  to  climate,  soil,  and  scenery.  The  nir  along  its 
coasts  is  generally  considered  the  most  salubrious  in  Europe.  The  plains  of  J.anguedoc  are 
celebrated;  yet  they  arc  encroached  uik)m  not  only  by  the  Pyrenees  on  the  east,  hut  by  the 
Cevennos,  which  form  their  constant  northern  boundary,  and  in  many  places  rediui'  them  to 
a  breadth  of  a  few  miles.  But  on  the  line  from  Beziers  by  Montpelier  to  Nisnirs,  the  plain 
i'-.  of  much  greater  breadth,  and  displays  a  luxuriant  fertility  scarcely  rivalled  in  any  other 
part  even  of  this  happy  region.  Every  thing  flourishes  here,  even  what  is  most  strictly 
denied  to  other  provinces;  not  only  grain  and  the  vine,  but  the  silk-worm  and  the  olive. 

The  cities  of  Ijanguedoc  arc  not  of  the  very  first  magnitude ;  hut  they  are  handsome  and 
linely  situated ;  and  they  ])resent  stime  interesting  Roman  monuments.  Toulouse  covers  a 
great  extent  of  ground,  but  it  has  suffered  in  consecinence  of  the  discontinuance  of  its  par- 
liament, which  was  one  of  the  mo.st  important  in  France.  The  cathedral  is  viry  larLi'e,  but 
not  very  beautiful ;  and  many  of  the  churches  wore  destroyed  during  the  Revolution.  There 
is  an  university  attended  by  l.'MX)  students,  and  two  large  libraries  open  to  the  public. 
Castres  is  a  well-built,  industrious,  large  town,  the  birth-place  of  llapin  and  Mailaiiie  Dacier. 
Carca.s.sonne  still  retains  some  of  the  bastions  and  towers  of  tlio  castle  on  its  hil! ;  hut  this 
•ancient  (luiirter  is  almost  deserted  in  favour  of  tlie  neat  ploa.sant  town  built  beneath.  Beziers 
is  ugly  and  dirty,  but  has  a  hand.some  cathedral,  and  is  important  from  its  site  on  th'!  canal 
of  Langnedoc.  Narhonne,  though  celebrated  as  a  Roman  capital,  presents  few  monuments 
of  that  people;  these  are  said  to  have  been  taken  down  at  the  building  of  the  walls.  Mont- 
pclior  enjoys  an  unrivalled  finui!  for  its  niilrl  and  salubrious  air;  but  late  travellers  have 
declared  them.selves  unable  to  discover  on  what  that  renown  is  fi.)undcd.  It  is  subject  to 
alternations  of  heat  and  cold;  cloth  pelisses  must  bo  worn  the  whole  winter,  and  fires  can- 
not bo  discontinued  till  May.  It  is,  however,  an  agreeable  rosideiite;  the  public  walk  com- 
mands a  view  over  the  ,M(!diterranean  and  the  surrounding  country,  scareejv  equalled  in 
Euro[)c:  there  is  a  llourisbiiig  medical  school,  with  good  practitioners, and  a  library  of  40,000 
volumes.  ;\Iontp(dier  is  not  nnitii  inly  well-built;  but  it  presents  a  noble  Roman  a(|ue(luct, 
a  fine  cathedral,  and  other  public  buildings.  Nismcs  is  one  of  the  greatest  and  most  fonr- 
ishing  cities  in  the  south  of  France.  The  silk  manutiicture,  as  already  noticed,  flourishes 
there  to  a  great  exteul.  More  than  half  the  inhabitants  are  Protestant,  who,  ,is  may  be  well 
remembereil,  were,  on  the  restoration  of  the  Bourlmns,  exposed  to  violent  outragi-s  on  tho 
part  of  their  ("atholic.  tillow-citi/.ens;  hut  these  disorders  were  disavowed  by  the  French 
court,  and  havi;  ci-ased.  The  city  is  ill-hiiilt,  ill-paved,  ill  laid  out;  but  there  is  a  fine  bou- 
levard bordered  with  trees;  and  it  is  particularly  illustrious  tor  the  magnillccnce  of  its  Ro- 
man monuments.     The  amphitheatre  is  nearlv  entire,  and,  though  rather  smaller  than  that 

Vol.  I.  47  3  U 


it  I 


Hi 


M4 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


Punt  du  Gard. 


of  Verona,  from  its  massive  gri*  '  and  the  enormous  stones  of  wliicli  it  is  constructed, 
suggests  tlio  idea  of  an  iniperisi.  .c  fabric.  But  the  edifice  called  the  Maison  ctirrie,  sup- 
posed to  have  been  a  temple  of  Augustus,  is  that  which  has  excited  the  admiration  of  all 

travellers,  from  its  extreme  elojjunce 
•%  and  graceful  proportion.",  wliich  rcn 

der  It  almost  a  perfect  model  of 
,    ..  architectural    beauty.      It  remains 

after  so  many  ages  quite  entire,  "  as 
if  savage  and  saint  had  boon  alike 
awed  by  its  suporlative  beauty." 
Near  Nismcs  is  the  Pont  du  Gard 
(Jig.  288.),  an  ancient  bridge,  or 
rather  aqueduct,  forming  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  monuments  now 
extant  of  Roman  grandeur. 
Provence  is  one  of  the  most  celebrated  and  interesting  of  the  French  provinces,  first,  as 
the  earliest  seat  of  wealth,  civilisation,  and  poetry ;  next,  as  containing  the  ecclesiastical 
capitil,  Avignon,  near  whicii  is  Vaucluse,  the  favourite  residence  of  Petrarch ;  lastly,  as 
including  'I'oulon  and  MarsiMlles,  the  greatest  naval  and  the  greatest  commercial  city  in  the 
kingdom.  The  classic  stream  of  the  Durance,  though  it  cro.>^ses  the  wliole  region  from  its 
kipine  boundary  to  the  Rhone,  and  too  often  overflows  its  banks,  does  not  preserve  tiie  exten- 
sive trucl.s  covered  with  rude  calcareous  hills  from  tlie  evils  of  aridity.  Altliough,  there- 
fore, the  pr(xhict.s  of  this  province  are  various,  and  many  of  them  fine,  it  does  not  yield  com 
sufficient  lijr  its  own  consumption,  nor  can  it  boast  of  extensive  manufactures,  but  depends 
chiefly  upon  rommcrcf. 

Tiie  cities  of  Provence  rank,  in  all  respects,  among  the  greatest  and  most  interesting  of 
ihe  kingdom.  .\ix  is  not  the  largest,  but  is  reckoned  tiie  cajjital,  and  was  formerly  the  seat 
of  tlie  parliaments  of  Provence.  Its  name  is  contracted  from  that  of  A(|ua!  Soxtiie,  given  to 
it  by  the  Roniiins  from  the  copious  warm  baths,  in  whose  vicinity  numerous  medals  and 
inscriptions  have  been  discovered.  It  is  pleasant,  airy,  well  built,  in  a  fine  plain  ciieircled 
by  lolh  mountiiins.  The  conrs  is  very  beautiful,  formed  liy  two  rows  of  trees,  with  hot 
fountains  bubbling  up,  at  which  women  are  seen  washing  clothes.  (Jreafer  celebrity  attaches 
to  ihe  niijie  of  .Avignon,  for  some  time  an  ecclesiastical  capital,  and  still  more  illustrious  by 
association  with  the  names  of  Laura  and  Petrarch.  It  is  finely  situated  on  the  Rhone,  with 
many  handsome  houses;  but  the  streets  are  crowded  ami  ill-|)aved.  In  the  centre  rises  an 
msulated  rock,  separated  l)y  the  river  from  a  range  of  liills  on  the  other  side,  and  in  which 
are  the  remains  of  the  pu!  ce  of  the  popes,  now  converted  into  barracks  and  prisons.  The 
cathedral  had  acciunulnted  immense  wealth  in  f'ilver  and  other  oflerings,  of  all  which  it  was 
rifled  at  the  Revolution;  an  event  more  fatal  to  Avignon  than  to  any  other  city,  except 
Lyon.s.  .Vviirnon  is  surrounded  by  a  wall  built  only  fur  fiscal  purposes,  an<l  the  Rhone  is 
crossed  by  a  handsonu;  bridgi^  built  by  St.  Benezct  in  the  twelfth  century  from  the  protluce 
of  alms,  and  which  yields  50,000  francs  of  annual  toll.     It  would  bo  i)rotiine  tiir  a  traveller 

to  leave  Aviynon  without  visiting 
289  .  .      J--  .      .       .       B 


the  tomb  of  Laura  in  the  church 
of  the  Franciscans,  and  making  an 
excursion  to  the  beautiful  fountain 
of  Vaucluse  (^fii^,  28!).),  the  scene 
of  inspiration  to  Petrarch.  Aries 
was,  in  early  times,  one  of  the  most 
important  cities  in  the  south  of 
France;  under  th(>  Romans  it  was 
the  seat  of  the  prii'lorian  prefect; 
in  the  ninth  century  it  was  the 
capital  of  a  separate  kiug<lom,  and 
afterwards  the  seat  of  an  archbi- 
shop, and  of  thirteen  successive  councils.  It  is  still  a  largi'  city,  and  presents  tlie  vestiges 
of  a  Roman  amplii*''eatre  (of  which  the  interior  area  is  now  built  upon),  once  capalde  of 
containing  :f(l,(MH)  |)er.sons.  Taraseon  is  still  a  flourishing  place,  aljove  which  rises  the 
ancient  casthi  of  the  counts  of  ProveniM',  now  converted  into  a  prison.  On  the  opposite 
bank  of  the  Rhone  is  Bcancaire,  distiuiruished  llir  its  great  annual  tiiir,  at  wbii  !i  are  still 
sold  grKids  iif  various  descriptions  to  the  value  of  about  7,.'')IMt,(M)()  francs.  Digne  and  I'ar- 
pentras  are  of  smne  im|H)rt'inee  as  capitals  of  districts. 

Marseilles  and  Toulon,  the  two  ^nvat  s(!Ulhern  havens,  form  now  the  most  iiuportant  fea- 
tures of  I'ri/vence.  The  connnerci;il  fime  of  Miirsi'illes  dat'>s  fnim  early  autiij'iily,  when 
it  was  a  (ireek  (olony,  and  cirrieij  cin  almost  all  llic  coinmeree  of  (iiuil.  In  moilern  times 
it  has  been  the  chief  centre  of  I  lie  trade  to  the  Levant;  and  though  its  ])rii.-pi'rity  sull'ered 
tt  total  erIipM;  under  the  regime  of  Naiwloon.  it  has  since  regained  much  of  its  ft  rrnci 


Fountain  uf  Vuuclusc. 


Book  1. 


FRANCE. 


555 


splendour.  The  harbour  is  Bpacioua  and  secure,  but  it  ia  somewhat  narrow  at  tlie  entrance, 
and  shallow.  It  ia  bordered  by  extensive  quay.s  of  hewn  st(ine,  with  spacious  wareiiouses; 
and  is  hllud  with  all  tiie  shipping  peculiar  to  the  Mediterranean,  among  which  are  galleys, 
and  beautiful  pleasure-boats  with  silk  awnings;  it  is  crowded  with  all  the  nations  of  that 
sea,  Greeks,  Turks,  Jews,  Spaniards,  Italians,  and  loaded  with  the  produce  of  Asia  and  Africa. 
(t  is  compared  by  a  late  writer  to  Liverpool :  the  districts  round  the  port  are  a  nucleus  of 
trade  and  dirt;  but  in  the  exterior,  the  streets  are  handsome,  airy,  and  well  built.  Among 
other  lino  public  buildings  is  the  hotel  de  vilk,  with  its  magnificent  marble  titaircnso.  Tlie 
vours  is  formed  by  two  rows  of  line  trees  bordered  by  handsome  houses,  and  the  central 
walk  is  crowded  like  a  tiiir.  The  iioighb')uring  plain  is  finely  cultivated,  but  is  bounded  by 
bold  and  rugged  mountains  that  rise  above  the  range  of  vegetation.  Toulon,  though  not  a 
seat  of  couuncrce,  is  the  chief  naval  station  of  Prance  on  the  Mediterranean.  It  has  two 
ports,  tiie  old  and  the  new :  the  latter  alone  receives  ships  of  war,  and  is  bordered  by  most 
extensive  arsenals,  in  which  5000  men  are  constantly  employed.  This  port  can  contain  200 
sail  of  the  line;  nnd  without  is  a  very  spacious  and  well-sheltered  roadstead.  It  is  defended 
by  two  strong  Ions,  w  liich,  however,  were  occupied  in  1793  by  the  British,  who,  at  'he  end 
of  the  year,  wore  obliged  to  evacuate  the  place.  This  was  the  first  occasion  on  which  Bona- 
parte's military  talents  became  conspicuous.  Toulon  is  a  clean,  pleasant  town,  refreshed  by 
streams  of  water,  running  through  the  streets.  The  adjacent  country  is  wild  and  romantic, 
and  interspersed  with  some  cultivated  valleys. 

Dauphiny  is  a  region  completely  alpine,  the  two  depart- 
ments of  the  Upper  and  Lower  Mps  occupying  the  greater 
part  of  its  surface.  The  '  ountains  are  chiefly  calcareous, 
and  broken  Into  the  nuat  picturesque,  peculiar,  and  ro- 
mantic forms.  Young  even  considers  the  scenery  of  Dau- 
phiny, particularly  along  the  Isere,  as  surpassing  that  of 
any  other  part  of  the  Alps.  In  one  of  the  most  awful  re- 
cesses of  tliese  rocks  and  wilds,  at  a  distance  from  all  the 
smiling  scenes  of  earth,  St.  Brimo  erected  tlio  monastery 
of  file  Chartreuse  (,Jig:  '"'H).),  of  which  Gray  has  drawn 
so  sublime  and  imimsing  a  picture.  There  are  other  scenes 
emphatically  termed  liie  wonders  of  Dauphiny ;  as  tiie 
burning  fbimtaiii,  I  he  grottoes  of  Sassenagp,  &.c.  Although 
this  part  of  the  kingdom  cannot  be  considered  as  productive, 
yet  great  numbers  of  cattle  and  'sheep  are  reared  on  its 
high  slopes  by  a  simple  raco  of  men  resembling  the  mountaineers  of  Switzerland  ;  and  eve., 
the  silk-worm  is  bred  in  its  lower  valleys. 

The  cities  do  not  require  very  particular  notice.  Grenoble  is  a  considerable  place,  not  ill 
built,  with  a  library  of  00,000  volumes,  and  some  otiier  literary  establishments.  It  took  a 
conspicuous  part  in  promoting  the  commencement  of  tlie  Revolution,  and  was  also  the  first 
town  that  opened  its  gates  to  Napoleon  on  his  return  from  Ellia.  Gap  is  a  pretty  large  but 
poor  old  town,  in  a  deep  hollow,  amid  iiarren  mountains.  Vienne  is  a  Roman  city,  and 
presents  a  temple,  with  several  other  intere.sting  remains  of  that  people.  It  has  also  a  fine 
modern  cathedral  with  a  very  lolf.y  spire.  Valence  has  a  military  school,  at  which  Bonaparte 
was  educated.     Near  Tain  is  produced  the  celebrated  wine  called  Hermitage. 

The  liyonnais  is  a  small  territory,  penetrated  by  branches  of  the  Alps,  in  some  places 
rough  and  stony,  in  others  finely  diversified  with  hill  and  dale.  Its  chief  interest,  however, 
centres  in  the  great  city  which  is  its  capital. 

Lyons  (Jig.  291.)  is  generally  con- 
sidere  i  u.  liie  second  city  in  France, 
and  as  foremost  in  regard  to  com- 
merce and  industry.  It  is  on  the 
whole  a  nMo  city.  The  quays  along 
the  Rhone  are  superb ;  the  hdtel  de 
ville  is  held  fo  be  second  only  to 
that  of  Amsterdam;  the  cathedral  is 
highly  ornamented  in  the  florid 
Gothic  style ;  and  the  squares,  espe- 
cially the  Place  dr  ndlecour,  with 
its  fountains  and  statues,  are  nowhere  surpassed.  On  the  other  hand,  the  old  streets  are 
narrow,  bordered  by  lolly  and  gloomy  walls,  and  divided  by  a  muddy  stream.  To  turn  int(j 
them  from  the  quays  has  been  compared  to  entering  subterraneous  passages,  watered  by  the 
sluices  of  Cocytus.  Lyons  suffered  dreadfully  under  the  sway  of  the  jarobins,  who  made  it  a 
chi(;f  thoattc  f  those  atrocities  that  rendered  them  the  horror  of  mankind.  To  say  nothing 
of  the  mu.-s^:icri  i  pcrpetnted  under  the  a|)pellation  (iffiisillinl's  and  noijadm,  they  studiously 
broke  in  picrcis  all  the  manutUcturing  machinery,  while  with  barbarous  hands  they  defaced 
all  the  ornaments  of  the  city,  filled  up  the  fountains,  broke  the  statues   in   pieces,  and 


Grande  Chnrlrtiuse. 


Lyons. 


1 

■t 


M 


MO 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGUAPIiV. 


Part  III. 


dcmuIiHhcd  the  whole  of  the  cnthcc!  'iil  except  the  wiiUs.  Her  citizonti  hiivo  nmdc  dili(roiit 
cflbrts  to  restore  her  prosperity,  ami  not  without  Hiicceas;  still  tiio  vvniit  of  cupital  uiid  the 
Bta(rimtion  of  tnuie  are  serioiix  olwtriictioiiH,  mid  cuiiso  the  evils  of  ]K)verty  iiinonfj  u  lurgc 
population  to  be  severely  felt.  The  Lyoiinose  have  the  proixjiisities  usiiully  observed  in 
inaniitacturing  pliices:  they  dislike  the  Bourbons,  and  the  eight  of  an  Englishman  is  worm- 
wood to  them. 

Auvergno,  to  the  west  of  tiie  Lyonnais,  is  the  only  mountainous  and  pastoral  tract  which 
Franco  bus  peculinrly  its  own.  It  consists  of  a  continuous  raiifje  of  mountiiiiiH  wliicli  have 
evidently  been  in  a  state  of  volcanic  action,  the  country  beiu';  covered  with  lava,  and  the 
houses  built  of  it.  From  an  elevated  and  extensive  phiin  rises  the  jrreiit  Puy  de  Dt^me, 
nearly  TjOOO  feet  high,  with  about  sixty  attendant  monntains,  called  in  the  country  the 
giantess  and  her  children.  The  country  isdiversitied  with  many  rugged  and  precipitous  rocks, 
having  castles  and  even  towns  built  on  them.  Yet  Auvcrgne  is  not  a  barren  country.  The 
Puys  are  mostly  covered  with  herbage,  and  liavc  large  level  plains.  The  nativ(^s  are  labo- 
rious, and  rear  large  herds  of  cattle,  which  are  almost  wild ;  they  are  even  saiil  to  beat  off 
the  wolf,  the  low  of  the  animal  attacked  summoning  all  the  rest  to  its  assistance ;  but,  in 
return,  they  cannot  Iks  milked  unless  the  calf  bi;  on  the  other  side.  The  people  are  lioin(.dy, 
and  very  republican;  they  form  themselves  into  a  number  of  societies,  of  wliicli  the  princi- 
ple is  a  common  table,  attended  however  by  the  men  only.  In  winter  they  take  up  their 
abode  under  the  same  roof  with  the  cattle  which  occupy  each  end,  and  by  their  heat  save 
fuel  which  is  scarce.  Clermont  is  a  considerable  town,  perched  on  the  top  of  a  hill,  and 
built  of  lava.  It  is  e.\treniely  dirty,  and  Mr.  Young  compares  several  of  its  streets  to  chan- 
nels cut  in  a  dunghill ;  however,  the  mountain  brei'zes  purify  tlm  air.  Tlie  cathedral,  which 
was  fine,  was  nearly  destroyed  during  the  Revolution.  In  the  surrounding  country  are  many 
curious  caverns,  petrifying  wells,  warm  springs,  cascades,  &.c.  Aurillac  also,  Iliom,  and 
-__  Thiers    are    elevated   towns,   com- 

*°^  ^  '^  manding  striking  views  of  the  rocks 

and  cones  of  this  remarkable  chain. 
Towards  Puy  en  Velay,  which  na- 
turally belongs  to  Auvergne,  the 
rocks  become  still  more  steep  and 
romantic;  and  among  the  castles  seat- 
ed in  them,  Mr.  Young  especially 
distinguishes  that  of  Poligniic  (Jiff. 
SiW.),  the  (brm  and  x\\r  of  which 
appears  to  him   so   strikinj;,   as   to 

of  magic  influence,  to  rise  before  the  mind.  St.  Michael's  cliurch,  in  the  centre  nf  llie  town 
of  Puy  itself,  stands  on  the  topof  a  very  striking,  almost  precipitous  rock,  of  tower-like  t()rm. 

Burgundy  and  Champagne,  with  tiie  small  ailjoiiiing  provinces  of  (lourluiiinais  and  Niver- 
nais,  form  a  vast  plain  extending  north  of  the  provinces  last  described.  Burgundy,  however, 
is  traversed  by  branches  from  the  Vosges,  tbniiing  hilly  tracts  of  moderate  elevation.  This 
is  the  great  country  of  wine,  producing  the  liiiest  in  Franre,  iinii,  with  very  few  exceptions, 
in  the  whole  world.  The  surface  of  the  wine-di.strict  is  chietly  n-d  sandstone  rock,  with 
very  little  soil.     The  vineyards  are  cultivated  liy  small  projirietors,  who  do  not  usually  hold 

more  than  twenty  or  thirty  arpents.  It  costs  !)(lfl  francs  to 
plant  an  urpcMit  in  vines,  and  30  annual ly  to  keep  it  in  repair. 
Three  years  elapse  before  it  yields  any  wiiu",  and  six  before 
it  yiehis  good  wine.  Common  vineyards  sell  iit  ir>(H)  francs 
an  acre;  and  there  are  some  that  s<'ll  so  liiiili  as  1(I,(KK). 
The  precarioiisness  of  the  crop,  however,  and  tiie  want  of 
capital,  render  this  branch  of  industry  a  poor  employment; 
and  the  cultivators  of  Burgundy  are  the  lea.st  flourishing  of 
any  in  France.  Few  new  vineyards  are  now  laid  down ; 
though  the  ea|)it;il  invested  in  the  old  ones  is  a  suflicient 
reason  for  keeping  tliem  up. 

Of  the  chief  towns,  the  tirst  in  dignity  is  Rheims,  a  no- 
ble and  ancient  city,  the  ecclesiastical  capital  of  France, 
where  the  kings  were  crowned  and  anointed.  The  cathe- 
dral (fff.  29;<.)  has  been  considered  the  most  splendid  spe- 
cimen of  Gothic  architecture  existing,  though  some  of  its 
ornaments  are  not  in  the  purest  taste.  The  Hotel  do  Ville 
is  also  fine;  and  the  street's,  unlike  what  is  usual  in  old 
towns,  are  broad,  stmight,  and  well  built.  Rhoinui  is  still 
the  chief  mart  of  that  favourite  wine  culled  champagne, 
and  from  llu'iiee  the  coiinoisi<eurs  of  Paris  take  care  to  pro- 
cure their  supi)lii;s.     Troyes,  once  nelebrated  for  its  great 


uatbedral  at  Rhcinu. 


Book  I. 


FRANCE. 


567 


fiiirH,  and  noted  an  havinjr  given  its  name  to  the  Troy  weight,  ranks  as  napitnl  of  Clmmpngno, 
and  is  Ktill  a  large  and  tlourisiiing  town  on  llio  Sniiio.  Clifilonu  siir  Mamn  iw  al^o  considera- 
ble, and,  liy  ii  souniinfjly  capricious  choice,  is  the  capital  of  the  department  of  the  Marno, 
instead  of  UheirnH.  Mczieres  and  Sedan  are  strong  frontier  towns ;  tlio  latter  cclebialcd  for 
its  manufacture  of  fine  woollen  cloth,  as  widl  as  for  one  of  arms.  Rocroy  is  only  distin- 
guislied  for  the  signal  victory  of  1043,  which  firbt  established  the  superiority  of  the 
French  arms.  In  Burgundy,  Dijon  (/^.  294.),  with  its  numerous  and  lotly  spires,  prnsent* 
a  noblo  appearance  to  the  approaching  traveller;  but  it  has  lost  much  of  its  ancient  impor- 


Dijon. 


tancc.  Its  churches,  now  too  numerous  for  the  place  in  its  reduced  state,  were  dreadfully 
dcfiiced  and  mutilated  during  the  Revolution :  one  has  been  converted  into  a  market  for  fish, 
another  into  one  for  com.  The  streets,  however,  are  wide  and  clean.  Dijon  Ims  a  distin- 
guished university,  and  can  boast  of  giving  birtii  to  Bossuet,  Buffim,  and  Oebillon.  Autun 
attracts  notice  by  a  temple  and  other  remains,  whicli  indicate  its  importuncc  as  a  Roman 
city,  also  by  a  fine  modern  cathedral  (Jig.  2!).').)    Auxorre  still  flourishes  by  t!ie  e.xcelhmt 


295 


wine  produced  in  its  neighlxjurhood,  and  is  iidorn- 
ed  with  a  cathedral  and  several  lolty  spires. 
Chfilons  sur  Saono  is  agofxl  country  town.  Hens, 
the  see  of  an  archbishop,  and  formerly  the  seat 
of  several  councils,  prot^cnts  still  some  noble 
monuments  in  decay.  Moulins,  eai)ital  of  the 
rich  plain  of  the  Hourhoiinuis,  though  not  hand- 
some, is  busy  and  cheerful,  having  a  considrrable 
traffic  upon  the  Seine.  Nevens,  in  Nivcrnais,  is 
finely  situated  on  the  Loire,  but  is  an  ill-built  aTirl 
dirty  town. 


Autun    Cuthudrnl. 

The  provinces  of  Iiorrainc,  Franche-comte,  and  Alsace  are  less  an  integral  part  of  France 
tJian  a  series  of  appendages  obtained  by  conquest  chiefly  during  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV. 
They  remain  Ptill  m  many  points  connected  with  (Jermany.  They  are  watered  by  the 
Meuso  and  the  Moselle,  tributaries  of  the  Rhine;  they  are  traversed  liy  the  chain  of  the 
Vosgcs,  connected  with  the  Swiss  Alps  and  the  Black  Forest ;  their  surface  is  rude  and 
irregular;  their  wines  havi;  the  same  agreeable  acid  (luiility  as  the  Rhenish.  Even  yet 
Alsace,  both  as  to  language  and  manners,  is  altogether  German. 

The  cities  are, — Nancy,  capital  of  the  dukes  of  Lorraine,  ;i  race  of  gallant  and  accom- 
plished princes.  It  is  said  to  be  the  most  elegant  city  in  France,  especially  the  new  town, 
built  in  the  sixteenth  century.  The  gates  appear  almost  like  triumphal  arches;  the  public 
buildings  are  numerous;  the  place  rnyah'  and  the  adjoining  area  are  superb.  The  place  is 
lighted  in  the  FiUglish  manner.  Metz  is  a  larger  town,  and  now  more  important,  being  one 
of  the  strongest  of  tli(^  French  fortresses.  It  is  nearly  enclosed  by  the  Moselle  and  the 
Seille,  and  entered  by  successive  drawbridges.  The  usual  complement  of  its  garrison  is 
10,(KK)  men.  Metz  is  celebrated  fi)r  its  long  and  triumphant  defence  under  tire  Duke  of 
Guise  against  the  army  of  Charles  V.  Ft  is  still  a  flourishing  town,  with  numerous  manu- 
factures, and  contains  a  library  of  00,00()  volumes.  Luneville  was  for  some  time  the  resi- 
dence of  Stanislaus,  the  ex-king  of  Ptdand,  who  considerably  embellished  it;  and  it  was  the 
scene  of  Bonaparte's  first  triumphant  treaty  in  1801.  It  is  now  rather  a  poor  place,  having 
few  mannfiictnres.  Anotlier  strong  fortress  is  Verdun,  a  name  fimiiliar  to  Englisli  car.?,  as  the 
scene  of  the  iletcntion  o*' their  coimtrymrii  in  I'^OM.  Il  is  well  situated  on  the  Mchsp.  Salins 
flourishijs  by  means  of  the  salt  extracted  from  the  brine-springs,  which  arc  fomid  also  in 
other  parts  of  this  territory.  Besaneon,  in  Franche-comte,  was  a  city  of  the  German  empire 
till  the  treaty  of  Westphalia,  when  it  was  coded  (o  the  Spaniards,  from  whom  it  was  wrested 
by  liouis  XIV.  It  is  a  large  and  industrious  place,  particularly  distinguished  by  a  manuflic- 
ture  of  clocks  and  wntclios,  intnxluced  towards  the  I'lul  of  the  last  century,  and  employing 
about  1800  persons.  It  has  also  valuable  scientitic  and  literary  cstaMishmeiits.  Dole  is 
likewise  a  very  ancif-nl  town,  once  the  capital  of  Franche-comle.    Vesoul  and  Ijona  le  Saul- 


itU 


.VM 


DESCRIPTIVE  (JEOdllAPIlY. 


Paet  III. 


iiier  arn  pretty  good  towns,  ftn<l  capitnlH  of  (IcpitrtmrntH.  In  iipproaching  Switzerland,  t]>e 
country  becomes  elevated,  and  the  towns  occupy  pictiircsquo  niton.  Ornans  lies  in  a  deep 
ilell,  skirted  by  green  rocky  liilln,  like  Matlock.  Ponturlier  BtaiidH  on  a  height  having  u  utrong 
castle  which  guards  tlic  passage  into  Switzerland.     Nantiia  is  placed  in  a  nook  bolwecn  two 


206 


enormous  mountains.  On  crofwing  the  Vofge.-!  appears 
the  rich  iiud  Iruitlid  plain  ot"  Aisnce,  more  highly  cul- 
tivated thun  uny  other  part  of  the  kingdom  I'xcept 
French  Flandern.  Hero  Colmar,  Ilagueniiu,  Savenie, 
Wuisemberg,  are  agreeably  situated  and  riither  tliriving 
towns.  But  by  thr  the  moht  im|«)rtant  pliiee  in  this 
part  of  Franco  i.s  Stms-biirg  {^ff.  ^90.).  It  was  early 
celebmteil  as  an  iin|K'rial  city,  enjoying  extensivo 
privileges,  and  enriched  by  the  navigation  of  the 
khino.  Its  prosperity  was  still  farther  i)roiiioted  in 
consequence  of  the  zeal  witli  which,  along  with  the 
rest  of  Alsace,  it  embraced  the  reformed  d(x,'trine8, 
Strasburg  and  Alsace  suffered  a  severe  misfortune,  by 
being,  in  1689,  subjected  to  PVance  by  ]/)ui8  XIV. 
Yet  tlie  city  retained  privileges  beyond  any  other  in 
France,  and  continued  to  be  (listinguishcd  both  by 
wealth  and  intelligence.  Its  schools  were  considered 
second  only  to  those  of  Paris,  till  the  Revolution,  when 
they  were  severely  injured,  and  have  not  yet  been  fully 
restored.  Strasburg,  however,  has  still  valuable  institutions,  both  literary  and  economical, 
and  is  one  of  the  greate»t  and  most  flourishing  cities  of  France.  Its  ancient  importance  is 
attested  by  its  cathedral  or  minster,  one  of  the  most  splendid  existing  monuments  of  the 
Gothic.  Its  tower,  470  feet  high,  is  said  to  be  the  most  elevated  structure  in  the  world,  with 
the  exception  of  the  Great  Pyamid  of  Egypt. 


\  CHAPTER  IX. 

81'AIN. 

Spain  forms  the  principal  part  of  a  very  extensive  peninsula;  the  most  southern,  and  also 
'Jie  most  wosforn,  portion  of  Europe.  It  is  only  connected  by  an  isthmus  alwut  n  hundred 
niles  broad,  traversed  liy  the  I'yronees,  a  chain  holding  the  second  rank  among  the  moun- 
ains  of  Europe.     Spain  is  thus  almost  insulated  from  the  rest  of  the  continent. 

Sect.  I. —  (ieneral  (hilline  and  Aspect. 

The  boundaries  of  tiic  Peninsula  in  general  are,  on  the  north,  the  Bay  of  Biscay  ,  on  the 
west,  the  .Atlantic ;  but  this  coast  for  more  than  half  its  extent  is  occupied  by  PorlugiiJ, 
whoso  interior  frontier  forms  to  that  e;itont  the  western  boundary  of  Spain.  The  mo.st  south- 
ern point  near  Gibraltar  is  only  separated  by  a  narrow  strait  from  tiie  opposite  shore  of  Africa. 
Eastward  from  this  strait  is  the  Mediterranean,  along  whicli  the  coast  wmds  in  a  north- 
easterly direction,  gradually  receding  from  Africa,  and  facing  at  a  great  interval  the  western 
coast  of  Italy.  From  its  termination,  the  Pyrenees  stretch  across  to  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  and 
form  the  lofly  limit  between  Spain  and  France. 

The  extent  of  Spain,  north  and  south,  is,  from  Tarifa  Point  in  the  straits,  in  36°  N.  lati- 
tude, to  Capo  OrtegftI  in  Galicia,  43°  46';  about  540  English  miles.  From  east  to  west,  the 
extreme  points  of  the  penini^ula  arc  Cape  Creus,  in  Catalonia,  3°  17'  E.  longitude,  and  Cape 
La  Roca,  9^  30'  VV.  longitude ;  implying  twelve  and  three  (|uartcrs  degrees,  which,  in  this 
latitude,  amounts  to  about  5G0  miles.  Thus  the  Peninsula  forms  almost  a  square;  allowance 
being  made  for  the  irregularity  of  its  outline ;  and,  the  entire  extent  of  Portugal  being  taken 
ofF,  Spain  is  reckoned  to  contain  183,600  square  miles. 

The  surfiice  of  Spain  is  strikingly  irregular.  It  is  traversed  by  long  and  lolly  ranges  of 
mountains,  having  plains  of  vast  extent  between  them  and  the  sea.  These  mountains  may 
be  considered  as  p<irt  of  the  great  range  which  crosses  Europe  from  the  Black  Sea  to  the 
Atlantic.  Tiie  Pyrenees  common  to  Franco  and  Spain,  form  a  long  continuous  lino  of  lofly 
summits,  the  most  central  and  elevated,*  of  which  is  Mont  Perdu  near  the  source  of  tlie 
Cinca,  whicli  the  accurate  measurements  have  fixed  at  upwards  of  11,160  feet.  Towards 
the  sea,  on  both  sides,  the  moiuitains  sink  into  a  more  moderate  elevation,  and  the  barrier 
between  the  two  kingdoms  is  less  formidable.     This  great  chai'^  -hoots  lower  branches  into 

*  fTlic  liiglicsl  point  of  the  Pyrenees  is  no\.-  known  to  be  La.MiilodotIa,  J1.424  fcft  in  licifiht.  Tlie  liijihcBt  peali 
nf  the  Hii^rra  Ncvaila,  callnl  the  Cerro  dc  Miillmcen,  is  gtill  more  elevated,  being  11,6G0  feot  above  tlie 
sea.— Am.  Ed.] 


m 


OOOE  I. 


SPAIN. 


SAO 


ranges  of 

intjiins  may 

Sen  to  tho 

iiio  of  lofty 

iirce  of  tlm 

Towards 

the  barrier 
anches  into 

_•  hiijhest  peak 
ot  above  tlie 


Catalonia  and  Navarro,  prosonting  also  some  Htriking  inHulatcd  pcakn,  anion;;  wliii^li  tliut  of 
MoiitHorriit  in  tho  most  coiisniciiousi.  From  tho  western  extremity  of  tho  I'yreiieoo,  u  grout 
chain,  which  has  hoen  called  tho  Iberian,  reaches  almost  duo  «outh,  forininj,'  tho  lioimdary 
of  the  fijie  phiinR  of  Aragon  and  Valencia.  All  tho  other  ran);ea  run  from  ou.tt  to  W(?«t.  Tho 
Cantiiliri;in  is  nearly  a  continuation  of  tho  PyronceH :  it  Htrctches  across  tho  whole  north  of 
Hp'iin,  Cdveriiiir  the  provinces  of  Asturins  and  Oalicio,  and  leaving  only  a  narrow  and  rugged 
plain  along  tho  si'a-eoaHf.  Parallel  to  this,  on  Uio  opposite  side  of  a  vast  plain  through  which 
tho  IJuero  Hows,  i.s  another  transverse  range,  bcarmg  in  its  highest  points  thi;  names  of 
Guadarnmia  and  Honiosierra,  and  enclosing  with  its  rugged  and  romantic  clills  tho  elevated 
palaces  of  San  Ildel'onso  and  the  Rscurial.  On  tho  opiKjsite  side  of  the  Tagus  and  of  tho 
plain  of  Madrid  is  another  parallel  chain,  the  Sierra  of  Toledo.  It  borders  tlie  wide  elevated 
plain  of  la  Mancha;  on  tho  southern  boundary  of  which  is  the  more  celebrated  chain  of 
Sierra  Morona,  tho  lofty  barrier  of  tho  rich  plums  of  Andalusia.  Beyond  these  rises  another 
longitudinal  chain,  of  a  peculiarly  bold  and  lofty  character,  called  the  Sierra  Nevada,  from 
the  snow  which  perpetually  covers  many  of  its  summits;  between  which  and  the  Mediter- 
ranean only  a  narrow  though  beautiful  plain  intervenes.  These  long  and  lofty  ranges,  as 
observed  already,  are  separated  by  very  extended  plains,  which,  in  the  interior,  arc  of  great 
elevation,  and  even  Madrid  is  3170  feet  atwve  the  sea:  the  plains  along  tho  Mediterranean, 
and  almost  on  a  level  with  it,  display  a  profuse  fertility,  and  abound  in  all  tho  choicest  fruits 
of  a  southern  climate. 

The  rivers  of  Spain  form  as  important  and  celebrated  a  feature  as  its  mountains.  The 
Tagus  and  the  Duero,  rising  in  tho  Iberian  chain,  on  the  frontiers  of  Aragon,  roll  along  the 
two  grand  central  plains,  receiving  numerous  though  not  very  large  tributaries  from  the 
mountains  by  which  they  are  bordered.  Unfortunately  for  Spain,  they  teruiinato  in  the 
Bomewlmt  hostile  realm  of  Portugal,  and  are  scarcely  navigable  alwvo  its  frontier ;  so  that 
tho  commercial  benefits  arising  from  them  are  of  little  importance.  Tho  Guadiana  belongs 
to  La  Mnnctia,  and  on  its  approach  to  Portugal  forms  the  boundary  of  the  two  kingdoms ; 
but  tho  high  tract  through  which  it  flows  is  only  distinguished  for  its  rich  pastures,  and  does 
not  render  ita  port  of  Ayamonte  a  place  of  any  importance.  Beyond  the  Sierra  Morona,  the 
Guadahiuivir  waters  tho  plain  of  Andalusia,  and  has  on  its  banks  the  noble  cities  of  Cordova 
and  Seville ;  while  Cadiz,  not  far  from  its  mouth,  forms  the  chief  emporium  of  Siwin. 
Though  its  navigation  is  now  much  impeded,  and  practicable  for  largo  vessels  only  to  Seville, 
it  is  the  only  river  in  Spain  of  much  commercial  importiince.  The  Ebro,  which  derives 
from  its  position  a  greater  historical  celebrity  than  any  other,  rising  in  the  Cantalirian  moun- 
tains, nearly  crosses  the  breadth  of  north-eastern  Spain,  ond  separates  Catalonia  and  Ara- 
gon from  tho  extensive  regions  of  the  interior.  Its  banks  at  present  afford  few  matorials  for 
trade,  except  a  largo  quantity  of  timber.  The  Guadalaviar  and  Xucar  in  Valencia,  and  the 
Mino  in  Galicia,  are  also  rivers  of  some  magnitude. 

Tho  mountiiins  of  Spain  enclose  no  lakes,  their  waters  finding  a  ready  issue  along  the 
vast  plains  on  which  they  border. 

Sect.  II. — Natural  Geography. 
SiiBSECT.  1. — Geology. 

The  principal  mountain  chains  in  Spain  difTer  not  only  in  their  external  aspect,  but  also 
in  their  internal  composition :  they  appear  more  as  difTercnt  individuals  than  as  members  of 
a  single  system.  They  have  this  in  common  with  one  another,  that  their  nucleus  consists, 
in  whole  or  m  jMirt,  of  primitive  and  transition  rocks;  but  not  only  the  species,  but  also  fiie 
relations  of  these,  vary  in  the  different  chains.  A  great  body  of  granite,  which  seli'  )m 
reaches  the  highest  points  of  the  country,  and  contains  subordinate  beds  of  gneiss  a'ld  otiior 
primitive  rocks,  ranges  through  the  Pyrenees  properly  so  called.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  pro- 
dominating  mass  of  crystalline  slate  and  of  transition  rocks,  among  which  tho  most  ohundant 
are  clay  sluto  and  limestone.  On  the  contrary,  on  the  v/c^-tern  continuation,  in  tiio  Biscayan 
mountains,  the  older  rocks  are  not  widely  distributed,  and  appear  first  in  Galicia,  at  the 
western  extremity  of  the  northern  mountain  chain,  where,  according  to  Humboldt,  grap'.e, 
accompanied  by  crystalline  slates,  appears  again,  and  in  great  extent.  The  principal  iii  js 
of  the  mountain  ciiain  which  separates  Old  from  New  Castile  is  comiX)srd  of  gneiss  ai.d 
granite.  In  the  chain  of  mountains  extending  between  tho  Tagus  and  the  Guadiana,  accord- 
ng  to  Link,  the  principal  rock  is  granite.  The  long  ridge  of  the  Sierra  Morona  contains 
principally  transition  rocks;  granite  breaks  out  on  its  southern  foot  towards  the  Guadalquivir, 
This  rock,  so  frequent  in  the  Iberian  peninsula,  appears  to  be  wanting  in  tho  highest  .soutlicrn 
chain.  The  middle  mountain  ridges  consist  of  mica  slate,  abounding  in  gnrnets,  which,  in 
the  ridges  lying  before  them,  passes  into  less  crystalline  mica  slate,  chlorite  slate,  and  clay 
slate,  wliich  sometimes  enclose  beds,  at  times  of  vast  magnitude,  of  compact  limestone, 
marble,  dolomite,  and  serpentine.  On  the  south  coast,  newer  transition  slate  and  grcywackc 
slate,  with  beds  of  flinty  slate,  lie  here  and  there  on  the  older  slate.  The  basis  or  funda- 
mental part  of  the  rock  of  Gibraltar  is  of  these  rocks. 


660 


MAP  OP  SPAIN  AND  PORTUOAL. 
-» ^  '^  «  P 


Fro.  997 


OOUK   1. 


SPAIN 


"8 
I 


Tilt'  htriirturi'  of  tlm  cliaiii.^  of  inniiiitaiim  rorri'mxiiulii  in  jjonornl  witli  ttioir  chief  dirontion. 
Not  only  tlir  iiltcriiiitioii  of  tho  ilitfiTi'Mt  rockn,  lint  also  tlir  direction  of  tlio  Htnitn,  uro  con- 
fiirni.iblo  with  iho  direction  of  tho  chainM:  honce,  in  tho  (fnmtpr  part  of  Spain,  tin'  princi|ml 

diroction  of  Hie  nhity  rocks  is  ft 8.VV.  to  N.K.,  or  W.S.VV.  to  K.N.K.     Hut  the  inclina- 

tion  of  the  strata  varica.  In  tho  I'yreni'C!*,  proporly  ho  callod,  the  din  of  tho  strata  ia  con- 
fornialili!  wjih  tho  two  ncclivitioH  of  Ihn  ran({<'.  In  Ihn  Htinuwiorni  and  (iiiadarninui  ran|;uH, 
tho  prin<!ipal  mass  of  i^nciriH  dip.s  S.K.  'owardu  tho  ({ranito  \y\ng  iM'foro  it.  In  tho  Sierra 
Morona,  tho  prodoinlnatin^  dip  of  the  Hiaty  ntriifa  in  towards  the  N.W.,  so  that  tlio^  appear 
to  rest  on  tho  granite  which  breaks  from  under  thoni.  In  tho  Hierra  Nevada,  tho  diu  of  tho 
itrata  is  cnntorinaldo  with  tho  two  acclivities  of  the  chain.  It  is  worthy  of  remark  now  tho 
curvature  of  tho  nouth  coast  of  Spain  obeys  tho  diroction  of  tho  stratn,  and  how  the  formation 
of  tho  tiir-projortinif  soulhorn  point  of  tho  land  al.-io  stands  in  connection  with  the  direction 
of  tho  strata.  At  tho  tlxit  of  tho  njck  of  (libraltar,  tho  olaty  strata  run  nearly  north  and 
loutli  with  a  rnpid  dip  towards  tho  cast.  Tho  Out  of  Gibralttir  is  thoroforo  nt-arly  at  right 
anglos  to  tho  diroction  of  tho  strata.  Tho  rocky  wall  between  the  Mediterranean  and 
Atlantic  Souh,  hy  thin  direction  of  tho  strata,  must  have  opposed  tho  ftron|{i'st  resistance  to 
tho  currents.  TIk;  primitive  and  transition  rocks,  in  very  ditforent  jdacos,  are  rich  in  ores. 
Tho  present  mines  are  confined  |irin(Mpal!y  to  tho  Houth-west  and  fiouth-oast  parts  of  Spain. 
Tho  mighty  load-fjlanco  veins  of  Linares  occur  in  granite;  tho  colossiil  deposit  of  lead- 
glance  ill  tho  Sierra  do  Gador,  which  affimled,  in  the  year  Ifi'iS,  fiWVMK)  cwt.  of  lead,  is 
distributed  in  nm>si  -  (putzon),  in  a  limcstono  which  may  be  referred  to  the  oldest  transition 
rocks,  and  the  rich  mercury  mines  ot'  Ahnadcn  aro  contained  in  clay  slate.  Tho  secondary 
rocks  also  assist  in  forming  tho  princi(ial  Spanish  mountain  chains,  but  in  a  different  manner. 
They  ascend  to  a  great  height  on  tho  Spanish  side  of  tho  Pyrenees;  oven  some  of  tho 
highest  sunmiitN  aro  of  secondary  rocks,  Tho  western  continuation  of  tho  Pyrenoan  chain 
consists,  in  tho  Biscmyan  provinces,  principally  of  secondary  rocks;  and  it  is  proliablo  that 
the  lofty  limestone  mountain  ridges  which  .-leparato  Asturiaa  from  Leon  aro  a  continuation 
of  the  Biscayan  secondary  formation.     On  both  sides  of  Somosiorra  the  primitive  rocks  are 


NORTH  PART. 

Giilient. 
1.  f^iimnnniiii 
'■i.  (^unintiit 

4.  F.Tr.l 
.%.  Miirft 

n.  ijiiitit 

7.  Im  (•ikiii 
H.  H'tn'mKo 
!<.  Vi|o 

10.  T"jr 

11.  Kiliitilnvin 
Vi.  Aliutiiili-v 
\X  Orunse 
M.  iM  Kua. 

IS.  lllllllD 

lU.  Oviudii 
17.  nijiiii 
\H.  Riviiflnrdlln 
11).  IjuncH. 

Aeon. 
SO.  AiuilardeCam- 

ptM 
31.  llHrrora 
K.  Hnlilniiit 
21.  Alinan/a 

54.  l.non 

55.  Ailnrsa 
SA.  Hail  .liisio 
27.  \,n  Mt'ZQuiia 
*>1.  Corvijal 

-II.  MHyiirKa 
jHJ.  AnusRit 
31.  Piilenc;ia 
%.  Villaconsncia 
XI.  Vallailolid 
M.  Tonli^aiflal 

IW.  ToTO 

;W.  Xamitra 
M7.  PuRnttMgituca 
3H,  Halfunaiira 
.111.  Malilhi 

40.  Ciudiid  Roilrigii 

41.  CeappflDHa 
i'i.  IN'nnranita 
411.  IMoilinn  (Ii!l 

Campo. 
nid  Cslile. 
44.  Arfvalo 
4.'>.  Ilonillu 
4fi.  R^pin.ir 
47.  Hcsitvia 
4H.  Pednxu 
4<).  Cueila 
M,  T.Rrnii 
.^1.  Frcsnitlo 
!>'i.  Rarrnna 
.'i:i.  Aiiiiazan 
.■M  Bulla 
5.5.  Amedn 

Vol.  I. 


."^1.  Liiffrono 
.'»7.  \iiitirii 
.>.  I'riu. 
.VJ.  Miii'vioiica 
r<e.  niiruDi 
tU.  I'nlflnxiii^ln 
fit*  Ailun 
m  Varicaf 
HI.  Hanianiler 
Ul.  Urduiia. 
lUacau, 

aa.  niiiiiit 

tiH.  Iliiba 
tr7.  Tulnia 
*H  B>.  Siihuiiun 
(i!l.  Viilncia. 

A'rtrarrff. 
70.  rmnpfluim 
71.Tiidil«. 

7i.  V.irdun 
711.  Jtica 

74.  Aiiwa 

7.'V.  Illlciir-a 

76.  HiiriiKoaia 

77.  linritifna 

75.  C'alutayud 
71).  I.iicii 

St).  Monialban 
Pl.Tiiruol 
I'J.  Biiniiin 
Kl.  Ixar 
M.  Pina 

Cdta/oRia. 
H.V  Urida 
H6.  Halaguer 
H7.  Ornaina 
m.  Urne" 
HI).  Fisiioraa 
111.  Cardiina 
111.  ni-riina 
l^j.  IliiTcidnna 
li;l.  Turranuna 
IM.  rorvtfra 
)!.'>.  Kipital 
IKl.  Fhx 
1)7.  Turloia 

SOin-H  PART. 

F.stremndura' 

1.  I,a  Cliva 

2.  Plnennlia 
n.  (iiiliatoa 
4.  Citria 

.5.  Alcuntiira 

♦;.  r»pt'rc8 

7.  Kl  Tersoiero 

H.  Badajiis 

n.  Oliva 
II).  Xercz 
11.  Llorena 
13.  Majacslla 


Rrfermcet  to  the  Map  ff  Spain  and  Pnrtu/tal. 


II.  Moiida 

14.  Artidi'rR 

15.  'I'nixilln 

III.  Almuraz. 

JiTew  Ciintilr. 
17.  (tiMidalupo 
IH.  Azutan 
II).  Oriipeiia 
91).  Tnlavora  dn  la 
Royna 

21.  Toludo 

22.  ( 'iivdcra 
2:1.  F.I  Prado 
24.  Mcwtiilea 
2.V  Mmlriil 
211.  F.I  F.sruri.il 
ST.  Kl  Parcli) 

2H,  (fuailalaxara 

21).  Aronjuiiz 

:«).  l.aMoladollul 

miiflt 
31.  Secadiin 
'12.  Cunavara 
33.  Vnliabludo  del 

Rill 
.14.  Ilimilmia 
3.1.  Friat 
3(1.  Cucnca 
.17. 1,n  Parra 
3H.  yniriila 
!ll).  Uequoiia 

40.  Tiiejar 

41.  Aitemill 

42.  Forcali 

43.  Moriilla 

44.  Ziirita 
4.'i.  Pfiilj'cnla 

45.  Ft  d('  Sal 
47.  Oropt'sa 
4H.  Alrncdixnr 
41).  Miirvii'dro 
.10.  Valiincia 

51.  Alcira 

52.  F.  lipe 
.W  I),,nia 
M.  Xizana 
55.  Alicante 

Murtia, 
5(1.  Ral'nt 
.57.  Cartliaiiona 
,W.  Almazarrun 
.51).  I'.iiaiia 
fill.  Mitrcia 
«1.  r.bpgin 
m.  Ilellin 
B3.  Vi'liinnira 
IV4.  riunihilla 
fi5.  Ayna 
ne.  Chiclana 


I.a  Mnitcha, 
117.  .*^.  l.orpiica 
IW,  Alniaitrit 
(111.  Ciuilud  Rial 

70.  Mailridi'jofl 

71.  M  iliiiriin 
Ti.  lii-liornia 

^tiidfUutia. 

73.  Ilrmi'car 

74.  Aiidiijar 
7.5.  Kinarei 
7(1.  Ilaeza 
77.  Ilucacar 

75.  Ahliii 
71I.Oiillar 
H)  Jiidnr 
HI.  Mnnaitcriu 
H2.  .Iiicn 
Kl.  Mniilllla 
H-U  lliljalan<;o 
K5.  ri.tilova 
Hi.  Oniina 
H7.  ('armuna 
m.  Ei-ija 
Pfi.  Araccna 
SM).  Axlarcnilar 

01.  Alinendro 

02.  Ayamonto 
>X\.  Iliielva 
ni.  Sevilln 
1.5.  S.  Lucar 

!«;.  Rola 
117.  CiMlli 
W.  Xcret 

00.  Tarifa 

100.  Gibraltar. 
Granada. 

101.  (itiorln 

102.  Miirb..lla 

103.  Ronda 

104.  Antiqucia 
IM.  Malnita 
IIIA.  Vi'li'ii  ^Iniaea 
107.  I.a  Hnrradura 

105.  Motril 
109.  Granada 
no.  Aura 

111.  AInifrIa 

112.  Piirrhpna 

113.  Mujacar. 

PORTITOAI.. 

1.  F.ntrf  Doiiro  c 

Minho. 

1.  Viuna 

2.  Rraga 
:i.  Amaranlo 

4.  Oporto. 

II.  Tras  09  Monies. 

5.  ('azabranca 
(i.  Rraitanza 

7.  Miranda  de  Vita 


N.  Aldoa 
9.  Minindi'lla. 
III.  /trim. 

10.  AlmiMtla 

1 1 .  Tjamrffo 

12.  Ali>nrral 

13.  Villamiva 

14.  Fcira 

15.  Avciri^ 
in.  (\iinibia 
17.  Vijou 

IH.  Trai)C(iflo 
11).  (iiinrda 
90.  Riilviitiorrn 
21.  <?HBtiillo  Rrnncu 
92.  lil.'irdiuil 

23.  Abianlra. 

IV.  VMrcmadura. 

24.  Arena 
95.  P.iitii 
9(1. 1.1'irla 
27.  ^anlnrcm 
9H.  Ohidiia 

20.  Villafranca 
311.  Pcnnventti 
31.riniia 
:12.  l.i!tbiin 

33.  Almada 

34.  Si'iubal  nr  6t. 

i;be» 

35.  Atcaccrdo. 

V.  JiUmteio. 
30.  Porta  legre 
37.  F.lvni 

'^.  Olivonoat 
30.  Poviia 

40.  Scrpa 

41.  Ileja 

42.  Oiirigua 

43.  Mulidri 

44.  H.  Andra 
4.5.  Villa  Nova 

46.  Serdao. 

VI.  Mgnrre. 

47.  Pcyja 
4H.  l.nitoa 
411.  AUMifrira 

SO.  Caatro  Marino. 
nirert  nf  Spain, 
a  Tambre 
h  t!lla 
r  Minho 
d  Sil 
e  Navia 
f  Nalon 


K  Heaaya 


Khro 
DuranKo 


}  Aragon 


Oallaita 
<-"inca 


t  Otinaaa  ii  iriUiiii  llie  t-puiib  linilta. 


in  Ribagorxano 

n  Hi-itrn 

o  MiiRa 

p  Tiir 

n  litohrnflat 

r  Francnli 

H  Mnriin 

t  Xltnca 

11  Iluiiro 

V  .Arlanza 

w  Arlanzon 

X  Piitii'rga 

y  Tarrion 

t  E«la 

a*  Orviopn 

b*  Torinci 

r*  Toa 

d*  7i>zcre 

e*  I'agua 

f*  Albcrch« 

B*  Fmma 

ii*  llrnurei 

i*  Tiotar 

j*   Huadiana 

V*  aiial 

I*   Tinto 

in*fiuadal(ituvir 

n*  Jandula 

u*  (luadalimar 

p*  (lUadix 

q*  Cfiaiiela 

r*  Xucar 

a*  Cobrifll 

t*  Guadalaviar 

11*  S«(ura 

V*  IiorcA 

w*  Guadajut 

X*  Genii 

y*  Guadiaro. 

Itivrrt  of  Portugai 

a  I.iina 

b  Tumags 

c.  Hnlinr 

d  Voupa 

e  Mondego 

e*  Tagua 

f  *.'o« 

RZezoro 
lainra 
i   Raldo 
j   Guadiana. 
BALEARIC 
ISLANDS. 
.    Itua. 
1.  Ivica 

_  Majorca. 
3.  Palma 

3.  Boiler 

4.  St.  Lorenzo. 

Minorea. 
.5.  Mahon 
6.  Ciudadela. 

3V 


Hi 


ii 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


1.0 


1.1 


m    lift 


ta  fiii   |Z2 

L25  iyi_u  1^ 


lU 


6" 


-IS" 


Hiotographic 

Sciences 

Corporation 


23  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  N.Y.  14SM 

(716)872-4503 


S62 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


skirted  by  those  of  the  secondary  class ;  but  they  are  far  from  the  middle  and  higher  parts 
)f  the  mountain  chain.  When  we  follow  the  road  from  Madrid  to  Andalusia,  wc  meet  with 
secondary  rocks  near  the  transition  clay  slate  of  the  passes  of  the  Sierra  Morcna ;  but  we 
must  descend  very  low  on  the  south  side  before  we  meet  with  similar  rocks.  The  high 
mountains  of  Jaen  are  formed  of  secondary  rocks.  In  the  northern  vorgcbirf^e  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada,  between  Granada  and  Guadiz,  there  are  secondary  deposits,  whicii  are  not,  how- 
ever, so  considerable  and  extensive  as  to  reach  to  the  high  ridges.  Also  in  the  vicinity  of 
Malaga  new  secondary  rocks  lie  on  the  loot  of  older  mountain  masses;  and  the  ridges  of 
secondary  rocks  exten<l  from  the  hills  of  Ronda  towards  the  southern  extremity  of  Spain. 
The  wonderful  isolated  rock  of  Gibraltar  is  also  principally  composed  of  now  secondary  rock. 
The  distribution  of  the  rock  is  not  confined  to  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  Mgher  moun- 
tain chains,  but  it  extends  from  the  one  to  the  other,  rises  or  &lls  in  the  intermediate  spaces, 
and  forms  in  this  way  the  widely  extended  high  table-land. 

The  most  important  of  the  Spanish  secondary  rocks  arc  the  following ;  viz.,  variegated 
sandstone  and  marl,  gryphite  limestone,  and  the  white  limestone  or  Jura  limestone.  The 
first  of  these  exhibits  the  same  relations  as  in  Britain,  where  it  is  known  under  the  name  of 
new  red  sandstone  and  red  marl.  The  shell  limestone,  which,  in  Germany,  is  enclosed 
between  Werner's  variegated  sandstone  and  the  younger  marl  formations,  is  wanting  in 
Spain,  as  is  also  the  case  in  England.  The  sandstone  and  marl  is  rich  in  gypsum  and  masses 
of  rock  salt.  At  Vallecas,  near  Madrid,  and  in  some  other  places,  there  rests  upon  it,  in 
single  beds,  that  rare  deposit  consisting  o(  meerschaum,  with  nests  of  siliceous  minerals.  It 
is  to  this  formation,  which  occurs  widely  spread  over  the  high  table-lands  of  Old  and  New 
Castile,  that  these  countries  owe  the  reddiah-brown  colour  of  their  soil,  and  the  tiresome 
uniformity  of  their  surface.  The  lias  formation  is  widely  distributed  in  the  northern  pro- 
vinces of  Spain.  It  appears  to  reach  a  considerable  height  on  the  Spanish  side  of  the  Pyrenees. 
In  the  Biscayan  provinces  it  exhibits  the  same  characters  as  the  gryphite  limestone  of  the 
Weser.  and  is  so  widely  distributed  that  nearly  all  the  older  rocks  are  covered  by  it.  Here 
it  is  remarkably  prolific  in  an  excellent  iron  ore.  The  immense  mass  of  sparry  iron  ore,  con- 
verted by  decomposition  into  brown  and  red  iron  ores  of  Sommorostro,  near  Bilboa,  and  which 
probably  forms  the  ironstone  hills  mentioned  by  Pliny  in  the  34th  book  of  his  Natural  Hit- 
tory,  belongs  to  this  formation.  Probably  also  the  vast  beds  of  coal  in  the  Asturias  are  sub- 
ordinate to  it.  The  white  Jura  limestone,  which  is  one  of  the  most  widely  distributed  for- 
mations, is  also  of  great  geognostical  importance  in  Spain.  It  forms,  in  most  places,  the 
immediate  cover  of  the  variefjated  sandstone  and  marl,  and  occurs  in  the  north,  and  also  in 
the  south  of  Spain,  in  single  ridges  and  great  mountain  masses.  This  formation  is  exhibited 
in  its  most  characteristic  forms  in  the  narrow  pass  of  Pancorbo  in  Old  Castile,  in  the  lacerated 
mountains  of  Jaen,  and  the  isolated  rocky  wall  of  Gibraltar.  Wherever  it  occurs,  its  presence 
is  announced  by  the  yellowish-brown  colour  of  the  soil  with  which  it  is  covered. 

Some  members  also  of  the  ch:ilk  formation  occur  in  Spain.  The  sandstone  of  the  rocky 
ridge  of  the  southern  coast,  between  Cadiz  and  Gibraltar,  and  the  limestone  in  the  district 
of  Los  Barios,  bring  to  our  recollection  the  rocks  of  the  Saxon  Switzerland.  The  first 
agrees  with  the  Gorman  quador-sandstein,  the  latter  with  the  Saxon  planer  limestone,  an 
equivalent  for  impure  chalk. 

Tertiary  deposits  occur  in  different  parts  of  Spain.  In  the  south,  particularly  near  the 
sea-coast,  there  is  a  deposit,  filled  with  marine  organic  remains,  in  which  calcareous  sand 
and  pebbles  occur,  partly  in  a  loose  mass,  and  partly  more  or  less  firmly  compacted  by  means 
of  calcareous  cement.  Judging  from  the  included  petrifactions,  among  whicli  are  beds  of 
oyster-shells,  this  deposit,  on  which  Cadiz  stands,  and  which,  in  some  places,  rises  into  hil- 
locks and  low  hills,  belongs  to  the  upper  tertiary  sea-water  formation.  Probably  the  ter- 
tiary deposit  mentioned  by  Brongniart  as  occurring  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Barcelona 
belongs  to  the  same  deposit.  That  fresh-water  limestone  occurs  in  Spain  has  been  sufiiciently 
proved  by  the  observations  of  Baron  Pernssac.  The  deposit  very  much  resembles  that  so 
generally  disfrilmtnd  in  Germany,  and  is  found  in  different  parts  of  Spain,  both  in  the  inte- 
rior and  on  the  coast,  and  at  different  heights.  The  calcareous  breccia,  generally  with  a 
rcrru^inous  basis,  which  occurs  principally  in  the  south-west,  where  it  is  widely  distributed, 
belonfrs  to  the  latest  of  the  antediluvian  deposits.  It  not  only  inerusts  limestone  rocks  of 
different  formations  innro  or  loss  thickly,  but  also  fills  up  rents  and  fissures  in  them:  thus  it 
abounds  among  the  calcareous  rocks  of  Gibraltar,  where  it  sometimes  contains  bones  of  quod- 
riipeds  no  longer  met  with  there.  The  formation  of  the  breccia  is  ascribed  to  a  catastrophe 
vhich  affected  different  parts  of  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean  sea.  Aa  Professor  Haus- 
niann,  to  whom  we  owe  the  preceding  details,  had  not  an  opporttinity  of  travelling  in  Mur- 
ria,  he  was  not  able  to  confirm  or  reject  the  accounts  of  Spanish  geologists,  who  maintain 
that  it  contains  true  volcanic  rocks.  The  occurrence  of  other  rocks,  which  are  conjectured 
to  have  come  from  below,  has  been  noticed  in  but  few  places.  Characteristic  basalt  occurs 
in  Catalonia.  The  porphyritic  and  basaltic-looking  rocks  extending  fi-om  Cabo  de  Gata,  and 
firom  Aviln.  on  tlie  north  side  of  the  Guadarrama  range,  are  still  problematical.  Hypersthrne 
rock  has  been  found  by  Profijssor  Garcia  in  the  vicinity  of  Salinas  de  Poza,  in  Old  Castile, 


Part  III. 

^her  parts 
meet  with 
a ;  but  we 
The  high 
the  Sierra 
not,  how- 
vicinity  of 
I  ridges  of 
J  of  Spain, 
ndary  rock, 
fher  moun- 
iate  spaces, 

variegated 
tone.    The 
the  name  of 
is  enclosed 
wanting  in 
and  masses 
I  upon  it,  in 
linerals.    It 
Id  and  New 
ihe  tiresome 
orthem  pro- 
10  Pyrenees. 
stone  of  the 
jy  it.    Here 
ron  ore,  con- 
a,  and  which 
Natural  Hit- 
irias  are  sub- 
stributed  for- 
it  places,  the 
1,  and  also  in 
1  is  exhibited 
the  lacerated 
,  its  presence 
I. 

of  the  rocky 
n  the  district 
1.  The  first 
limestone,  an 

arly  near  the 
ciiroous  sand 
tod  by  means 
li  are  beds  of 
iso8  into  hil- 
)ably  the  ter- 
of  Barcelona 
Ml  sufRciently 
nblcs  that  so 
in  the  inte- 
lerally  with  a 
y  distributed, 
tone  rocks  of 
Jiem :  thus  it 
ones  of  quad- 
a  catastrophe 
■ofessor  Haus- 
!lling  in  Mur- 
who  maintain 
e  conjectured 
basalt  occurs 
de  Gata,  and 
Hypersthpnc 
»  Old  Castile, 


Book  I. 


SPAIN. 


S68 


in  contact  with  Jura  limestone.  Professor  Hausmann  found,  in  the  mountams  of  Jaen,  near 
to  variegated  marl  containing  masses  of  gypsum,  rocks  of  greenstone.  Col.  Silvettop 
describes  tertiary  deposits  in  Granada. 

It  may  not  be  improper,  from  Professor  Hausmann,  to  point  out  tlic  influence  of  soil  and 
climate  on  the  other  departments  of  nature,  as  also  on  the  peculiarities  and  occupations  of 
man.  A  glance  at  the  whole  nature  of  Spain  discovers  a  threefold  principal  difference. 
The  northern  zone,  which  extends  to  the  £bro,  diflfers  entirely  in  its  characters  from  the 
middle  zone ;  and  this  again  is  completely  different  from  the  southern  zone,  which  is  bounded 
on  the  north  by  the  Sierra  Morena,  and  a  part  of  the  Ostrandes.  The  northern  zone,  which 
includes  Galicia,  Asturios,  the  Biscayan  provinces,  Navarre,  the  northern  part  of  Aragon, 
and  Catalonia,  is  a  widely  extended  mountainous  and  hilly  country.  The  snow-fields  and 
glaciers  of  the  Pyrenees  on  the  one  side ;  and  on  the  other  the  north  and  north-west  winds, 
have  a  marked  influence  in  lowering  the  temperature  of  the  atmosphere,  and  in  increasing 
the  supply  of  water.  The  increased  humidity  is  favourable  for  vegetation,  which,  on  the 
whole,  very  much  resembles  that  of  the  south  of  France ;  and  the  variety  of  rocks  contain- 
ing lime,  clay,  and  sand,  and  also  their  frequent  alternations,  operate  beneficially  on  the  soil. 
The  soil  everywhere  invites  to  cultivation,  and  the  Catalonians  and  Biscayans  are  active 
cultivators  of  the  ground.  The  middle  part  of  Spain,  to  which  belongs  Old  and  New  Castile, 
a  part  of  Aragon,  Leon,  and  Estremadura,  is  not  so  fkvourably  circumstanced.  In  general, 
we  rarely  meet  with  either  beauty  or  variety  of  aspect.  The  extensive  and  lofty  table-lands, 
destitute  of  trees,  are  dull  and  tiresome ;  their  uniform  and  monotonous  surface,  formed  by 
vast  deposits  of  horizontally  disposed  secondary  strata,  is  swept  across  by  the  wind,  and  burnt 
up  by  the  sun's  rays.  Whichever  way  the  eye  turns,  it  meets  with  scarcely  any  thing  but 
wretchedly  cultivated  cornfields  and  desert  heaths  of  cistus.  Seldom,  in  general,  more  in 
the  southern  than  in  the  northern  districts,  plantations  of  olive-trees  afl[ord  a  meagre  shelter, 
and  vary  the  scenery,  although  in  an  inconsiderable  degree.  Nothing,  certainly,  bos  so 
great  an  influence  on  these  properties  of  nature,  with  which  many  of  the  peculiarities  and 
modes  of  life  of  man  harmonise,  than  the  high  situation  of  the  widely  extended  table-lands, 
and  the  uniformity  of  the  rock  which  forms  the  support  of  the  soil.  It  is  owing  principally 
to  the  horizontal  stratification,  and  the  v/ant  of  water,  that  the  great  Spanish  table-lands  are 
80  widely  extended,  and  so  little  intersected  by  deep  valleys.  The  rivers,  in  most  cases, 
carry  but  little  water  in  comparison  with  the  magnitude  of  the  land,  and  the  number  of  con- 
siderable mountain  chains ;  and  it  is  further  surprising  how  insignificant  the  waters  of  most 
of  the  Spanish  mountain  groups  are,  even  when  the  qualities  of  the  rocks  favour  the  forma- 
tion of  springs.  The  causes  of  this  great  deficiency  of  water  are  principally  the  great  dry- 
ness of  the  atmosphere,  the  inconsiderable  cover  of  snow  on  the  mountains,  and  its  short 
continuance ;  the  absence  of  forests,  and  the  want  of  great  moors  on  the  heights,  and  the 
comparatively  inconsiderable  breadth  of  the  mountain  ranges.  The  southern  and  south- 
western part  of  Spain,  which  comprehends  Andalusia,  witii  Granada  and  Murcia,  is  very 
different  from  that  just  described.  On  the  opposite  side  of  tlie  Sierra  Morena  the  whole 
land  has  a  more- southern  and  foreign  aspect,  a  breathing  of  that  African  nature,  which  an- 
nounces itself  not  only  by  the  world  of  plants,  but  also  by  the  animal  world,  and  man  him- 
self The  great  diflTerence  of  climate  is  produced  by  the  southern  situation,  the  exposure  of 
the  acclivity  on  the  south  and  south-west  to  the  African  winds,  and  the  strong  reflection  of 
the  solar  rays  from  the  lofty,  naked  mountain  walls.  The  mountain  ranges  are  more  closely 
aggregated,  the  valleys  more  deeply  cut :  there  is  no  room  for  very  extensive  table-lands, 
and  the  more  limited  ones  that  occur,  as  those  of  Granada,  ar^  more  amply  supplied  with 
water  than  those  in  the  middle  of  Spain.  Alon^  with  this  arrangement,  there  is  greater 
difference  among  the  rocks,  and  also  of  their  position.  The  south  of  Spain,  tlierefore,  pos- 
sesses not  only  a  much  higher  temperature,  one  fit  for  the  orange  and  the  palm,  but  also  a 
more  varied  and  a  more  favourable  soil  for  cultivation.  But  these  relations  would  have  acted 
more  beneficially  if  the  air  had  been  more  humid,  and  moisture  had  been  everywhere  more 
abundant.  The  deficiency  of  moisture  is  the  principal  cause  not  only  of  tlie  striking  moa- 
greness  of  phenogamous  vegetation,  on  most  of  the  mountain  acclivities,  but  also  of  the 
remarkable  paucity  of  lichens  and  mosses  on  the  mountains  on  the  coast;  and  in  connection 
with  this  is  the  fact,  that  the  weathering  of  the  rocks,  and  the  reforming  of  the  original  sur- 
face of  the  mountains,  assume  there  a  somewhat  different  course  from  what  is  observed  in 
places  which  are  moister,  and  provided  with  a  more  powerful  vegetation. 

SuBSECT.  2. — Botany. 

"  Oh!  Christ  I  it  is  a  Knodly  sight  to  see 
'  What  Ilnavcn  hath  done  Tor  this  delicious  land  I 

.  What  fruits  of  fVaKrance  blush  on  every  tree  1 

What  (jnodly  prnR)>ects  o'er  the  hills  expand ! 
(But  man  would  mar  them  with  an  impious  hand). 

"  European  Spain,"  says  M.  dc  Humboldt,  "  situated  in  latitudes  under  which  Palm  trees 
( Phcenix  dactylifera  and  Chamarops  humilis)  grow  upon  the  plains,  presents  the  majestic 
spectacle  of  a  chain  of  mountains,  the  tops  of  which  shoot  up  into  the  region  of  everlasting 


iil 


MM 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  JIL 


■now.  By  a  levelling  survey  executed  with  the  greatest  care,  it  has  been  OBcertained  tliat 
in  the  Sierra  Nevada  of  Granada,  the  Pico  de  Vcleta  rises  about  11,365  English  feet,  and 
the  Mulhacen  11,660  English  feet,  above  the  level  of  the  ocean.  None  of  the  mountains 
of  the  Pyrenees  are  of  so  great  a  height ;  for  Mont  Perdu,  the  loftiest  of  the  Spanish  Pyre- 
nees is  only  11,168  feet,  and  the  highest  of  the  French  Pyrenees  only  1722  fathoms.  The 
peak  of  Mulhacen,  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  of  Granada,  wants  only  76  fathoms  of  being  as 
high  as  the  Peak  of  Teneriife.  Yet  even  this  summit,  if  situated  in  the  same  latitude  as 
the  town  of  Mexico,  would  not  be  perpetually  covered  with  snow :  for  the  never-melting 
snows  begin  under  the  equator  at  2460  fathoms;  under  the  twentieth  degree  of  latitude  at 
2350  fathoms;  under  the  forty-fiflh,  at  1300  fathoms;  and  under  the  sixty-second,  at  900 
fitthoms." 

Thus  circumstanced  in  regard  to  climate,  and  the  elevation  of  its  mountains,  how  greatly 
is  it  to  be  regretted  that  no  country  in  Europe  has  been  so  little  investigated  in  regard  to  its 
botanical  pn^uctiona !  Enough,  however,  is  known  for  our  purpose,  which  may  be  collected 
from  the  different  travels  in,  and  accounts  of,  Spain  and  Portugal,  and  from  the  Recherches 
sur  la  Dittribution  Oeographique  des  Vegelaux  Phanerogatnes  dans  PAncien  Monde, 
already  alluded  to,  by  M.  de  Mirbel.  This  author  considers  the  whole  of  this  peninsula, 
with  the  exception  of  the  northern  part  of  Spain,  which  forms  the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of 
Gascony,  and  which  belongs  to  the  temperate  zone,  as  entering  into  the  transition  zone.  If, 
therefore,  its  vegetation  has  any  affinity  with  that  of  France,  it  is  only  where  its  mountainous 
parts,  especially  the  Pyrenees,  resemble  the  mountains  of  France,  and  its  warm  districts  arc 
like  the  extreme  south  of  France.  In  East  Valencia  and  Murcia,  in  the  south  of  Andalusia 
and  the  Algarves,  in  Western  Alemtejo  and  South  Estremadura,  the  rich  and  varied  vege- 
tation calls  to  mind  the  fertile  plains  of  Syria.  In  Andalusia,  fVoets  are  unknown,  and  the 
snow,  if  it  ever  falls,  melts  the  moment  it  touches  the  soil :  so  that  it  is  iiot  surprising  that, 
in  the  cultivated  parts,  the  Spaniards,  long  famous  for  their  voyages,  should  have  introduced 
many  vegetables  from  remote  parts  of  the  world ;  thus  giving  a  perfectly  tropical  appear- 
ance to  ^e  country. 

The  Erythrina  Corallodendron,  or  Coral  tree,  with  its  brilliant  scarlet  blossoms,  the 
Schinus  MoUe,  with  its  gracefully  pinnated  foliage,  and  the  Phytolacca  dioica,  are  intro- 
duced, with  many  other  plants,  from  South  America.  Even  the  bananas  are  common  to  the 
south  of  the  Guadalquivir ;  as  are  also  the  Cayenne  Pepper ;  and,  in  gardens,  the  Convolvu- 
lus Batatas,  or  Sweet  Potato.  Everywhere  about  tlie  rural  habitations  of  the  Spanish  pea- 
santry, the  Date,  the  Orange  (,fig.  298.),  the  Lemon,  the  Olive,  the  Pomegranate,  the  Fig 


The  Oram*. 


The  Fit 


ijig.  299.),  and  the  Mulberry,  flourish  nearly  as  well  as  in  the  native  soil.  Link  notices  the 
trees  growing  about  Lisbon ;  "  they  are  chiefly,"  he  says,  "  Olive  and  Orange  trees,  Cypress, 
Judas  trees :  Elms  and  Poplars  appear  too.  But  of  Oaks,  Beeches,  and  Lime,  there  are 
none,  and  very  few  Willows ;  so  that  one  may  instantly  perceive  how  different  is  the  char- 
acter of  a  Lisbon  view  from  that  of  Germany."  The  Orange  is  the  most  striking  of  these : 
for  there  are  many  plantations  in  quintas,  where  they  form  compact  groves,  and  also  scat- 
tered in  open  spots.  These  trees  require  much  artificial  watering,  and  they  are  propagated 
by  seed,  and  afterwards  by  grafting  upon  those  seedling  trees.  In  December  and  January 
the  fruit  begins  to  turn  yellow ;  and  at  the  end  of  January  and  in  February,  before  they  oro 
ripe  and  sweet,  they  are  gathered  for  exportation.  Towards  the  end  of  March  and  April, 
the  oranges  are  very  go(5,  but  they  are  not  in  perfection  till  enrly  in  May.  In  July  and 
August,  Uiey  are  scarce,  and  over-ripe.  At  the  end  of  April  and  May,  the  new  flowers  ap- 
pear, the  fragrance  of  which  extends  far  and  wide,  and  at  this  time  the  quantity  of  glittering 
fhiit  embosomed  amid  the  dark  foliage,  "  like  golden  lamps  in  a  green  night,"  relieved  stiU 


Alid 


PartIIL 

tained  tliat 
h  feet,  and 

mountains 
inish  Pyre- 
loms.  The 
)f  being  as 

latitude  as 
ver-melting 
•  latitude  at 
jond,  at  900 

how  greatly 
regard  to  its 
be  collected 

Recherches 
;tcrt  Monde, 
B  peninsula, 

the  Gulf  of 
an  zone.  If, 
mountainous 

districte  are 
of  Andalusia 
varied  vege- 
own,  and  the 
rprising  that, 
fe  introduced 
pical  appear- 

bloBsoms,  the 
xa,  are  intro- 
ommon  to  the 
the  Convolvu- 
.  Spanish  pea- 
mate,  the  Fig 


Book  T. 


SPAIN. 


565 


link  notices  the 
trees.  Cypress, 
,ime,  there  are 
int  is  the  char- 
iking  of  these : 
and  also  scat- 
are  propagated 
cr  and  January 
before  they  an? 
arch  and  April, 
f.    In  July  and 
lew  flowers  ap- 
ity  of  glittering 
"  relieved  still 


more  by  the  snowy  blossoms,  presents  an  object  which  continually  excites  new  admiration, 
though  it  is  one  of  daily  occurrence.  One  single  tree  frequently  bears  1500  oranges,  and 
examples  are  not  wantmg  of  their  bearing  2000,  and  sometimes,  though  rarely,  2iK)0.  In 
the  provinces,  they  sell  for  half  a  farthing  apiece.  Pigs  are  exported  largely  n-om  the  city 
of  Faro;  lliey  are  the  most  important  produce  of  the  Algarve,  and  are  brought  down  by  the 
country  people  to  ttio  merchants  in  immense  quantities.  They  are  thrown  in  heaps  in  a 
building  prepared  for  the  purpose,  where  a  syrup  flows  from  them,  which  is  used  to  advan- 
tage in  making  brandy.  They  are  then  spread  to  dry  in  the  sun,  in  an  open  situation,  wlien- 
they  are  left  for  a  few  days,  in  proportion  to  the  heat  of  the  weather ;  after  whicli  they  are 
packed  into  small  baskets  made  of  the  leaves  of  the  Fan  Palm,  and  exprted.  "  Greece  anil 
the  Algarves,"  M.  Link  observes,  "  are  the  only  countries  where  capritication  is  practised ; 
for  in  the  latter  country  are  some  varieties  of  Figs,  and  those  very  excellent,  that  fall  to  the 
ground  immature,  unless  punctured  by  gnats."  Two  ideas  prevail  respecting  tlie  effect  of 
this  operation;  the  general  opinion  being,  that  the  little  insect,  on  entering  the  Fig,  (which 
is  known  by  botanists  to  be  a  fleshy  receptacle,  including  many,  and  often  only  barren 
flowers,)  carries  with  it,  from  other  figs  that  it  has  visited,  and  from  which  it  comes  loaded, 
the  farina  necessary  for  fertilisation :  while  others  maintain,  and  among  them  M.  Link,  that 
tlie  puncture  caused  by  tiie  insect  gives  a  firesh  stimulus  and  a  new  movement  to  the  sap  or 
juices  of  the  fruit,  thereby  not  only  preventing  the  fell  of  the  fruit,  but  rendering  it  sweeter 
and  better  flavoured ;  and  it  is  ccrtam  that  many  of  our  common  fruits,  when  pierced  by  in- 
sects, acquire  the  sweetest  flavour.  The  ancients  perfected  the  figs  in  the  Archipelago  by 
means  of  an  insect,  a  species  of  Cynips  (C.  Ficus).  In  Algarve,  besides  the  cultivated  kind, 
another  wild  sort  is  grown ;  in  which  the  insects  abound.  These  trees  are  recalled  Fijos  de 
tora ;  and  branches  of  them  are,  at  the  proper  season,  broken  offj  and  suspended  over  those 
intended  to  be  fertilised,  when  the  little  animals  come  forth,  alight  upon  the  fruits,  puncture 
them,  and  aid  their  ripening. 
Formidable  fences  are  made  of  the  Cactus  Tuna  {fi/r.  300.),  and  the  Agave  americana, 
QQQ  or  American  aloe.    The  former  is  often  mixed  with  the  Pome- 

granate, but  of  itself  it  constitutes  a  hedge  almost  impervious  to 
cattle.  In  Portuguese  it  is  called,  on  account  of  its  prickle^<, 
Fijo  do  inferno :  the  flowers  are  yellow  and  the  fruit  esculent ; 
the  latter  is  by  no  means  unpalatable,  and  is  regularly  sold  in 
Lisbon.  Of  the  Agave  americana  we  have  already  spoken,  and 
shall,  therefore,  simply  mention  here,  that  its  leaves  undergo  a 
process  by  which  a  valuable  thread  is  e.xtracted,  known  in  Por- 
tugal by  the  name  of  Filn  da  piln.  The  largest  and  most  per- 
fect leaves  are  cut  ofl^,  laid  upon  a  board,  and  scraped  with  a 
square  iron  bar,  which  is  held  in  both  hands,  until  all  the  juices 
and  pulp  are  pressed  out ;  the  nerves  only  remaining,  wlicn 
these  are  found  easily  separable  into  tlireads.  Whore  pasturage 
is  scarce,  as  in  Algarve,  the  cattle  eat  the  foliage  of  this  plant, 
if  cut  into  til  in  transverse  slices. 

In  La  Mancha  grows  the  Esparto  grele  (Slipa  tenacissima), 
of  which  cords  are  made,  and  the  foliage  is  sent  in  large  quan- 
tities into  Portugal  for  this  purpose.    To  prevent  the  careless 
destruction  of  these  valuable  plants,  penalties  are  inflicted  on 
CtictiMTum.  (j„y  person  who  ventures  to  gather  them  before  the  month 

of  May,  when  they  are  in  perfection. 
The  Carob  tree  {fig.  301.)  Link  reckons  the  most  beautiful  of  European  trees.    It  attains 
3QJ  a  considerable  height,  forming,  with  its  large  evergreen  pinnated 

foliage,  a  head  of  considorablf.  dimensions,  and  yielding  a  welcome 
shade.  Among  the  foliage  hang  down  the  numerous  long  po«is, 
which,  when  ripe,  are  used  as  fodder  for  cattle,  especially  the 
mules,  and  as  meat  for  swine,  though  inferior  to  the  acorns  of  the 
Evergreen  Ook.  Before  the  expulsion  of  the  Moors,  the  Sugar 
Cane  was  cultivated  to  a  considerable  extent,  and  lately  it  has  been 
re-introduced,  at  San  Lucar,  into  a  garden  "  d'acchmation,"  to- 
gether with  Coffee,  Indigo,  and  Gum  Arabic.  A  vast  extent  of 
country  is  covered  by  the  Chamsrops  humilis  {Dwarf  Palm  or 
Palmetto),  growing  in  waste  places.  This  vegetation,  in  part  ex- 
otic, follows  the  coasts  of  the  Spanish  peninsula,  to  the  east  and  to 
the  west.  It  is  difflised  in  all  its  luxury  in  the  delicious  territory 
of  Valencia,  where  the  agriculture  of  the  Moors  is  still  held  in 
respect.  With  the  sjwcics  already  named,  are  here  cultivated  the 
Aloi;  perfoliata.  Yucca  aloifolia.  Cassia  tomentosa,  Mclia  Azeda- 
CtrobTree.  ^^^^^^  iiKuiy  kinds  of  Mimosa,  Annonn,  &c.     In  the  environs  of 

AHcant,  the  Date  harvest  is  very  abundant.    This  Palm  there  gro\vs  in  liirge  plantations. 
Vol.  I,  48 


.♦ 


,■."   ••' 


%'■<*-  ^ 


M 


S66 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


and  often  attains  tho  liei^rlu  of  120  feet.  It  reaches  alon^  the  entire  coaBt,  to  the  40th  de- 
mrce,  and  perhaps  hi{,'lu!r.  Tlio  Affuvo  abounds  in  the  environs  of  Tarragona,  in  tho  4l8t 
degree ;  and  tho  Olive  continues  to  tho  sliore  of  Franco. 

In  frcncrnl,  the  vegetation  of  the  cost  of  the  Peninsula  differs  little  from  that  of  the  other 
shores  of  the  Mediterranean.  The  coasts  of  the  Ocean,  on  tho  west,  arc  less  hot,  according 
to  M.  Bory  do  St  Vincent,  than  corresponding  latitudes  on  tlio  east  sides ;  so  that  the  south- 
ern vegetation  docs  not  extend  so  far  to  the  north.  Bo  this  as  it  nuiy,  the  Date,  the  Lemon, 
tlie  Orange,  abound  in  Algarve  and  Alemtejo.  The  Orange  grows  plentifully  in  the  cnvi* 
rons  of  Oporto,  in  41°  ;  and  the  Olive  extends  to  42°.  A  great  number  of  American  plants, 
the  seeds  having  been  probably  brought  in  ballast,  are  mingled,  and,  as  it  were,  confounded, 
with  indigenous  species.  Upon  the  whole,  however,  tlie  vegetation  may  be  considered  as 
having  more  in  common  with  that  of  the  Atlantic  than  with  the  coasts  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean. Link  thus  pictures  Uie  climate  of  Portugal,  and  its  effects  upon  vegetation : — "  A 
heat,  equal  to  06°  of  Fahrenheit,  is  not  uncommon  in  this  country ;  and,  from  comparative 
observations,  it  appears  that  the  climate  is  warmer  here  than  in  Brazil,  though  tho  heat  does 
not  continue  near  so  long.  From  Midsummer-day  to  the  middle  of  September,  rain  is  ex- 
tremely uncommon,  and  even  in  the  beginning  of  that  montli  very  scanty ;  the  drought  oflen 
continues  much  longer.  Immediately  afler  the  first  rains,  follow  the  autumnal  flowers,  this 
Meadow  Saffron  (Colchica,  two  species  but  little  known) ;  Saffron  (Crocus  aalivui) ;  the 
Autumnal  Snowdrop  {Leucojum  aulumnale) ;  thb  sweet-smelling  Ranunculus  bullatus,  and 
many  others.  These  appear  in  the  higher  lands  around  Cintra,  where  the  rains  arc  earlier 
than  in  the  low  parts  near  Lisbon.  Immediately  afler  the  autumnal  flowers,  come  the 
spring  plants,  owing  to  which  the  interval  between  spring  and  autumn  is  scarcely  percep- 
tible. In  October  tlie  young  grass  springs  up,  and  the  new  leaves  shoot  out,  rendering  it 
the  pleasantest  month  of  the  year.  In  November  and  December  fall  heavy  rains,  with  fre- 
quent storms.  Days  of  perpetual  silent  rain  are  ver^  rare,  for  in  general  it  comes  down  in 
torrents.  The  brooks  round  Lisbon,  which  it  was  a  little  while  before  easy  to  step  over,  and 
which  wholly  disap|>ear  in  summer,  now  rush  like  torrents  down  the  hills.  This  swelling 
of  the  streams  renders  travelling  difKcult  at  tliat  season,  and  would  retard  the  operations  of 
war  as  much  in  winter  as  tlic  drougiit  in  summer.  In  January,  cokl,  clear  weather  oflen 
prevails,  but  becomes  milder  in  February,  which  is  generally  a  very  pleasant  month." 

The  most  common  vegetables  of  the  plains  of  Spain  are  the  Cork  tree  0?^.  302.),  the 
Ilex,  and  Kermes  Oak  (^g.  303.),  the  Bay  tree,  the  Myrtle,  the  Philyrea  media  and  angus- 
302  _^    ^1^  303 


Xermca  OHk. 
Cork  Tt«*. 

tifolia,  Juniperus  Sabina,  Celtis  australis,PistaciaTerebinthus  and  Lcntiscus;  Rhamnus  Ala- 
temus,  and  many  other  species  of  this  genus ;  Viburnum  Tinus,  Osyris  alba,  Paliurus  aus- 
tralis,  the  Strawberry  tree,  tiie  common  and  shrubby  Jessamines,  the  Caper  plant,  and  a  great 
number  of  Cisti  {Jig.  3-M  )  with  other  shrubs,  whose  foliage  is  of  an  evergreen  and  coriace- 
ous nature.  Immense  plains  arc  clothed  with  Lygeum  Spartum,  and  the  running  streams 
arc  bordered  with  Uupleurum  spinosum  and  Nerium  Oleander. 

But  it  has  been  justly  remarked,  that  no  country  in  Europe  presents  a  more  sorrowful 
aspect  than  the  interior  of  the  Peninsula.  "  No  man,  perhaps,  saving  a  botanist,"  says  Link, 
"could  travel  witli  any  pleasure  in  the  barren  tracts  of  Old  Castile;  but  this  pursuit  can 
render  travelling  both  instructive  and  interesting,  even  in  these  njjparently  sterile  wastes. 
Wiicre  forests  hiivc  existed  tlu^re,  tli(!y  have  yieldod  to  the  stroke  of  the  axe ;  and  the  naked 
soil  remains  witiiout  any  culture.  Vast  chains  of  mountains  spread  out  in  all  directions,  and 
between  them  are  extended  the  Parameras,  more  or  less  elevated  plains,  frequently  as  naked 
as  the  steppes  of  Siberia."  M.  Bory  estimates  at  fi"om  1800  to  2000  feet  the  elevation  of  the 
Paramera  which  divides  the  sources  of  the  Douro  and  the  Ebro.  In  tlie  valleys  formed  by 
these  rivers  and  tlieir  tributary  streams,  a  vegetation  of  great  beauty  is  found,  partaking  of 


Part  111. 

10  40th  de- 
in  tlio  4l8t 

)f  the  other 
,  according 
,  the  south- 
Lho  Lemon, 
»  the  cnvi- 
ican  plants, 
lonfbunded, 
tnBidercd  aa 

Meditcrra- 
ition:— "A 
joniparative 
10  heat  does 

rain  is  ex- 
•ought  often 
flowers,  the 
iliviu);  the 
ullatus,  and 
3  are  earlier 
s,  come  the 
cely  percep- 
rendering  it 
ns,  with  fre- 
mes  down  in 
;ep  over,  and 
Ilia  swelling 
)peration8  of 
weather  often 
onth." 

f .  302.),  the 
a  and  angus- 

303 


^ 


Ihamnus  Ala- 
Paliurus  aus- 
it,  and  a  great 
I  and  coriace- 
ming  streams 

ore  sorrowful 
t,"  says  Link, 
s  pursuit  can 
sterile  wastes, 
ind  the  naked 
lircctions,  and 
;ntly  as  naked 
evation  of  the 
sys  Ibrraed  by 
partaking  of 


Book!. 


SPAIN. 


607 


tliat  in  the  more  temperate  climates  of  the  north.  Here  are  seen  small  fields  of  MaiEC,  and 
even  of  Rye  and  Barley,  more  rarely  of  Wheat,  surrounded  by  lofty  Oaks,  Chestnuts,  and 
Poplars,  every  tree  supporting  a  Vine,  which  spreads  over  it  and  not  unirequently  reaches 
to  the  very  summit  of  the  highest  Oaks. 


•^ 


Ciitui. 


CiMaUiiH. 

The  great  mass  of  the  forests  which  have  escaped  destruction  are  mostly  formed  of  Ever- 

S'een  Oaks ;  among  which,  besides  the  other  species  already  enumerated,  are  found  the 
uercus  Ballotii,  oigilopifolia,  faginca,  prasina,  crenato,  rotunditblia,  humilia,  &.c.  The  latter 
does  not  exceed  six  inches  in  height.  In  the  valleys  and  on  the  mountains  also,  grow  Tilia 
europica  {platyphyllos  ?),  Fagus  syl/atica,  Costanea  vesca  (Jig.  ;5((5.),  Tiixus  baccata,  Pinus 
sylvestris,  Fraxinus,  Ornus,  &c.  The  commonest  forest  tree  on  the  plains  of  the  temperate 
zone,  namely  tiie  Oak  {(iue.rcug  Itobur),  inhabits  the  soutliorn  slope  of  the  Pyrenees.  It  is 
said  that  tliis  tree  occurs  also  in  some  ports  of  the  Peninsula. 

The  vegetation  which  prevails  on  the  lofty  mountains  in  tlie  interior  of  Spain  is  almost 
wholly  unknown  to  us.  M.  llaiiiond  has  made  some  interestiiii^  obsurvations  on  that  of  the 
Pic  du  Midi,  one  of  the  highest  of  the  Pyrenees;  and  has  compared  the  plants  of  its  most 
elevated  summit,  estimated  at  about  10,000  feet,  with  that  of  Melville  Island,  as  described 
by  Mr.  R.  Brown.    The  similarity  is  very  striking. 


81'HMIT   OF  THE  riC  DU   HIOI 

Cryptogamia. 

Fiiiilli 0 

Lirbt'iiH 51 

Ili'imlicn- 1 

Mf!.""." 6 

fV'riiK 4 

-02 
Phanogamou$. 

{ 'vlwrncov 3 

(tranHUH 7 

Jiiiici U 

P()IyK«nen? 1 

I'Innlayiiicm I 

I'liiiiibauiiiPiR 1 

l.y«imqchiic A 

I'ecticulariniu 3 

IiabiatiB 1 

Scrniiliulnriiiie 1 

Bi>ragiiiciE 1 

(■eiitinncm 3 

CninpaiiiilncciE 1 

CichnrHcnm 3 

CoryiiiliifprB! 10 

RiibiuceiF 8 

PnimvpracpiD 1 

Criinifcim 0 

(^^aryophyllcu! 6 

Ficoiihfic 4 

Baxifragcm    4 

RnnacoiK 4 

L<!friiinino!MC 4 

Ameiitacvi! 1 

—  71 


HF.LVIM.E  ISLAND. 

Cryplogamia. 

FiiDKi 9 

I.icli(!iia IS 

Ilepatice S 

MiHWca 30 

Feriia 0 

-49 
Phemogamou*. 

CypcraceiB 4 

OraBses 14 

Junci it 

Polygonee 3 


Scrophularins- 
Ericcic 


CampniiulacetF.. 

Cichnran'ffi 

Corymbirerte ... 


Raniinciilnccn 

Papavcracpffi 

Crurircrfe 0 

Carynphylleie 5 


BaxilVaEca! 10 

nosncpn; 4 

I^^<;uii)iiM>fiiC S 

Aineiit  aces 1 

-« 


m 


I 


H" 


m 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY, 


Part  UI 


I  finind  on  the  i 


Europetn  Bea-EtUr. 


Of  theie,  eigfht  of  the  Molvillo  hiandi  lichen$  and  one  of  its  motte 
mit  of  the  Pic  du  Midi ;  five  otheru  of  the  lichens,  and  one  of  iU  two  hepatka,  and  hix  of  itr 
motaes,  f^row  on  the  crag*  of  the  peak,  or  in  ita  immediate  vicinity. 

SuBaEOT.  3. — Zoology, 
The  native  zoology  haa  been  so  little  inv08ti(rated,  that  nothing  beyond  a  meagre  list  could 
be  fUmiahed  of  indigenous  animals.  In  the  mountains  of  AHtnrins  the  Ibex  is  not  uncommon, 
and  the  Alpine  Squirrel  (Sciurug  ulpinut)  is  only  ibund  in  tiic  Pyrenees.  In  tlie  soutliern 
parts,  bordering  on  the  African  shore,  a  few  species  of  wurblurw  have  recently  b<;en  found, 
which  are  us  yet  unknown  to  tlic  rest  of  Europe.  Tin;  Euro|)oan  Beo-eater  (Jiff.  aWJ.)  fre- 
30g  qucntri  the  vicinity  of  (iibrulUr  in  largo  tlocks  during 

tne  season  of  migration. 

Among  the  domesticated  animals,  the  horse  and  sheep 
of  Spain  deserve  particular  notice,  as  having  been  long 
celebrated  throughout  Europe.    The  best  horses  are 

generally  about  four  feet  six  or  eight  inches  high ;  they 
ave  all  the  fire,  docility,  grace,  and  action  of  the 
beautiful  Arabians  of  Barbary  (generally  called  Durbs), 
and  there  can  bo  no  doubt  of  these  noble  animals  having 
been  introduced  by  the  Moors,  and  crossed  with  the 
native  breed :  those  of  Andalusia,  Granada,  and  Estre- 
madura  arc  tlie  most  distinguislied.  At  Xeres  are  found 
two  perfectly  distinct  races;  the  one,  which  possesses  the  fine  qualities  above  mentioned,  is 
still  preserved  in  all  its  purity  at  tiie  Chartreux.  The  otlier  race  is  larger,  stronger,  less 
elegant,  and  used  for  common  purposes.  Latterly  but  little  cure  has  been  bestowed  in  keep- 
ingup  the  more  noble  breed,  so  that  fine  horses  are  not  so  common  in  Spain  as  formerly. 

The  mule,  in  so  mountainous  a  country,  is  particularly  useful,  and,  with  the  ass,  is  prin- 
cipally Used  for  conveying  goods  in  the  interior ;  the  bree<l8  of  the  latter  are  very  fine,  and 
are  hardly  excelled  by  those  of  Egypt  Spain  is  still  famous  for  its  merino  race  of  ahecp 
(Jig.  307.).  The  flocks  are  kept  constantly  travelling  during  the  greater  part  of  the  sum- 
mer, but  are  carefully  pent  up  in  winter.    This  race,  subdivided  into  breeds,  is  extended 

over  the  greater  part  of  Spain;  but  those  of  Cavage,  and 
Negrale,  are  the  best.  A  third  breed,  the  Souan,  appears 
more  hardy,  and  passes  the  winter  in  Estreinadura,  Anda- 
lusia, and  New  Castile :  these  three  constitute  the  'Pranaku- 
mante,  or  travelling  race,  to  distinguish  thorn  from  the 
Estantes,  or  those  of  a  somewhat  inferior  brood,  who  do  not 
migrate.  The  best  fleeces  ore  those  which  upiiear  almost 
black  on  their  surface,  caused  by  the  dust  adhering  to  the 
peculiar  greasy  pile;  for  it  is  invariably  found  that  such 
fleeces  are  of  the  purest  white  beneath.  Tlie  merinos,  dis- 
persed by  George  III.  over  England,  have  incalculably  im- 
proved the  native  races.  By  great  care  and  expense  on  the  part  of  the  native  graziers,  this 
valuable  race  has  likewise  been  introduced  in  the  distant  regions  of  Australia  with  0(iual 
success.  There  is  a  very  large  breed  of  oxen  in  the  country  round  Salamanca ;  but  the 
cattle  of  Spain  have  been  much  neglected ;  the  nioimtaineers  deriving  all  their  milk  and 
butter  from  goats.  The  spaniel  appears  to  be  n  brood  of  dogs  originating  from  this  country; 
and  the  Spanish  pointer  is  considered  to  have  a  greater  acuteness  of  scent  than  that  of 
Britain. 

Sbot.  IIL — Historical  Geography. 

The  earliest  inhabitants  of  Spain,  like  those  of  Gaul  and  Britain,  were  of  the  Celtic  race, 
and  from  the  river  Ebro  (Ibcrus)  were  calle<1  Coltiberi.  The  whole  country  was  by  the 
Greeks  called  Iberia,  and  sometimes,  from  its  western  position,  Hesperia.  The  people,  like 
those  of  the  rest  of  Europe,  were  divided  into  a  number  of  small  tribes,  hardy  and  warlike, 
who  often  showed  a  peculiar  attachment  to  national  independence,  and  obstinacy  in  its 
defence. 

The  Carthaginians  wore  the  first  civilised  people  who  occupied  Spain,  which,  for  several 
centuries,  was  considered  as  theirs.  They  founded  colonies  on  the  most  advantageous  points, 
worked  its  rich  silver  mines,  and  easily  allured  many  of  ita  brave  but  poor  inhabitants  into 
their  mercenary  armies;  they  were  far,  however,  from  having  thoroughly  aubilued  the  Pen- 
insula, the  people  of  which,  on  the  rise  of  the  Roman  power,  endeavoured  by  its  alliance  to 
emancipate  themselves  from  the  Punic  yoke.  The  siege  ond  fiill  of  Saguntiim  seemed  to 
have  extinguislu'd  these  hopes,  and  to  have  secured  tiie  ascendency  of  Carthage;  but  the 
events  which  miirlced  the  close  of  the  second  Punic  war  completely  humbled  that  proud 
republic,  and  put  an  end  to  its  dominion  over  Spain. 

The  Romans,  by  the  capture  of  Numantia  in  n.  c.  IM,  established  tlioir  supremacy  over 
Spam,  undisputed  by  any  other  nation ;  but  the  complete  subjugation  of  its  inhabitants  was 
a  long  and  arduous  task,  to  which  the  utinoet  exertions  of  Cwaar  and  his  lieutenants  wcr«> 


^y^ 


Book  I.  SPAIN.  OOP 

not  flilly  adequate.  Spain,  however,  was  at  lenpfth  ro(luce<l  to  a  province,  divided  bjr  Augus- 
tus into  t)iror>  parti< : — Tarraconenais,  the  north  and  cost ;  Bictica,  tho  soutli ;  and  Lusitiuiia, 
Portugal.  Tho  Spaniards  cvun  becamo  civilised  and  pcaceublo  subjects;  so  tliat  when 
Rome,  sinking;  under  its  own  weight,  was  unable  to  defend  them,  they  could  not  resume 
their  early  indepondonco,  hut  fell  a  prey  to  the  Vandals,  Goths,  and  other  barbarous  hordes 
that  poure<l  in  from  the  north  of  Europe. 

The  Goths,  in  this  terrible  struprgle,  finally  prevailed ;  and  in  418  a  Gotiiic  dynasty  was 
iUlly  cstabliHhcd  over  Spain.  These  barbarous  invaders  ap|)ear  here,  as  elsewhere,  to  have 
expelled  or  extirpated  the  native  people,  whose  features  and  language  are  recognised  only 
in  some  of  the  higher  mountain  districts.  After  a  sway  of  three  centuries,  the  Goths  were 
destined  to  yield  to  a  new  people,  coming  from  a  remote  quarter. 

The  Arabs,  rendered  invincible  by  fanaticism,  had  over-run  all  the  north  of  Africa,  and 
established  a  powerful  kingdom  in  Fez.  The  vengeance  of  Count  Julian  invited  them  over, 
and  opened  the  way  for  them ;  their  immense  host  covered  the  plains  of  Andalusia ;  Roderick, 
the  Gothic  king,  was  totally  defeated.  The  invaders  then  over-ran  the  whole  kingdom,  with 
the  exception  of  some  mountain  recesses,  in  which  a  remnant  of  the  Gothic  chiefs  found 
shelter ;  they  even  passed  the  Pyrenees,  and  seemed  about  to  over-run  all  western  Europe. 
But  Charles  Martel  met  them  on  tho  plains  of  Aquitaine ;  and,  after  a  dreadful  battle  of  tliree 
days,  they  were  signally  overthrown,  and  never  again  attempted  to  pass  tho  Spanish  frontier. 
Meantime  Don  I'euiyo,  and  other  chiefs  of  the  Gothic  race,  again  raised  the  national  standard 
in  the  mountains  of  tho  Asturias :  then  commenced  a  contest  of  700  years,  distinguished  by 
numerous  heroic  achievements  and  memorable  events,  which  gave  to  the  Spanish  character 
that  romantic  and  adventurous  cost  which  it  has  never  wholly  lost.  The  Arabs  or  Moors 
still  retained  the  finest  provinces,  and  the  courts  of  Cordova  and  Granada  were  the  most 
splendid  ond  polished  in  Europe.  The  Spaniards,  however,  under  a  succession  of  able  chiefs 
and  particularly  of  their  great  hero  the  Cid,  gained  ground :  new  kingdoms  were  successive!} 
founded ;  which  all  merging  into  those  of  Castile  and  Aragon,  comprehended  the  whole  ot 
Spain,  except  the  extreme  southern  kingdom  of  Granada.* 

Spain  was  again  formed  into  one  great  kingdom  by  the  union  of  the  crowns  of  Castile  and 
Aragon,  under  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  in  1474,  and  by  the  final  overthrow  and  expulsion  of 
the  Moors.  From  this  period  commences  the  most  brilliant  era  of  her  annals.  The  dis- 
covery of  America,  the  conquest  of  the  golden  regions  of  Mexico  and  Peru,  and  of  other 
dominions  so  extensive  as  to  make  it  a  plausible  boast  that  the  sun  never  set  on  them,  threw 
an  almost  unrivalled  lustre  around  the  Spanish  crown.  Under  Charles  V.  and  Philip  II., 
Spain  continued  the  most  powerful  kingdom,  and  her  armies  the  most  formidable,  of  any  in 
Europe.  Tho  throne  derived  even  an  addition  of  apparent  lustre  from  the  subversion  of  the 
popular  part  of  the  government,  and  the  conversion  of  a  body  of  grandees,  once  the  proudest 
in  Europe,  to  the  condition  of  humble  vassals. 

The  decline  of  Spain,  though  its  causes  had  begun  to  operate,  did  not  become  perceptible 
till  after  the  death  of  Philip  II.  A  gloomy  indolence  and  degrading  superstition  now  marked 
her  councils ;  her  armies  were  vanquished  by  the  French  under  Conde  and  Turenne ;  she 
lost  her  place  and  rank  in  Europe.  The  trade  with  her  vast  colonies,  fettered  by  absurd 
restrictions,  became  profitoble  only  to  the  industrious  nations  which  supplied  its  materials. 
The  war  of  the  succession  drew  notice  towards  this  country,  and  called  forth  some  displays 
of  national  energy  ;  but  the  Bourbon  dynasty,  which  it  pl^^  -od  on  the  throne,  soon  relapsed 
into  the  characteristic  indolence,  and  Spain  became  little  r  >  ■>  'han  a  dependency  of  France. 
We  know  not  whether  to  designate  as  an  era,  the  train  ot'  tr-markable  events  which  have 

*Th«  Arab!  in  Spain,  like  the  Snxnnii  in  Ensland,  ostablisliod  a  laMins  niemnrial  of  llieir  dominion  by  engran. 
inc  thoir  own  langiiacc  on  (lint  nf  tlin  country  which  they  fiubdueil.  Ot  this,  the  topo^iraphy  of  the  Peninsula 
exhibits  innuninrahic  instaricei.  Tho  names  of  rivers,  mountains,  towns,  and  places,  were  either  totally  or  par- 
tially chanjiod.  by  the  virtorinus  invailors ;  and  after  the  expulsion  of  their  descenilanis,  those  names  were  per. 
petuated,  thoneli  with  nitcrntions  in  sonie  instances  as  arbitrary  as  those  which  were  made  in  the  ancient 
topogrnpliy  of  the  country:  thus,  the  Roman  station,  Paz  ^ufr»sta,  was  transformed  by  the  Arabs  into  Batalio^ 
and  onnrwanis  by  the  Hpaninrils  into  Badcjoi;  Cte.iarJtugmla,  by  an  abbreviation  less  violent,  liecamo  Saragoeaa, 
and  Emerila  ^u/rusti  was  contracted  into  Mtrida. 

The  Arnhic  term  Mfilina  fcity)  survives  in  two  eminent  instances  nmnn)»  the  titles  of  tho  Spanish  nobility: 
Medina  Selim  (the  city  of  Si'jiin)  is  recoifiiised  in  tlie  dukedom  ot  Mu'lina-Celi ;  and  the  colony  probably  called  New 
Sidnn,  is  that  of  Medinn-Siionia.  From  the  generic  term  guad,  a  river,  and  vtlei  or  vded,  a  landed  estate  or  diatrict, 
many  names  may  be  explained  which  at  first  view  appear  capricious  and  arbitrary : — 

Ex,     fiuad.al-aviar Tlic  white  river. 

Guad-nl-(|uivir The  great  river. 

Giiad-aMiigiara,  now  Ciiadalaxara The  river  of  rocks. 

Vein  and  Vrled  are  otten  conjoined  with  proper  names,  Felet  Malaga,  feled  Vlid.  now  Valladolid :  thus,  Navarre 
and  Leon,  their  confines  never  havinn  l«en  occupied  by  the  Arabs,  were  called  liy  them  Vrled  ^Arrourn,  tho  land 
of  the  Romans.  Oezira  was  n|iplii'd  inilifli'reiitly  to  on  island  or  a  peninsula  ;  hence  Jllgf.ira.  Aldea  means  what 
ia  cnmpi<:hendcd  under  the  Eiiftlish  term  a /arm.  It  is  nf  common  occurrence  in  itinernrios.  as  .^Mra  rfe/ Aid, 
Jildta  Oallega,  Aldeaa  de  Fansso.  From  chntara,  a  bridf^e,  we  account  for  the  emphatic  name  Alt'intnra.  Cali'ntOt 
a  castle,  enters  more!  or  less  prominently  into  the  composition  of  various  names;  as  Cnl'ni  Jlnat,  the  castle  of 
Ayat,  i-i  now  Cnlntayud;  Cali'nl  Hahah,  the  castle  of  Rnhah,  is  now  Calatrava ;  At  Caltlal.  simply  the  cnstle,  ia 
now  Mealtt.  JIhmar,  a  word  of  fVeqiieiit  oociirn^nco  in  Spanish  topojiraphy,  is  a  fortified  liniiBe  or  small  castle  ; 
Almeria  is  an  nlwervatory.  See  Description  of  Spain,  by  Oerif  Alhenris,  in  the  translation  of  Don  Jos*  Antonio 
Condi>,  wlio,>ii'  Itislrrii  ofllie  Domination  of  Ike  Jlraha  in  Spain  is  esteemed  one  of  the  most  masterly  works  tliat 
have  appeared  in  the  present  age. 

Vol.  I.  48*  3W 


?5r- 


STO 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOORAIMIY. 


Part  III. 


occurred  bclwenn  18C8  and  1822.  Tho  Spaninrds  cxcitnd  tho  mlmirntion  nnd  astoniHlimonl 
of  Europti  by  tlioii  diiriiiff  dolinncn  of  tho  |)nwor  bcnoiith  which  tho  ffroatcst  Bovnri'ijfns  had 
been  rmliiccd  to  tho  rank  of  viiRHalx.  Thnir  HubH(<i|iiniit  cxploiti*  did  not  alti>|rcthor  corre- 
spond to  thiM  h(<ifMinin|(.  S^lill,  thoir  rcHistiincn,  cnnRidorcd  aH  that  of  a  pcnpln,  wuii,  on  the 
whole,  obNtiniitR  uiid  iflorioua;  it  even  appnnrod  that  tboro  hid  been  formed  a  bixly  nttnchod 
to  popular  trovRrniiiiMit,  and  eager  to  rodruHd  the  political  griovancos  uiidnr  which  Hpain 
laboured.  Ultimately,  however,  the  eagemeas  with  which  tho  majority  of  the  nation  acqui- 
esced in  thn  tiyatem  of  abnolute  power,  rc-edtablii>lie<l  by  foreign  mtnrfcrenco,  tarnitihed  ita 
honour,  and  reduced  it  again  to  that  imbecile  and  degraded  state  in  which  it  hod  existed  for 
several  ccnturiea  ■  >  .     ' 

■^  SioT.  IV. — Political  Qeoffraphy. 

The  constitution  of  Spain,  ever  since  the  downfall  of  her  liberties  under  Charles  V.,  has 
been  tho  most  despotic  of  any  in  Europe,  excopt  Russia  and  Turkey.  Tho  Cortes,  that 
powerful  assembly,  whose  privdegcs  were  greater  than  those  of  any  other  European  repre- 
sentative body,  have  since  that  period  been  rarely  assembled,  and  then  only  partially,  on 
occasions  of  mere  form.  The  only  two  bodies  whiuli  possess  any  influence,  are  the  council 
of  state  and  the  co(mcil  of  Castile ;  but  as  these  are  entirely  under  tho  appointment  and 
direction  of  tho  monarch,  they  form  little  more  of  a  check  upon  absolute  power,  than  the 
Turkish  divan. 

Two  attempts  to  restore  a  rcpresontativo  form  of  government  have  lately  been  made, 
under  circumstances  which  must  bo  familiar  to  our  readers.  Unluckily,  the  loading  or  liberal 
party  were  hurried,  on  this  occasion,  into  an  opposite  extreme ;  adopting  tho  system  of  uni- 
versal suflVage,  forming  themselves  into  one  house,  nnd  allowing  only  a  temporary  veto  to 
the  monarch.  This  system,  which  excluded  the  nobles  and  clergy,  the  most  wealthy  and 
influential  bodies,  was  from  the  first  decidedly  unpopular;  and  Ferdinand  found  it  easy,  first 
without,  and  afterwards  with,  foreign  aid,  to  subvert  it,  and  to  re-cstublish  in  full  plenitude 
t.  the  despotic  sway  exercised  by  his  predecessors, 

[The  Cortes  were  convoked  anew  in  1834,  with  some  modifications  of  their  ancient  orga- 
nization. The  Ixxly  now  consists  of  two  houses;  that  of  proccrosor  poors,  composed  in  port 
of  hereditary  members,  in  part  of  members  nomed  by  the  king  for  life,  and  the  procuradores 
or  deputies,  elected  by  colleges  of  electors,  who  are  chosen  by  the  principal  citizens.  The 
Cortes  have  extensive  legislative  powers,  but  their  existence  and  authority  have  emanated  from 
the  royal  will. — Am.  Ed.] 

The  grandees  and  other  privileged  orders  in  Spain  are  distinguished  for  thoir  pride  beyond 
any  others  in  Europe.  Even  Charles  V.  was  baffled  in  his  attempt  to  retrench  the  right 
of  wearing  the  hat  in  tho  royal  presence.  The  Spanish  nobles  impair  their  fJ)rtunes  less  by 
extravagance  than  those  of  the  same  rank  elsewhere ;  and  as  they  intermarry  only  with  each 
other,  the  number  of  titles  or  ftoM,  as  they  are  called,  continually  accumulates  upon  single 
heads.  The  diikos  of  Mcdina-Celi,  of  Alba,  of  Infantado,  of  San  Estevan,  of  Ossuna,  and 
some  others,  hold  possessions  truly  immense,  covering  whole  provinces.  They  are  adminis- 
tered, indeed,  in  the  worst  possible  manner,  being  kept  in  their  own  hands,  managed  by 
tribes  of  factors  or  intendants,  of  whom  some  nobles  keep  300;  so  that  it  is  truly  astonishing 
that  they  should  sometimes  yield  |l25,000  or  #40,000  a  year.  As  these  grandees,  however, 
live  not  on  their  estates,  but  in  the  cities,  in  secluded  pomp,  they  have  lost  all  their  feudal 
influence,  and  the  ties  which  united  them  with  tlie  greater  bo«ly  of  the  people.  The  hidalffon, 
claiming  nobility  by  descent  from  the  members  of  great  families,  are  much  more  numerous, 
and  form,  in  some  provinces,  a  largo  proportion  of  tho  inhabitants.  They  are  often  reduced 
to  great  poverty ;  in  which  they  display  that  union  of  pride  and  indolence  which  has  been 
supposed  characteristic  of  the  Spaniard.  Mr.  White  mentions  a  species  of  illustrious  birth 
quite  peculiar  to  this  country,  consisting  in  a  pure  Christian  descent,  without  any  mixture 
of  Jewish  or  Moorish  blood,  which  last  is  supposed  to  produce  so  deep  a  stain,  that  no  time 
can  efface  it.  The  clergy,  moreover,  exercise  a  paramount  influence  over  the  minds  par- 
ticularly of  tho  lower  orders,  and  have  been  the  main-spring  in  all  the  movements,  good  or 
bad,  which  for  a  long  time  past  have  taken  place  in  the  Peninsula. 

The  revenue  of  Spain,  though  levied  with  little  regard  to  the  comfort  and  well-being  of 
the  subject,  has  never  risen  to  any  great  amount.  Yet  she  is  the  only  power  which  ever 
derived  any  from  her  colonies;  as  the  qninta,  or  royal  fifth  of  the  mines  of  Mexico  and  Peru, 
after  every  deduction,  brought  home  considerable  treasure;  but  this  source  of  wealth  is  now 
withdrawn.  The  other  taxes  were  the  most  ruinous  to  industry  and  trnde  ever  contrived 
by  any  government.  The  alcavala,  or  impost  upon  each  transference  of  commodities  from 
one  hand  to  another,  seems  expressly  destined  to  impose  fetters  upon  commerce ;  whilo  the 
royal  monopolies  of  salt,  Icmd,  powder,  tobacco,  nnd  other  articles  in  general  use,  have  the 
usual  pernicious  ofTecLs.  Combined  with  those  prohibitory  clnnsos,  by  which  Spain  endea- 
voured without  success  to  prevent  her  indu.strious  neighlxiurs  from  s\ipplying  the  wants  of 
Ivor  American  colonies,  they  gave  rise  to  a  vast  contraband,  carried  on  in  almost  open  defiance 
of  government.    Hence  the  taxation  of  Spain,  though  highly  oppressive  to  the  nation,  yields 


% 


?ART  III. 

iniHiimcnt 
!i|;ii!t  had 
i(!r  corrc- 
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lich  Hpain 
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niHiiod  it! 
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tmcnt  and 
r,  than  the 

)ecn  made, 
f^  or  liberal 
torn  of  uni- 
ury  veto  to 
wealthy  and 
t  easy,  first 
1  plenitude 

icicnt  orga- 
yscA  ill  part 
ri)curadores 
7.ons.  The 
anutcd  from 

>ride  beyond 
li  tiio  right 
lines  less  by 
ly  with  each 
upon  single 
')iisuna,  and 
iro  adminis- 
inanagcd  by 
iistoniahing 
39,  however, 
their  feudal 
ho  hidalffos, 
fi  numerous, 
[Ion  roduccd 
ch  has  been 
strious  birth 
iny  mixture 
tliat  no  time 
minds  par- 
(nts,  good  or 

pll-l)ping  of 
which  ever 
CD  iind  Peru, 
iiltii  is  now 
cr  rnntrivcd 
iiKlitics  from 
1 ;  wiiile  tlie 
HP,  have  the 
4paiii  pndoa- 
;ho  wants  of 
)ppn  defiance 
lation,  yields 


Book  I. 


SPAIN. 


671 


very  littlo  to  thn  crown ;  Iwinj,'  in  a  great  ineaHiiru  ahwirbnd  by  tim  suptmrt  of  liip  individuals 
nmployoil  in  itH  coilfiction,  who  are  wiiil  tu  aiiiotint  to  lU.ftTiO.  Aitliiuigh,  tliiTciurc,  lii(>  vntiro 
sum  tnkoii  I'roiii  the  pcDpIc  has  Immmi  HU!<pocted  not  to  fall  short  of  r2,0UU,IKM)/.  Ktrriing,  the 
receipt  liy  govtTiiiiKUit  iii  iH'iH  did  not  cxcoimI  0,))H(MMN)/.  The  expenditure  in  that  year 
was  tor  I  lie  armv,  '-.'.(ttCMMMM. ;  navy,  400,(KKM. ;  marine,  lAlV^M. :  iiiHtico,  11"),(H)0/. ;  statu, 
1(N^,(NNI/. ;  royal  iiiiiischold,  r)(>'i,(MN)/.  At  the  huiiiu  time,  S(iain  is  hurdened  with  u  debt  of 
160,IMH(,(HKM.  stpriiiig,  of  which  the  revenue  would  bo  wholly  inailequato  to  defray  the  inte- 
rest, had  not  more  tiian  half  consisted  of  the  rot/al  iifl/m,  which  do  not  bear  any.  Under  the 
constitutional  government  a  (^oiiHidorablo  addition  of  debt  was  incurred,  which,  however, 
Ferdinand  VII.  cleared  off  by  refusing  to  acknowledge  it;  while  he  himself  ineffectually 
attempted  to  raise  a  loan  to  any  amount. 

The  navy,  at  the  commencement  of  the  late  war,  was  at  least  respcctoble,  ond  a  furmi- 
dablo  auxiliary  to  France.  Tli<.>  tiitiil  days  of  St.  Vincent  and  Trafiilgar,  and  the  tVuitleia 
expeditions  to  South  America,  reduced  it  to  a  feeble  state.  In  1620  it  consisted  often  ships 
of  the  line,  sixteen  frigates,  and  thirty  smaller  vessels. 

The  army  of  Hpain,  which  under  Charles  V.  and  Philip  waa  the  bravest  and  most  formi- 
dable in  Europe,  has  tor  a  century  and  a  half  enabled  her  to  rank  very  low  among  military 
nations.  It  is,  however,  at  present  the  best  organised  part  of  her  ebtablishnient.  According 
to  the  author  of  "  A  Year  in  SfNtin,"  it  consists  of  2.5,(MH)  royal  guards,  and  •'>.'),0(K)  troops 
of  the  line  and  provincial  militia,  which,  being  commanded  by  experienced  officers,  formed 
during  a  period  of  protracted  warfare,  possess  a  considerable  degree  of  efficiency;  and  their 
discontent  being  an  object  of  dread,  every  effort  is  made  to  pay  them  regularly.  The  royalist 
volunteers,  amounting  to  about  300,000  men,  formed  a  band  of  anned  fanatics  almost  entirely 
under  the  command  of  the  priests  and  monks,  and  seeking  in  their  favour  to  lord  it  both  over 
king  and  people. 

Sect.  V. — Productive  Industry. 

In  respect  to  industry  and  wealth,  Spain,  which  had  every  opportunity  within  and  without 
of  becoming  the  foremost  nation  of  Kurope,  is,  in  fact,  the  poorest  and  the  most  uncultivated. 
The  insecurity  of  property,  and  the  multiplied  restraints  imposed  by  an  unenlightened  govern- 
ment, appear  to  bo  the  main  causes  which  have  paralyzed  all  branches  of  industry.  The 
furious  bigotry  of  its  monarchs,  in  particular,  led  to  the  most  suicidal  acts  against  the  public 
weal.  At  the  commencement  of  the  fifloenth  century,  the  country  contained  a  numerous 
population  of  Jews  and  Moors,  who  formed  its  most  industrious  and  wealthy  inhabitants,  and 
rendered  it  the  most  flourishing  kingdom  in  Europe.  The  .Tews,  unless  in  the  alternative  of 
feigned  conversion,  were  expelled  from  the  kingdom  by  Ferdinand  .and  Isabella,  the  Moora 
by  Philip  III.  Although  it  appears  to  be  upon  exaggerated  estimates  that  Spain  has  ever 
been  supposed  to  have  previously  contained  20,000,(HIO  of  people,  yet  it  cannot  be  doubted 
that  the  emigration  of  mercantile  communities,  with  their  capital  and  machinery,  must  have 
struck  deeply  at  the  root  of  the  national  prosperity. 

Spanish  agriculture,  it  must  be  confessed,  has  some  obstacles  to  struggle  against.  The 
territory,  as  we  have  had  occasion  to  observe,  is  traversed  in  every  direction  by  chains  of 
rugged,  and  often  barren,  mountains.  Yet  these  elevated  provinces  being  the  seats  of  com 
parative  liberty  and  industry,  are  on  the  whole  the  best  cultivated  and  the  most  populous 
The  great  extent  and  continuity  of  these  chains  certainly  present  serious  difficulties  to  the 
transport  of  grain.  When  government  were  bringing  a  supply  from  Old  Castile  to  the  capital, 
it  was  found  that  .30,000  beasts  of  burden  were  necessary  to  carry  2000  quarters.  Another 
great  impediment  to  effective  agriculture  consists  in  the  habit,  partly  oriental,  partly  formed 
during  a  long  internal  warfare,  which  leads  the  farmers  to  crowd  into  towns,  and  thus  live 
often  at  many  miles*  distance  from  the  fields  which  they  cultivate.  In  many  cases  they 
merely  pitch  tlieir  tents  during  seed-time  and  harvest,  and  at  other  seasons  pay  only  occa- 
sional visits.  They  are  also  very  poor,  destitute  of  capital,  and  oppressed  by  the  burden  of 
tithes  and  other  exactions. 

The  grain  produced  in  Spain  is  of  admirable  quality ;  the  wheat  of  Andalusia  bearing 
a  price  of  ten  or  fifteen  per  cent,  higher  than  that  of  any  foreign  wheat  brought  to  the  mar- 
kets of  Cadiz.  But  a  deplorable  defect  appears,  when  it  is  stated  that  Spain,  a  country 
purely  agricultural,  does  not  grow  com  for  her  own  use,  but  makes  a  regular  importation. 
This,  however,  according  to  fi)urgoing,  amounts  only  to  2,000,000  fanegas  or  400,000  quar- 
ters ;  a  small  proportion  of  the  entire  consumption,  which  may  be  estimoted  at  12,000,000 
of  quorters.  The  agriculture  of  Spain,  however,  produces  three  valuable  articles ;  wool,  wine, 
and  barilla. 

The  wool  of  the  merino  is  of  almost  unrivalled  fineness,  though  dearly  purchased  by  the 
system  upon  which  it  is  protluced.  Vast  flocks,  amounting  to  20,000,  IBO.IXX),  or  even  60,000, 
belong  to  the  grandees,  convents,  and  dignitaries  of  Spain.  After  being  pastured,  during 
summer,  on  the  sides  of  the  mountains  of  Leon  and  Old  Castile,  they  descend,  in  winter, 
chiefly  to  the  plains  of  Estremadura.  According  to  the  rules  of  the  powerful  society  of  the 
mesla,  composed  of  the  above  high  members,  they  must  pass  freely,  and  be  allowed,  on  pay- 


! 


i  I 


i!  I 


(I 


DESCRIPTIVE  OEOORAPHY. 


Past  III 


mont  of  a  vnr^  inadoqiiato  rent,  to  paaturo  iiprtn  all  tlio  uiinnciaMed  lumln,  wliicli  fitriii  lliis 
bulk  of  tliiHMi  in  Hpsin.  Tho  entire  numU'r  of  Nhiu'it  in  all  i)it<M)  wumli^rinK  Hockii  in  ruckonod 
at  n,(NM>,(HN);  unil  Uiere  aru  u  ({rvat  niniitM>r  which  riiiuniii  Htntiunsry,  iimi  inijoy  nriviloifaa 
noarly  ainiilur.  The  annual  ahtiarinK  tuki>H  plucu  on  a  utvnl  M^alo,  and  with  inucli  cuiobra* 
tion;  and  the  wool  w  carotUlly  unrtud  into  thrro  kindii,  acrnrdin((  tu  tho  pitrt  of  thu  liody 
fVom  which  it  ia  taken. 

The  winea  of  Mpuin  are  pmducod  on  the  flno  piaina  of  tho  louthern  provincca.  The 
moat  important  ia  tho  Xorra  or  Nherry,  which  huH  coinn  into  audi  (^tuinrul  umi  with  the 
Englinh  nation.  Mr.  Jacob  rcckonn  that  4(MH)()  pi|M>a  art)  priHiiiccd  in  thn  ulain  of  Xnrea ; 
of  which  15,(NI0  are  exported,  altnoat  tiiu  wiiuln  to  En^fliind.  Aruund  Muliiua  ia  inado 
wine  atill  more  valiiud,  thoujrh  not  in  hucIi  (|iiantity ;  which,  u  hen  whit<<,  ia  culled  muun- 
tain,  when  red,  lent  (tinto;.  The  northern  und  central  pivvincea  yield  wine  only  of 
inferior  value. 

Barilla,  tho  flneat  known  apocioa  of  aahoa,  and  hivbly  uacfbl  in  ^lasa-makinff,  bleaching, 

'and  other  pnxiOHaoa,  is  procured  bv  burnint;  variuuM  apecica  of  aaluio  and  uroiimtic  planla 

in  the  provincoa  of  Murcia  and  Vnlnncin,  and  ia  ono  of  tho  few  articlea  which  otiuir  nation* 

can  nowhero  olae  procure  of  equally  f^ood  quality,     8ilk  and  oil,  in  tho  Mediterranean  pro- 

fincea,  arc  only  limited  by  the  want  of  culture  or  demand. 

Tho  manufiicturca  of  Spain  liave  been  of  little  importance  aince  tho  expulaion  of  the 
Moora.  That  induatrioua  poople  intruluced  the  ailk  manufacture;  a  branch  entirely  auited 
to  a  country  where  the  material  In  produced  in  tho  greatctit  perfection  ;  but  it  ia  now  gene- 
rally decayed,  unloaa  in  Valencia,  where  it  waM  Huppoacd  lately  to  employ  iVM)  people. 
The  bladoa  of  Toledo  were  once  (itmoua  over  Eiiro|)e,  and  tho  city  haa  atill  a  royal  manii* 
fkctory  of  aworda,  though  of  little  importancn.  Tho  Hpaninh  government  liua  devoted  rather 
an  oxtmordinary  attention  to  manufacturcH,  but  iiiifortiinatcly  ncekH  to  promote  them  by  the 
king  becoming  nimaelf  the  producer.  Ho  haa  catabliHiicd  a  great  factory  of  broadcloth  at 
Gui^alaxani,  which,  having  flno  materials  nt  hand,  ii*  rather  thriving.  Yet  Spain  doca  not 
nipply  heraelf  with  fine  cloth.  Other  royal  worka  arc  those  <if  porcelain,  at  San  Udefonao; 
paper,  in  Segovia ;  carda  and  tapestry  at  Madrid :  all  rather  for  ahow  than  uno. 

Commerce,  for  which  Spain  seemeti  to  havo  monopoliaed  the  most  extensive  materiala, 
haa  long  been  in  a  state  at  least  oa  low  and  deprosacd  aa  any  other  branch.  It  has  suflbred 
•evercly,  indeed,  fVom  the  immense  importance  attached  to  it  by  tho  government,  which 
actually  cniahed  it  to  pieces  in  the  atte...pt  to  prevent  any  portion  fVom  escaping.  To  ab- 
sorb within  their  own  circle  tiie  entire  trooxures  of  Mexico  and  Peru,  was  tiiu  iirst  policy 
of  tho  Siianish  sovereigns.  Tho  gold  and  Nilvor  of  thoso  regions  were  to  be  brought  exclu- 
sively to  Spain,  never  to  be  taken  out  of  it,  and  only  the  prcxluco  and  nmnufucturcH  of  that 
country  to  be  sent  in  exchange.  By  a  aod  fatality,  the  commerce  of  the  loionicH  waa  car- 
ried on  almost  entirety  by  French  and  English  nierclmiits ;  nearly  all  the  goods  exported 
thither  wero  foreign;  and  Spain,  of  all  her  neighbours,  wns  tho  most  destitute  of  tho  wealth 
accruing  ftom  this  trade.  These  colonics,  with  the  exception  of  Cuba  and  tiie  Philippines, 
tre  now  gone,  and  with  them  the  greatness  of  Cadiz,  which,  by  the  absurd  monopoly  granted 
to  her,  became  one  of  the  principal  emporia  of  Europe.  The  trade  of  Spain  consista  now 
in  tho  export  of  wines,  firuits,  brandies,  wool,  silk  raw  and  manufactured,  lead,  quicksilver, 
barilla,  and  a  few  other  articles,  whicli,  according  to  a  very  imperfect  document,  issued  by 
the  Spanish  government,  amounted  in  1B26  to  about  l,r)84,0()0{.  Of  this,  4t41,000/.  was 
stated  to  be  to  the  colonies.  Her  imports  consist  of  sugar,  cocoa,  salt  fish,  spices,  wood, 
rice,  butter  and  cheese,  hides,  cotton  wool,  and  almost  every  species  of  manufactured  com- 
modity. Thejr  are  stated  for  the  same  year  at  about  3,267,(K)0/.,  of  which  7'24,0U(M.  was 
fh>m  the  colonies. 

Internal  communication  is  a  particular  in  which  Spain  actually  labours  under  natural  dia- 
advantages,  from  tho  obstructed  navigation  of  its  rivers,  and  ite  long  and  steep  chains  of 
mountains.  These  obstacles  the  government  has  endeavoured  to  surmount  by  vast  but  ill- 
executed  projects  of  improvement.  They  had  conceived  the  plan  of  a  grand  canal,  which, 
passing  through  Asturias,  Old  Castile,  and  Aragon,  might  join  the  Mediterranean  with  the 
Bay  of  Biscay.  Of  this  mighty  undertaking,  only  two  small  portions  exist ;  the  canal  of 
Aragon,  running  parallel  to  the  Ebro  from  Sarogossa,  and  that  of  Old  Castile  along  the 
Pistierga  and  Carrion  by  Placencia ;  but  as  neither  of  tiiem  makes  any  approach  to  tho  sea, 
their  benefit  is  very  limited.  The  main  roads  maintained  by  government  between  Madrid 
and  the  other  great  cities  are  good,  and  the  mails  well  conducted ;  but  most  of  the  other 
communications  are  mere  tracks  worn  by  the  feet  of  mules,  which  are  chiefly  employed  in 
the  conveyance  of  goods. 

Snrr.  VI. — Civil  and  Social  State. 

The  population  of  Spain,  according  to  a  census  made  in  1708,  amounte<l  to  10,851,000. 
It  was  generally  understood,  however,  tliat  the  jealousy  of  the  people,  ond  all  the  obstacles 
usually  encountored  in  such  undertakings,  operated  to  a  peculiar  extent  in  diminishing  the 


Part  III 

!li  fiiriii  lhi< 
iiiri'cknnod 
I  nrivili'ifCN 
icli  colobn- 
of  tliu  Ixxly 

nccH.  The 
au  with  the 
1  of  Xnro«  i 
ira  in  made 
illed  m»M»- 
iiu  only  of 

,  blcacliin((i 
lutiu  planUi 
thar  natioiM 
'ruiioan  pro- 

Uion  of  tho 
liroly  suited 
» now  gene- 
IKK)  peuple. 
royal  iiianii- 
voted  rather 
tlioin  by  the 
rniiilcloth  at 
ain  does  not 
.n  Ildefbnao; 

o  inatcriale, 
liu)  Huifered 
mcnt,  which 
ng.  To  ab- 
u  first  policy 
DUfjlit  exclu- 
urcH  of  that 
iea  wafl  car- 
xls  exported 
f  the  wealth 
Philippinei, 
poly  granted 
onsists  now 
quicksilver, 
It,  itwucd  by 
41,(K)0/.  was 
ipiccs,  wood, 
ictured  com- 
24,0U0I.  was 

natural  dis- 
'p  chains  of 
vast  but  ill- 
anal,  which, 
Ran  with  the 
he  canal  of 
le  along  the 
h  to  the  sea, 
,vcnn  Madrid 
of  the  other 
employed  in 


10,351,000. 
the  obstoclea 
linishing  the 


Booil. 


SPAIN. 


678 


anuiunt.  The  cenmu,  in  17H7-^,  gave  tmly  10,aflH,(K)J»,  of  which  lfW,(100  wore  cliiirch* 
inmi ;  ami  uniong  thc»o,  (n,(MN)  wrni  ninnki*,  and  :N,.')(|iO  nuiw.  Thurti  were  4H0,()00  hi- 
dulguN;  :(.|,(MNI  niurclmiitit  1  MMNM)  nmnuliiclun'ri*-,  ini,(NK)  artiianai  1NI7,(NNI  |N<ii«ant«; 
WHMNNI  iliiy-lulxiiiritrM;  tHMNNI  douit'ittic  laalu  vvrvnntK.  A  cunmw  waa  undertaken  in  1N*J(), 
whicli  wuM  nut  iiiily  oinipictud,  but  carried  lo  far  a«  to  prove  tliut  tho  numtier  of  inhabituntM 
niUHt  Ihi  connidi  riilily  grcuttT  ttian  tho  above:  it  i»  eiitunutml  by  Minanoat  i:),7!)VS,00U ;  by 
llaMtol  nt  i:i,U.'^:MNH). 

Till!  national  character  of  tho  Hfiuniurd  in  marked  by  striking  featurcn.  The  genuine 
H|Ninianl  ii«  grave,  proud,  advontumuii,  romantic,  honourable,  and  generous.  It  has  been 
insinuated  that  this  in  the  Hpnniard  of  the  lixteonlh  century,  of  whom  tho  Hunniant  of  tho 

ftresent  day  is  only,  as  it  were,  the  shadow,  Hut  though  the  higher  ranks  nave  certainly 
ust  the  original  Htump,  and  becoiiiu  ftivolous  and  4tisHi|)iited,  tho  body  of  the  people,  and 
es|>eciully  the  |N!UMiintry,  form  a  very  fine  race.  Even  among  tho  foniier,  the  lute  troubles 
bn>uglit  llirward  signal  displays  of  lieroism,  though,  as  too  ollen  happens  in  such  cases. 
e(pially  linxe  (<xamptes  of  trenrhery.  In  ttie  virtue  and  wisdom  of  tlie  liest  Himniardn,  there 
is  apt  to  1)0  MJinuthing  ii|)<!cuiutivn  and  theoreticul,  not  applicable  to  the  practinil  purposes 
of  life ;  u  want  of  the  wisdom  of  oction.  !i<  proH|icrous  circumstances  they  readily  give 
way  to  siipinoiiess  and  false  cimfldcnce ;  but  in  sudden  and  overwhelming  vicisxitudcH, 
which  sink  the  spirit  of  others,  their  latent  energies  are  roused,  and  they  display  unexpected 
and  surprising  resonrces.  Altlinugh  nssasiiination,  which  was  once  the  reproach  of  Hnain, 
is  greatly  diminislie<l,  yet  a  promi>titude  to  light  and  to  shed  blood,  characteristic  of  all  na- 
tions imperfectly  civilised,  is  still  prevalent  It  is  accompanied  with  a  readiness  to  rise  in 
tumultuary  insurrections,  and  an  unwillingness  to  submit  to  the  restraints  of  discipline. 
Tho  jealousy  which  was  wont  to  dwell  so  deep  and  dark  in  the  mind  of  tho  Hpanish  hus- 
band, has  licim  siijierseded  by  a  general  laxity  of  morals.  Tho  custom  is  said  to  prevail,  that 
every  inarriiid  lady  should  have  a  citrtrjo  or  gallant,  corresponding  to  the  Italian  cici$bto; 
and  though  the  usage  may  not  bo  so  decidedly  criminal  as  it  appears  to  strangers,  it  is  cer- 
tainly inconsistent  with  those  habits  and  feelings  which  form  the  felicity  of  the  matrimonial 
state.  Ill  this  singular  relation,  fixed  rules  are  obscrveil,  and  a  certain  fidelity  is  exacted  ; 
the  jealousy  of  tho  husband  is  assumed  by  the  cnrtrjn ;  and  the  lady  who  changes,  at  least 
with  any  frequency,  this  object  of  attachment,  loses  riute  in  the  eyes  of  the  public. 

The  religious  state  of  Hpain  need  only  bu  mentioned  to  suggest  the  dark  and  gloomy  fea- 
tures by  which  it  is  marked.  That  bigotry  and  sii|wrstition  which  the  Romixh  lliith  con- 
tracted during  ages  of  darkness,  and  which  in  all  other  countries  is  so  much  iilmted,  retains 
nearly  its  full  force  in  Spain.  The  Inquisition,  that  fVightful  tribunal,  the  disgrace  of  modem 
Europe,  which  hero  held  its  central  seat,  kept  alive  its  fires  against  all  who  exercised  their 
reason  on  a  subject  connected  with  the  national  faith.  The  order  'of  Jesuits,  who  have  been 
callixl  the  militia  of  the  Romish  church,  originated  also  in  this  country.  The  Inquisition 
perished  in  the  late  struggle;  yet  a  numerous  body  still  call  aloud  tor  its  re-establishment; 
and  the  most  liberal  rulers,  whom  the  revolution  raised  to  power,  durst  not  attempt  any  ap- 
proach to  toleration,  or  to  trench  upon  the  "  Catholic  religion  one  and  indivisible."  This 
spirit  of  bigotry  and  superstition  is  deeply  difl'used  through  the  nation,  who,  if  they  no  longer 
demand  that  heretics  shall  be  committed  to  the  flames,  never  doubt  at  least  of  the  future 
tortures  to  which  they  arc  destined.     All  the  childish  and  absurd  customs  which  marked  its 

firevalcnce  during  the  dark  ages,  are  preserved  nearly  unaltered  ;  the  processions  and  ex- 
libitions,  in  whicn  tho  events  of  sacred  history  are  represented,  often  in  a  fkmiliar  and  ludi- 
crous manner ;  the  endless  festivals,  which  impoverish  tho  nation,  and  iavoor  its  natural 
indolence;  and  the  zeal  of  multitudes,  who  are  induced  by  mistaken  piety  to  withdraw 
themselves  from  their  families  and  the  world.  Mr.  Blanco  White  has  given  a  striking 
account  of  the  artifices  by  which  the  young  female  ia  led  to  make  the  irrevocable  sacrifice ; 
the  respect  and  importance  attached  to  her  during  the  period  of  noviciate ;  the  ceremonies, 
which  resemble  those  of  marriage,  even  the  name  of  bride  being  given  to  her;  and  the  dis- 
grace attached  to  a  retractation.  Yet  it  appears  evident,  fi^om  the  same  author,  that  this 
profession  is  oflen  deeply  sincere;  that  it  aids  in  producing  that  strong  moral  feeling  which 
prevails  throughout  the  nation;  that  many  are  even  tormented  by  minute  conscientious 
scruples ;  and  that,  with  such  persons,  absolution,  founded  on  false  pretensions  to  penitence, 
is  considered  us  aggravating  the  guilt.  At  the  same  time,  there  is  a  conibinatic.n  of  deep 
devotion  and  dissolute  conduct,  which  not  only  rapidly  succeed  each  other,  but  actually  co- 
exist, in  a  manner  never  seen  in  any  Protestant  society.  It  may  be  observed,  that  amitf  this 
thick  darkness  which  covers  the  nation,  a  bcxly  of  men  has  lately  arisen,  of  active  and  en- 
quiring minds,  who  have  discerned  the  orrors  of  the  national  creed,  anil  huvo  passed  to  tho 
opposite  extreme.  They  are  comparatively  few  in  number,  however ;  and,  as  already  ob- 
served, even  in  their  greatest  triumph,  although  they  considerably  reduced  the  conventual 
establishments  of  Spain,  they  never  durst  attempt  to  introduce  the  toleration  of  any  form  of 
worship  different  from  the  Catholic. 
Spanish  literature,  during  the  era  of  the  national  glory,  supported  itself  at  least  on  b 


t  '1 


•     ,f 


74 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Past  ID. 


level  with  that  of  any  other  nation  in  Europe.  Spain  hod,  as  it  were,  a  literature  to  itself, 
scarcely  any  of  ihe  productions  of  which,  if  we  except  the  inimitable  satire  of  Cervantes, 
became  familiar  to  the  reft  of  Europe.  During  the  middle  age,  she  was  rich  in  chivalric 
romance,  the  titsto  for  which,  however,  was  banisiicd  by  the  appearance  of  Don  Quixote,  a 
cliango  which  some  lament,  us  having  led  to  the  decline  of  the  national  spirit.  The  poetry 
of  Spain,  ruusnil  by  po  many  vicissitudes  of  internal  revolution  and  transmarine  triumph, 
took  a  somewhat  lolly  flight.  The  Araucana  of  Ercilla,  celebrating  her  conquests  in  the 
New  World,  is  named  together,  though  not  on  a  level,  with  the  best  modern  epics.  Gar- 
cilasso  do  la  Vega,  Villegas,  Mendoza,  and  others,  chiefly  officers  in  the  army  of  Charles  V,, 
introduced  a  stj-le  formed  on  the  Italian  model ;  and,  having  the  advantage  of  a  noble  and 
sonorous  language,  worked  up  their  verses  to  the  highest  polish.  But  it  is  in  the  drama, 
that  the  Spaniards  have  been  chiefly  distinguished.  Lope  de  Vega  and  Calderon,  indeed, 
construct  their  plots  with  an  entire  disregard  of  the  unities,  filled  with  extravagant  incidents, 
and  strained  and  artificial  sentiments.  But  they  display  an  inexhaustible  fertility  of  inven- 
tion, and  often  strong  traits  of  character ;  so  that,  though  they  never  could  be  transferred 
entire  to  any  other  stage,  they  furnished  useful  hmts  both  to  the  French  and  English  dra- 
matists. Mariana's  History  of  Spain  ranks  among  classical  productions ;  while  Herrera  and 
Solis,  though  of  inferior  merit,  have  produced  valuable  histories  of  the  Spanish  transactions 
in  the  New  World.  To  Don  Antonio  de  Solis,  the  Spaniards  are  willing  to  ascribe  that  in- 
imitable satire  on  human  character  and  manners,  Gil  Bias,  which  must,  they  say,  have  been 
written  by  a  Spaniard  and  a  courtier.  As  such,  he  might  rejoice  that  it  had  amply  fulfilled 
his  intentions  without  compromising  his  security,  and  could  very  well  afford  to  dispense  with 
the  fame  which  redounded  to  its  reputed  author,  Le  Sage.  These  writers  belong  to  the 
classic  age  of  f'pain,  which  nearly  expired  with  the  seventeenth  century ;  but  of  late,  the 
intellectual  spirit  which  has  spread  so  actively  throughout  Europe,  has  penetrated  into 
Spain,  and  made  vigorous  struggles  against  the  night  of  ignorance  and  prejudice  in  which 
that  country  was  involved.  Campomanes,  Ustariz,  Jovellanos,  and  Arguelles,  have  endea- 
voured to  trace  the  causes  which  have  paralysed  Spanish  industry,  and  to  discover  tlie  means 
of  reviving  it ;  Feyjod  has  done  much  to  rouse  a  spirit  of  reflection ;  Yriarte,  Isla,  and  Me- 
lendez  Valdez,  have  produced  agreeable  miscellaneous  writings ;  and  Moratin  has  adopted  a 
more  regular  drama,  formed  on  the  French  model.  There  are  extensive  public  libraries ; 
one,  the  royal  library  in  Madrid,  consisting  of  130,000  volumes,  with  valuable  manuscripts, 
and  a  rich  collection  of  medals  ;  and  others  in  the  great  provincial  towns ;  but  the  preva- 
lence of  monkish  legends,  and  the  prohibition  of  many  of  the  most  important  standard  works, 
greatly  limit  their  value.  The  universities  arc  numerous,  and  thut  of  Salamanca  once  per- 
haps the  most  celebrated  in  Europe  ;  but  education  being  conducted  upon  obsolete  and  scho- 
lastic principles,  and  impregnated  with  the  national  bigotry,  they  have  long  ceased  to  attract 
students  from  any  place  out  of  Spain.  Some  of  the  younger  members  were  supposed  to 
have  embraced  novel  ideas  in  regard  to  religion  and  government ;  whence  they  have  become 
objects  of  jealousy  to  the  government,  which  will  probably  be  little  anxious  to  rescue  them 
from  that  decay  into  which  they  were  thrown  by  the  events  of  the  revolution. 

The  fine  arts,  especially  painting,  could  boast  in  Spain  of  a  dis- 
tinguished Echool,  marked  by  features  strikingly  national  and 
original.  It  is  characterised  by  depth,  force,  great  truth  of  nature, 
and  a  warm  expression  of  devotional  feeling.  Murillo,  Ribeim 
(self-named  Spagnoletto),  and  Velasquez,  are  those  alone  whose 
works  are  difiused  throughout  Europe ;  but  by  those  who  have 
visited  Spain,  Cano,  Juanes,  Ribalta,  and  Morales  are  mentioned 
in  terms  of  equal  praise.  The  Escurial  and  other  royal  palaces 
are  likewise  adorned  by  some  of  the  finest  pieces  of  Raphael, 
Titian,  and  Rubens.  This  taste  seems  to  have  declined  with 
that  of  literature ;  and  Townshend  observed  that  the  nobles  set 
little  value  on  the  magnificent  collections  with  which  their 
palaces  were  adorned.  Of  late  the  efforts  to  revive  painting 
have  been  considerable,  but  without  producing  any  artists  of  much 
celebrity.  The  Spaniards  are  fond  of  music,  but  delight  rather 
in  detached  airs  for  the  serenade  and  ball,  than  in  that  higher 
class  in  which  the  Italians  and  Germans  excel.  The  guitar  (Jig.  808.)  as  an  accompaniment 
for  song,  and  the  castanets  for  the  national  dance,  arc  characteristic  Spanish  instruments. 

The  Spaniards  have  favourite  and  peculiar  diversions.  They  are  most  passionately 
attached  to  tlie  bull-fight :  a  large  space  is  enclosed,  sometimes  the  great  square  of  the  city, 
around  which  the  people  sit  as  in  an  amphitheatre.  The  bull,  being  introduced,  is  first 
attacked  by  the  picadores,  or  horsemen  armed  with  spears;  a  desperate  conflict  ensues;  the 
horse  is  fi-equently  killed  or  overturned  with  his  rider,  when  persons  on  foot  run  in,  and 
distract  the  animal,  by  holding  up  different  kinds  of  coloured  stuffs.  He  is  next  attacked  by 
banderilleros,  or  footmen  armed  with  arrows ;  and  not  only  their  skill,  but  their  dexterity  in 


The  Ouitu. 


■,« 


y,., 


Book  I. 


SPAIN. 


575 


809 


escape,  are  the  subjects  of  admiration :  at  last,  when  the  animal  is  completely  covered  witf. 

wounds,  the  matador  or  slayer  appears,  and  closes 
the  scene.  Tumultuous  applause  or  liJBi^ing  from  the 
populace  accompanies  every  part  of  this  savage  per- 
formance, according  to  the  respective  merits  of  the 
bull  or  his  assailants.  The  comparative  excellence 
of  different  raatodores  becomes  otlcn  a  party  question, 
and  the  suMect  of  keenly  agitated  discussion  in  tlie 
circles  of  Madrid.  Wounds  frequently,  and  dcatli 
sometimes,  are  the  result  to  the  actors  in  tliis  exhi- 
bition, for  whose  benefit  a  priest  with  holy  water  is 
in  regular  attendance.  Not  less  is  the  fondness  fur 
the  dance,  particularly  under  its  national  forms  of 
the  fandango  (Jig.  3(}0.),  the  bolero,  and  the  guan- 
acko,  performed  with  the  Castanet  in  the  hands ;  and 
The  Fandanio.  tj,g  ^y/Q  former  especially  consisting  chiefly  in  move- 

ments expressive  of  passion,  but  so  little  consonant  to  the  rules  of  decorum,  that  the  indul 
gcnce  shown  to  these  amusements  by  the  church  cannot  but  be  regarded  as  a  matter  of  sur- 
prise. > 

The  dress  of  the  Spaniards  is  antique,  and  varies  much  accordmg  to  the  different  provinces ; 
that  of  the  ladies  consists  chiefly  of  a  petticoat  and  a  large  mantilla  or  veil,  coveruig  the 
upper  part  of  the  person.  The  grandees,  and  the  opulent  in  general,  display  a  profusion  of 
jewels ;  the  dress  of  the  men  is  slight,  and  closely  fitted  to  the  body,  with  the  exception  of 
a  loose  cloak  thrown  over  the  whole.  The  minister,  Squillace,  under  Charles  III,,  having 
conceived  that  these  cloaks,  by  concealing  the  person,  served  as  a  cover  to  deeds  of  violence, 
stationed  persons  at  the  comers  of  the  streets,  who  seized  the  passengers,  and  forcibly  cut 
down  this  part  of  their  dress  to  the  legal  dimensions ;  but  this  measure  raised  so  violent  and 
general  a  clamour,  that  the  king  was  forced  to  appease  it  by  the  sacrifice  of  the  minister 
who  had  attempted  such  an  obnoxious  curtailment. 

Both  in  eating  and  drinking  the  Spaniards  are  temperate ;  the  only  noted  national  dish  is 
the  oUa  podrida,  in  which  various  meats,  vegetables,  and  herbs  are  mixed  together  in  a 
manner  which  even  foreigners  admit  to  be  palatable.  The  pleasures  of  society  are  chiefly 
sought  at  tertulias  or  evening  parties,  where  only  slight  refreshment  is  presented ;  but 
refrescos  or  dinner  parties  are  given  on  a  large  scale  upon  very  special  occasions. 

Sect.  VII. — Local  Geography. 

Of  the  divisions  of  Spain,  the  most  prominent  is  into  kingdoms  or  principalities,  each  of 
which,  at  some  period  of  its  eventful  history,  enjoyed  an  independent  existence,  though  they 
are  now  merged  into  one  monarchy.  More  recently  the  country  has  been  split  into  a  number 
of  smaller  departments  or  jurisdictions ;  but  the  original  distinction  into  kingdoms,  being 
founded  upon  natural  limits,  and  maintained  by  feelings  and  impressions  derived  from  former 
independence,  is  still  the  most  interesting.  The  kingdoms  are  New  Castile,  Estremadura, 
Old  Castile,  Leon,  Galicia,  Asturias,  Biscay,  Navarre,  Catalonia,  Aragon,  Valencia,  Murcia, 
Granada,  and  Andalusia. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  divisions  and  subdivisions  of  Spain,  with  the  extent  and 
population  of  each,  according  to  Hassel : — 

1 


(Madrid 
Toledo 
Guadaiaxara . 
Cucnca  
La  Mancha  ■ . 

Estremadura 

Burgos 

I  Boria 

' I SeRovia  

Avila 

I.ean  

Palencia 

Toro 

Valladolid  ... 

Zamnra 

Salamanca. .. 


Old  Castile 


Leon  . 


Squire 

LeacuM. 


110 

TM 
1C3 
»4S 

ai 

II99 
643 
341 

2no 

SIS 
493 
145 

va 

871 
133 
471 


PftputatioD. 


am.ooo 

485,000 
153,000 
303,000 
257,000 
S5(i,000 
013,000 
267,000 
331,000 
153,000 
311,000 
i  l.'S3,000 
{  136,000 
343,000 
93,000 
373,000 


Asturias 

Galicia 

Catalonia 

Navarre 

(  Biscay 

Biscay <  Guipuscoa  . 

f  Alava 

Aragon  

Valencia  

Murcin 

Granada 

(  Seville 

Andalusia,.  .<  Jaen 

(  Cordova  . . . 


Square 
Lciiguet. 


Populition. 


30R3 

1330 

IU03 

205 

Kl'l 

5i 

902 

12,322 

643 

659 

F05 

7.52 

26« 

348 


5(i5,000  , 

l.SfS.OOO  1 

1,11I>.0(HI 

2W<,000 

145.(100  I 

1.36,00(1  I 

93,000 

R5<i,000  I 

1,255,000  i 

493,0(MI  I 

1,097,000  i 

970,000  I 

377.000 

325,000 


With  New  Castile,  the  central  and  metropolitan  province,  we  commence  our  survey :  it 
consists  chiefly  of  an  extensive  plain  enclosed  between  two  of  the  long  parallel  mountain 
ranges,  the  Sierra  de  Guadarrama  and  the  Sierra  de  Toledo.  Along  this  plain,  and  parallel 
to  both  ranges,  the  Tagus  flows  in  a  deep  rocky  bed.  Beyond  tiie  Sierra  do  Toledo,  the 
district  of  La  Mancha,  which  we  incliide  also  in  New  Castile,  extends  to  a  third  paralle 
mountain  range,  the  Sierra  Morena,  dividing  it  from  Andalusia  and  the  southern  provinces 


ii 


I 


'.rg 


576 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY 


PartUI. 


The  plain  of  Castile  Proper  ia  elevated  and  naked ;  and  being  thus  exposed  to  the  sun's 
direct  rayn,  presents  a  bare  and  parched  appearance.  It  includes,  however,  fertile  valleys, 
producing^  wine,  oil,  grain,  and  fruits  of  various  kinds;  but  the  inhabitants  are  extremely 
deficient  in  every  species  of  industry. 

Madrid  (Jtcf.  310.),  the  capital  of  Castile,  and  of  "all  the  Spains,"  stands  on  several  low 
hills  on  the  iininen^c  Custilian  plain,  which  on  Uie  north  appears  bounded  by  the  high  distant 
range  of  the  Guodarrama,  but  on  every  otlier  side  has  no  visible  termination.  A  small  rivulet, 
the  Manzanares,  flows  post  the  city,  and  foils  into  the  Tagiis,   Madrid  is  a  superb  but  some 

810 


Madrid. 


what  gloomy  capital ;  the  houses  ore  high,  well  built  of  good  stone,  not  de&ced  by  smoke ; 
the  streets  are  well  paved,  and  have  broEid  footpaths.  The  main  street  of  Alcala,  long, 
spacious,  and  bordered  on  each  side  by  a  row  of  princely  houses,  attracts  particular  admira- 
tion. The  Prado,  a  wide  public  walk,  bordered  by  trees,  and  connected  with  gardens  all  open 
to  the  public,  is  equally  conducive  to  ornament  and  pleasure.  There  are  many  public  foun- 
tains, supplied  w  ith  pure,  light,  and  salubrious  water,  filtered  through  beds  of  gravel  and 
sand,  from  a  distance  of  seven  or  eight  leagues.  The  gates  built  by  Charles  III.  are  uncom- 
monly beautiful,  particularly  that  of  Alcala;  but  in  a  miserable  wall  which  might  be  battered 
down  by  a  tliree-pounder  in  half  an  hour.  The  royal  palace,  built  by  Philip  V.,  is  a  spacious 
and  magnificent  structure,  though  the  ta.ste  displayed  in  it  is  a  subject  of  controversy.  It 
contains  numerous  fine  paintings,  which  do  not  equal,  however,  those  of  the  Escurial.  The 
Retire,  with  its  fine  gardens,  was  defaced  by  the  French,  who  made  it  a  military  post;  an 
extensive  and  costly  menagerie  is  now  forming  within  its  precincts.  The  museum  of  sta- 
tuary and  painting,  a  new  and  elegant  building,  has  recently  been  enriched  with  some  of  the 
finest  pictures  from  the  royal  palaces.  The  cabinet  of  natural  history,  supported  by  the 
government,  is  also  a  handsome  structure,  and  its  contents  valuable.  The  environs  of  Madrid 
are  not  remarkable  for  beauty ;  they  are  much  broken  into  hills  and  hollows ;  so  that,  of  the 
200  villages  situated  in  them,  only  three  or  four  can  be  seen  at  once.  Population,  201,000. 

Toledo,  even  in  its  present  decay,  excites  an  interest  equal  or  superior  to  Madrid.  Once 
the  proud  capital  of  Spain,  it  has  a  commanding  site  on  a  lofty  rock,  almost  insulated  by  the 
Tagus.  A  position  so  strong  rendered  it  a  grand  national  bulwark  during  the  long  ages  of 
internal  warfare,  but  occasioned  its  desertion  during  peace,  when  it  was  felt  as  extremely 
inconvenient,  the  streets  being  so  steep  that  a  carriage  can  scarcely  drive  safely  through 
them.  Its  manufactures  of  wool  and  silk,  which  are  said  once  to  have  employed  nearly 
40,000  men,  have  disappeared ;  and  government  has  in  vain  attempted  to  revive  that  of 
swords,  of  which  those  formerly  manufacture<l  at  Toledo  were  valued  above  all  others.  Its 
population  of  200,000  has  been  reduced  to  25,000 ;  and  it  presents  a  mere  mass  of  narrow, 
deserted,  winding,  and  dirty  streets.  Toledo,  however,  still  exhibits  two  grand  monuments ; 
the  Alcazar  or  palace,  and  the  cathedral.  The  former  is  a  noble  and  extensive  pile,  in  a 
pure  style  of  architecture,  and  the  granite  columns  of  the  Corintiiian  order  which  adorn  the 
inner  court  ore  particularly  admired.  The  grand  staircase  and  spacious  gallery,  no  longer 
crowded  with  guards  and  courtiers,  are  now  dirty,  deserted,  and  silent.  The  edifice,  though 
neglected  and  decaying,  still  wears  a  stately  and  imposing  aspect;  "and  its  handsome  front, 
immense  quodrangle,  and  elegant  colonnade,  declare  it  to  have  been  the  pride  and  ornament 
of  a  happier  period."  The  cathedral  is  also  one  of  the  grandest  edifices  in  the  Peninsula. 
It  was  originally  a  mosque,  built  in  a  grand  style  ;  but  its  simplicity  has  been  much  impaired 
by  tasteless  additions,  and  by  the  profusion  of  gilding,  relics,  and  statues,  witli  which  its 
interior  has  been  filled.  It  retained  its  wealtli  and  splendour,  however,  till  the  late  war, 
when  its  treasures  became  the  prey  of  the  invader,  and  its  six  hundred  ecclesiastics  were 
dispersed,  leaving  only  a  few  to  perform  the  sacred  fimctions. 

Two  other  considerable  towns  in  New  Castile  are  Guadalaxara,  to  the  east  of  Madrid, 
where  the  government  has  established  a  manufacture  of  fine  cloth  on  a  great  scale ;  it  is  of 
course  an  ill-conducted  and  unprofitable  concern ;  yet  it  supports  the  population  of  12,000 


Book  I. 


SPAIN. 


&77 


or  14,000  in  a  de<,'rcc  of  comfort  not  usual  in  Spanish  towns :  and  further  cost,  Cuenfa,  tho 
capital  of  a  mountain  district  of  the  same  name,  interposed  between  Valencia  and  the 
plain  of  Castile.  It  is  a  small  ancient  city,  distinguished  by  a  cathedral  and  some  other 
moimments. 

La  Miincha,  sometimes  reckoned  a  separate  province,  is  the  most  southern  part  of  Castile 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  tlie  Sierra  de  Toledo.  It  is  an  immense  table-plain,  inter ' 
scctcd  by  diflcrcnl  ridges  of  low  hills  and  rocks,  without  a  tree  except  a  few  uwarf  evci- 
grcen  oaks ;  or  an  enclosure,  except  mud  walls  round  the  villages.  All  this  vast  tract  of 
open  country  is  cultivated,  and  produces  corn  or  vines :  its  wine,  especially  tliat  of  Val  de 
Peuas,  enjoys  a  high  repute.  Its  name,  however,  is  chiefly  familiar  to  the  public  as  havinff 
given  un  appellation  to  the  celebrated  hero  of  Cervantes.  The  names  of  Don  Quixote  ana 
Sancho  Panza  are  familiar  to  the  district ;  and  the  dress  of  the  peasantry  presents  still  an 
exact  model  of  that  of  the  doughty  squire.  There  are  a  number  of  large  villages ;  and  Ciu- 
dad  Real,  the  capital,  is  well  built  in  a  fine  plain,  though  it  has  lost  much  of  its  former  pros- 
perity.   Almagro  and  Ocaiia  arc  also  pretty  considerable  towns. 

Estremadura  forms  a  continuation  to  the  west  of  the  same  plain  as  New  Castile,  traversed 
like  it  by  the  Tagus,  and  bounded  by  the  same  ranges  of  mountains.  It  is  a  fine,  wide, 
wild  province,  diversified  by  rugged  moimtains,  deep  valleys,  and  almost  boundless  plains. 
The  depopulation  generally  complained  of  in  Spain  seems  more  remarkable  here  than  m  any 
other  province ;  and  vast  tracts  may  be  passed  without  seeing  a  human  habitation.  This 
seems  chiefly  owing  to  the  pernicious  laws  of  the  Mesta,  which  assign  it  almost  entirely  for 
the  occupation  of  the  merino  flocks,  when  they  descend  from  the  mountains  of  Leon.  Estre- 
madura, therefore,  forms  a  vast  pastoral  district ;  only  a  small  proportion  of  its  surface  being 
necessary  to  furnish  grain  for  its  scattered  population.  Yet  the  Romans  made  it  one  of  the 
chief  seats  of  their  dominion ;  and  no  part  of  the  Peninsula  exhibits  more  striking  works 
and  monuments  of  that  great  people.  The  Estremenos  also  retain  much  of  the  antique 
Spanish  aspect  nnd  character :  and  no  province,  during  the  late  crisis,  made  more  striking  dis- 
plays of  patriotic  energy. 

The  cities  are  no  longer  considerable.  Badajos,  the  capital,  a  strange  corruption  of  the 
Roman  name  Pax  Augusta,  is  a  considerable  and  strong  town,  but  much  shattered  by  the 
successive  sieges  it  sustained  in  the  late  war  from  Soult  and  Wellington.  Merida,  the 
ancient  capital  of  Lusitania,  excites  more  interest,  from  the  striking  remains  which  it  pre- 
sents of  Roman  magnificence.  The  amphitheatre,  baths,  a  lofty  triumphal  arch,  three  votive 
altars,  and  a  handsome  stone  bridge,  are  all  mogniflcent  monuments,  and  in  wonderful  pre- 
servation. Truxillo,  an  old  city,  of  small  extent,  was  the  birth-place  of  Pizarro,  whose 
splendid  mansion  is  still  to  be  seen,  adorned  with  barbarous  trophies  of  his  conquest  Alma- 
raz  is  distinguished  chiefly  by  the  very  noble  modem  bridge  adjoining  to  it.  Talavera  de 
la  Reyna,  once  splendid  but  now  decayed,  has  acquired  recent  lustre  from  being  the  theatre 
of  one  of  the  greatest  battles  fought  during  the  peninsular  war.  In  the  extensive  plain 
north  of  the  Tagus  are  the  two  pleasant  little  cities  of  Corio  and  Placencia ;  the  latter  of 
which  was  the  scene  of  the  singular  monastic  retirement  of  Ciiarles  V.  In  the  mountains 
separating  this  part  of  the  province  from  Leon  is  a  rocky  region,  of  the  most  savage  and 
desolate  character,  called  Batuecos. 

Old  Castile  is  situated  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  chain  of  mountains  which  forms  the 
northern  boundary  of  New  Castile.  It  presents  a  high  variegated  table-land,  separated  on 
the  north  by  the  Cantabrian  chain  from  Asturios.  Some  parts  are  rugged ;  but  it  is,  upon 
the  whole,  a  fertile  wnll-watered  region,  traversed  by  the  Duero  m  its  early  course. 
There  are  many  tracts  of  rich  pasturage,  and  others  equally  fitted  for  the  growth  of  com. 
It  is,  however,  one  of  the  provinces  in  which  the  marks  of  decay  are  most  striking.  The 
capitals  are  neglected  and  ruinous ;  large  portions  are  left  uncultivated ;  and  of  the  fine 
manufactures  of  clofli  from  the  merino  wool,  only  a  remnant  is  now  supported  by  the  aid  of 
government.  Castilian  pride  and  indolence  have  fixed  here  their  old  and  central  seat:  the 
hidalgos  belonging  to  Old  Castile  amount  to  146,000,  a  much  larger  proportion  than  in  any 
otlier  province. 

Burgos,  the  once  magnificent  capital  of  the  kinra  of  Castile,  and  the  highest  in  rank  of 
any  city  in  tlio  kingdom,  is  dwindled  into  a  poor  place,  not  containing  above  10,000  inhabit- 
ants. Amid  its  gloomy  and  decayed  oL'sets,  however,  towers  the  cathedral,  one  of  the  finest 
specimens  of  Gotiiic  architecture  existiv./  in  Europe,  and  the  form  of  which  bears  a  con- 
sulorable  resemblance  to  that  of  York  minster.  The  strong  ancient  castle,  which  had  fallen 
into  decay,  wacs  so  fur  ro-e.stablished  by  the  French,  that  it  successfully  stood  a  long  siege 
from  the  Duke  of  Woliington. 

Of  the  other  towns  of  Old  Castile,  Segovia  presents  some  interesting  monuments  of 
Roman  and  Moorish  grandeur.  Its  aqueduct  (Jig.  311.),  of  159  arches,  neorly  half  a  mile- 
long,  and  in  one  place  94  feet  high,  is  a  stupendous  Roman  work,  ranked  by  Swinburne 
above  the  Pont  du  Card.  The  .\lcazar,  or  royal  castle,  was  erected  by  the  Moors  on  a 
rock  overlooking  a  wide  range  of  country.    After  it  came  into  the  possession  of  the  Cliria- 

Vol.  I.  40  aX 


II 


I 


!M 


fpl 


im 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  HI. 


Eieurial. 


tiniis,  it  was  omployod  aa  a  stale  prison,  and  is  now  a  military  school.  Five  cciiturics  nm, 
Segovia  hiul  very  extensive  manufactures  of  fine  cloth;  but  these,  notwithsUmdinff  the 
jj^  ., ,  honour  of  hnvinp  the  king  ihr  a  pnrt- 

•W*.  '  Adii     ner,  have  dwiniilod  to  a  very  siiinll 

amount.  Population  15,00((.  Avila, 
capital  of  a  small  province  of  the 
same  name,  is  a  city  of  ancient  dis- 
tinction; and  its  ninssy  walls,  its 
towers,  its  Alcazar,  and  the  dnino  of 
the  old  cathedral,  render  it  iinposinff 
at  a  distance ;  but  it  is  in  a  state  of 
wretched  desertion.  The  attempt  to 
establish  manufactures  of  cloth  and 
cotton  has  not  been  succcssfiil.  Soria, 
near  the  site  of  the  ancient  Numantia, 
Anucduet  oi  8ci..i..  ^j,  y,^  ^j^^j  ^^„,j  ^f  ^^^^  jj^p^o,  near 

its  source,  is  a  tolerable  country  town,  capital  of  one  of  the  smaller  provinces  into  which 
Old  Castile  has  been  subdivided. 
The  palaces  of  the  Escurial  (,fiff.  312.)  and  San  Ildefonso  are  striking  objects  in  Old  Cas- 
tile. The  "  royal  monastery "  of  the 
Escurial  was  founded  by  Philip  II.  on  a 
plan  entirely  congenial  to  his  gloomy 
mind.  It  unites  the  characters  of  a 
palace  and  a  convent ;  and  has  the  form 
of  a  gridiron,  the  instrument  of  the 
martyrdom  of  St.  I/)renzo,  to  whom  it 
is  dedicated.  Attached  to  it  is  the  Pan- 
theon, a  classic  and  Foinovvhat  profane 
structure,  in  which,  however,  are  in- 
terred nil  the  crowned  kings  and  queens 
of  Spain  since  Charles  V.  The  wealth 
of  the  Spanish  monaruhs  has  been  con- 
tinually employed  in  adding  new  ornaments  to  this  favourite  residence,  which  is  considered 
by  the  nation  as  the  eighth  wonder  of  the  world ;  and  largo  volumes  have  been  filled  with 
descriptions  of  it.  The  church  and  the  great  altar  have  scarcely  a  rival  for  magnificence 
and  grandeur  of  effect.  The  library  is  not  extensive,  but  contains  manuscripts,  especially 
Anibic,  that  are  of  great  value.  The  collection  of  paintings,  it  is  probable,  yields  only  to 
that  wliich  covers  tlie  walls  of  the  Vatican.  Hesides  select  pnxhu'tions  oF  Murillo  and 
other  niasters  of  the  Spmiish  school,  it  contnins  poveral  of  the  greatest  works  of  Raphael, 
Titian,  and  others  of  the  first  Italian  masters.  The  environs  are  wild  and  naked  in  the 
extreme,  without  .shelter  from  the  cold  blasts  of  winter,  or  the  intenst;  heats  of  summer. 
On  the  opposite  declivity  of  tlio  same  moimtaius,  looking  towards  the  north,  San  Ildefonso, 
without  any  pretensions  to  eipitil  magnificence,  is  finely  surrounded  by  woods,  gardens,  and 
beautifiil  jets  d'eau.  Aranjuez  stands  in  quite  a  different  situation,  on  the  lowest  plain  of 
Castile,  at  the  junction  of  tlie  Tagiis  and  the  Xarama.  It  is  chiefly  admired  for  its  mag- 
nificent woods  and  gardens;  the  former  carried  in  long  and  spacious  avenues,  the  latter  con- 
taining in  profiision  the  finest  native  and  exotic  plants. 

Ijeon  fiirms  a  continuation  of  the  plain  of  Old  Castile,  along  the  lower  course  of  the 
Ducro,  and  bounded  by  th(^  same  ranges  of  mountains.  For  several  centuries  it  was  the 
seat  of  a  kingdom,  comprising  the  chief  Christian  power  in  Spain,  until  it  was  united  to  that 
of  Castile.  It  is  almost  entirely  within  the  domain  of  the  7n(slii,  and  thus  devoted  princi- 
pally to  iwstumge.  The  consequent  depopulation  has  been  very  great;  insomuch  that, 
according  to  Townshend,  the  bishopric  of  Siilanmnca,  which  once  coiitiiiiu'd  748  townships, 
is  now  reduced  to  li;33.  The  vast  extent  of  open  plain  which  Coriiis  the  centre  of  this  pro- 
vince has  been  foiuid  highly  fiivonrahle  to  an  invader  who  possessed  superior  cavalry ;  such 
as  the  Moors  once,  and  more  bitterly  the  French. 

The  cities  of  Leon  are  nhnosf  solely  interesting  from  the  traces  whicli  they  present  of 
ancient  grnmleur.  Leon  itself,  by  its  highly  ornamented  cathedral,  its  nine  convents,  and 
its  ancient  palace,  testifies  the  remote  periotl  when  it  was  the  seat  of  royalty;  but  a  hetero- 
geneous assemblage  of  dirty  streets  filled  with  beggars,  splendid  ehnrehes,  and  half-ruined 
fiimily  mansions,  are  all  that  it  now  presents.  Salamanca,  by  its  university,  has  acquired  a 
much  greater  fame.  This  seminar}',  one  of  the  fir.-^t  in  Europe,  was  founded  in  1200,  and 
extended  during  the  same  century  by  Alfonso  the  Wise,  celebrated  for  the  progress  which 
astronomy  made  imder  his  auspices.  From  the  medical  knowledge  of  Avicenmi,  Averrot;s, 
and  other  Arabian  sages,  it  derived  a  character  superior  to  those  of  the  other  monkish  univer- 
sities durins' the  middle  ages.  Sniamanca,  however,  remained  stationary  in  the  fi)nrteenth 
century;  aud,  while  .'^ound  scieiu-    was  spreading  through  the  rest  of  Europe,  continued  t(i 


Part  III. 

itiirics  ngo, 
imlin{(  tni! 

for  a  part- 
vrry  siiinll 
I).  Avila, 
icn  of  thn 
incicnt  dis- 

wuIIh,  its 
lie  clonic  of 
it  iinposinf' 
I  a  stjito  of 

utteiiipt  to 

cloth  and 

still.   Soria, 

t  Niimantitt, 

[Juero,  noar 

into  which 

in  01(1  Cus- 
■y"   of  the 
ilip  II.  on  a 
his  gloomy 
aclcra  of  a 
las  the  form 
lont  of  the 
to  whom  it 
is  the  Pan- 
hat  profane 
^cr,  are   in- 
I  nnil  quocna 
Tlic  wealth 
IS  been  con- 
is  considered 
ti  filled  with 
lagnificence 
I,  especially 
elds  only  to 
Murillo  and 
of  Raphael, 
liked  in  the 
of  summer. 
Ill  Ildefonso, 
rardens,  and 
'est  plain  of 
for  its  mag- 
e  latter  con- 

nirso  of  the 
it  was  the 

iiited  to  that 

otcd  princi- 
imuch  that, 

S  townships, 
of  this  pro- 
valry;  such 

y  present  of 
[luvpiits,  and 
)ut  a  hetero- 

lialf-ruincd 
!  acquired  a 
in  1200,  and 

i^rpss  which 
II,  Avcrrot'S, 
iki.sli  iinivcr- 
o  fiiurteeutli 
continued  to 


OOOK  I. 


SPAIN. 


679 


occupy  itfl  students  with  dogmatic  theology,  and  with  tlic  worship  of  Aristotle  and  Aquinas. 
Its  studcnl.s,  once  reckoned  .it  10,000,  have  been  reduced  to  less  than  20(K).  Halamanca  is 
crowded  with  sacred  edifices,  to  Rid  .  h  which,  all  the  four  comers  of  the  world  have  been 
made  to  contribute  ;  and  on  days  of  liigh  festival  the  display  of  silver  and  precious  stones 
was  altogether  dazzling.  The  cathedra]  and  principal  square  are  very  magnificent,  but  the 
streets  arc  narrow  and  gloomy.  Captain  Shcrer,  in  18IH,  found  Salamanca  quite  a  deserted 
city ;  only  a  few  of  the  old  professors  and  youthful  students  still  lingered  in  the  colleges,  or 
paced  the  spacious  aisles  of  the  elegant  cathc<lral.  Of  the  latter,  some,  as  appears  fi-om 
^Ir.  White,  notwithstanding  the  antiquated  courso  of  instruction,  hod  adopted  modern  and 
liberal  ideas,  and  in  the  late  crisis  obeyed  the  call  of  their  country  and  of  liberty.  The 
French  having  mailo  Salamanca  a  military  position,  a  great  part  of  the  place  was  levelled 
or  Imttered  down ;  and  subsequent  events  have  not  liccn  favourable  to  its  restoration.  We 
mu.-it  not,  however,  dismiss  Salamanca  without  noticing  the  new  lustre  it  has  derived  from 
giving  name  to  one  of  the  most  splendid  of  Wellington's  victories. 

Valhidolid  has  a  great  name  in  history.  Charles  V.  made  it  his  capital,  and  it  continue<l 
to  be  the  residence  of  the  Spanish  court  until  Philip  IV.  removed  it  to  Madrid.  In  these 
splendid  days  Vallodolid  was  supposed,  (lerhaps  with  some  exaggeration,  to  contain  200,000 
inhabitants,  now  reduced  to  a  tenth  of  that  number.  Yet  it  covers  a  very  large  space  of 
ground ;  and  tho  numberless  spires,  domes,  and  turrets  of  its  sacred  edifices  give  it  still  the 
appearance  of  a  large  metropolis.  Its  university  is  attended  by  2000  students,  and  taught 
by  forty-two  professors  and  fifty  doctors.  After  a  very  marked  period  of  decay,  Valladolid 
experienced  lately  a  considerable  revival.  Its  environs  are  particularly  healthy  and 
agreeable. 

Several  other  large  decayed  towns  attest  the  former  grandeur  of  Leon.  Zamora  and  Tore, 
both  on  the  Diiero,  are  capitals  of  two  of  the  small  provinces.  Benavente  is  distinguisheii 
by  its  castle,  which  has  been  described  as  one  of  the  grandest  monuments  of  the  age  of 
chivalry;  and  'I'ordesillas  was  a  niyal  residence  in  tho  reign  of  Charles  V.  Astorga,  once 
capital  of  the  Asturias,  and  one  of  the  bulwarks  of  the  Peninsula,  has  lost  its  strength  and 
magnitude.  Palencia  is  also  a  small  capital,  pleasantly  situated  on  the  Carrion,  having  a 
little  inland  trade.  Ciudad  Rodrigo  is  a  national  barrier  on  tho  Portuguese  frontier,  still 
kept  up  us  a  strong  fortress,  which  sustained  successive  sieges  during  the  peninsular  war. 

Galicia,  separated  by  its  mountain  boundary  from  IjCon,  forms  the  north-western  comer 
of  the  Peninsula.  It  is  entirely  a  highland  and  alpine  region,  broken  into  rugged  rocks  and 
narrow  passes,  though  with  valleys  of  groat  fertility  and  of  peculiar  beauty  interspersed. 
The  Gallegos  are  industrious ;  and  the  country  is  better  peopled  than  many  of  the  more 
favoured  regions  of  the  Peninsula.  They  are  hardy  and  enterprising,  and  often  leave  this 
barren  territory  to  seek  employment  in  the  cities  of  Spain  and  -Portugal,  where,  like  the 
Scottish  highlanders,  they  act  chiefly  as  porters  and  servants.  The  shores  and  ports  of  Ga- 
licia aro  celebrated  in  naval  history,  forming  as  it  were  the  outer  coasts  of  Europe,  beaten 
by  the  waves  of  a  tempestuous  ocean,  and  where  fleets  from  the  distant  quarters  of  the 
globe  often  made  their  first  appearance  in  Europe,  and  mot  with  hostile  fleets  on  the  watch 
for  them. 

The  interior  towns  of  Galicia  have  for  their  capital,  St.  Jago  do  Compostolla,  the  most 
celebrated  shrine  of  the  Peninsula,  supposed  to  contain  the  body  of  St  James,  its  patron. 
In  the  chapel  dedicated  to  him  is  his  statue,  two  feet  high,  of  pure  gold,  illuminated  every 
night  by  2000  wax  tapers.  Twenty-two  other  chapels  have  been  enriched  by  the  oflferings 
of  pilgrims  from  every  part  of  the  Peninsula,  whose  numbers  have  diminished.  Lugo  pre- 
sents tho  poor  remains  of  an  ancient  city  surrounded  by  a  wall  and  towers,  once  of  great 
strength,  but  now  mouldering  into  ruin.  Orense,  a  little  city,  formerly  celebrated  for  its  hot 
springs,  and  Tuy,  a  strongly  situated  fi)rtress,  are  on  the  Portuguese  frontier. 

Of  the  seaports  of  Galicia,  Vigo  had  the  greatest  reputation,  several  great  naval  actions 
having  been  fought  near  it;  particularly  that  of  1702,  when  the  whole  fleet  of  Spanish 
galleons  was  sunk  or  taken  by  the  English.  It  has  one  of  the  finest  harlwurs  in  Spain ; 
which,  however,  since  Ferrol  became  the  chief  naval  station,  is  only  employed  for  a  limited 
coasting  trade.  Corunna  on  the  Groyne  is  now  the  most  trading  place  in  the  province,  and 
packets  sail  from  it  to  England  and  America.  It  is  a  steep,  dirty,  but  well-paved  town,  of 
no  strength,  being  commanded  by  the  neighbouring  height^.  Population  2.'<,0()0.  Ferrol, 
since  17.52,  has  been  made  tho  chief  naval  station  of  Spain.  Its  harbour,  Ixisides  being  onn 
of  the  safest  and  most  spacious  in  Europe,  has  the  advantage  of  being  accessible  only  by  a 
narrow  winding  passage  which  can  be  rendered  almost  impassable  by  a  chain  of  forts.  A 
considerable  city  has  been  formed,  and  very  extensive  docks  and  arsenals  built;  but  since 
the  extinction  of  the  Spanish  navy,  these  have  of  course  fallen  into  considerable  neglect. 
Population  13,000. 

The  Asturias  form  a  long  narrow  strip  between  the  Ray  of  Biscay  and  the  Cantabrian 
mountains,  which  extend  along  its  whole  length.  It  is  celebrated  in  history  as  the  sacred 
retreat  in  which  tlie  hero  Pelayo  raised  again  the  national  standard,  after  it  seemed  for  ever 
trampled  under  foot  by  the  Saracen  invaders.     Since  the  fourteenth  century  the  Asturias 


600 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


have  given  the  title  of  prince  to  the  hcira  of  tho  Spaninh  tlirone.  The  province  ia  approached 
only  by  narrow  ravincii  and  passes,  through  which  torrents  dasli,  and  which  arc  ovcrlmng  by 
steep  cliffs  and  luxuriant  woods.  There  are,  however,  a  number  of  valleys,  and  tlie  wliole 
plain  of  Oviedo  is  distinguished  both  tor  fruitftilness  and  beauty.  Instead  of  wine,  a  good 
deal  of  tolerable  cider  is  made  and  exported :  amber,  jet,  and  coal  abound,  but  the  last 
strongly  impregnated  with  sulphur.  The  Asturians  are  brave  and  proud,  boasting  that  tlieir 
country  was  never  conquered,  even  by  the  Romans ;  and  more  than  a  third  part  of  the  popu- 
lation 18  composed  of  hidalgos. 

Oviedo,  the  only  lar^e  town,  has  more  magnificence  than  its  situation  might  lead  us  to 
expect :  the  cathedral  m  particular,  long  the  only  shrine  secure  from  the  rage  of  the  invader, 
afforded  an  asylum  to  many  pious  treasures  scattered  through  the  Peninsula.  These,  how- 
ever, consist  chiefly  of  relics,  valuable  only  to  devout  and  believing  eyes.  Among  them  are 
the  rod  of  Moses,  the  mantle  of  Elias,  the  olive-branch  borne  alofi  m  entering  Jerusalem ; 
thorns  from  the  sacred  crown ;  tlie  milk  of  the  blessed  Virgin,  &c.  Oviedo  is  still  a  con- 
siderable town,  with  a  rich  bishopric,  and  many  religious  houses,  of  which  the  principal  is  a 
convent  of  Benedictine  nuns.  Population  10,(X)0.  Gijon,  though  with  a  costly  and  not  very 
complete  harbour,  carries  on  all  tlie  little  trade  of  the  province.  Avila  and  Santillana  are 
large  villages,  giving  their  name  to  districts.  Santander  and  Santona  are  sea-ports  of  some 
little  consequence,  in  the  district  of  Montana,  on  the  borders  of  Biscay. 

Biscay  is  a  small,  high,  rugged  province,  on  the  western  slope  of  the  Pyrenees.  Streams 
descending  from  its  numerous  heights,  combine  in  forming  the  channel  of  the  Upper  Ebro. 
The  Basques  are  a  peculiar  race,  preserving  the  only  remnant  which  revolutions  have  leil 
in  the  Peninsula,  of  Celtic  language  and  aspect.  Under  the  name  of  Cantabria,  this  region 
presented  a  barrier  even  to  Roman  conquest ;  and  though  the  Saracens  penetrated  through 
It  into  the  plains  of  France,  it  is  still  boasted  that  they  never  could  reach  the  mountains  of 
High  Cantabria.  The  Basques,  amid  the  general  slavery  of  Spain,  have  still  preserved 
some  portion  of  their  original  rights.  They  have  a  cortcs  of  their  own;  and  the  taxes,  levied 
by  provincial  authority,  are  presented  to  the  sovereign  in  the  form  of  a  free  gift.  Every 
native  Biscayan  is  an  hidalgo  or  noble,  scarcely  owning  a  superiority  of  birth  in  the  proudest 
Castilian.  With  all  this  they  are  excessively  industrious ;  the  mountain  declivities  arc  cul- 
tivated as  high  as  the  plough  can  reach ;  and  while  the  finest  plains  of  Castile  are  nearly  a 
desert,  Biscay's  rude  vales  are  covered  with  a  numerous  population. 

The  cities  in  such  a  district  cannot  be  large :  yet  Bilboa,  the  capital,  situated  on  the 
Ybaizabal,  which  admits  large  vessels  up  to  the  town,  is  one  of  the  most  commercial  places 
in  Spain,  with  15,000  inhabitants.  Most  of  the  merino  wool  from  tlic  plains  of  Castile  is 
brought  hither  for  exportation.  Biscay  Proper  contains  also  Orduna,  a  neat  little  city,  and 
numerous  villages.  Giiipuscoa  is  another  district,  lying  more  to  the  east,  and  in  closer  con- 
tact with  France.  Its  capital  is  St.  Sebastian,  an  indifferent  port,  but  a  neat,  tolerably  large 
city,  and  so  strongly  fortified  as  tu  be  considered  one  of  the  four  keys  of  the  kingdom ;  the 
others  being  Pamplona,  Barcelona,  and  Figueras.  Fontarabia,  close  to  the  frontier,  has  a 
great  name  in  history,  but  little  else  is  now  left.  The  small  village  of  Irun  stands  on  tlie 
immediate  bank  of  the  Bidassoa,  whose  broad  clear  stream,  descending  from  the  Pyrenees, 
forms  the  boundary  between  two  rival  and  long  hostile  nations.  More  in  the  interior,  and 
on  a  lower  level,  is  the  district  of  Alava,  having  fbr  its  capital  Vittoria,  a  somewhat  well- 
built  modern  town,  and  celebrated  as  the  theatre  of  the  complete  victory  there  gained  by  the 
Duke  of  Wellington  over  the  French  army  under  Joseph  Bonaparte,  which  was  thence 
finally  expelled  from  the  Peninsula. 

Navarre  is  a  small  province  or  kingdom,  lying  immediately  beneath  the  highest  and 
steepest  Pyrenees.  Eight  very  difiicult  passes  penetrate  through  them  into  France,  but 
scarcely  any  one  passable  for  the  artillery  and  train  of  an  army.  The  principal  is  that  of 
St.  Jean  Pied  de  Port ;  on  the  French  side  of  which  is  Roncesvalles,  or  Roncevaux,  cele- 
brated in  history,  and  still  more  in  romance,  for  the  disaster  which  there  befell  Charlemagne 
and  his  knights.  For  many  centuries  it  fonned  a  separate  little  kingdom  connected  with 
France,  until  Ferdinand  the  Catholic  succeeded  in  annexing  to  Spain  all  the  part  south  of 
rhe  Pyrenees.  Navarre  retains,  however,  privileges  and  customs  peculiar  to  itself,  and  'fg 
jfovemor  bears  the  title  of  viceroy.  The  population  is  active,  hardy,  uiul  brave.  The  bands 
of  guerrillas  under  Mina  proved  the  most  formidable  irregular  force  with  which  the  Frenc*. 
had  to  contend  in  the  Peninsula.  Pamplona,  or  Pampehiiia,  the  capital,  the  foundation  of 
which  is  ascribed  to  Pompey,  is  one  of  the  chief  bulwarks  of  the  Peninsula,  and  one  of  the 
strongest  fortresses  in  Europe.  It  was  reduced  by  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  and  by  thi 
French,  in  their  last  invasion,  afler  a  long  blockade.  There  are  also  Tudela  and  Calahorra, 
ittle  towns  on  the  Ebro.     Pampeluna  has  10,000  inhabitants. 

Aragon,  south  from  Navarre,  is  an  extensive  province,  extending  along  the  greater  part 
of  the  course  of  the  Ebro;  whence  it  reaches  on  one  side  to  the  Pyrenees,  and  on  the  other 
to  the  chains  which  shut  in  the  Castiles  and  Valencia.  A  great  part  of  it  is  rugged  and 
barren ;  though  other  tracts  in  the  central  plains,  and  along  the  rivers,  are  very  sueceptiblr 
of  culture.    Aragop,  during  the  middle  ages,  was  a  powerful  kingdom,  comprismg  Catalonio 


■•»'■ 


'  I 


ART  111. 

proached 
rhungby 
10  whole 
,  a  good 
the  lost 
that  their 
the  popu- 

Ottd  us  to 
B  invader, 
ese,  liow- 
;  them  are 
orusalem ; 
ill  a  con- 
ncipal  is  a 
d  not  very 
illana  are 
ts  of  Borae 

Streams 
pper  Ebro. 
s  have  left 
this  region 
sd  through 
)untain8  of 

preserved 
ixes,  levied 
ift.  Every 
he  proudest 
ties  are  cul- 
ire  nearly  a 

ated  on  the 
rcial  places 
of  Castile  is 
tie  city,  and 
I  closer  con- 
embly  large 
ngdom;  the 
mlier,  has  a 
ands  on  tlie 
Pyrenees, 
interior,  and 
ewhat  well- 
ained  by  the 
was  thence 

highest  and 
France,  but 
»al  is  that  of 
:evaux,  cele- 
Jharlemagne 
nected  with 
(art  south  of 
tself,  and  its 
The  bancs 
.  the  Frenc*. 
bundation  of 
d  one  of  tlic 
and  by  thi 
id  Calahorra, 


greater  part 

on  the  other 

rugged  and 

•  suEceptiblr 

ig  Catalonia 


BooeI. 


SPAIN. 


561 


and  Valencia,  forming  the  half  of  Christian  Spain,  then  divided  between  it  and  Castile. 
Even  atler  tlic  union  of  the  crowns  under  Fcrdmand  and  Isabella,  it  still  enjoyed  its  consti- 
tution and  ita  cortes,  which  exercised  higher  prorogiitivHW,  anU  kept  the  p«)wer  of  the  kings 
uri(l(!r  stricter  limitations,  than  any  siniilur  assembly  in  Europe.  Of  IIicko  it  was  dpprivc<l 
liy  thu  unliirtuimte  isBue  of  the  civil  war  under  Charles  V.,  and  more  completely  by  the 
Bourbon  succession,  atler  Ariigon  had  cspjuacd  tlie  cause  of  CJiarles  of  Austria.  The  pca- 
Kautry  of  this  'jrovinco  are  a  tine  b<j<ly  ot  men,  stout,  brave,  and  honest.  Culture  and  popu- 
lation lire  generally  in  a  backward  state;  yet  the  canal  of  Aragon,  conducted  parallel  tu  the 
coufHo  of  tjic  Ebro,  tiiougli  it  has  not  yet  readied  the  sea,  according  to  its  destination,  has 
given  a  considerable  impulse  to  the  agriculture  of  the  district  thro  gli  which  it  is  led. 

Sarugossa,  or  Zaragoza,  the  capital  of  Aragon,  is  a  large  and  celebrated  city,  situated 
amid  a  iinu  plain,  on  the  banks  ot  the  Ebro  and  of  the  canal  ot  Aragun.  From  Augustus, 
who  enlarged  and  improved  it,  the  city  was  called  Coisar-Augusta,  corrupted  into  Saragossa. 
It  is  not  well  built,  the  streets  being  narrow  and  crooked  ;  but  there  are  several  open  market- 
places, and  some  very  splendid  religious  edifices.  The  principal  is  that  dedicated  to  the 
Virgin,  under  tlie  title  of  "  Our  Lady  of  the  Pillar ;"  an  object  of  the  most  profound  venera- 
tion to  the  citizens,  and  enriched  by  offerings  from  every  part  of  Spain.  The  church  of  St. 
Engracia  is  also  filled  with  relics  and  gifts;  and  each  ot  the  forty  convents  of  Saragossa  has 
its  peculiar  boast.  A  stone  bridge,  and  the  finest  wooden  bridge  in  Europe,  are  thrown  over 
the  Ebro.  The  university  has  2()0U  students,  but  not  much  literature.  Saragossa  has  earned 
an  immortal  name  by  her  heroic  resistance  against  the  unprincipled  invasion  of  Nu|ioleon,  in 
1808.  Without  walls,  except  an  old  one  of  earth,  which  could  not  resist  for  an  hour  an 
attack  conducted  on  modern  principles ;  without  army,  arms,  or  artillery,  it  maintained  a  long 
and  finally  successful  conflict  with  the  French,  in  tlieir  first  invasion.  Afterwards,  when 
assailed  by  an  immense  and  overwhelming  force,  the  flower  of  the  French  armies,  without 
hope  of  relief,  it  made  a  mighty  resistance;  and  it  was  only  by  mining  operations,  blowing 
up  successively  house  after  house,  that  the  French  finally  became  its  masters,  after  having 
reduced  it  to  a  heap  of  ruins.     Population  43,000. 

Aragon  has  some  other  small  ancient  towns,  ranking  even  as  cities ;  Jaca  and  Iluesca  on 
tlie  northern  frontier  among  the  Pyrenees,  botli  episcopal  seats;  Daroca  and  Calatjiyud  in 
the  plain  bordering  on  Castile ;  the  former  enclosed  with  large  ruined  lbrtitication.s,  the  latter 
industrious,  and  surrounded  by  a  smiling  country. 

Catalonia,  to  the  east  of  Aragon,  is  one  of  the  finest  and  most  extensive  provinces  of  Spain. 
It  presents  a  remarkable  variety  of  surfiice,  from  the  steep  and  rugged  heights  of  the  lii^flier 
Pyrenees,  to  the  elevated  valleys  of  Upper  Catalonia,  and  the  luxuriant  Uiough  not  very 
extensive  plains  tliut  border  on  the  Mediterranean.  The  Catalans  redeem  to  a  great  extent 
the  Spanisii  national  character,  uniting  with  its  loftiness  and  'enoi^y  a  spirit  and  an  activity 
which  are  elsewhere  wanting.  They  have  been  always  commercial,  industrious,  and  fond 
of  liberty.  Atler  bearing  successively  the  yoke  of  the  Romans,  the  Goths,  and  the  .Sara- 
cens, Ciitalonia  was  long  ruled  by  counts  of  French  descent,  whose  posterity  extended  their 
sway  over  Aramn,  and  finally  over  the  whole  Peninsula,  in  which  this  principality  merged. 
Tlio  CaUilans,  however,  bore  more  impatiently  than  other  Spaniards  the  loss  of  their  privi- 
leges; and  during  the  war  of  the  succession,  on  receiving  a  pledge  for  their  restitution, 
espoused  with  extraordinary  ardour  the  cause  of  the  Archduke  Charles.  Even  after  its 
unfortunate  issue,  when  deserted  by  Britain  and  all  the  other  powers,  they  made  a  last  dread- 
ful struggle,  which  ended,  however,  in  the  loss  of  all  those  rights  for  which  they  had  so 
nobly  contended.  In  the  last  two  wars,  Catalonia  acted  a  most  conspicuous  part ;  maintaining 
an  unremitted  resistance  to  France,  notwitlistanding  the  clo.se  vicinity  of  that  kingdom,  and 
in  the  late  constitutional  struggle  making  efibrts,  both  for  and  against  liberty,  much  greater 
than  any  other  province. 

Barcelona  is,  after  the  capital,  the  largest  city,  and  at  the  same  time  the  most  industrious 
and  flourishing,  of  all  Spain,  containing  1.50,000  inhabitants.  It  is  situated  about  the  centre 
of  the  (.latalonian  coast,  and  draws  its  subsistence  from  a  fertile  and  extensive  plain  Iiehind. 
It  is  said  to  have  been  originally  a  Carthaginian  town,  founded  by  Ilamilcar  Barcas ;  but  rose 
to  little  distinction  under  the  lioniiins,  who  made  Tarraco  tiie  capital  of  all  eastern  Spain. 
It  wiis  not<ill  the  twelfth  century  tliat  Barcelona  began  to  be  distinguished  tor  its  conmier- 
cial  spirit.  It  suflhred  severely  during  successive  wars,  particularly  that  of  the  succession ; 
but  in  the  course  of  the  last  century,  the  exertions  of  its  patriotic  governor,  the  Marquis  of 
Mina,  enabled  it  to  retrieve  all  its  losses,  and  become  more  prosperous  than  ever.  The  port 
is  artificial,  formed  by  solid  and  convenient  moles,  but  hua  a  bar  at  its  entrance,  which 
excludes  vessels  drawing  more  than  twelve  feet  of  water.  It  carried  on  a  groat  and  various 
traffic;  had  woollen,  silk,  and  cotton  manufactories,  all  on  a  considerable  scale;  about  a 
thousand  vessels  annually  entered  its  port;  and  the  whole  amount  of  exports  wiis  reckoned 
by  Lttborde  at  1,750,001)1  According  to  the  latest  account,  however,  by  the  author  of  "A 
Year  in  Spain,"  the  late  disasters  and  misgovernment  have  caused  a  great  declension  in  the 
ahovn  branches  of  manufacture ;  and  instead  of  the  ranges  of  tall  masts  assembled  within 

49* 


% 


,w 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


PabtIII 


its  mole,  tlinre  aro  to  be  seen  only  a  paltry  nssoinhlajfc  of  fishing-boats  and  feluccas.  The 
ecclesiastical  edifices  of  fiarceloiia  are  handxoine,  uarticiilurly  the  cathedral,  thoufrh  not  of 
so  ^rand  a  character  as  those  in  aoino  other  parts  ot  Spain,  The  convent  of  the  Dominicans 
has  u  singular  series  of  ornaments,  tiie  sentences  of  five  hundred  lierotics  decreed  by  the 
Inquisition,  and  under  each  sentence  a  representation  of  the  suflerer,  whom  the  demons,  in 
various  shapes,  are  torturing  and  devournig.  The  walls  of  Barcelona  are  strong,  but  its 
chief  dependence  is  upon  tlie  citadel  of  Montjuich,  which  commands  it,  and  is  considered 
almost  impregnable,  though  the  Earl  of  Poterhardugh  took  it  by  surprise.  At  the  cltise  of 
the  war  ol  the  succession,  when  Barcelona  was  besieged  by  the  Duke  of  Berwick,  a  terrible 
and  almost  fVantic  resisi  'nee  was  mode  in  the  streets,  nut  by  troop,  but  by  priests,  students, 
tradesmen,  and  even  won  en :  the  consequences  were  terrible.  Bonaparte,  in  18118,  obtained 
by  treachery  and  threats  ti.e  cession  of  this  and  the  other  keys  of  tlie  kingdom ;  but  in  the 
late  invasion,  its  resistance  against  Moncoy  was  most  gallant 

There  arc  several  other  large,  ancient,  and  strong  towns  in  Catalonia.  Tarragona,  the 
Roman  capital  of  the  east  of  Spain,  has  fallen  into  great  comparative  decay,  and  has  but 
12,000  inhabitants.  It  is  situated  on  a  rocky  peninsum,  and  presents  many  traces  of  Roman 
antiquity,  as  of  the  palace  of  Augustus,  the  amphitheatre,  and  an  extensive  aqueduct.  More 
recently,  the  harbour  has  been  improved,  and  some  new  streets  built ;  and  in  the  war  of 
1808,  the  fortitications  were  restored,  and  tlio  city  mode  a  brave  defence  against  Marshal 
Suchet,  who  at  length  carried  it  by  storm,  with  circumstances  of  great  cruelty.  Tortoea  is 
also  a  considerable  and  ancient  city  near  the  mouth  of  the  Ebro,  which  is  there  broad  and 
navigable.  It  made  a  distinguished  figure  during  the  wars  with  the  Moors,  chiefly  through 
the  exploits  of  its  heroines,  to  commemorate  whose  valour  a  military  order  was  instituted  by 
Raymond  Berenger.  Its  position  on  tlie  river  affords  scope  for  a  considerable  trade ;  and 
during  the  lost  war  its  fortifications  were  restored  by  the  Spaniards.  It  contains  16,000 
inhabitants.  Between  the  two  last-mentioned  cities  has  arisen,  within  tiio  last  half  centuiy. 
Reus,  a  large,  flourishing,  industrious  town,  carrying  on  various  maiuifunturcs,  particularly 
of  brandy  and  leather.  Population  25,000.  All  these  are  on  the  const  west  of  Barcelona. 
To  the  east  the  ciiief  place  is  Gerona,  a  large  gloomy  town,  in  a  fine  situation.  It  is  well 
fortified;  and  its  resistance,  protracted  for  more  than  half  a  year,  to  the  unremitted  efibrts 
of  Bonaparte's  generals,  formed  one  of  the  most  glorious  events  of  the  pcuinsular  war, 
Rosas,  a  little  town,  prettily  situated  in  a  fine  bay,  exiwrts  cork  and  other  timber.  In  the 
interior,  Lerida,  distinguisheit  as  a  Roman  station  under  the  name  of  Ilorda,  is  a  large  and 
strong  town,  situated  in  a  most  delightful  country  on  the  banks  of  the  Segre.  A  consider- 
able stand  was  made  here  by  the  patriotic  armies  during  the  French  invasion.  Mequinenza, 
at  the  junction  of  the  Segre  with  the  Ebro,  is  also  an  important  military  post.  Cervera,  the 
seat  of  a  considerable  university,  and  Igualada,  are  pretty  large  interior  towns,  supported  by 
the  produce  of  the  rich  vales  in  which  they  ore  situated.  But  the  most  striking  feature  in 
all  Catalonia  is  the  single,  lofly,  and  precipitous  mountain  of  Montscrrat  (Jiff.  313.).  It  con- 
sists of  a  crowd  of  conicnl  hills  piled  over 
each  other,  broken  into  steep  walls  of  white 
and  variously  tinted  linie.«tone  cliffs,  the 
interstices  of  which  are  filled  with  ever- 
green and  deciduous  trees  and  plants.  The 
Benedictine  monastery,  an  ancient  and  re- 
markable structure,  stiiiids  on  a  cleft  at 
the  top  of  a  high  rock,  where  space  is 
scarcely  left  for  the  edifice,  while  far  be- 
neath roars  the  Llobregiit.  Numerous  her- 
mitages pitched  on  the  top  of  precipices, 
or  in  cavities  hewn  out  of  the  rock,  increase 
the  singular  and  romantic  appearance  of 
the  scene.  This  mountain,  in  the  last  war,  was  converted  into  nn  almost  impregnable  mili- 
tary position.  On  the  highest  of  all  the  Catalonian  vales,  which  is  extensive,  and  rich  in 
"jrain,  stands  Urgel,  a  small  episcopal  see,  and  a  strong  military  post,  the  roads  being  almost 
nnpassablo  to  artillery. 

Valencia,  beginning  from  the  border  of  Catalonia  and  Aragon,  occupie.i  an  extensive  coast 
running  from  nnrth  to  south,  and  is  the  first  of  the  southern  provinces.  The  plain  ranks  as 
the  garden  of  Spain,  and  almost  of  Europe.  The  fields  of  corn;  tlie  yellow  green  of  tht 
niulherry  plantations,  the  pule  hue  of  the  olive;  the  woods,  villages,  and  convent?,  thickly 
Bcattorod  over  this  great  expanse,  with  numberless  slender  steeples,  present,  when  united, 
an  inimit.ible  landscape.  Tho  country  is  finely  watered  by  tlio  Xucar,  the  Guadalaviar,  and 
other  rivers,  nimiorous  though  not  of  long  course.  A  great  extent  of  artificial  navigation 
was  formed  by  the  Moors,  and  is  still  kept  up,  though  not  in  a  very  complete  state.  The 
province  yields,  in  abundance,  the  usual  products,  com,  wine,  oil,  silk ;  with  rice  enough  to 
supply  tlie  greater  part  of  Spain,  and  barilla  for  exportation.  The  Valencians  are  very  induB< 


Montaerrat. 


I^- 


Booil. 


SPAIN. 


SSI 


trioiiB,  niid  of  n  gay  disposition.    Colonios  from  Die  soiilii  of  France,  introduced  by  tho  fir»t 
Christian  coiuiiicror,  brought  with  tliom  u  portion  of  tho  enirit  of  that  nation. 

Valencia,  at  the  mouth  of  tho  Guudulaviiir,  ii<  one  of  the  lorsfest  and  niont  flourishinff  townti 
of  tho  kinjjdom.  It  is  of  Roman  origin,  but  itH  fame  dato»  from  thn  eicvonth  century,  when 
it  was  conquered  by  tlio  Cid  from  tlio  Moors,  and  ruled  ati  a  fief  by  that  greotcst  of  the  Spanish 
heroes.  It  was  tho  scene,  however,  of  o  long-continued  contest  j  and  its  final  annexation  to 
Christian  Spain  did  not  take  place  until  a  century  and  a  half  later.  The  lolly  walls  and 
towers  of  Valencia  are  now  nearly  demolished,  and  in  the  wor  of  liberty  neither  it  nor  the 
province  made  any  very  consniouous  figure.  The  silk  manufacture  is  one  of  the  nuwt  exten- 
sive in  Spain,  though  checked  by  nn  absurd  prohibition  against  the  exportotion  of  its  produce. 
In  a  levy  during  tho  late  war,  exemption  was  granted  to  upwards  of  3000  silk-weavers,  that 
the  trade  might  not  be  interrupted.  There  are  also  manufactures  of  woollens  and  paper. 
Tho  Grau,  or  port  of  Valencia,  is  only  an  indifferent  roadstead,  and  tho  commerce  not  nearly 
equal  to  that  of  Alicant.  The  city,  though  largo  and  rich,  is  not  handsome ;  the  streets 
being  narrow  and  winding,  and  bordered  by  high  old  houses).  The  churches  and  convents 
are  of  course  numerous,  and  many  of  them  richly  ornamented,  but  none  very  prominent  in 
architectural  beauty.  They  are  adorned,  however,  with  numerous  pictures  by  some  of  the 
most  eminent  Spanish  pintcrs,  natives  of  Valencia;  Juanes,  Ribalta,  and  others,  whose 
works  are  unknown  in  this  country,  but  are  admired  by  those  who  have  visited  Spain.  The 
religious  festivals  of  Valencia  arc  celebrated  with  a  childish  ])omp,  in  some  degree  disused 
in  other  parts  even  of  this  country.  On  these  occaaions,  all  the  most  memorable  events  and 
most  illustrious  characters  in  scripture  history  are  represented  eitiicr  by  figures  in  wicker- 
work,  or  by  citizens  fantastically  attired.  The  exhibitions  of  this  kind,  amounting  annually 
to  a  hundred  and  fifly,  give  great  occa-sion  to  idleness  and  dissipation ;  yet  the  attempts  to 
reduce  their  number  have  been  hitherto  unsuccessful.     Population  66,000. 

Alicant,  situated  at  the  bottom  of  a  bay  on  tho  soutliern  frontier,  ranks  high  as  an  indus- 
trious and  commercial  town.  Its  prosperity  is  modern,  chiefly  owing  to  the  refuge  which 
its  lofty  castle  aflbrded  from  the  dreadful  irruptions  of  tho  Barbary  corsairs.  Even  since  this 
danger  ceased,  Alicant  has  continued  to  be  a  fortified  town ;  and  none  of  the  invading  armies 
in  the  late  war  were  able  to  obtain  possession  of  it.  About  1000  vessels  annually  enter  its 
port,  and  are  luden  with  barilla,  raisins,  and  a  small  ([uantity  of  wine  and  brandy.  The 
import  from  England  consists  chiefly  of  suit-fish,  the  great  article  of  consumption  in  Catholic 
countries.  The  herring  and  other  fisheries  are  carried  on  with  considerable  activity  on  this 
coast.  They  are  encouraged  by  the  government,  but  with  an  absurd  limitation  to  a  body  of 
enrolled  fishermen,  amounting  to  nliout  16,tK)0.     Population  2i),(MH). 

Among  other  important  towns  may  be  mentioned  Elche  and  Orihucla,  large  and  flourishing 
places,  in  tho  very  finest  part  of  tho  plain  of  Valencia.  Segorbe  and  I/iria  are  pleasant 
mterior  townc  towards  the  frontier  of  Aragon.  San  Feli|)e,  under  the  name  of  Xativa,  made 
a  distinguished  figure  in  the  war  of  tho  succession ;  when,  after  being  demolished,  it  was 
rebuilt  by  Philip  V.  under  its  present  name.  Dcnia  atid  Gandia  in  the  south,  and  Peaiscola 
in  the  north,  are  sea-ports  on  a  smaller  scale.  But  all  those  places  yield  in  ancient  fame  to 
Murviedro,  occupying  tho  rocky  site  of  the  ancient  Saguntum,  tlie  siege  of  which  formed 
the  commencement  of  the  career  of  Hannibal.  The  long  resistance  of  this  powerful  and 
unfortunate  city  forms  tho  first  of  tho  many  remarkable  sitigcs  which  have  distinguished  the 
Spanish  annals,  ancient  or  modern.  The  Romans  restored  and  made  it  a  great  colony,  and 
the  Moors  erected  a  range  of  fortificotions  on  the  summit  of  the  hill;  so  that  its  mountain 
site  is  now  covered  with  ruins  of  various  dates  ana  descriptions.  Half-way  up  the  eminence, 
the  outline  of  a  theatre  capable  of  containing  9000  persons  may  still  be  traced ;  and  a  few 
ropemiikers  plying  their  trade  alone  break  the  silence  of  this  august  ruin.  Murviedro  is  a 
small  town  still  fortified,  though  the  resistance  made  by  it  in  the  last  war  was  not  formidable. 

Murcia  is  a  smoll  jirovince,  partly  bounded  on  the  south-cast  by  the  coast,  which  here 
changes  its  direction  from  southerly  to  westerly.  Its  vale  is  almost  without  a  rival  for 
beayty  and  fertility,  even  in  Fouthern  Europe.  Its  natural  fruitfulness  is  greatly  aided  by 
the  numerous  canals  of  irrigation  which  the  Moors  drew  from  the  river  Segura.  These 
advantages  are  little  improved  by  the  present  inhabitants,  who  are  noted  as  exhibiting,  in  a 
peculiar  degree,  all  the  blemishes  of  thn  Spanish  character ;  its  pride,  its  bigotry,  and  its 
laziness.  Even  the  sonc  and  the  dance  do  not  inspire  gaiety  in  its  vales,  as  in  all  the  rest 
of  Spain ;  almost  tho  whole  time  of  the  people  being  spent  in  eating,  sleeping,  and  making 
cigars.  A  sullen  and  vindictive  spirit  is  said  to  lurk  under  this  outward  apathy.  Few 
Murcians  have  made  a  figure  in  literature,  in  the  arts,  or  in  public  life. 

Tlie  cities  of  Murcia,  if  we  except  its  port  of  Cnrtliiigonn,  do  not  merit  particular  notice 
The  rapitnl,  bearing  its  name,  is  an  irregular,  ill-built,  ill-paved  large  town,  with  86,000 
inhabitants.  Thi?  <'cclesiastical  edifices,  however,  are  very  costly,  and  the  front  of  the 
cathedral,  according  to  Mr.  Townsliend,  produces  a  splendid  effect  with  its  sixteen  Corinthian 
columns  of  marble,  and  thirty-two  images  us  large  as  life.  The  interior  does  not  possess 
equal  elegance,  but  is  chiefly  distinguished  by  tlie  proportion  of  gold,  silver,  and  jewels,  not 


b84 


DESCRIl'TIVK  GEOGRAl'IIV. 


Pakt  III 


i 


1 


Atiimnia. 


to  mention  tho  rclicN,  which  aro  uccduntul  by  thi!  laithfiii  n.i  of  much  Hiipcriur  vuIid'.    I^rca 
jt  a  large  town,  built  with  some  clojjanco,  and  Hurroiindoii  by  (in<i  pruin(!niidi>H.     IVipulatiuii 

4(MHNI.  It  iiiiii  cxttMiHivii  tiibricM  of  tiilk  itiid 
enltfHiln;,  which  wi're  rr>viviiijf,  whtMi  ii  Hin- 
guliir  accident  iirrcsttHi  their  ])r()).'r(!S!<.  A 
H|M.<cidiitivi>  individiml  hiui  ci>lic'cl(!d  nl)  tho 
watcrHot'thc  iieiifiihoiirhiKxl  ImIdimi  iiiiiin'riHO 
rijservoir,  whciicu  ho  diimilii'd  fheiii  to  tho 
cultiviilDrs  fiir  purjioBeH  ot  irriijiitioii ;  but  this 
receptacle,  not  being  fully  wciired,  hurst 
at  one  |Kiint,  destroyed  pnrt  of  the  HiiburbH 
of  lA)rca,  doHolated  ii  great  extent  of  country, 
and  rGiiciicd  even  Murcia.  Totaiiu,  n  jwpu- 
lou8  village,  is  enriched  by  the  co[)io\i8  pro- 
duction of  barilla  in  ita  neighbourhood.  Tlie  castle  of  Almanza  (Jiff.  H14.).  pictnre«<iuoiy 
Mated  on  a  height,  is  noted  om  the  spot  near  which,  in  1707,  was  fought  the  celebrated  battle 
which  decided  tho  Spanish  succession  in  favour  of  tho  house  of  Bourbon, 

Carthagena,  situated  in  Murcia,  though  scarcely  belonging  to  it,  forms  one  of  the  few 
great  Spanish  emporia,  and  contains  :i7,0U()  inhabitants.  Tliis  celebrated  capital  of  ancient 
Spain  was  founded  by  Asdrubol ;  and  when  captured  by  Scipio,  in  the  year  of  Rome  SfiO, 
was  considered  one  of  the  most  opulent  cities  in  tho  world.  It  was  nearlV  destroyed  by  the 
Vandals,  but  was  restored  by  I'hilip  II.,  and  has  ever  since  continued  to  flourish.  It  enjoys 
one  of  the  finest  ports  in  Europe,  consisting  of  a  bay  sheltered  by  high  niountjiins  from  alinoi<t 
every  wind.  The  staples  are  the  same  as  at  Alicant.  Tho  revenue,  raised  by  a  small  though 
impolitic  duty  on  the  export  of  barilla,  amounts  to  25,0(M)/.  The  fishery  is  also  considerable. 
There  ore  few  Murcian  residents,  ond  the  tradt-  ia  carried  on  chiefly  by  English,  French, 
and  Italian  houses.  Tho  ftrcots  aro  wide,  and  tho  houses  agrocablo,  with  terraced  roofs, 
commanding  a  view  of  tho  sea;  but  neitlu^r  here  nor  at  Alicant  are  there  any  structures, 
even  ecclesiastical,  at  all  worthy  of  noMce. 

Andalusia,  taken  in  its  most  comprehensive  sens(',  is  the  largest  of  the  Spanish  provinces, 
and,  we  may  add,  the  finest  and  most  remarkable,  both  as  to  nature  and  art.  The  Guadal- 
quivir, with  numerous  and  large  tributaries,  waters  its  whole  extent.  Its  inoimtains,  covered 
in  many  places  with  porpetuiil  snow,  are  tlje  lolliest,  its  valleys  tho  most  fruitful,  in  Spain. 
Andalusia,  indeed,  comprises  four  celebrated  kingdoms;  Granada,  Seville,  Cordova,  and 
Jaen,  jind  contains  great  capitals  t'oinided  by  tho  conquering  Moors,  wliich  were  the  seats 
of  science  and  splendour,  when  tho  greater  jinrt  of  Europe  was  plimgcd  in  rudonoss  and 
barbarism. 

Granada,  which  is  sometimes  called  Upper  Andalusia,  was  tho  central  seat  of  Moorish 
power  and  magnificence.  Even  amid  the  general  decline  of  that  power  in  Spain,  Gmnada 
was  still  supported  by  the  multitudes  who  resorted  thither  from  the  sulxlued  provinces.  Its 
fall,  in  1493,  wns  considered  tho  most  deadly  blow  which  Islamism  ever  received;  and  in 
all  tho  moscjues  prayers  aro  put  up  every  Friday  for  its  restoration.  Granada  presents  a 
wonderful  combination  of  all  that  is  most  wiM  and  sublime,  with  what  is  most  sort  and 
beautiful  in  natural  scenery.  South  from  tho  capital  rises  the  Sierra  Nevada,  covered,  as 
its  name  imports,  with  perpetual  snow  to  a  groat  depth.  Mulhacen,  the  n)ost  elcvate<l  peak, 
is  11,660  feet  above  the  sea;  while  tho  line  of  perpetual  snow  begins  at  alwut  10,000  foot. 
The  Alpujarras,  a  lower  range,  are  cultivated  with  con.'siderable  diligence,  by  descendants 
of  the  Moors,  a  remnant  of  whom  found  refuge  here,  amid  the  general  proscription  of  their 
race  and  nation.  Tho  Vega  or  plain  of  Granada,  watered  by  numerous  streams  descending 
from  the  high  regions,  displays  nature  in  her  utmost  pomp  and  beauty. 

The  city  of  Granada  is  in  the  heart  of  the  Vega,  beneath  the  loftiest  heights  of  the  Sierra 
Neva<la.  This  city  still  displays  ample  monninents  to  attest  the  period  when  it  was  the 
groat  western  capital  of  the  Moslem  world.  Nothing  can  exceed  tho  beauty  of  its  approach. 
"The  rich  and  jxipulous  country  well  supplied  with  trees,  the  clear  rivulets  descending  from 
the  mountains,  and  artificially  contrived  to  intersect  it  in  every  part;  tho  splendid  city 
extending  in  a  half-moon  from  tho  river,  on  the  gradual  ascent  of  a  hill ;  tli(>  streets  rising 
above  each  other;  the  profusion  of  turrets  and  gilded  cup<ilas;  the  summit  crowned  with  tho 
Alhambra;  the  background  composed  of  tho  majestic  Sierra  Nevarla,  with  its  summit  covered 
with  snow ;  complete  a  scene  to  which  no  description  can  do  justice."  Mr.  Jacob,  who  thus 
describes  the  scene,  considers  it  not  too  much  to  have  travelled  two  hundred  miles  of  bad 
road  to  see  it.  Tho  interior,  as  in  most  Spanish  and  especially  Mohammedan  cities,  docs  not 
correspond  to  the  approach.    The  streets  are  narrow,  tho  walls  high  and  gloomy ;  many 

?uarters  are  now  deserted ;  and  marks  of  decay  and  splendid  poverty  are  eve^where  visible, 
ts  population,  once  comprising  400,000  souls,  is  now  reduced  to  80,000.    But  tlie  eye  of 


[>AHT  III 

1'.  lAjfca 
opiilatioi) 
'  tiilk  iiiul 
iMi  a  Hin- 
rriiS.1.      A 

m1  (ill  the 
iniiiH'nso 
•III  to  tlio 
I ;  but  lIuH 
•(•(1,  Imrsl 
(•  HiilmrbH 
>r  country, 
11,  n  (lopu- 
pioiig  pro- 
tiirowpiPiy 
iteJ  bnttlo 

of  tlic  few 
of  ancient 
Rome  55(S 
ycd  by  the 

It  enjoys 
rom  almost 
inll  thouch 
insideniblo. 
ih,  Froncli, 
raced  roofs, 

structure?, 

1  provinces, 
'lie  Guadal- 
ins,  covered 
il,  in  Spain, 
ordovii,  and 
■e  tlie  geata 
idonoss  and 

of  Moorish 
in,  (jranada 
vinces.  Its 
rod ;  and  in 

presents  a 
)8t  sotl  and 

covered,  as 
ivntoil  peak, 
1(),(KM)  feet 
ilpscondants 
,ion  of  their 

descending 

jf  the  Sierra 
it  was  the 
ts  approach, 
londiiiff  from 
plendid  city 
trocts  rising 
led  with  the 
imit  covered 
jb,  who  thus 
jilea  of  bad 
ies,  does  not 
ximy;  many 
here  visible, 
tlie  eve  of 


Book  I. 


SPAIN. 


the  ciirioui  trovoUcr  in  aoon  attracted  towards  the  Alhnmbra  (^flir.  HIA,),  thr  ancient  palaeu 
gjg  and  fortress  of  the  kings  of  (Sranada.     It  i« 

the  noblest  HiwcimtMi  existing  of  Moorish 
architecture;  and  nothing  perhaps  in  Ku- 
rope,  out  of  Italy  and  Ornece,  can  conio  into 
coni|)etitlon  with  it.  The  site  is  fine,  rc- 
semlding  that  of  Windsor,  on  a  hill  alwvo 
the  river.  Its  exterior  stnictiirc,  however, 
is  the  rovrrso  of  beautiful :  a  huge  heap  of 
ugly  buildings  liuddled  together,  without 
the  least  seeming  intention  of  tiirniing  one 
habitation;  the  walls  only  gravel  anupiib- 
bles  daubc<l  over  with  plaster.  On  entering 
the  threshold,  however,  the  visiter  seenm 
transported  into  a  (iiiry  scene.  Ho  passes 
through  a  range  of  apartments ;  the  oaths, 

the  Court  of  tho  Lions ;  Uie  Hall  of  the  Abencerrages  (Jg.  310.) ;  the  Golden  tioloon,  or 


Tli«  Alhainbn. 


Hall  u(  tho  Abencoiratei.  Gate  of  tho  Sonctuarj  of  the  Koran. 

Hall  of  the  Ambassadors;  the  Gate  of  tiie  Sanctuary  of  tho  Koran  (Jig.  317.) ;  the  Toivef 

318 


rj 

^ffi 

H 

H 

^M 

^if^^d 

m 

ffi 

^^ 

s 

m 

'm 

b^iiiCiMSuO 

nil 

M 

H 

,. 

! 


Mom'.c  PaTemeot. 


Voul. 


ay 


1 


0A6 


DRflCRII»TIVE  nKOORAIMIV. 


Past  Hi. 


of  the  Twn  HiHtrrv;  with  ntlicn),  in  whicli  tho  vnri(iiii«  rpwMirrrH  of  Orirntnl  (ximp  nrn  iliii- 
playiHl,  iiliinif  with  all  llmt  fiiri  nilVokh  tlio  cyti  or  tin'  hciino  in  ii  itiiltry  rliiimtc,  'I'lm  coiirtM 
•n>  all  |Mivi')l  witli  iiiurlili',  iiml  piirrnunili'd  witli  inurlilo  iiillarH,  in  ii  pur*!  ntiil  iMiniititiil  tiiNtii; 
tnil  tlx'  wiilU  iiriil  imvniriiiiit  ittii  proliiHcly  orniiiiu>nt<'(l  witli  ((ildi'it  iirnlH!m|iio  iiml  iiioHiiin 
{Jig.  !ilH.),  till)  ciilourM  of  wliii'li,  liy  iiii  iirt  whicli  wm'Mim  to  liiivt'  Im'cii  loMt  with  thu  MoorN, 
■ro  na  lirilliiiiit  lut  wlirn  they  wero  lirxt  laid  on,  livi<  liiimlri'd  ynirN  h\f(\.  VViitor  iM  mndo  to 
Miwiit  into  lli(>  uir,or,  in  Mniooth  Nhi'i'tM  NirdiTi'd  with  Howitn,  ri'lrcNlu'N  tin*  interior  of  tliniiimrt- 
niontH.  Alter  Ihi'  oxpuNioti  of  tho  MiNifH,  ('linrlcH  V,  limit  i>n  |Nirt  of  ilH  Hito  n  now  piilncc, 
the  oxli'rniil  iiri'liiti'uturu  of  which  wiih  Miiinh  iiii|M>rior;  lint  it  wn*  ni'vor  tiniNlicd.  'I'liii 
(ionoriiliti'  iN  iiiiothcr  MiHirinh  p:iliii'i',  in  ii  inoro  o|t<vnt<>d  and  liner  Milniition;  hut  itH  interior 
wpji'ndoiir,  Ihuii^h  ({roiil,  in  <|iiltii  t'clipw'd  by  that  of  itM  ni>i|;lili<iur,  'I'lio  cuthiMlral,  thon((h 
it  iniut  yii'ld  to  tlii'rit'  Moorish  NtruoturoK,  iH  yet  of  ronNidi'rulilc  extent  and  iM'unty.  Orannda 
ii  tho  m'lit  of  lino  of  llii-  two  hij^h  coiirtM  of  cliancory,  and  of  other  trihiinalit  of  hi^h  Jnriadic- 
tion.  It  retiiinH  a  ceriitin  projiortion  of  itit  torninr  immenmi  Milk  rnannliirtureN,  with  wiino  of 
W(xillen  iiriil  IimiiIht;  mid  ii  vonNiderable  iniinlier  of  iierNonii  are  employed  in  extrnctini;  tlio 
nitre  with  which  the  iieij^hlNiurin);  Moil  in  copioimly  inipre|rniited, 

Mala^ii  hiiM  in  iniNlerii  linieii  attained  n  \(tp.alv,t  iniiMirtance,  and  \»  reckoned  the  third  iKirt 
in  the  kiii;rdoiii,  riiiil<iii)r  next  to  IhoNU  of  ('aili/  and  liircelonn.  The  chief  foundation  or  ita 
trade  ix  tin'  tine  wiiio  nilli'd  Malii);a  or  viounUtin,  pnxliiced  in  the  ninneroiiH  IiIIIh  hehiiid  it. 
It  iH  raisnl  at  very  (rreat  ex|>i'n«e,  antl  only  upon  the  decliviticn  which  have  an  exixinnre  to 
thu  Mun.  The  couiilry  pruliiceH  alHo  very  tinn  raiwinH  and  other  fruitN;  and  anchovien,  caiijifht 
and  cured  on  the  coiihI,  have  lieen  Hold  to  the  annual  extent  of  titMNM)  quintalH.  Maln(;a  in 
the  only  f;re»t  Spanitih  |Hirt  of  which  the  exportH  hiivn  alwayn  excemiod  the  ini|i<irts.  Mala|^ 
Imii  B  very  necnre  thoujjh  not  cxtenMive  harbour,  formed  by  artilicial  niolen.  It  lien  in  a  deep 
bay  on  u  little  plain  overhuni;  by  lotly  and  crojrf^y  clitfH,  which  at  a  diNtance  np|Miar  quite 
naKed,  lint  on  approachiiifr,  every  crovico  in  found  to  be  filled  with  vineii,  TliiH  nituation 
rcndorH  thu  heat  very  Hevere,  and  has  aided  in  oxpoHini;  the  inhubitanta  to  the  deHtructivn 
ravojfeM  of  pcHtili-ntiiil  fever.  The  Btreetx  are  elone,  niirn>w,  and  dirty  ;  but  the  cathedral  Ih 
a  very  noble  pile,  and  eontaiiiii  paintin;;H  by  threat  HpaiilHli  inuMterH.     ro|iulation  ri'J.tMN). 

Other  very  coUHiderahlo  towim  iwciir  in  (iraniula.  Five  leajjuea  to  tho  cant  of  Mnbiza  is 
Vclez-Malajfa,  niont  delightfully  situated  in  a  plain  diverHified  by  nuineroux  (feiitle  nill», 
clothed  to  the  Miniiiiit  with  vinee,  while  the  plaiiw  below  wave  with  luxuriant  liiirveHta  of 
finm.  Further  cai't  are  the  mniill  |virtt<  <if  Motril  mid  Ahneria;  the  latter  ancient,  and  cele- 
brated in  the  liisfory  of  the  Moorn,  under  whom  it  wns  highly  proHiH'roim  and  t1ourii)hin{f, 
Near  it  is  the  rock  ol  FilabrcH,  iJ(KM)  feet  hij;li,  composed  of  a  siiifjle  block  of  white  marble; 
and  beyond  it  stretclicfl  int<j  the  Hea  the  liold  and  hii^re  promontory  of  Cabo  de  (lata.  (Juadix, 
Daza,  and  I'lirclioiin,  are  convidcrablo  interior  towns,  in  the  easti'm  part  of  this  province, 
seated  in  valleys  enclosed  by  the  numerous  raiifres  of  liilla  which  intersect  it.  Santa  Pc, 
two  lea^'iii:..  west  of  (Sranaifa,  is  remarkably  ex|MiKed  to  earthquakes,  which  have  uplit  itj3 
cathedral  in  two,  and  laid  open  the  cells  of  one  of  the  convents;  yet  the  citizens  still  inhabit 
and  keep  it  in  repair.  Alhniiia  is  strikinjjly  situated  amid  a  circuit  of  precipitous  rocks, 
throu);li  which  dashes  a  rapid  stream.  It  is  freqiienti'd  for  the  sulubrity  of  its  air,  and  tor 
its  medirinal  sprinus  and  baths.  Antefjuera  is  very  ancient;  filled  with  Uomnn  and  Mcsirish 
monuments,  and  still  larjie;  the  adjacent  country  is  very  fertile,  and  di.stiiii,niislied  for  the 
variety  both  of  its  vegetable  and  mineral  productions.  Population 'i(MHM).  Honda,  {Jifr.'M\).) 

capital  of  a  wide  mount^iin  district,  is  sin- 
gularly situated  on  a  rock  with  perpendicu- 
lar clins  and  broken  crags,  tliroiiirh  a  deep 
fissure  in  which  the  river  flows,  and  sur- 
rounds the  city  on  three  sides.  It  is  crossed 
by  a  stupendous  bridpe  110  feet  in  diameter, 
and  2H()  feet  in  heijrht.  Stairs  of  'Xik)  stepp 
lead  down  to  the  river,  ond  frardena  have 
been  formed  on  some  level  projectinjf  points 
of  the  precipice.  Tho  mountaineers  of 
Ronda  are  on  honest,  active,  hardy  race ; 
and  80  healthy  as  to  make  it  o  proverb,  that  "  at  Ronda  a  man  is  a  lioy  at  eighty."  Tho 
vicinity  of  Gibraltar  (rives  them  preat  opportunities  for  smufplinfr,  which  they  carry  on  in 
larfje  bands,  and  in  open  resistance  to  povernment,  without,  however,  incnrrinp  any  impu- 
tation on  their  general  loyalty. 

Tho  kingdom  of  Seville,  west  of  Granada,  is  a  still  finer  region,  and  [lerhaps  superior  to 
any  other  in  the  Peninsula.  Its  plains  are  tho  most  productive  in  wine,  oil,  and  fruits;  the 
noble  river  (luadalquivir  conveys  its  products  to  the  sea;  and  Seville  and  Cadiz  are,  in  aomft 
resi)ects,  superior  to  all  other  Spanish  citica. 


310 


Itoihlfl. 


.Situ 

rem 
sqi.it 


Book  I. 


SPAIN. 


m 


Hdvtllt'- 


S«-vill('  (fig.  330.)  M  ■itualtxl  in  tlio  iniilit  of  n  lirtiln  nnti  ili'IluMnil  pinin,  ami  nonr  tlin 
,|,„.  iiioiitli  of  till!   (■iiiiitiili|iilvlr,  wliii'li  fur- 

'  ■' '  iiirrly  iiiliiiitli'il  vr>rii'U  III' liiruti  (iiwi:  it 

MiiN  II  ^rri'iil.  city  t'riiiii  lln*  fiirlii'iit  intIimI. 
Ily  till!  ItiiiniiiiM  It  wiiM  ri'li'liriiti'il  unili'r 
tlii>  ii|i|N'lhitiiiM  of  IIih|niIin:  iIh  rmitiilu- 
tion  wiiM  iiKcrilNMl  to  I  liTciili'M ;  iinil,  Willi 
tlin  iii'i(;lilNiiiiiii|f  coliiiiy  ol'  lliilicii,  it 
liiriiKiit  th(^  ciiiiilul  of  liii'tii-ii,  riiiliT  tliu 
MimrH  it  lj<>oiiiiii!  nil  iiiili'|H'iiili'iit  kiiiK> 
■ioiii;  anil  if  It  Ini  triii;  tliut,  mi  IIm  cii|v 
tuH)  l>V  FiTiliimnil  tlw  ('iilliolic-,4(KMKK) 
Muors  iiiari:li('il  out  iit  hum  of  itn  H'^ivti, 
it  muKt  iiulonl  Imvo  Imm'ii  iiii  iiiinii'ii8<i  city.  NutwitlmtiiiulliiK  ilu;  (li'|Mi|iiiliitiiiti  tliiiH  ii<:ca- 
iUiiiiMJ  liy  liif^otry  ami  trcni'licry,  it  mmhi  Iicciiiiu!  niori'  Hplmdiil  than  ovrr,  in  ciiiirTiiniMicu  <>i 
bvcoiiiiti);  till)  I'liiiNiriiiiii  of  tlin  wcultli  which  flownd  in  from  thn  wcKtrrii  hciiiiNphcri'.  \tt 
ninniiliii'iiirin);  imIiiNtry  wax  tlit<ii  iiIho  very  tlouriNliinir.  liy  ii  return  n»iili<  to  irnvcriiiiipnt  in 
1(M)1,  Seville  wit<«  Hiiiil  to  coiitniii  KMMMIhilk  Iooimh,  K>viM(r  eiiiployiiii'iit  to  i:i(),IHK)  work- 
men. It  fri'ipiently  rereiveil  an  increiihe  uf  hplemloiir  liy  iHicoitiiiiK  u  royut  ri'Miileiice.  Hiiir.o 
till'  ulKive  peritMl,  Hevillo  Iihn  not  only  ileclineil  with  tlie  ^rriiiliiiil  ilccliiie  of  Spiiiii,  hut  hnH 
Hiitlered  tiy  till!  iilliii(r  up  of  the  uhiinnel  of  tliu  (iuiiiliili|uivir,  which  Iiiih  remlereil  it  nnviKu* 
bin  only  for  xiimll  NhipM,  uiiil  Iiiih  triinHl'erreil  to  ('iiiliy.  the  cornnierci!  of  Amnrlcii.  Hevilln  in 
now  a  Noleiiiii,  inert,  ^lixjiiiy  city,  with  !)1,IHN)  inlmhitiintH.  Like  iilher  Hpanifili  plnccN,  piir- 
ticularly  thoNii  of  Mixirixh  ori;;in,  itH  HlreetH  iire  niirrow,  wimliiii;,  iiml  dirty  ;  hut  it  contiiinii 
loniu  Hplenilid  public  cdiliceH,  ForeiiioHt  xtiimlM  the  ciithedral,  the  InrfrcFt  eccJeNiiiMtical 
Rtriicture  in  the  I'eninHiiln,  •I'JO  feet  hmu  within,  and  :)7!l  hronil ;  hut  the  iiiiiHt  ntrikin^;  fea- 
ture in  itri  tower,  oriuinnlly  erected  liv  the  leiirneil  (ielinror  (luever,  onil  iihciI  iih  oil  nliNcrvu- 
lory,  but  ruiKcd  liy  the  ('liriMtiiinM  to  the  lieiKlil  of  IJTiO  feel.  Muiiy  of  the  couvcntM  ulno  arc 
very  Hplendid,  nml  previnuH  to  the  lute  inviiNion  by  the  Kreiudi  couliiiiied  niiiiierous  works  of 
tlio  irreittest  Hpuul^h  nrtiMH,  of  wlioiii  Seville  waH  the  chief  niirrtc,  There  wnn,  iibovi,'  all,  a 
milendid  collection  of  the  workH  of  Mnrillo,  the  prince  of  tlicMe  artint',  nnd  a  native  of 
Hnville.  Of  thcHe  treuHiireM  the  city  Iiiim  been  in  a  ^jri.'al  nicnsiire  despoiled  by  the  ravii|;eii 
of  the  invader;  MarHliiil  Soult,  in  particular,  had  in  his  coUrction  iiuniermiH  uiasterpieceH 
of  Murillo,  by  which  Iho  (■onvents  of  Seville  were  foriuivrly  ailurnt'il.  Seville  has  still  'jr>(M) 
silk  liMiinx;  and  (government  inaiiilaiiis  a  raiiiioii  foundery  .'ind  a  tobacco  uiaiiuliii^tory.  The 
Exchnn^e  and  the  Murine  Acudeniy  are  ulso  hamlsonie  edifices. 
Cadiz  (Jiff.  3'il.)  in,  in  an  eijual  Uejfree  with  Seville,  the  lienst  of  Spain.  In  the  commor- 
,.,21  cial  aunalM.of  tlie  world  no  city  ia  of 

hi(rher  anliiiuity.  Tartessiis,  occu- 
pying a  silo  in  ito  vicinity,  wiih  one 
of  the  earliest  und  mot  nourishing 
I'li(junician  cidoiiies.  Allerward.s  Gu- 
doira,  or  Uudes,  was  recojjnisi'd  by 
the  Greeks  and  RomaiiN  us  one  of  tho 
chief  European  einporia.  In  modem 
times,  when  commerco  did  not  form 
part  of  the  Kuropoan  Hysteiii,  Cadiz 
declined  into  a  si^condary  rank;  and 
tho  intcrconrso  with  America  was  at  first  nearly  mono|H)lified  by  Si^ville.  The  circunistancea 
wliich  transferred  it  from  that  city  to  Cadiz  look  pluce  early  in  the  last  century,  when  tho 
latter  rose  to  bo  the  chief  thcatro  of  Sjianish  commerce.  It  (.'iijoyed  for  some  time  the  entire 
monopoly  of  the  American  trade;  nnd  even  when,  in  1778,  it  was  thrown  open  tn  tho  whole 
kin$rdom,  it  had  taken  such  deep  root  in  Cad'z  ns  to  frustnile  all  competition.  In  1784,  when 
the  entire  iin|)orts  from  America  were  12,r);«»,(K)(W.  that  city,  for  its  share,  had  11,280,000/. ; 
and  of  tho  w  hole  ex|Hirls,  nmountinff  to  4,300,0(KW.,  it  had  3,fl(K(,000/.  Notwilhstnndinj 
severe  sbock.s,  in  consequence  of  (lolitical  revolutions,  and  the  war  with  England,  it  always 
revived,  nnd  derived  a  temporary  proatness  frrni  becoming  the  capital  of  the  cniislitutional 
government.  It  received,  however,  ils  mortal  blow  by  the  separation  of  the  colonies.  The 
merchants,  deprived  thus  of  almost  their  only  employment,  have  been  reduced  to  the  fund^ 
already  accumulated,  and  have  in  a  great  measure  retired  from  the  confined  situation  of 
Cadiz  tj)  the  pleasant  sites  and  villages  which  are  scattered  round  the  bay.  The  city  is 
situated  on  a  small  neck  of  land,  at  the  point  of  the  long  Isle  of  Leon.  It  does  not  boost  any 
remorkabli!  structures,  but  tho  whole  is  elegantly  built  in  regular  squares,  and  streets  with  a 
gcpiare  court  in  tlie  centre  and  an  awning  over  it    Population  53,000. 


C«ll«. 


MS 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


Gibraltar. 


Oibraltar  {Jig.  J<%.),  though  no  longer  Spanish,  forms  also  a  strikinnf  and  imporlJint  fen- 
322  t'lfo  in   this  province.     ThiH   rock   is 

.  celebrated  from  tlie  earliest  antiquity  ns 

one  of  tlio  two  "  Pillars  of  Hercules," 
which  fjii.nrded  the  entrance  into  the 
Mediterranean ;  thoujrh  Mount  Calpe, 
on  tiie  opfKfcsito  side,  is  considerably 
loftier.  In  1704,  Sir  Cieorgc  Rooke  and 
Sir  Cloudesley  Shovel  carried  this  for- 
tress by  a  cotip  de  main  ;  since  wisich 
time  Spain  has  vainly  attempted  to  re- 
gain possession  of  it.  Her  grand  effort 
was  towards  the  c'ose  of  the  American 
war,  when  the  fleets  of  France  and  Spain  rode  masters  of  tiie  sea.  A  combined  attack  was 
made  on  the  I3th  of  September,  1782,  by  the  two  powers,  with  fifty  sail  of  the  line,  30,000 
troops,  and  ten  raighty  floating  batteries,  which  were  expected  to  demolish  all  opposed  to 
them.  They  kept  up  a  tremendous  fire  from  ten  in  the  morning  till  midnight,  at  wliicli  time 
smoke  and  fire  were  seen  rising  from  the  batteries  which  before  next  morning  were  reduced 
to  ashes,  with  a  dreadful  destruction  of  the  assailants.  No  subsequent  attempt  has  been 
ftiade;  nature,  in  fact,  has  rendered  Gibraltar  almost  impregnable.  The  rock  is  precipitous 
on  all  sides,  and  is  connected  with  the  continent  only  by  a  narrow  neck  of  marshy  ground. 
The  western  front  alone  towards  the  sea  is  in  any  degree  accessible;  and  this  is  defended 
by  batteries  cut  in  the  solid  rock,  and  by  other  works  so  extensive  and  so  well  planned  as  to 
bid  defiance  to  any  future  effort  Gibraltar  has  one  handsome  street,  the  houses  of  which 
are  built  in  tho  Englisli  style,  with  trees  and  flowers  skilfully  planted  in  scanty  fragments  of 
soil.  The  rest  of  the  town  is  close,  crowded,  and  dirty,  iniuibited  liy  about  20,0()0  people, 
chiefly  Moors  and  Jews,  the  latter  of  whom  have  sought  refuge  hero  in  great  numbers  from 
Spanish  bigotry,  and  have  four  synagogues.  The  expense  of  maintaining  Gibraltar  is  con- 
siderable :  but  it  forms  an  important  naval  station,  a  depot  for  the  commerce  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  a  channel  for  introducing  into  Spain  great  (|uantities  of  goods,  declared  contn- 
band  by  the  jealous  policy  of  that  country. 

Among  other  places  of  some  importance  is  Tarifa,  the  most  southern  point  of  Spain,  and 
even  of  Europe,  and  tiie  probable  place  of  tiie  landing  of  Tarik,  with  tlie  Saracen  army  destined 
for  the  conquest  of  that  country.  Seated  on  an  almost  insulated  rock,  it  is  still  a  fortress  of 
some  strength.  Algesics,  on  tlic  opposite  side  of  the  bay,  has  grown  up  as  a  small  rival  to 
Gibraltar;  its  population  consists  chiefly  of  smugglers  and  adventurers.  In  the  interior  is 
the  flourishing  and  populous  town  of  Xeres,  situated  in  a  wide  region  of  vineyards,  producing 
the  wine  called  Sherry,  the  consumption  of  wliicli  is  so  generiil  in  tliis  countr)'.  Mr.  Jacob 
supposes  tlie  entire  produce  to  be  40,0(K)  pipes,  uf  which  l."),000  are  cxiwrted,  one  half  to 
Britain.  Ecija,  a  large  town,  was  famous  as  a  scene  of  contest  between  the  Christians  and 
Saracens,  and  afterwards  as  the  head  ([uartcrs  of  a  most  formidable  band  of  robbers ;  but  its 
walls  are  now  in  ruin.  Lebrija  and  Carmona  are  ancient  towns,  contiiining  Roman  monu- 
ments of  considerable  grandeur.  The  districts  to  the  north  and  west  of  the  Guadalquivir 
are  mountainous  and  rugged ;  though  Huelva  and  Moguer,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tinto,  and 
Ayamonte,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Guodiana,  derive  some  importance  from  their  eituation,  and 
carry  on  a  little  fishery. 

Cordova  (Jig.  323.),  on  the  upper  part  of  the  course  of  the  Guadalquivir,  is  another  king- 
dom  of  Andalusia,    deriving    its 
323  chief  interest  from  the  celebrated 

capital  of  the  same  name.  Cor- 
duba,  founded  by  the  Romans,  was 
not  only  n  provincial  capit^il,  but 
the  seat  of  an  university,  which 
could  boast  the  great  names  of  Se- 
neca and  Lucan.  It  displayed, 
however,  a  fir  higher  pomp,  when, 
after  the  Saracen  conciuest,  it  be- 
came the  first  capital  of  the  Mo- 
hammedan empire  in  Spain.  Under  Abdelrahman  and  Almansor,  it  is  represented  as  con- 
taining 1600  mosques,  and  nearly  1,000,000  people.  Admitting  a  certain  cxagaforation,  its 
past  greatness  is  clearly  attested  by  the  vast  and  now  almost  empty  circuit  enclosed  by  its 
walls,  in  a  great  measure  filled  with  palm  trees  and  gardens,  and  by  the  astonishing  remains 
of  its  mosque.  This  vast  edifice  presents  nothinij  very  striking  in  its  exterior,  wiiich  is  in  a 
great  ineasurt;  hid  by  the  surrounding  streets.  Rut  when  the  stranger  enters  any  one  of  its 
nineteen  gates,  he  is  astonished  and  bewildered  by  the  endless  labyrinth  of  colinnns  which 
stretch  before  him  in  every  direction  U^ff.  324.).  These  columns  have  almost  defied  the  at- 
temots  to  number  them ;  by  one  writer  they  have  been  estimated  at  1400,  but  are  generally 


Cordora. 


Book  I. 


SPAIN. 


680 


324 


itated  as  exceeding  400,  dividing  the  mosque  into  nineteen  aisles,  and  producing  a  perpetual 
and  surprising  change  of  scone  to  tlie  visiter.    Tiio  edifice,  however,  tliougli  it  astonishes  by  its 

uumensity,  docs  not  equal  in  elegance  tiiose  erected  during 
that  more  refined  age  when  Granada  became  the  capital. 
The  Christiana  have  converted  it  into  a  church,  and  erected 
in  the  centre  a  choir  of  great  beauty,  but  quite  out  of  har- 
mony with  the  Saracenic  part  of  tlie  structure.  Cordova, 
though  its  days  of  splendour  are  long  departed,  still  enjoys 
delightful  environs,  producing  a  breed  of  liorsos  the  finest  in 
Spain,  of  which  a  splendid  stud  was  lately  U'-.n  '>y  the  go- 
vernment. There  is  also  some  remnant  of  its  once  exten- 
sive manufactures,  particularly  of  that  fine  species  of  leather 
called  fi-om  it  Cordovan.    The  population  is  .'jT.OOO. 

Jaen  ranks  as  a  fourtii  kingdom,  though  it  cannot  enter 
into  any  rivalry  with  those  already  described.  Its  capital,  of 
the  same  name,  however,  though  little  known,  from  its  de 
tached  situation,  is  still  a  large  city,  the  see  of  a  bishop, 
Andujar  is  a  considerable  place,  with  a  very  ancient  castle, 
at  the  entrance  of  the  defiles  of  the  Sierra  Morena ;  and  to 
the  north  of  it  is  Bayleii,  where  the  Spaniards  gained  that 
signal  victory  which  caused  the  surrender  of  Dupont  and  his 
army.  In  the  upper  part  of  this  tract  are  the  settlements  of 
,     .      ,  „  „    ,  La  Carolina,  where  an  expanse  of  rude  mountain  waste  has, 

Intenor  of  M»que..  Cordova.         ^^  German  and  other  colonisfs,  been  convo.ted  into  a  pro- 
ductive territory. 

The  Balearic  Islands,  Majorca,  Minorca,  and  Ivi^a,  with  the  minor  ones  of  Cabrera  and 
Formentera,  form  an  appendage  to  Spain  of  some  importance  and  celebrity.  The  Bolcarian 
Blingers  are  celebrated  in  the  military  annals  of  antiquity ;  but  the  islands  in  general  fol- 
lowed the  political  fate  of  Spain.  Majorca,  the  largest,  about  forty  miles  in  length,  and 
thirty  in  breadtii,  possesses  very  considerable  natural  advantages.  Several  mountain  chains, 
varymg  from  l.'jOO  to  4500  feet  high,  penetrate  its  centre,  and  defend  it  both  from  the  excess 
of  the  heat  and  the  violent  action  of  the  sea-breezes.  Its  summits  are  somewhat  arid,  but 
tlie  intervening  valleys  are  thickly  clothed  with  olive  trees;  and  corn  and  the  vine  grow 
luxuriantly,  though  with  imperfect  culture,  on  the  plains  helow.  Oranges  and  citrons 
flourish  so  abundantly  in  the  northern  district,  that  20,000  niule-lbads  of  them  are  cxiwrtcd 
to  France  and  Catalonia.  M.  Camba-ssedes  values  the  entire  produce  of  the  isle,  in  1820,  at 
53,0(JO,(X)0  reals,  about  $3,000,000.  Of  this,  about  34,000,000  are  in  grain  and  pulse, 
5,000,000  in  oil,  and  2,.'M)0,000  in  wine,  1,.'J00,000  in  fruits,  3,000,000  in  hops,  and  2,000,000 
in  sheep.  Palma,  the  capital  of  Majorca,  is  a  considerable  town,  slightly  fortified,  inhabited 
chiefly  by  the  nohles,  who  possess  the  greater  part  of  the  isle,  and  have  rarely  suflicient 
activity  or  curiosity  to  visit  their  estates.  In  no  Spanish  city  are  indolence  and  superstition 
more  prevalent.  There  are  tiiirty  convents,  some  of  which  enjoy  a  revenue  of  $10,000  a 
year.  Processions  and  religious  festivals,  celebrated  often  with  great  tumult,  form  the  chief 
amusements.  In  these  it  is  customary  to  deck  up  figures  of  Judas,  with  tablets  containing 
the  enumeration  of  his  crimes,  among  which  that  of  being  "  chief  of  the  liberals"  was 
lately  included !    Population  34,000. 

Minorca  is  a  much  smaller  island,  more  barren,  covered  with  bare  and  rocky  mountains, 
and  destitute  of  any  trees  at  all  lofty,  the  growth  being  prevented  by  the  violent  winds  from 
the  sea.  But  it  is  distinguished  for  one  of  the  finest  harbours  in  Europe,  Port  Mahon,  which 
being  strongly  fortified,  has  been  a  subject  of  eager  contest  to  the  maritime  nations.  Ilaving 
been  taken  by  England  in  the  Succession  War,  it  was  recovered  by  the  French  in  1756, 
notwithstanding  Byng's  attemj)!  to  relieve  it.  After  several  other  vicissitudes,  it  remained 
with  Spain.  The  harbour  is  extensive,  possesses  deep  water,  and  is  siieltered  by  hills  on 
each  side  from  every  wind.  The  town  has  nothing  of  a  Spanish  aspect ;  the  streets  being 
broad,  the  houses  small  but  nent,  the  people  a  stirring  and  active  race,  who  scarcely  allow 
themselves  to  be  called  Spaniards.  During  the  late  French  war,  being  protect(;d  by  the 
English  navy,  tiiey  made  considerable  wealth  by  privateering.  Ciuidadella,  thoiiQ;li  of  smaller 
extent,  is  the  nominal  capital,  and  the  residence  of  the  nobility.  Ivi<ja.  or  1  .za,  is  a  small 
isle,  of  rugged  surface,  which  forms  one  inunenso  mountain,  shooting  i.p  into  a  variety  of 
summits.  The  island  is  tlins  refreshed  by  cool  breezes  and  numerous  streams,  iind  yields 
readily  all  tlie  productions  of  this  climate,  particularly  figs.  In  the  quarter  r;illi'il  I„'is  Sa- 
linas, salt  is  evaporated  by  the  heat  of  the  sim,  and  exported  to  the  extent  of  15,0(K)  tons. 

[Sect.  VIII. — Republic  of  Andorra. 

This  little  republic,  with  a  territory  of  hardly  200  stpiare  miles,  and  a  population  of  about 
15,000  souls,  has  been  overlooked  by  the  author  of  this  work.  It  occupies  a  valley  on  the 
southern  side  of  the  Pyrenees,  situated  between  the  Maladetta  and  the  Moncal,  and  lying 

Vol.  I.  ."iO 


500 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III 


between  Poix  in  Franco  and  Urgol  in  Spain.  Beside  Andorra,  the  capital,  a  town  of  2,000 
inhabibints,  it  contains  five  villages,  which  export  iron  and  timber.  It  is  governed  by  a 
Syndic,  who  presides  over  the  council  of  the  valley,  and  by  two  Viguiers,  appointed  the  one 
by  tlie  king  of  France,  and  the  otlxer  by  the  bishop  of  UrgeL — ^Am.  Ed.] 


^  CHAPTER  X. 

'  PORTUGAL. 

PoRTi'OAL  has  by  political  causes  alone  been  separated  from  Spain.  There  is  no  physical 
peculiarity  by  which  the  two  kingdoms  arc  distinguished.  On  the  contrary,  all  the  grand 
natural  features  of  Spain  are  prolonged  into  Portugal,  and  become  Portuguese. 

Sect.  1. — General  Outline  and  Aspect, 

The  Iwundaries  of  Portugal  are  the  Atlantic  Ocean  on  the  west  throughout  its  whole 
extent,  and  also  on  the  south ;  on  tiie  north  the  Spanish  kingdom  of  Galicia ;  and  on  the 
east  those  of  Ks^tremadura  and  Leon.  The  greatest  dimension  is  from  north  to  south,  or 
from  37°  to  42=>  10'  north  latitude,  and  it  extends  from  6°  15'  to  9°  30'  west  longitude.  Its 
eurfoce  is  38,800  square  miles. 

The  mountains  of  Portugal  may  be  considered  as  prolongations  of  those  of  Spain,  chiefly 
of  the  chains  of  Guadarrama  and  Toledo,  and  those  in  the  north  of  Galicia,  Those  ranges, 
seldom  rising  to  the  first  magnitude,  cover  almost  the  whole  country,  leaving  between  them 
many  picturesque  and  fertile  valleys.  There  are  only  two  extensive  plains,  one  on  the  south 
of  the  Tagus,  and  the  other  between  the  Mondego  and  the  Douro. 

Tiie  rivers  of  Portugal  consist  chiefly  of  the  spacious  terminations  of  the  greatest  streams 
of  Spain  in  their  progress  to  the  ocean.  The  Douro  forms  the  great  maritime  emporium  of 
Oporto,  and  the  Tagus  that  of  Lisbon.  The  Guadiana,  also,  in  its  lower  course,  flows 
along  the  eastern  frontier  of  Portugal.  The  Minho,  a  much  smaller  stream,  comes  down 
from  Galicia ;  and  the  Mondego,  alone,  is  entirely  Portuguese,  flowing  nearly  across  the 
breadth  of  the  kingdom. 

Sect.  II. — Natural  Geography. 

SuBSECT.  1. — Geology. 

This  kingdom  has  the  same  general  gcognostical  structure  and  composition  as  Spain.  The 
mountainous  parts  of  the  country  are  generally  of  gneiss,  mica  slate,  and  other  Neptunian 
primitive  strata,  occasionally  intermingled  with  Plutonian  rocks  of  granite  and  porphyry. 
Secondary  formations  of  limestone  occur  in  the  Sierra  d'Estrella,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  Cape 
St.  Vincent,  and  all  around  Li.«bon  and  at  Cape  St.  Vincent  the  strata  are  of  rocks  of  the 
tertiary  class,  more  or  less  intermingled  with  trap  rocks. 

Mines.  It  appears  tliat  the  Carthaginians  wrought  tin  mines  in  this  part  of  the  Penin- 
sula. It  is  asserted  that  tiiere  were  formerly  mines  of  tin  stone  in  the  granitic  mountains 
of  the  neighbourhood  of  Viseu,  in  the  province  of  Beira,  at  the  place  called  Burraco  de  Stanno. 
Lead  ores  were  worked  in  the  last  century,  not  far  from  Mogadouro,  on  the  banks  of  the 
Sabour,  in  the  provmce  of  Tras  os  Montes,  and  near  Longroiva,  on  the  banks  of  the  Rio 
Prisco.  Near  Mogadouro,  mines  of  graphite  or  plumbago  occur.  Iron  mines  also  occur  in 
tlie  same  country,  near  Felguiera  and  Torre  de  Moncorvo.  They  supply  the  iron  forge  of 
Chapacunha.  'iwo  vciy  old  establishments  of  the  same  kind  occur  in  Portuguese  Estre- 
madura,  one  in  tlie  district  of  Thomar,  the  other  in  that  of  Figuero  dos  Vinhos.  They  are 
supplied  by  mines  of  red  oxide  of  iron,  situated  in  the  frontier  of  that  province  and  of  the 
province  of  Beira.  There  is  a  deposit  of  cinnabar  at  (vouna.  The  mountains  of  the  neigh- 
bouriiood  of  Oiwrto  everywhere  present  indications  of  copper  and  of  other  ores.  In  Portu- 
gal, as  in  Spain,  the  sands  of  rivers  were  washed  for  the  gold  they  contain;  and  it  is  said  in 
this  way  large  quantities  of  the  precious  metal  were  collected.  At  present  there  is  but  one 
gold  mine  in  Portugal,  at  a  place  called  Adissa,  in  the  district  of  StUbes.  Its  annual  pro- 
duce is  trifling :  in  the  year  1815  it  vas  41  lbs.  of  pure  gold ;  1816,  18  lbs. ;  1817,  11  lbs. ; 
1818, 12  lbs. ;  1810, 13  lbs.;  1820, 12  lbs.;  and  in  1821, 18  lbs.  Beds  of  coal  occur  atVialonga, 
to  the  N.  N.  E.  of  Oporto ;  and  there  is  a  mine  of  coal  at  Cabo  de  Buarcos  in  the  province 
of  Beira. 


SuBSECT.  2, — Botany. 
The  botany  of  Portugal  is  included  under  that  of  Spain. 


# 


SuBSECT.  3. — Zoology. 
Tlic  zoology  cannot  be  very  diflerent  from  that  of  Spain ;  but  no  documents  have  appeared 
to  illustrate  eitlier  the  one  or  the  other.     The  horses  are  rather  small,  and  altogether  infe- 


BOOE  1. 


PORTUGAL 


501 


rior ;  but  the  mules  are  fine,  and  nearly  equal  to  those  of  Spain.  Improvement,  however 
is  neglected ;  nor  have  the  indolent  Portuguese  profited  by  crossing  their  sheep  from  the 
merinos  of  Spain.  A  long-legged  race  of  av/ine  is  common  to  both  kingdoms,  and  furnishes 
excellent  haras. 

Sect.  HI. — Historical  Geography 

The  Carthaginians  and  Romans  who  occupied  the  Peninsula,  did  not  rpcosfnise  Portugal 
as  a  distinct  country.  Their  Lusitania  included  a  part  of  Spain,  and  did  not  comprise  the 
whole  of  Portugal :  Merida,  in  Estremaduia,  was  its  capital.  Port'igal,  like  Spain,  Kubmittc<l 
successively  to  the  formidable  irruptions  of  the  Goths  and  of  the  Aloors. 

The  existence  of  Portugal  as  a  distinct  kingdom  dates  from  tlie  commoiicomcnt  of  the 
twelfth  century.  At  that  time,  Henry,  dukr  'Burgundy,  having  married  thn  duuglitur  of 
the  duke  of  Cabtile,  obtained  as  her  dowry  the  ..jrthem  part  of  Portugal,  which  iiad  been 
rescued  from  the  Moors.  The  capital,  at  that  time,  was  Porto  or  Oporto,  wlionco  the  modern 
name  of  the  kingdom  appears  to  be  derived.  His  successors  gained  a  series  of  conquests, 
and  obtained  possession  of  Lisbon  and  the  southern  provinces,  carrying  their  conquests  to  the 
frontier  of  Seville. 

The  fifteenth  century,  and  the  reigns  of  John  and  Emanuel,  formed  the  true  era  of  the 
greatness  of  Portugal,  when  it  outshone  all  the  other  kingdoms  of  Europe.  Confined  on 
Uic  land  side  within  narrow  limits,  it  opened  for  itself  a  vast  career  of  maritime  discovery 
and  conquest.  Spain,  indeed,  shared  this  pursuit ;  but  her  first  acquisitions  were  made  by 
private  individuals,  partly  foreign,  with  only  faint  assistance  from  the  government ;  while 
the  Portuguese  expeditions  were  planned,  fitted  out,  and  all  the  resources  for  them  sup. 
plied  by  the  government.  Their  flag,  at  one  time,  floated  victorious  over  all  the  eastern 
seas ;  while  in  the  west,  by  the  possession  of  Brazil,  they  came  into  some  competition  with 
Spain. 

A  disastrous  eclipse  of  the  Portuguese  monarchy  took  place  in  the  sixteenth  century,  in 
consequence  of  the  rash  and  romantic  expedition  undertaken  by  king  Sebastian  into  Morocco, 
where  he  himself  and  the  flower  of  his  troops  were  cut  ofi^.  Hereupon  Pliilip  W.  of  Spain, 
a  powerful  and  ambitious  prince,  raised  a  claim  to  the  succession,  which  the  superiority  of 
his  arms  enabled  him  to  secure.  Portugal,  with  all  her  eastern  and  western  possessions, 
then  became  an  appanage  to  the  crown  of  Spain.  The  connection  was  every  way 
unfortunate.  Not  only  did  she  lose  her  political  and  civil  liberty,  but  many  of  her  fineht 
foreign  possessions  were  wrested  from  her  by  the  Dutch,  tlie  spirited  and  active  enemies  of 
Philip. 

The  restoration  of  the  monarchy,  in  1640,  was  still  more  sudden  than  its  fall.  Tlie  deep- 
rooted  indignation  of  the  people  was  combined  into  an  extensive  conspiracy,  whicii,  having 
been  concealed  to  the  last  moment,  burst  forth  at  once :  the  Spaniards  were  driven  out,  and 
the  duke  of  Braganza  raised  to  the  throne,  under  the  title  of  John  IV.  Yet  Portugal  did  not 
thus  achieve  any  revival  of  her  ancient  glory.  The  new  monarch  soon  re-established  absolute 
power:  a  sluggish  and  indolent  cliaracter  pervaded  all  the  departments  of  government :  its 
foreign  possessions  were  lost  or  neglected ;  and  Portugal  continued  a  stranger  to  all  the 
improvements  and  energies  which  raised  Britain  and  France  to  the  first  place  in  the  system  ■ 
of  Europe.  Yet,  during  this  period,  the  elevation  of  the  Bourbons  to  the  Spanisli  throne,  led 
to  a  very  intimate  alliance  between  England  and  Portugal,  the  natural  foe  of  Spain.  It  was 
cemented  in  1803,  by  a  commercial  treaty,  in  v.-hich  Portugal  secured  an  exclusive  market 
for  her  wines,  while  Britain  obtained  a  market  for  her  woollens,  and  an  arrangement  by  which 
the  gold  of  Brazil  might  find  its  way  into  her  ports. 

The  recent  convulsions  of  the  Peninsula  have  been  very  amply  shared  by  Portugal. 
Regardless  of  the  neutrality  which  she  had  strictly  maintained,  Bonaparte,  by  a  most  unpro- 
voked aggression,  sent  Junri,,  in  1807,  to  take  possession  of  Lisbon.  The  king  did  not 
attempt  a  vain  resistance,  but  sailed  for  Brazil,  and  established  his  court  at  Rio  do  Janeiro. 
The  British  arms,  and  the  glorious  achievements  of  Wellington, 'hove  the  French  out  of  this 
part  of  the  Peninsula,  and  finallyoutof  the  whole.  Afterwards  Portugal  imitated  the  example 
of  Spain  in  compelling  her  monarch  to  grant  a  representative  constitution ;  but  again,  by  a 
counter-revolution,  she  re-established  an  absolute  monarchy.  More  recently,  on  the  death 
of  the  late  king,  Don  Pedro  proclaimed  the  separation  of  Brazil  from  Portugal,  ri'scrvingthe 
former  to  himself,  but  granting  to  the  latter  a  charter,  the  observance  of  which  was  made  the 
condition  of  holding  the  throne. 

Sect.  FV. — Political  Orography. 

Portugal,  after  the  downfall  of  the  feudal  system,  and  especially  after  hnr  subjection  to 
Philip  II.  became  one  of  the  most  absolute  of  European  governments.  The  Manjuisof  Pom- 
bal  and  one  or  two  more  enlightened  men  found  their  way  into  the  ministry  ;  but,  in  general, 
measures  were  as  ill  conducted  as  possible,  and  corruption  prevailed  in  every  dc|)arlnient  of 
the  state.  The  course  of  justice  was  equally  polluted ;  and,  no  adecpiate  salaries  beinf; 
allowed  to  the  judges,  they  were  under  an  almost  irresistible  temptation  to  accept  bribes. 


I  ill 


( 


m 


502 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


PabtIII 


The  pride  of  the  nobles  was  nearly  as  great  as  in  Spain,  without  being  accompanied  by  the 
same  bay  sentiments.  They  are  divided  into  two  brunches,  tlic  litulados  and  the  hidalgos, 
and  have  hold  the  peasantry  in  a  subjection  little  short  of  slavery. 

The  army  of  Portugal,  prior  to  the  revolution,  though  composed  nominally  of  30,000  men, 
was  in  a  most  inefficient  state,  not  tlirough  want  of  physical  courage  or  discipline  in  the 
men,  but  from  the  incapacity  of  the  officers,  and  tlie  general  defects  of  the  military  system. 
Wiicn  the  French,  however,  Iiad  been  driven  out  of  Portugal,  an  army  of  40,000  men  was 
levied,  and  disciplined  by  British  officers,  under  the  superintendence  of  Lord  Beresford;  and 
thus  prepared,  the  Portuguese  acted,  during  the  eventful  war  which  followed,  in  a  manner 
that  would  not  have  disgraced  any  troops  in  Europe.  The  army  is  still  maintained ;  and 
though  the  new  government  will  not  brook  British  command,  yet,  under  its  influence,  Por- 
tuguese officers  of  merit  have  been  formed. 

The  navy,  which  was  never  considerable,  was  carried  out  with  the  royal  family  to  Brazil, 
and  has  never  been  restored. 

Sect.  V. — Productive  Industry. 

The  industry  and  commerce  of  Portugal,  which  presented  so  brilliant  an  aspect  during  her 
era  of  prosperity,  have  simk  lower  tiiun  those  of  almost  any  other  European  nation. 

Agriculture  did  not,  until  very  lately,  experience  any  of  the  improvements  which  have  be- 
come general  in  the  rest  of  Europe.  The  plough  is  composed  of  three  pieces  of  wood 
awkwardly  i)ut  together,  and  imperfectly  aided  by  the  clumsy  maciiinery  of  wheels.  Though 
generally  very  fertile,  this  country  did  not  produce  a  third  of  the  grain  necessary  for  tie 
supply  of  its  inhabitants.  Of  late  some  improvement  has  taken  place,  especially  by  the  in- 
tro<hiction  of  potatoes;  and  the  dependence  upon  foreign  supply  has  been  considerably 
diminished.  The  chief  object  of  attention  is  the  vine,  which,  with  the  olive  and  other  fruit 
trees,  is  cultivated  with  the  utmost  diligence  in  the  valleys  and  on  the  sides  of  the  hills,  in 
the  elevated  province  of  Entro  Douro  e  Minho.  Here  is  produced  abundantly  the  port 
wine,  which  forms  tiie  main  basis  of  Portuguese  trade,  and  finds  so  copious  a  market  in 
Britain.  The  entire  produce  is  estimated  at  80,000  pipes.  Of  white  wine  Portugal  produces 
about  60,000  pipes;  but  this  is  of  inferior  quality,  and  chiefly  consumed  at  home.  Sheep 
arc  bred  on  tlie  hills,  to  a  pretty  large  extent;  but  not  so  abundantly  as  in  Spain,  neither 
is  their  wool  so  fine. 

The  manufiicturcs  of  Portugal  scarcely  deserve  to  be  named.  Little  is  known  beyond  the 
working  of  their  wool  for  domestic  use  by  each  family  or  neighliourhood ;  all  their  finer 
fabrics  are  imported.  According  to  a  late  observant  traveller,  ignorance,  or  at  least  an  im- 
perfect knowledge  of  the  commonest  arts,  is  conspicuous  among  tiie  Portuguese.  Their 
carpenters  arc  the  most  awkward  and  clumsy  artisans  that  can  be  imagined,  spoiling  every 
thing  they  attempt ;  the  wood-work  even  of  good  houses  being  finished  in  a  manner  that 
would  scarcely  be  tolerated  in  the  rudest  ages.  Their  carriages  of  all  kinds,  their  agricul- 
tural implements,  locks,  keys,  &c.  are  ludicrously  bad.  Working  in  gold  and  silver  plate 
forms  almost  the  only  exception ;  cambrics  also  are  well  made  in  some  places ;  and  a  few 
other  local  objects  might  be  enumerated. 

Of  mines  and  fisheries,  the  former  is  not  at  all  cultivated,  though  great  materials  for  it 
are  said  to  exist ;  but  in  the  absence  of  trial  this  may  be  only  conjecture.  Fish  of  the  finest 
kinds,  particularly  tunny  and  sardinias,  are  caught  in  considerable  quantity  for  immediate 
consumption ;  but  the  salt  which  the  kingdom  so  abundantly  produces  is  not  used  for  pre- 
serving them ;  and  a  large  import  of  salted  fie';  is  still  necessary  to  meet  the  wants  of  a 
tJopulation  so  rigidly  Catholic. 

The  commerce,  which  formed  the  greatness  of  Portugal,  when  her  porta  interchanged  tlie 
products  of  the  East  and  the  West,  is  now  a  mere  shadow.  The  loss  of  her  Indian  posses- 
sions, and  the  separation  of  Brazil,  have  reduced  her  to  the  common  routine  of  export  and 
import.  The  staple  of  the  former  is  port  wine,  for  which  the  market  of  England  was 
secured  first  by  favouring  duties,  and  now  seemingly  by  an  established  predilection.  The 
wine  is  raised  almost  solely  for  the  English  market,  and  all  of  the  best  quality  is  bought  up 
by  English  merchants  residing  at  Oporto. 

Another  staple  export  of  Pcrtugal  is  salt,  evaporated  by  the  heat  of  the  sun  in  the  bay 
of  St.  Ubes,  or  Setubal,  which  seems  as  if  expressly  formed  for  tliat  purpose.  It  is  carried 
off  oliiofly  by  the  English, to  be  employed  in  curing  fish  destined  for  the  Portuguese  market: 
the  annual  amount  is  estimated  at  100,000  tons.  There  is  also  a  considerable  surplus  of 
wool,  of  which  l,()fl(),(K)0  lbs.  weight  have  been  imported  into  England  in  one  year;  but  as 
it  is  not  so  fine  as  that  of  Spain,  the  duty  imposed  by  the  British  landholders  has  greatly 
checked  the  importation.  In  return,  Portugal  takes  grain,  salt-fish,  and  a  variety  of  manu- 
factures, chiefly  from  Britain;  but  as  her  imports  cannot  much  exceed  the  exports,  she  can- 
not afford  a  very  copious  market. 

The  internal  communioatioiis  of  Portugal  consist  of  the  several  noble  rivers  which  tra- 
verse her  territory,  and  which  are  navigable  throughout.  The  intercourse  by  land  is  ren- 
dered very  difficult  by  chains  of  mountains  extending  in  the  same  direction.    Nothing  hnn 


btUI 

by  the 
dalgos, 

Mi  men, 
in  the 
system. 
len  was 
)rd ;  and 
manner 
ed;  and 
ice,  Por- 

o  Brazil, 


uring  her 

liave  be- 
I  of  wcxxl 

Though 
ry  for  the 
by  the  in- 
tisiderably 
3ther  fruit 
le  hills,  in 
f  the  port 
market  in 
il  produces 
e.  Sheep 
in,  neither 

beyond  the 
their  finer 
east  an  im- 
se.  Their 
iling  every 
lanncr  that 
eir  agricul- 
eilver  plate 
and  a  few 

erials  for  it 
•f  the  finest 

immediate 
ed  for  pre- 

wants  of  a 

hanged  tlie 
lian  posses- 
export  and 
gland  was 
tion.  The 
bought  up 

I  in  the  bay 
It  is  carried 
ese  market : 
surplus  of 
lear ;  but  as 
Ihaa  greatly 
Tly  of  manu- 
|rts,  she  can- 

which  tra- 
il and  is  rcn- 
ilothing  has 


BooeI. 


PORTUGAL. 


5U3 


been  attempted  on  any  important  scale,  either  to  improve  these  advantages,  or  to  amend  the 
defects ;  so  that  travelling  is  worse  in  Portugal  than  in  any  other  European  country. 

Sect.  VI. — Civil  and  Social  Stale. 

The  population  of  Portugal,  according  to  the  last  census,  which  was  taken  in  1798,  amounts 
to  3,683,000 ;  calculating  at  the  somewhat  high  estimate  of  five  to  a  family.  According  to 
more  probable  estimates  it  now  amounts  to  3,.530,(K)0.  Upon  a  surface  of  39,800  square 
miles,  this  gives  a  density  of  about  ninety-one  to  the  square  mile,  which  is  remarkable,  as 
exceeding  that  of  Spain  nearly  in  the  proportion  of  three  to  two.  The  exemption  fi-om  the 
mesla,  and  the  high  cultivation  of  the  province  of  Entrc  Douro  e  Minho,  appear  to  be  the 
redeeming  circumstances  in  her  case. 

No  nation,  as  to  character,  owes  less  to  the  opinion  of  the  world,  than  the  Portuguese. 
They  are  described  as  indolent,  dissembling,  cowardly,  destitute  of  public  spirit,  and  at  the 
same  time  fierce  and  deeply  revengefiil.    In  Spain  it  in  said,  strip  a  Spaniard  of  his  virtues, 
and  he  becomes  a  good  Portuguese.    From  a  late  minute  inspection,  however,  the  pea^intry 
325  ifig.  325.)  have  been  pronounced  to  be  a  fine  peo- 

ple ;  and,  on  repeated  occasions  during  the  late  war, 
they  displayed  energies  not  unworthy  of  their  an- 
cestors, in  an  age  when  tiieir  glory  resounded 
throughout  both  hemispheres.  Almost  all,  however, 
that  floats  on  the  surface  is  base  and  degenerate. 
There  cannot  be  a  doubt  that  this  may  be  greatly 
ascribed  to  priestcraft,  to  the  stupifying  influence  of  a 
sluggish  and  tyrannical  government,  and  to  the 
general  corniption  which  has  pervaded  all  the 
Branches  of  administration. 

The   established    and  exclusive   religion  is  the 
Portaguwe  Peuaairy.  Catholic,  in  its  extreme  and  moat  degrading  excess ; 

and  the  body  of  the  people  are  almost  entirely  under  the  thraldom  of  the  priesthood.    The 
burning  of  Jews  continued  till  within  the  last  half-century.  Tiie  physiognomy  of  a  large  pro- 
portion of  the  people  shows  their  descent  fi'om  this  hated  race,  whose  tenets  many,  it  is  pro- 
326  bable,  still  cherish  in  secret.    There  are,  in  Portugal, 

about  550  religious  houses,  of  which  150  are  nunneries* 
{Jiff.  326.).  The  number  of  two  archbishops  and  thir- 
teen bishops  is  not  so  disproportionate. 

The  literature  of  Portugal,  during  the  period  of  its 
glory,  was  by  no  means  contemptible.  The  genius  and 
lateof  Camoens  spread  his  name  throughout  Europe,  and 
entitled  him  to  rank  among  the  few  modern  epic  poets. 
By  the  students  of  Portuguese  literature,  iiowever,  Saa 
Miranda  and  Antonio  Ferreyra  are  reckoned  scarcely 
second  to  him ;  and  Rodriguez  Lobo  held  the  nation  long 
enchanted  by  the  sweetness  of  his  pastorals.  At  the 
same  time  Di  Barros,  Castanheda,  and  Faria  y  Sousa, 
recorded,  in  magnificent  though  somewhat  inflated  historical  narrative,  the  mighty  exploits 
of  their  countrymen  in  the  African  and  Indian  seas.  The  subjection  to  Spain  gradually 
divested  Portuguese  literature  of  its  manly  and  energetic  character.  The  muse  of  history 
was  silent;  poetry  assumed  the  form  only  of  the  sonnet,  and  Gongora  infected  it  wlioUy  witli 
a  strain  of  false  and  meretricious  ornament.  The  house  of  Braganza  for  some  time  did 
little  for  knowledge ;  but  in  the  beginning  of  the  last  century,  the  Conde  de  Ericeyra  intro- 
duced the  French  literature,  and  founded  a  royal  academy.  In  the  course  of  the  century, 
Barros  Pereyra,  Antonio  da  Lima,  Manuel  da  Costa,  a  Brazilian,  Correa  Grarcas,  and  Paulino 
Cabral,  a  bishop,  made  not  unsuccessful  efforts  to  revive  the  ancient  Portuguese  poetry,  and 
to  introduce  that  of  Italy.  Portugal  has  two  universities.  That  of  Coimbra,  foimded  at 
Lisbon  in  1290,  wan  transferred  to  Coimbra  in  1308.  It  enjoys  some  celebrity,  is  divided 
into  eighteen  colleges,  and  is  still  attended  by  several  hundred  students;  but  the  course  of 
study  is  of  that  obsolete  description  which  prevailed  during  the  middle  ages.  A  smaller 
university  wos  founded  at  Evora  in  1578. 

For  the  minor  particulars  of  amusement,  dress,  foo<l,&c.,  reference  may  be  made  to  Spain, 
as  Portugal  has  no  peculiarities  that  are  more  than  provincial. 

Sect.  VIL — Local  Geograph'j. 

Portugal  is  divided  into  the  following  six  provinces,  several  of  which,  like  those  of  Spain, 
in  reference  to  events  in  their  past  history,  are  sometimes  called  kingdoms : — 


Ftiu  and  Nun. 


■r 

1 


*  [The  rcliuiuiis  hoiifps,  nioTiaRtcrics.  niid  nuimerii!!,  wvre  eiipprcseod  in  IKM  — Am.  Ed.] 

Vol.  \.  ~  50* 


3Z 


I* 
I 


:i 


«0A 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Past  IH. 


r.itnit  In 
EnilUi  Aam. 


mnlMH.  EntlUi  term.  rnpiUlloil.  FriDclpil  Toon,  with  Iheir  PoplUUiai. 

Bitremadura S,4SO,8riO 838,060 Liibnn,  3li(),000;  Butiibal,  13,000;  Banlarem,  8,000. 

Alemlvjo 5,1148,330 380.480 Elva8,lU,()U() ;  Kvora,  tl.OUO 

Algarvo l,S3tl,nO() 137,013 Faro,  H.UOO ;  Tnvirn,  ti.UUO. 

Belra 4,<jg4,(iOO l,l'il,S»S Cuimbra,  IS.flOU ;  Luiiicko,  0,000 ;  ViMu,  0.000. 

Entre  Doiirn  c  Minlio  l,fl27  040 Wn.oeS Opnrin,  70,IH)0 ;  Braga,  14,000 ;  Viana,  8,000. 

Traa  on  Mnntu  ■ . .  .3,(I07,TU0 318,065 Braganza,  4,000. 

Estremadura  occupies  a  great  extent  of  const,  both  to  the  north  and  south  of  the  Togus, 
without  ever  penetrating  very  deep  into  the  interior.  It  preoents  a  rocky,  varied,  and  pic- 
turesque surface.    It  is  chiefly  important,  however,  as  containing  Lisbon,  the  capital. 

Lisbon  {Jig.  327.)  is  situated  near  the  mouth  of  the  Tagus,  which  may  here  be  ahnost 
Q27  considered  an  arm  of  the  sea,  since  not 

only  the  tide  flows  up,  but  the  water  ia 
salt,  and  the  swell  oflen  tempestuous. 
The  approach  to  it  presents  a  more 
magninccnt  spectacle  than  that  of  per- 
haps any  other  city  of  Europe.  Lisbon 
rises  direct  from  the  water,  crowning 
the  sides  and  summits  of  several  hills ; 
which,  according  to  the  Portuguese,  arc 
Luboa.  seven  in  number,  like  those  of  Rome. 

The  palaces,  convents,  and  churches, 
which  crown  this  amphitheatre  of  buildings;  the  dazzling  whiteness  of  the  houses;  the 
light  appearance  of  the  windows  and  balconies ;  the  tastefiil  arrangement  of  plants,  shrubs, 
and  flowers  on  their  roofs  and  terraces ;  the  golden  orange  groves  which  adorn  the  suburbs, 
and  the  stately  specimens  of  Indian  or  American  botany  which  are  scattered  through  the 
scene,  produce  an  effect  that  cannot  be  described.  The  noble  harbour,  also,  crowded  witli 
vessels ;  the  numerous  pilot  and  fishing-boats,  with  their  large,  handsome  lateen  sails,  as- 
cending or  descending  the  river ;  and,  nearer  the  shore,  hundreds  of  small  neat  boats,  with 
white  or  painted  awnmgs,  finely  vary  tiie  scene.  The  moment,  however,  that  the  stranger 
lands,  and  enters  the  place,  he  finds  that  he  has  been  imposed  upon  by  a  brilliant  illusion ; 
and  the  gay  and  glittering  city  is  found  to  resemble  a  painted  sepulchre.  The  streets  are 
narrow  and  ill  paved ;  the  houses  gloomy,  with  here  and  there  a  latticed  window ;  filth  and 
nuisances  assault  him  at  every  turn.  Lisbon  does,  indeed,  appear  to  be  the  dirtiest  and  most 
noisome  city  on  the  face  of  Uie  earth.  In  passing  through  tlie  streets,  a  stranger  encounters 
at  every  turn  the  most  disgusting  effluvia.  Every  species  of  vermin  destined  to  punisii  in- 
dolence and  slovenliness,  the  mosquito,  the  scolopendra,  and  a  species  of  red  ant,  multiply 
to  an  extraordinary  degree.  Nor  is  Lisbon  found,  on  inspection,  to  exhibit  that  architectural 
beauty  which  it  proniises  on  a  distant  view.  It  might  have  been  expected,  among  forty 
churches  and  seventy-five  convents,  built  by  a  superstitious  people,  that  there  would  have 
been  some  signal  display  of  this  kind ;  but  this  is  not  found  even  in  the  cathedral.  The 
defect  seems  partly  owing  to  the  mean  taste  of  the  Miirquis  of  Pombal,  who  ordered  them 
to  be  all  built  on  a  line  with  the  street,  to  preserve  a  dull  uniformity.  Two  handsome 
squares,  however,  have  been  fbrmed,  the  Commercial  and  tlie  Roscio,  which  are  connected 
by  well-built  streets ;  but  the  absence  of  trees,  or  even  shrubs,  and  the  blinding  sand  that 
drifts  through  them,  combine  to  produce  a  disagreeable  effect.  liisbon  derives  an  awful 
interest  from  t)ie  ruins  still  left  of  the  great  earthquake  of  1755,  the  most  dreadful  catas- 
trophe which  ever  befell  a  modern  European  city.  Six  thousand  houses  were  thrown  down, 
30,000  inhabitants  killed ;  and  a  conflagration  kindled  which  spread  a  still  wider  destruction. 
TIh3  ruins  are  the  more  dismal,  as  they  portend  similar  disasters,  which  the  earth,  still 
heaving  from  time  to  time,  perpetually  threatens.  Meantime,  Lisbon  di.'^plays  one  very  grand 
feature ;  the  aqueduct,  to  the  construction  of  which,  though  it  conveys  the  water  only  half  a 
mile,  peculiar  obstacles  wore  presented.  It  is  carried  in  one  place  througli  a  tunnel,  and  in 
another  over  a  defile  230  feet  deep,  by  arches,  which  are  said  to  be  the  highest  in  the  world. 
The  width  of  the  centre  arch  is  107  feet.  It  was  built  in  17;J8,  by  Manuel  de  Maya ;  and 
is  of  such  solidity  that  it  withstood  the  shock  of  the  great  earthquake,  which  only  caused  the 
keystone  to  sink  a  few  inches. 

The  vicinity  of  Lisbon  presents  some  beautiful  sites  and  palaces.  Cintra  is  tho  most 
striking,  consisting  of  on  immense  mountain,  partly  covered  with  scanty  lierbage,  partly 
with  broken,  huge,  and  vnrietl  piles  of  rock,  elsowliore  presenting  thick  groves  of  cork,  elm, 
oak,  hazel,  an-l  other  trees.  It  includes  many  lovely  and  fanto;. ij  /lots  ;  but  the  vi';w  from 
it  is  naked  nnd  dreary.  The  town,  at  the  bottom,  with  its  ^.''l  Du'.dce,  lias  nothing  remark- 
able ;  but  tlie  sides  are  covered  with  delightful  villas,  one  of  which  is  notorious  for  the  sig- 
nature of  tlic  unhappy  convention  of  Ciiitra.  Mafra  is  a  royal  convent  built  by  John  V.,  in 
emulation  of  the  Escurial ;  but  though  a  stupendous  pile,  700  feet  square,  and  containing 
numberless  suites  of  ill-ftirnished  apartments,  it  ranks  far  below  its  model.  Only  five  miles 
below  Lisbon,  of  whicii  it  is  considered  a  suburb,  is  Belem,  the  site  of  a  palace  and  a  very 


ART 


m. 


Book  I. 


PORTUGAL 


596 


em,  8,000 

,0.000. 
3,000. 

le  Togus, 
,  and  pic- 
al. 

be  almost 
since  not 
B  water  ia 
fipestuous. 
ts  a  more 
lat  of  per- 
e.    Lisbon 
crowning 
'eral  hills ; 
tguesc,  arc 
«  of  Rome, 
churches, 
lOUses;  the 
its,  shrubs, 
he  suburbs, 
trough  the 
owded  witli 
in  sails,  as- 
boats,  with 
;he  stranger 
int  illusion ; 
I  streets  are 
N ;  filth  and 
jst  and  most 
r  encounters 
to  punish  in- 
int,  multiply 
urchitectural 
among  forty 
would  have 
edral.     The 
rdered  them 
to  handsome 
re  connected 
ng  sand  that 
es  an  awful 
eadful  cataa- 
hrown  down, 
r  destruction, 
e  earth,  still 
e  very  grand 
ir  only  half  a 
unnel,  and  in 
in  the  world, 
e  Maya;  and 
ily  caused  the 

is  tho  most 
rbago,  partly 

of  cork,  elm, 
he  vi;W  from 
hing  remark- 
US  for  the  sig- 
)y  John  v.,  m 
nd  containing 
nly  five  miles 
:e  and  a  very 


magnificent  monastery,  founded  by  Emanuel,  and  in  which  many  of  the  royal  family  have 
been  interred. 

There  are  several  other  towns  of  some  note  in  Portuguese  Estremadura.  St.  Ubes  or 
Hctubal  lies  sixteen  miles  fi'om  Lisbon,  on  the  coast  south  of  the  Tagtis,  on  a  lung  interior 
Imy,  the  waters  of  which,  evaporated  by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  leave  the  excellent  bay-salt, 
one  of  the  national  staples.  The  town  is  considerable,  having  been  well  rebuilt  since  the 
earthquake  of  1755,  when  it  was  almost  totally  overthrown.  The  mountain  of  Ursabida, 
here  extending  into  the  sea,  forms  a  bold  and  striking  promontory,  covered  with  trees  and 
various  vegetation.  Ascending  the  Tagus,  we  come  to  Santarem,  a  considerable  and  ancient 
town,  the  Presidium  Julium  of  the  Romans.  It  has  an  academy  of  history,  established  in 
1747.  Hero  the  great  French  army,  under  Massena,  remained  long  posted,  unable  to  pene- 
trate to  Lisbon.  Abrantes,  higher  up,  is  an  important  military  position,  situated  on  a  height 
whence  it  commands  the  passage  of  the  Tagus.  Leirio,  to  the  north,  is  an  ancient  town,  in 
a  most  prodtictivc  territory,  and  where  a  great  annual  fiiir  is  held  for  the  supply  of  the 
peasantry  of  the  neighbouring  country  round.  At  Batalha,  is  a  church  {fig.  3^.),  and 
monastery,  which,  united,  form  the  finest  structures  in  all  Portugal.  It  is  541  feet  by  416, 
and  is  considered  by  Mr.  Murphy  to  be  one  of  the  noblest  existing  specimens  of  the  Norman 


Church  of  Balalba. 


ManMleum  of  King  John. 


Gothic.  It  is  constructed  entirely  of  marble,  and  the  fi-ont  appeared  to  him  almost  unri- 
valled in  chaste  and  delicate  ornament  Among  the  diflbrent  parts,  the  mausoleum  erected 
in  honour  of  King  John,  is  pre-eminently  beautiful  {fig.  329.).  Vimiero  is  only  a  village, 
but  celebrated  for  the  signal  victory  gained  by  the  British  over  the  army  of  Junot.  Three 
miles  distant  is  Torres  Vedras,  a  tolerable  old  town,  but  chiefly  noted  as  the  centre  of  the 
grand  fortified  lines  formed  by  Wellington  in  1810,  which  so  completely  baffled  all  the  ma- 
noeuvres by  which  the  French  had  hoped  to  reconquer  Portugal. 

Alemtejo  is  an  extensive  province,  comprising  the  greater  part  of  Portugal  south  of  the 
Tagus.  The  interior  presents  an  extensive  plain ;  but  tiie  frontier  towards  Spain  is  finely 
diversified  with  hills,  wooded  mountains,  and  deep  valleys  extremely  well  watered,  and  very 
fertile.  It  contains  some  large  towns.  Evora  is  situated  on  an  eminence  in  a  fine  country, 
and  is  of  great  antiquity.  Its  origin  has  even  been  dated  seven  centuries  before  tiie  Chris- 
tian era.  It  is  more  clearly  ascertained  that  the  Romans  made  it  a  municipal  town,  and 
adorned  it  with  some  of  their  finest  structures.  There  is  a  noble  aqueduct,  of  which  the 
piers  are  nine  feet  broad,  and  suppoited  by  buttresses;  also  a  Temple  of  Diana  built  by 
Sertorius,  in  which  great  elegance  is  displayed.  Elvas,  on  the  Spanish  firontier,  imme- 
diately facing  Badajos,  is  the  strongest  fortress  in  Portugal,  and  designed  as  the  barrier  of 
the  kingdom.  The  works  were  constructed  under  the  directions  of  the  celebrated  Count 
Schaumburg-Lippe ;  and  the  fort,  bearing  his  name,  is  considered  a  masterpiece  of  the  art. 
In  this  neighbourhood  ore  also  Vilia  Vi^ioso,  a  pleasan'  town,  and  a  favourite  country  resi- 
dence of  the  Portuguese  monarchs,  who  have  here  a  handsome  hunting-park ;  and  Porta- 
legre,  a  handsome  little  town  in  a  delightful  country,  with  a  good  cathedral.  Southward, 
in  the  interior,  is  Beja,  a  Roman  colony,  and  subsequently  a  strong  Moorish  fortress.  After 
being  nearly  demolished,  it  was  rebuilt  by  Alfonso  III.,  and  fortified  by  King  Diniz,  and  is 
still  a  considerable  town. 

Algarve  forms  the  extreme  south  of  Portugal ;  and  is  a  maritime  province,  bearing  in  an 
especial  sense,  the  oppellation  of  kingdom,  since  it  long  remained  independent,  and  waa  a 
celebrated  theatre  of  war  between  the  Moors  and  the  Christians.  It  is  tolerably  fertile  in 
wine,  firuits,  and  oil.    Faro,  the  largest  town,  is  also  the  principal  seat  of  trade,  and  iias  a 


806 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


PaktIII 


If 


r 


' 


Coimbia. 


regular  packet  to  Gibraltar.  Lagoe  and  Silves  are  also  old  little  towns,  the  former  on  the 
Boa-coast,  with  some  shipping.  Capo  St.  Vincent,  the  extreme  point  of  Algarve,  and  the 
most  Houtii-westerly  of  the  Peninsula,  is  celebrated  for  the  signal  victory  gained  by  the 
British  fleet  over  the  Spanish,  on  the  14tli  of  February,  1797. 

Beira  is  a  very  extensive  province  or  kingdom,  filling  nearly  the  whole  centre  of  Portu- 
gal, between  the  Tagiis  and  tlie  Douro.  Its  suriiice  presents  considerable  variety ;  the  in- 
terior part  has  the  usual  mountainous  character  of  Portugal,  being  traversed  by  the  great 
chain  called  the  Sierra  d'f]strclla.  On  the  sea-coast,  however,  there  are  plains  of  consider- 
able extent.  The  province  produces  plenty  of  wine,  oil,  and  chestnuts,  and  has  extensive 
poatures ;  but  the  grain  is  not  sufficient  for  its  consumption. 
Coimbra  {fig,  2&0.\  the  capital,  is  beautifully  situated  on  the  declivity  of  a  hill,  which 

rises  above  the  Alondego;  but  the 
streets,  as  in  other  old  Portuguese 
towns,  are  crowded,  dirty,  and  very 
steep.  In  former  times  a  residence 
of  the  kings  of  Portugal,  it  was 
strongly  fortified,  and  has  stood  ob- 
stinate sieges;  but  the  remains  of 
its  walls  and  towers  are  no  longer 
sufficient  to  constitute  it  a  fortress. 
It  has  been  called  the  Athens  of  Por- 
tugal, from  its  extensive  university, 
containing  eighteen  colleges,  with 
forty  professors,  and  about  eight  hun- 
dred students.  Attached  to  it  is  a  library  of  nearly  40,000  volumes,  including  numerous 
MSS. ;  but  the  actual  value  both  of  these  and  the  printed  works  does  not  seem  to  have  been 
fully  investigated. 

Beira  has  other  towns  of  some  importance.  Among  these  is  Almeida,  the  northern  barrier 
of  the  kingdom  and  a  fortress  of  consequence,  though  not  possessing  the  great  strength  of 
Elvas.  It  wos  twice  taken  in  the  last  war,  first  by  the  French  under  Massena,  and  then  by 
the  British  under  Wellington.  Castello  Branco,  on  the  southern  frontier,  notwithstanding 
its  commanding  situation,  retains  little  importance.  Lamego,  near  the  southern  bank  of  the 
Douro,  is  an  ancient  city,  and  the  cradle  of  the  Portuguese  monarchy.  Here,  in  1143,  the 
states-general  for  the  first  time  met,  recognised  tlie  fundamental  laws,  and  acknowledged 
the  sovereignty  of  Alfonso.  Viseu,  in  the  centre  of  the  kingdom,  is,  like  Lamego,  an  epis- 
copal sec,  and  has  the  greatest  annual  fair  in  Portugal. 

Entre  Douro  e  Minho  forms  the  maritime  part  of  Portugal,  north  of  the  Douro.  Though 
the  smallest,  it  is  considered  the  most  valunble,  populous,  and  productive  of  all  the  provinces. 
Its  peasantry  have  done  nmch  to  redeem  tlie  reproach  of  torpor  and  slupfgishness  generally 
urged  against  their  countrymen.  This  district  is  entirely  covered  with  mountains,  portly 
rugged  and  barren,  but  generally  snprnted  by  fertile  and  well-watered  valleys,  cultivated 
to  the  utmost  possible  extent;  and  which,  besides  oil,  fruit,  and  flax,  are  made  to  produce 
most  copiously  the  wine  called  port,  for  which  so  ample  a  market  exists  in  England. 

Oporto,  or  Porto  {fig.  331.),  the  oncient  capital,  and  still  the  second  city  of  the  kingdom, 
is  situated  near  the  mouth  of  the  Douro  on  the  northern  bank,  though  on  the  southern  are 
two  exteneivo  suburbs,  supposed  to  have  constituted  tlie  ancient  city.    The  modem  town  is 

331  '        V  -'.:■ 


Opoito. 


well  built,  especially  when  compared  with  most  others  in  the  peninsula.  The  river  ailforda 
a  tolerably  secure  harbour,  without  any  artificial  aid,  except  an  elevated  and  walled  quay,  to 
which  the  ships'  cables  may  be  fastened  during  the  floods.  These  oflen  come  down  with 
such  force,  that,  without  such  a  support,  the  vessels  would  be  inevitably  carried  out  into  the 


nva. 

on  the 
nd  the 
by  the 

PoTtu- 

the  in- 
le  ftrcat 
onsider- 
[tcnBivo 

1,  which 
but  the 
rtuguese 
md  very 
esidence 
,  it  was 
stood  ob- 
mnina  of 
10  longer 
I  fortresB. 
ns  of  Por- 
iniversity, 
gcs,  with 
jight  hun- 
numeroua 
have  been 

3m  barrier 
itrength  of 
nd  then  by 
ithstanding 
mnk  of  the 
[1 1143,  the 
[nowledged 
JO,  an  epis- 

).  Though 
s  provinces. 
IS  prenerally 
ains,  partly 
cultivatea 
to  produce 
uid. 

le  kingdom, 
louthem  are 
lem  town  is 


Book  I. 


PORTUGAL. 


sm 


Ma.  The  chief  dependence  of  Oporto  is  its  trade  with  England,  which  remains  unimpaired 
amid  the  general  diminution  of  that  with  America.  There  are  about  thirty  English  houses 
regularly  settled  here,  besides  a  number  of  mercliants  who  pay  frecjuent  visits  to  the  place. 
Tiio  exportation  of  port  wine,  however,  on  which  its  trade  rests,  is  generally  cramped  by 
the  absurd  policy  of  placing  it  entirely  in  tlic  hands  of  an  exclusive  company,*  who  have 
adopted  the  pernicious  practice  of  diluting  the  produce  of  the  best  vineyards  with  wine  of 
those  of  an  inferior  quality,  by  which  the  character  of  the  genuine  port  grievously  suffers. 

Bniga,  farther  north,  ranks  as  the  capital  of  the  province ;  and,  tliough  now  far  outstripi>cd 
by  Oporto,  is  of  much  more  ancient  fame.  Under  the  Romans  it  was  the  metropolis  of  an 
extensive  district,  and  its  former  greatness  is  still  attested  by  numerous  antiquities.  It  has 
made  a  distinguished  figure  in  the  ecclesiastical  history  of"^  Portugal,  and  is  the  see  of  an 
archbisliop,  who  is  primate  of  the  kingdom.  Braga  is  a  handsome  town ;  well  built,  well 
paved,  the  streets  spacious  and  clean.  There  is  some  industry,  particularly  a  manufacture 
of  small  beaver  hats,  wliich  supplies  a  great  part  of  the  kingdom.  The  adjacent  country  is 
hilly,  but  populous  and  pleasant.  Valen<;a  is  n  small  town,  agreeably  situated  on  the  Minho, 
which  separates  it  from  Galicia. 

Tras  OB  Montes,  or  the  province  beyond  the  mountains,  is  of  great  extent,  occupying  the 
whole  interior  of  Portugal  north  of  the  Douro.  The  Cantabrian  chain,  after  traversing 
Asturias  and  Galicia,  throws  out  branches  which  not  only  separate  the  territory  fVom  the 
rest  of  Portugal,  but  cover  almost  its  whole  surface.  They  leave  only  deep  valleys,  through 
which  considerable  rivers,  too  rapid  however  to  be  navigable,  pour  down  into  the  Douro. 
It  is  much  inferior  to  Entre  Douro  e  Minho,  both  in  populousness  and  cultivation;  yet  a  con- 
siderable quontity  of  the  port  wine  produced  grows  on  the  sides  of  its  hills.  The  inhabitants 
are  a  race  of  active,  hardy,  and  brave  mountaineers.  They  rose  in  great  force  against  the 
French,  and  have  since  somewhat  less  happily  distinguished  themselves  by  the  ardour  with 
which  they  fought  in  tiie  cause  of  absolute  power,  and  in  resistance  to  every  form  of  consti- 
tutional government. 

The  towns  are  small,  and  not  regularly  fortified ;  though,  from  the  nature  of  the  country, 
they  form  defensible  military  positions.  Braganza  is  a  city  of  ancient  note,  and  gave  the 
title  of  Duke  to  the  first  nobleman  in  the  kingdom,  even  before  he  was  raised  to  the  throne, 
by  the  appellation  of  John  IV.  Tiie  kings  of  Portugal  still  retain  the  title  of  Dukes  of 
Braganza.  Chaves,  the  Aqua:  Flavio;  of  the  Romans,  still  exhibits  two  baths  and  a  magni- 
ficent bridge  constructed  by  that  people.  Chaves  gives  the  title  of  Marquis  to  a  family,  one 
of  whom  was  the  most  active  opponent  of  the  French  during  their  invasion ;  while  another 
has  lately  been  at  the  head  of  the  anti-constitutional  array,  of  which  the  head-quarters  were 
always  in  Tras  os  Montes. 

*  [The  Oporto  wine  company,  which  enjoyed  this  monopoly,  was  abolished  in  1834  —Am.  Go] 


o  river  affords 
ailed  quay,  to 
ne  down  with 
d  out  into  th« 


END  OF  THE  FIRST  VOLUME 


